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CORONAVIRUS DISEASE 2019 (COVID-19) WWW.CORONAVIRUS-SD.COM The COVID-19 situation is rapidly changing, the information provided in this presentation is accurate as of: September 17, 2020 WWW.CORONAVIRUS-SD.COM OUTLINE • About Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) • Overview • Transmission • Symptoms • Testing & Diagnosis • Treatment • Guidance for San Diego County • Public Health Officer Orders • Protective measures and stopping the spread • What to do if you think you have COVID-19 • Local situation • Resources Available WWW.CORONAVIRUS-SD.COM WHAT IS A CORONAVIRUS? - A coronavirus is a common type of virus that can infect your nose, sinuses, or upper throat. - Common coronaviruses usually cause mild to moderate symptoms much like the common cold with illness that only lasts for a short amount of time. - Coronaviruses are named for the crown-like spikes on their surface. - Most people get a coronavirus infection at some point in their lives. Coronaviruses are common in many different animal species but most coronavirus do not infect people. On rare occasions, coronaviruses can evolve and infect humans and then spread between humans. There are currently seven coronaviruses that can infect people: | Common Coronaviruses | Newer Coronaviruses | |----------------------|---------------------| | 1. 229E (alpha coronavirus) | 5. MERS-CoV* | | 2. NL63 (alpha coronavirus) | 6. SARS-CoV** | | 3. OC43 (beta coronavirus) | 7. SARS-CoV-2*** | | 4. HKU1 (beta coronavirus) | | * MERS-CoV (the beta coronavirus that causes Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, or MERS) ** SARS-CoV (the beta coronavirus that causes severe acute respiratory syndrome, or SARS) ***SARS-CoV-2 (the novel coronavirus that causes coronavirus disease 2019, or COVID-19) MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 are recent examples of the coronavirus evolving and spreading between humans. WHAT IS THE 2019 NOVEL CORONAVIRUS (COVID-19)? A novel (new) coronavirus, not previously seen in humans, that was first identified as the cause of an outbreak of respiratory illness in Wuhan, China in December 2019. - Coronavirus Disease 2019 or COVID-19 is a disease caused by the NEW coronavirus. - Cases of COVID-19 have now been detected worldwide. - The World Health Organization (WHO) officially designated the global outbreak of COVID-19 as a pandemic on March 11, 2020. HOW DOES THE COVID-19 VIRUS SPREAD? Through respiratory droplets produced when a person sneezes, coughs, or talks. Person-to-Person Spread is believed to be the main way the COVID-19 virus is spreading: - Between people who are in close contact (6 feet) with one another—The more closely a person interacts with others and the longer that interaction is, the higher the risk of COVID-19 spreading. Contact with Infected Surfaces or Objects—It may also be possible to get COVID-19 by touching a surface or object that has the virus on it and then touching one’s mouth, nose, or eyes, but this is not the main way the virus is spreading. People with COVID-19 have reported no symptoms to severe illness. Symptoms may appear 2-14 days after exposure to the virus and may include: - Fever or chills - Cough - Shortness of breath or difficulty breathing - Fatigue - Muscle or body aches - Headache - New loss of taste or smell - Sore throat - Congestion or runny nose - Nausea or vomiting - Diarrhea People can spread the virus even if they don’t have symptoms. There are three kinds of tests available for COVID-19 | | Molecular Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) | Antigen | Serology | |--------------------------|-------------------------------------------|---------|----------| | Detects | Virus | Virus | Antibodies | | Good For Identifying | Current Infection | Current Infection | Past Infection | | Common Sample Type | Nose or Throat Swab (or Saliva) | Nose or Throat Swab | Blood draw or fingerstick | | Key Considerations | Most accurate test for diagnosis | Less accurate, rapid test for diagnosis | Should NOT be used to diagnose someone who is currently sick | Most samples must be sent to a laboratory, specimen analysis takes 1-2 days. If you are experiencing symptoms of COVID-19, call your healthcare provider to determine if you should get tested. If you don’t have a healthcare provider or are unable to get tested by your healthcare provider, FREE testing sites are available throughout San Diego County for people 12 years old and older. - Testing locations map - Testing site schedule A doctor’s referral is NOT required, and some locations allow walk-ins without an appointment. For more information, next steps, or to schedule an appointment, visit our Testing web page or call 2-1-1. The scientific and medical community are researching methods to prevent and treat COVID-19 infections. - The FDA is allowing a few medications to be used for COVID-19. - Convalescent Plasma from people who have recovered from COVID-19 is one of the potential treatments allowed by the FDA—People who were infected with COVID-19 develop antibodies to the infection; giving someone who is currently infected convalescent plasma may enhance their immunity and help them fight the virus. Recommendations for individuals infected with COVID-19 will depend upon their specific condition: - People with mild illness may be advised by their healthcare provider to isolate and care for themselves at home—Home Isolation Instructions for COVID-19. - For severe cases, treatment should include care to support vital organ function. - People at higher risk for serious illness if infected should contact their healthcare provider early to seek treatment, even if their illness is mild. WHO IS AT HIGHER RISK? - Older Adults—Risk for severe illness increases with age - People of any age with underlying medical conditions, including: - Cancer - Chronic Kidney Disease - Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) - Immunocompromised State—From solid organ transplant - Obesity—Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥30 - Serious Heart Condition - Sickle Cell Disease - Type 2 Diabetes To learn more about high risk groups and other medical conditions that might put people at an increased risk for severe illness, visit the CDC website. WHO SHOULD BE TESTED FOR COVID-19 TIER 1 • High-Risk Symptomatic Individuals and Public Health Investigations • Symptomatic individuals* who are hospitalized, in congregate facilities, older adults, those with underlying medical conditions, and vulnerable populations • Persons Identified by public health through investigations and disease control activities TIER 2 • Other Symptomatic Individuals and Hospital ad Procedure Testing • Symptomatic persons who do not meet above criteria, including healthcare workers and first responders* • Hospital admission testing for patients who do not exhibit COVID-19 symptoms • Scheduled surgical procedures, especially those that are aerosol generating TIER 3 • Asymptomatic Individuals from High-Risk Settings and Close Contacts • Screening of asymptomatic individuals* who are residents or employees of congregate living facilities, such as skilled nursing facilities, assisted living facilities, homeless shelters, substance use disorder residential facilities, and detention centers. • Asymptomatic close contacts* at 5-7 days after last exposure to a known COVID-19 case. TIER 4 • Asymptomatic High-Risk Individuals • Asymptomatic healthcare workers and first responders* in direct patient contact roles. • Asymptomatic individuals in vulnerable populations* who are not in other categories above • Asymptomatic individuals* in other essential occupations • Asymptomatic older adults OR individuals of any age with chronic or other underlying medical conditions* • Asymptomatic caretakers of older adults or those with underlying medical conditions* • When facing limitations of testing capacity for Tier 4, consider using prevalence data TIER 5 • Public Health Surveillance • Other asymptomatic individuals being tested for purposes of public health surveillance for COVID-19 *Not diagnosed with COVID-19 in the past 3 months. See Health Advisory Update #17 for more information The County of San Diego, in collaboration with the local healthcare provider community, first responders, and other stakeholders, is implementing a community-based intervention to reduce the impact of COVID-19 in our region. The goal is to increase economic, educational, and social activity, while minimizing COVID-19 infections, illnesses, and deaths through a robust plan to Test, Trace, and Treat—The T3 Strategy. **Test** Goal: 6,740 Tests/7-day average **Trace** Goal: 90% of case investigations initiated and close contacts reached out to within 24 hours/7-day average **Treat** Provide Treatment if needed: Temporary Lodging Medical Options California has a new tier-based system for reducing COVID-19 in the state. Color coded tiers provide criteria for loosening and tightening restrictions on activities—Tier 1 Purple is equal to the previous “State Monitoring List.” | Measures | Tier 1 Widespread | Tier 2 Substantial | Tier 3 Moderate | Tier 4 Minimal | |-------------------|-------------------|--------------------|-----------------|----------------| | Case Rate Per 100,000 | >7 | 4-7 | 1-3.9 | <1 | | Testing Positivity % | >8% | 5-8% | 2-4% | <2% | * Both metrics are calculated using a 7-day average with a 7-day lag period. MOVING THROUGH THE TIERS Rules of the framework: 1. The state will assess indicators weekly. 2. A county must stay in a tier for at least 3 weeks before they are allowed to advance to a less restrictive tier. 3. A county can only move forward one tier at a time, even if metrics qualify for a more advanced tier. 4. If a county's case rate and test positivity measure fall into two different tiers, the county will be assigned to the more restrictive tier. 5. If a county’s case rate or test positivity increases to a higher risk tier for two weeks in a row, the county must go back to the more restrictive tier. SAN DIEGO COUNTY Case Rate = 7.9 Testing Positivity = 4.5% | Tier | Case Rate (per 100,000) | |------|------------------------| | 1 (Purple) | >7.0 | | 2 (Red) | 4.0-7.0 | | 3 (Orange) | 1.0-3.9 | | 4 (Yellow) | <1.0 | | Tier | Testing Positivity Percentage | |------|-------------------------------| | 1 (Purple) | >8.0% | | 2 (Red) | 5.0-8.0% | | 3 (Orange) | 2.0-4.9% | | 4 (Yellow) | <2.0% | *If the County metrics fall into different tiers, the county is categorized based on the more restrictive tier. As of Tuesday, September 15th the County of San Diego County is in Tier 2 This is the first week with the case rate >7, if our case rate remains >7 for one more week, San Diego County will go back to Tier 1 Purple Activities and sectors will begin to open according to risk-based criteria for that tier. Lower risk activities are permitted sooner. As a county reduces its level of transmission, operations are expanded. Sector Guidance for Activities and Business Based on Tier | Sector | Substantial Tier 2-Red | |---------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Critical Infrastructure | Open with modifications | | Limited Services | Open with modifications | | Hair Salons & Barber Shops | Open with modifications | | All Retail | Open Indoors with modifications—Max 50% capacity | | Shopping Centers (Malls, Destination Centers, Swap Meets) | Open indoors with modifications • Max 50% capacity • Closed common areas • Reduced capacity food courts (see restaurants) | | Sector | Substantial Tier 2-Red | |------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Personal Care Services | Open with modifications | | Museums, Zoos, & Aquariums | Open indoors with modifications | | | • Indoor activities max 25% capacity | | Places of Worship | Open indoors with modifications | | | • Max 25% capacity or 100 people, whichever is fewer | | Movie Theaters | Open indoors with modifications | | | • Max 25% capacity or 100 people, whichever is fewer | | Hotels and Lodging | Open with modifications | | Gyms & Fitness Centers | Open indoors with modifications | | | • Max 10% capacity | | Restaurants | Open Indoors with modifications | | | • Max 25% capacity or 100 people, whichever is fewer | | Sector | Substantial Tier 2-Red | |---------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Wineries | Outdoor Only with modification | | Bars, Breweries and Distilleries | Closed (Where no meal is provided; follow restaurants where meals are provided) | | Family Entertainment Centers | Outdoor Only with modifications (e.g. Kart Racing, Mini Golf, Batting Cages) | | Cardrooms, Satellite Wagering | Outdoor Only with modifications | | Offices | Remote when possible | | Professional Sports | Open • Without live audiences • With Modifications | Learn more about California County Data Monitoring—Blueprint for a Safer Economy Industry Guidance to Reduce the Risk | Industry Guidance in Other Languages ## COVID-19 Triggers Dashboard Metrics | Epidemiology (Surveillance) | Healthcare (Hospital Capacity) | Public Health (Response) | |-----------------------------|--------------------------------|--------------------------| | 1. Case Rate 6.9/100,000 Cases or less/7 days | 5. Hospital Capacity Beds Occupied ≈80%+ 0-79% | 10. Testing Positivity + Tests/Total Tests 8%+ 1-7% | | 2. Community Outbreaks New Outbreaks over 7 days | 6. Increased Hospitalizations Patients with COVID-19 10%+ 0-9% | 11. Case Investigation Follow-up within 24 hours 0-70% 71-100% | | 3. COVID-Syndromic Trajectory ↑ = / ↓ | 7. ICU Capacity Beds Available 0-19% 20-100% | 12. Contact Tracing Follow-up within 24 hours 0-70% 71-100% | | 4. Influenza Like Illness Trajectory ↑ = / ↓ | 8. Ventilator Capacity Ventilators Available 0-24% 25-100% | 13. Shelter for Homeless Shelter Available 0-14% 15-100% | | 9. PPE Supply Hospitals have at least 22-day supply 0-50% 50-100% | WHAT CAN YOU DO? The best way to prevent getting sick is to avoid being exposed to the virus. Follow the San Diego Public Health Officer Orders AND the California Public Health Executive Order—Stay home as much as possible, especially if you are at high-risk for health complications if exposed. Maintain at least 6 feet between yourself and others. Use a face covering if you leave your home. Stay home and keep your distance from others in the home if you are sick. Cover your cough or sneeze with a tissue, then throw it in the trash and wash your hands. Avoid close contact with people who are sick. The best way to prevent getting sick is to avoid being exposed to the virus. Wash your hands often with soap and water for at least 20 seconds—If soap and water are not available, use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer that contains at least 60% alcohol. Avoid touching eyes, mouth and nose with unwashed hands. Avoid sharing personal household items. Clean and disinfect frequently touched surfaces often. Effective Disinfectants For non-porous surfaces, diluted household bleach solutions and alcohol solutions with at least 70% alcohol are known to be effective against the Enveloped Virus Protection Agency (EPA) registered product database below. Be sure to follow the manufacturer’s instructions for proper use and safe handling. Use disinfectants in well-ventilated areas. For approved disinfectants effective against coronavirus, please visit: https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/list-n-disinfectants-use-against-sars-cov-2 If using a household chlorine bleach: 1. Pre-wash nonporous surfaces (doorknobs, counters, sinks, toilets, etc.) 2. Create a bleach solution by mixing 1/3 cup bleach into 1 gallon of water. 3. Wipe the surface with the bleach solution. Allow proper contact time as directed on product label. 4. Rinse with water and let air dry. Surfaces to Sanitize Often - Counters - Refrigerators - Doorknobs - Light Switch Plates - Toilet Room Surfaces - Phone - Computer - Keyboard and Mouse - Tables and Chairs - Railings - Remote Controls - Cash Registers - Wheelchairs and Walkers - Recreation Equipment - Highchairs - Multi-use Surfaces - Condiment Bottles Social or physical distancing can help stop or slow the spread of a contagious disease by reducing close contact and the opportunity for germs to spread. Limit the number of interactions you have with individuals outside of your household. - Create and maintain 6 feet of space between yourself and other individuals when in a social setting. - Avoid gatherings—They are not allowed for public safety reasons. - Everyone is encouraged to stay home as much as possible, especially high-risk populations. COVID-19 is spread through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs, sneezes, sings, or speaks. Practice social distancing by creating 6 feet of physical space between yourself and other individuals outside of your household. Respiratory droplets can travel up to 6 feet before settling to the ground or other surface. Maintaining 6 feet of distance reduces your chance of coming into contact with the virus or breathing it in. Washing your hands and cleaning frequently touched surfaces can remove these infected droplets. It’s EVERYONE’S Social Responsibility. The County of San Diego requires face coverings for all people 2 years old and older. Face coverings... - should cover the nose and mouth and be used when individuals may be around people outside of their household. - block respiratory particles from being released into the air when someone coughs, sneezes, speaks, or sings. - help slow the spread of the virus by people who may have the virus but do not yet know it. - should be used in addition to other protective measures. Medical grade face masks should be reserved for those who need them so that the current supply is not impacted. Visit our face coverings web page for more information. As of June 18, 2020 Face coverings are required for everyone in California Guidance based on: - California has limited the spread of COVID-19 and associated hospitalizations and deaths in our state. - As the state reopens, more people are leaving their homes which increases the risk of exposure and infection. - We now know people can have COVID-19 and no have symptoms or not yet be showing symptoms. - Face coverings limit the release of infected droplets and reinforce physical distancing. Additional information and guidance can be found at www.covid19.ca.gov Gloves are not a substitute for handwashing. The best way to keep your hands clean and germ-free is to wash them frequently with soap and water or use hand sanitizer. Gloves can actually spread germs if they are not used correctly. - If the gloves touches a surface such as a grocery cart, door handle, or other object that has germs on it and then touch another surface, they can spread those germs. You may not be protecting yourself from germs either. - Gloves may have very tiny holes in them that you cannot see but that germs can pass through. - It is possible for germs on the outside of the gloves seep inside. - Gloves can be torn, break down, or be damaged. Gloves can give you a false sense of safety and protection. - If you touch your face while wearing gloves, germs can enter the body and cause infections. - Gloves, unlike hands, cannot be washed. WHAT DO THE PUBLIC HEALTH ORDERS MEAN? EVERYONE NEEDS TO STAY HOME, EXCEPT... Workers of essential or reopened businesses, to take care of essential needs, go to or from reopened businesses, or to participate in allowed outdoor activities as defined by the San Diego County Health Officer Order | Essential Workers | Essential Businesses | Reopened Businesses and Other Services | |-------------------|----------------------|---------------------------------------| | • Healthcare/Public Health • Emergency Services • Law Enforcement, Public Safety, and First Responders • Public Works • Food and Agriculture • Energy Services • Water and Wastewater • Transportation and Logistics | • Grocery/Food and Beverage Stores • Restaurants—take-out, delivery, or outdoor dining • Pharmacies • Banks • Gas Stations • Laundromats • Hardware/Home Improvement Stores • Airports and Public Transportation | See Sector Framework for Tier 2 | Many recreation sites are open to the public for limited use: - Parks - Campgrounds and RV Parks - Outdoor Recreation Sites and Day Camps - Beaches - Swimming Pools Certain Businesses implementing safety procedures in compliance with the State of California’s Blueprint for a Safer Economy are allowed to reopen. Reopened locations as well as visitors to these locations must comply with County and Statewide Industry Guidelines which include mandatory face covers, social distancing, and proper sanitation measures. The County has a Healthy Compliance Call Center. Community members can call (858) 694-2900 24 hours/day to report violations to the Health Officer Order. The Health Officer Order requires employers and school administrators to notify the County of San Diego of a person with COVID-19 at their workplace or school site. Notifications can be made by calling (888) 950-9905. Visit our Safe Reopening page to learn more or see the Public Health Officer Order for additional details. San Diego County schools are required to provide instruction through distance learning until specific requirements are met. - State guidance applies to ALL schools: public, charter, and private schools. - Guidance for Schools and School Based Programs - Guidance for Institutions of Higher Education - In-person school reopening and closure is based on data and local trends associated with COVID-19. As of September 1st, schools in San Diego County are permitted to reopen for in-person instruction in compliance with state and local guidance. Visit our Resources for School Staff, Students, and Families page for more information about schools. Hospitals and other healthcare providers, including dentists, can provide non-emergent or elective procedures and preventive care services. An important message for parents: If your child is due for immunizations or a well child check up, contact your pediatrician’s office for further guidance. Infants, children, and adolescents need to stay up-to-date on vaccines and well child visits even during the COVID-19 pandemic. Call your pediatrician’s office to see how they are keeping patients safe and healthy. Isolation and quarantine are used to protect the public by preventing exposure to infected people or people who may be infected by separating those individuals from others to limit the spread of an infectious disease. People who have COVID-19 or have been in close contact (≤6 feet for 15 minutes or more) should stay home and separate themselves from others. **ISOLATION** For **infected people (both symptomatic and asymptomatic)** who have or may have COVID-19 staying home, and away from others until they recover. **QUARANTINE** For **healthy people** who had contact with a person with COVID-19, staying home and away from others for 14 days to prevent potential spread and see if they develop symptoms. Protective measures can make a serious impact by lowering the infection rate and reducing stress on the healthcare system. **Protective Measures** - **Personal:** Wash hands, avoid touching your face, and stay home. - **Social:** Cover your cough or sneeze, wear a face covering and practice social distancing. - **Environmental:** Clean and disinfect high touch surfaces and objects often. Mathematical modeling helps us respond to the pandemic and make informed decisions about implementing protective measures, resources, and planning. - Modeling is used at the national, state, and local level. - Modeling is used to forecast: - Cases (including in various situations or scenarios) - Services - Hospitalizations - Deaths Comparison of COVID-19 Model Predicted and Reported Deaths in San Diego County National Forecast Bands: 95% Prediction Intervals 1. Thomas CS Martin, Adriane Wynn, Emily Eshraghian, Natasha K Martin. Unpublished 2. California Department of Public Health TRAVELERS RETURNING FROM HIGH RISK COUNTRIES Travel can increase your chance of getting and spreading COVID-19. Learn more about traveling during the COVID-19 pandemic. There is ongoing transmission of COVID-19 within the United States and in destinations throughout the world—See the CDC’s COVID-19 Travel Recommendations by Destination page for more information. Foreign nationals who visited certain countries in the past 14 days may not enter the U.S. Resources for People Considering Travel Information for After You Travel Communication Resources for Travelers Travel: Frequently Asked Questions and Answers WHAT SHOULD YOU DO IF YOU THINK YOU HAVE COVID-19? If you are feeling sick and think you have been exposed to the COVID-19 virus stay home and **call** your healthcare provider for medical advice. - Stay home except to get medical care - Separate yourself from other people in your home - Wear a face cover if you will be around others. - Cover your coughs and sneezes - Wash your hands often - Avoid sharing personal household items—Dishes, cups, utensils, towels, etc. - Keep your hands clean - **Clean all “high-touch” surfaces everyday** - Monitor your symptoms—Seek prompt attention if your illness worsens Follow Isolation or Quarantine Guidance The County of San Diego is closely monitoring COVID-19 cases in our region. Data information tables, graphs, and dashboards are available at www.coronavirus-sd.com. COVID-19 Dashboard Daily Data Tables Triggers Weekly Surveillance Report MAIN TAKEAWAYS - There are more than 6.5 million cases of COVID-19 and over 190,000 deaths in the United States, including a growing number of cases in San Diego County. - The best way to prevent getting sick is to avoid being exposed to the virus. - Everyone should continue to practice social distancing when out in public. - Cloth face coverings are required when leaving your home to help slow the spread of the virus by people who may have the virus but do not yet know it. - Frequent hand washing and disinfection of high-touch surfaces can help prevent the virus from spreading. - If you have symptoms and want to get tested for COVID-19, call your healthcare provider or schedule an appointment online or call 2-1-1. - The County of San Diego is working closely with local, state, and federal partners to respond to this public health threat. Everyone needs to do their part to help prevent COVID-19. We all have a role to play! For more information about the COVID-19: County of San Diego www.coronavirus-sd.com California Coronavirus (COVID-19) Response www.covid19.ca.gov California Department of Public Health—COVID-19 www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/CID/DCDC/Pages/Immunization/nCOV2019.aspx Centers for Disease Control and Prevention—COVID-19 www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/index.html World Health Organization—COVID-19 Outbreak www.who.int/westernpacific/emergencies/covid-19 LOCAL RESOURCES Media updates are provided by the County of San Diego on Mondays and Wednesdays at 2:30—[Latest News Briefing Slides](#) Text COSD COVID19 to 468-311 for updates to be sent via text message. Call 2-1-1 or visit [211sandiego.org](#) for information about community resources, help scheduling a test, or to report a face covering violation. LIVE WELL @ HOME Live Well @ Home is a free resource to help community residents find tips and strategies to stay healthy in both mind and body while staying at home. We’ve organized the below resources and activities by age group and topic to help you find the right tools to match your needs. ACCESS & CRISIS LINE CRISIS LINE (888) 724-7240 7 Days a Week 24 Hours a Day LIVE CHAT Available Mon-Fri (4pm -10pm) HOW TO MANAGE YOUR MENTAL HEALTH AND COPE DURING COVID-19 Información en español en la sección debajo QUESTIONS? Thank You! Presentation Feedback Form: Sector On May 17, 2016, the County of San Diego Health and Human Services Agency Division of Public Health Services received accreditation from the Public Health Accreditation Board.
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VERMILION FLYCATCHER TUCSON AUDUBON Summer 2023 | Vol 68 No 3 BIRDS & WATER: MONSOON SEASON MISSION Tucson Audubon inspires people to enjoy and protect birds through recreation, education, conservation, and restoration of the environment upon which we all depend. TUCSON AUDUBON SOCIETY 300 E University Blvd. #120, Tucson, AZ 85705 TEL 520-629-0510 FAX 520-232-5477 BOARD OF DIRECTORS Colleen Cacy, Acting President Vacant, Vice President Vacant, Secretary Richard Carlson and Cynthia Pruett, Co-Treasurers Michael T. Bogan, Alberto Burgués, Jeanne Calhoun, Tricia Gerrodette, Kathy Jacobs, Elisabeth (Lissie) Jaquette, Riana Johnson We acknowledge the hard work and dedication of everyone at Tucson Audubon. To see a list of our staff, please visit TUCSONAUDUBON.ORG/STAFF. NATURE SHOP + NATURE CENTERS Nature Shop: tucsonaudubon.org/nature-shop Mason Center: tucsonaudubon.org/mason Paton Center for Hummingbirds: tucsonaudubon.org/paton VERMILION FLYCATCHER is published quarterly. Call 520-209-1802 for address changes or subscription issues. Vermilion Flycatcher Production Team Matt Griffiths, Editor-in-Chief Melina Lew, Design © 2023 Tucson Audubon Society All photos © the photographer ON THE COVER Varied Bunting by Fred Mitchell. Fred observes and photographs birds and wildlife in southern Arizona for the sheer pleasure of it. JOIN TUCSON AUDUBON TODAY! A LEADING VOICE AND ADVOCATE FOR SOUTHEAST ARIZONA’S BIRDS AND THEIR UNIQUE HABITATS FOR OVER 70 YEARS Member benefits: • Direct support of bird conservation in Southeast Arizona • Guided birding field trips • 10% discount in our Nature Shops • Vermilion Flycatcher news magazine • Discounts on Tucson Audubon classes and events • Special social gatherings and Birds & Community presentations Become a member today at TUCSONAUDUBON.ORG/JOIN. Western Tanager, Francis Morgan Monsoon. The word alone conjures up excitement, wonder, relief, and expectation. I love the palpable and immediate change it brings to our landscape—bringing our sleepy, sun-drenched desert and grasslands to verdant life overnight. As it approaches, monsoon also brings with it a sense of uncertainty (will it come?), particularly acute in the context of a changing climate. Stepping into this new season—in senses both literal and figurative—with Tucson Audubon, I can’t help but draw parallels, and find myself welling up with the same level of excitement and expectation that I experience at the onset of monsoon. Excitement about what we will accomplish together, how we will evolve together, and how we will succeed in meeting the ever-more-challenging needs of birds and their habitats, while creating a brave, inclusive space where all perspectives are valued. I recognize that Tucson Audubon has gone through several cycles of change, and that there will be uncertainty and expectation as I transition into this role at a critical time when birds and the communities in which they (and we!) live depend on our decisive, focused action. In my previous work with Tucson Audubon as a collaborative partner and volunteer, I’ve witnessed their growth in the conservation space, their bold action in advocacy, and their nimble resilience, engaging communities in conservation, science, and education in creative ways that are approachable and collaborative. I’m as eager to contribute to and amplify this work as I am to welcome the 2023 monsoon. I hope you can join me and my colleagues at the Southeast Arizona Birding Festival this August to celebrate this most wonderful time of year and all it brings, listening for the unmistakable calls of rain crows (Yellow-billed Cuckoos) and spadefoot toads, delighting in quail antics, and charting new paths toward a brighter future for birds, birders, and future birders alike. Melissa Fratello Executive Director firstname.lastname@example.org July and August are glorious months in Southeast Arizona! We’ve made it through very hot and dry June and usually monsoon moisture has begun to move in and at least tempt us with billowing clouds and shade. Once the rains do start and lightning cracks, the birds of the region respond to an increase in resources and fatten up for migration or go for a first, second, or even third round of breeding! Warblers and shorebirds are migrating through and also take advantage of the hordes of insects and increased water available. And if it’s a really good year down in Mexico, dispersing rarities such as Aztec Thrush and Plain-capped Starthroat could make appearances. It’s an exciting time for birding and living! Matt Griffiths Communications Coordinator email@example.com Painted Bunting, Greg Lavaty YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO The ultimate monsoon bird for Southeast Arizona, you can be forgiven if you’ve never seen a Yellow-billed Cuckoo—they’re very sneaky and only here for a few weeks! Their time here coincides with our rainy season and it’s said that they have a tendency to call at the sound of thunder, leading to the nickname “rain crow.” These long-distance Neotropical migrants spend winters down in South America and arrive in Arizona in June and are already heading south again by late August. For a medium-sized bird with bright white underparts and a long black and white spotted tail, they can be extremely stealthy and difficult to see, even after you’ve heard their often loud and unique *ka-ka-ka-ka-kowlp-kowlp-kowlp* call. Because they utilize riparian areas with giant cottonwood and willow trees, you can stare up into the thick leaves for quite some time and never see one. Try your luck on the Santa Cruz River near Tubac or on the San Pedro River, but don’t delay! Once started, their breeding cycle is an amazingly quick 17 days from egg laying to fledging of young. Yellow-billed Cuckoos can also be found in the oak woodland habitat of our Sky Islands, the Patagonia Mountains, and the west-slope foothills of the Huachucas. Populations west of the Rocky Mountains have been listed as federally threatened since 2014, and Tucson Audubon’s survey work with the Coronado National Forest helped determine their regular presence in this habitat type. Whether in cottonwoods or oaks, cuckoos display a vigor for feeding on large prey such as hairy caterpillars and cicadas, a trait they share with their more terrestrial cousins, the roadrunners. PAINTED BUNTING The Painted Bunting is my top nemesis bird, and yes, it is a monsoon species in Southeast Arizona. This is one amazing-looking bird that I have not yet seen! As can be expected with a bird as dazzling as this, interesting Painted Bunting facts revolve around their feathers. Males acquire the striking combo of an electric blue head, vibrant red eye ring, breast, belly, and rump, and yellowish-green back, in their second fall season. Not to be outdone, females are a cryptic shade of green that is quite unlike any other bird’s coloration. The male Painted Bunting’s striking coloration has inspired names such as *siete colores* (seven colors) in Mexico and *nonpareil* (without equal) in Louisiana. The western population of Painted Buntings undergoes a prebasic molt in which it migrates to Southeast Arizona and northern Mexico in late summer and early fall to molt before moving on to southern Mexico and Central America for the winter (a common strategy in waterfowl but not songbirds). Interestingly, the eastern population (limited to the coastal Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida) stays put and molts on their breeding grounds before migrating to southern Florida and the Bahamas. Painted Buntings like weedy areas adjacent to water and can often be found foraging for seeds along with other buntings and goldfinches. August and September is prime time for them here and many have been found around Tucson in places like Agua Caliente Park, Sweetwater Wetlands, Tanque Verde Wash, and along the Santa Cruz River. Try your luck and you’ll probably see one before I do! A SEA OF GREEN Vibrant Summer Grasslands At the mention of Arizona, what springs to mind first? For many, it’s epic scenery and wide open spaces—Arizona has no shortage of iconic landscapes. To the north we have the magnificent Grand Canyon and famous Monument Valley, with adjacent red-rock canyon lands. The southern portion of the state is famous for its desert scenes, with rugged mountains and iconic saguaro cactus. It’s surprising, but sweeping vistas of grassland habitat can also be found in Arizona. In fact, the San Rafael Grassland, east of the Patagonia Mountains, has been immortalized as the filming location of the movie “Oklahoma!” Next time you watch this musical, take a look at the mountain ranges in the distance. They should look familiar if you’ve spent time in Southeast Arizona. For those aware of grasslands in Southeast Arizona (part of a larger grassland ecosystem called the Chihuahuan Desert Grasslands), you probably know how great these areas are for winter birding. Many local and visiting birders spend winter days exploring these grasslands, with the hope of finding a White-tailed Kite, a rare Rough-legged Hawk, or a flock of Chestnut-collared Longspurs, one of North America’s fastest declining species. Tucson Audubon has surveyed these longspurs since 2011 in Las Cienegas NCA and the San Rafael Grasslands, both designated as Important Bird Areas of global significance for their vital role as wintering habitat for this species. Grassland birds, as a group, are the fastest declining in North America. Large patches of this shrinking habitat type are in urgent need of protection. The wintering species found in Chihuahuan Desert Grasslands have such a high conservation status that it’s perhaps not surprising birders rarely go to these areas outside the winter months. What’s happening in these grasslands during the summer months? The summer monsoon is an amazing time in our grasslands, and it was a non-grassland associated bird that showed me what I had been missing. Yellow-billed Cuckoos travel from South America to nest in Southeast Arizona during the summer monsoon. While surveying for them in Sky Island drainages on the west edge of the Huachuca Mountains, I fell in love with the summer version of the adjacent grasslands. Completely transformed by the summer rains, the normal rolling slopes of golden grass had turned green and verdant. Summer wildflowers were popping up all around, and the air was filled with the bird song of many species. The Cassin’s Sparrow is one of these species. It has a subtle and understated coloring of mostly beige and brown, and is in southern Arizona year-round but is much easier to spot during the summer months compared to any other time. Its song is magnificent with clear, sweet notes, often given in flight. The male’s fluttering display, up into the sky and back down again, is known as “skylarking” as it’s reminiscent of how the famous Skylarks of Europe perform their breeding displays. Cassin’s Sparrows are incredibly responsive to rainfall and will take advantage of the insect abundance needed to successfully raise a nest of chicks. They will also abandon a dry area and quickly move to other patches of grassland that received more rain and therefore have more food resources. Their ability to respond to local environmental conditions means in some summers they can occur in areas they haven’t been detected in for several years. Another bird of the grasslands is the Botteri’s Sparrow, a somewhat mysterious and little studied species. Its range within the US is restricted to Southeast Arizona and it was assumed to migrate south after wrapping up monsoon nesting. With more birders out carefully looking, its presence has now been confirmed in Arizona throughout the winter. It’s likely that... much of the population moves south for the winter, but at least some individuals stay in Arizona year-round and are very difficult to detect when not singing. Beginning in May, listening for their charismatic song is an excellent way to find them as they often perch in a prominent location, sometimes at the top of a mesquite tree. Their song is a dynamic mix of jazz style “scatting” that segues into a “bouncing ball” series of notes. It’s extremely distinctive, and one of my very favorite sounds of the grasslands. Botteri’s Sparrows nest on the ground, often in the center of large clumps of sacaton grasses, and their primary prey are grasshoppers which are very abundant during the monsoon months. There are many other species that take advantage of the summer abundance of these grasslands, such as Chihuahuan Meadowlark (recently split as a distinct species from Eastern Meadowlark), Loggerhead Shrike, Blue Grosbeak, and Varied Bunting. The rains that come with a good monsoon are the primary source of moisture for the native grasses for the year. They do most of their growing and develop their flowers and then seeds at this time. Therefore, the abundance of grass seeds for wintering birds to feed on, is directly tied to the quantity of the previous summer’s monsoon rains. The summer season has a huge impact on how good the birding will be for all of us in the following winter. If you haven’t been to the grasslands of Southeast Arizona during the summer, try it this year and witness one of the most exciting and surprising birding experiences of this region. It really is monsoon magic out there! Jennie MacFarland, Bird Conservation Biologist firstname.lastname@example.org Blue Grosbeak, Alan Schmierer; Loggerhead Shrike, Martin Molina A sea of green in the San Rafael Valley, Jennie MacFarland Living in southern Arizona, June can feel like one of the longest months. The days have been steadily growing longer through the spring and now finally peak at their longest length. The noon sun is at its highest point in the sky. It feels closer now, like you can touch it. The afternoon heat, arid wind, and random dust devil look to be hunting down every drop of water, desiccating plant, animal and human alike. But, change is in the air. By the end of the month high cirrus clouds are on the horizon to the south. Sometimes you can see the lightning at night down in Mexico as storms build. Then, one morning, a stiff and humid breeze flows out of the south into southern Arizona. This is the beginning. The monsoon has arrived. The shift from the reliably hot and dry conditions in June to the humid and wetter weather pattern in July is part of a larger seasonal climate shift called the North American Monsoon System. A monsoon, by definition, is a seasonal reversal in the prevailing wind pattern and is caused by the land surface heating up faster than nearby ocean areas. There are monsoon systems all over the world, but the South Asian monsoon is the best known. The prevailing winds shift from north to south in the summer, drawing humid air from the Indian Ocean up into the Indian subcontinent, fueling torrential rains. The shift in winds with the North American Monsoon is more subtle, but caused by the same mechanism. As the interior areas of northern Mexico and the southwest U.S. heat up in the late spring and early summer, a large high-pressure dome in the mid to upper levels of the atmosphere builds and slowly moves north. This shifting weather pattern also causes the winds in the mid to upper levels of the atmosphere to shift from a dry southwesterly flow in June to a more moist southerly and southeasterly flow by early July. This shift in winds draws in a moist tropical airmass that supports afternoon thunderstorms. This moist airmass is more reliably present as you go south into Mexico, and the boundary between hot and dry air to the north and moist and cool air to the south is usually present across far northwest Arizona. It can move north and south throughout the summer leading to active periods when deeper moisture is present across the Southwest and breaks when drier air from the northwest moves back in across the region. Typically, the monsoon circulation patterns start to break down in early September as the days get shorter and the land surface starts to cool. The typical, dry desert airmass starts to overtake the Southwest again in September as the tropical moisture retreats south into Mexico. Occasionally, a tropical storm can curve into the Southwest later in the season, but the moisture is temporary and the monsoon gives way to fall weather by October. Mike Crimmins is on the faculty of the Department of Environmental Science at the University of Arizona and an Extension Specialist in Climate Science for Arizona Cooperative Extension. He has been in this role for 15 years working with ranchers, farmers, and natural resource managers across Arizona to integrate climate information in their planning and decision making. Lying on a boulder in Aravaipa Creek, under shady cottonwoods and willows, I was watching longfin dace shimmering in a shallow pool, when a loud, agitated squawking caught my attention. I looked up in time to see a Great Blue Heron flapping ponderously downstream complaining all the way, as a Black Hawk chased it out of its territory. The hawk came cruising back and landed on a sandbar upstream, eyeing the Sonora suckers. Everywhere I gazed the riparian area was full of wild displays of life in all its exuberance. Calls of Canyon Wrens, Yellow-breasted Chats, Blue Grosbeaks, and Yellow Warblers filled the air. A common buckeye flitted about. Mountain lion, Gila monster, and deer tracks dotted the sandy bank. A troop of coatis swarmed up the cliff wall. Riparian ecosystems—the zone of vegetation along the banks of a river, stream, or creek (usually including the aquatic habitat)—are linear oases, ribbons of broadleaf forests that are incredibly rich in biodiversity and natural beauty. In lower elevation riparian areas, such as Aravaipa Canyon, the San Pedro, and the Santa Cruz (near Tubac) Rivers, cottonwoods and willows predominate. These forests are relict populations left from the mid-Tertiary period (30 million years ago) when the climate was cooler and wetter, and these trees were more widespread. Now they are restricted to streams or near water where they can keep their toes wet. Cottonwood-willow forest is the single most productive habitat in the United States, providing a cornucopia for birds and wildlife of every kind. These riparian areas are dynamic ecosystems, always changing as they are frequently disturbed by, but are adapted to and need, flooding (especially during the monsoon). This flooding is necessary for the recruitment of new trees and creates a patchwork of micro habitats with different sizes of trees, shrubs, thickets, ground covers, open areas, and edge habitats. This great species and structural diversity allows a myriad of birds, such as Common Yellowthroats, Yellow-billed Cuckoos, and Abert’s Towhees, and animals like spotted skunks, ringtails, and black-tailed rattlesnakes to thrive here. Some birds, such as the Black Hawk, are obligate riparian nesters, dependent on the mature gallery forest, but plenty of other raptors such as Cooper’s hawks, Gray Hawks, and Zone-tailed Hawks also favor the tall cottonwoods for building their large stick nests. Old giant trees are important for this. When the epic 1983 flood wiped out most of the huge cottonwoods in Aravaipa Canyon, the number of nesting Black Hawks dropped precipitously. Birds may also utilize various areas for different needs. Gray Hawks often nest in the tall cottonwoods but need the adjacent mesquite forest to hunt for snakes. In addition to the microhabitats, the vegetation also changes with distance from the river or water source. Just back from the creek, velvet ash, Arizona walnut, sycamore, netleaf hackberry, alder, and other trees and shrubs mix in with the cottonwoods and willows providing habitat for Vermilion Flycatchers and Song Sparrows. Still further back from the stream where the water table is a bit lower, are lush mesquite bosques supporting a whole different suite of animals and birds, such as Lucy’s Warbler, Bell’s Vireo, Gray Flycatcher, and Ladder-backed Woodpeckers, among others. These zones then transition out to the surrounding habitat. In the desert, washes with catclaw, palo verde, desert hackberry, desert willow, wolfberry, desert broom, and climbing milkweed are often called dry riparian areas. They may carry water only a few times a year, but that’s enough to support lusher vegetation and taller trees where Gila Woodpeckers, Curve-billed Thrashers, Cactus Wrens, and Gambel’s Quail flourish. As I splashed upstream I heard the calls of Summer Tanagers, Hooded Orioles, and Yellow-breasted Chats, but it was the pier, pier, pier call of a Northern Beardless Tyrannulet that grabbed my attention. It was gleaning insects from the foliage and I hoped it would soon fly back to a nest. Their nests are often hidden in the webs of tent caterpillars and can be hard to find. This one was completely hidden, tucked into a clump of mistletoe. That made 16 species of bird nests I’ve found in mistletoe clumps so far. The hollow trunk of an old cottonwood beckoned. It’s always worth a look, as bats, saturniid moths, owls, or some other surprise may be occupying it. As I peeked inside, a Bewick’s Wren flew out. Nearby, a Lucy’s Warbler slipped into a tree hole. Nesting cavities are valuable real estate, and the big, older trees tend to have more holes. These riparian forests are critically important to birds and animals of all kinds. About 80% of animals in the southwest spend at least a portion of their life in the riparian zone. In a dry year, more songbirds may survive by crowding in along the streamside oasis where they can still find insects, fruits, and other food resources as well as nesting sites. Ravens and other birds may nest elsewhere but commute to the riparian zone to forage. Though they comprise just a small percentage (0.4%) of the land in Arizona, riparian areas host more birds and wildlife than any other habitat. Over 228 bird species have been reported in Aravaipa, from Osprey, White-faced Ibis, American Dippers, and Northern Waterthrush to Elegant Trogan. Streams are also natural flyways for migrating birds (the Tubac Hawk Watch on the Santa Cruz River recorded over 3,100 raptors this spring) and they are important corridors for black bears and other mammals, contributing to genetic diversity. Though only a limited number of riparian areas still flourish in Arizona, (90% have disappeared) each is a critical reservoir of biodiversity, a complex ecosystem vital to plants, wildlife, and ourselves. These wild places restore and renew us, uplift and inspire us. They reconnect us to the wonders of life on earth. These seem like good reasons to do everything we can to conserve such treasures of nature. As I sat under a magnificent sycamore, listening to the sweet song of a Canyon Wren, I remembered Jane Austen’s quote, “To sit by a creek and watch nature is the most perfect day.” Pinau Merlin is a nationally known speaker, naturalist, and writer. She is the author of several books and over 80 articles about the wildlife, natural history, and ecology of the Desert Southwest. In the Sonoran Desert, all living beings are limited and shaped by water. The rain comes in two seasons, winter and summer, but it is not predictable. Sometimes it falls in a drizzle, other times it’s a monsoon deluge. Half a season’s worth of rain can come all at once. To adapt, many plants and animals are opportunistic—they take advantage of periods of abundance and rest during scarcity. Humans are the only ones who dare to squander water in the desert. But as temperatures rise and aquifers dry up in the American Southwest, one thing is clear: we need to find more sustainable ways of living that respect and care for water in the long term. Here in Tucson, the impacts of urban development can be felt viscerally. Temperatures have gone up by 0.45°F on average each decade since the 1950s, in part because of the heat island effect and likely made worse by climate change. The Santa Cruz River, whose floodplain had been used for agriculture for thousands of years, dried up in the 1940s after decades of mismanagement, and Tucson residents now receive much of their water from the Colorado River over 300 miles away. This is draining the water table of that once bountiful watershed, and just like the Santa Cruz, it may eventually run dry. In looking for solutions, we can learn from civilizations that lived sustainably for centuries in arid environments all over the world. What did they do differently? How did they cope with harsh desert conditions and conserve water to survive? One of their key innovations was to “plant the rain” through passive and active methods of rainwater harvesting. By using these techniques we can make our city a more sustainable and resilient home for both humans and birds. Here’s how. Passive harvesting uses gravity and dirt barriers to create standing pools of water during rainstorms. Anyone can do it. Next time it rains, observe the water. How does it flow? On asphalt streets, water moves fast and is not absorbed. This urban runoff collects contaminants and trash, discharging pollution into nearby rivers and streams. If dirt is compact and dry, as is often the case in the desert, water also flows off easily, leading to erosion and flooding. By shaping the landscape with basins that are contoured by dirt mounds and rocks, we can slow the flow of water to help plants better soak it up through their roots. As water infiltrates deeper into the soil, less of it is lost to evaporation or runoff, helping the ground retain more moisture and become more sponge-like in the long term. If enough people and neighborhoods implement passive rainwater harvesting, we could restore lush native habitats in urban areas and re-establish migratory corridors for many animals and birds. Those who wish to go a step further might also consider active rainwater harvesting. You can do this by using gutters to channel the rain from a building’s roof into a large container (cistern) that feeds your irrigation system. This technique can be especially helpful during droughts or on a regular basis to extend bloom periods and create a lush habitat. People tend to associate the desert with dryness, but did you know that more rain falls on Tucson over the course of a year than the total amount of municipal water used by city residents? With a free online rainwater calculator, you can easily estimate how much water you could collect from your roof based on square footage and average annual rainfall. Try the calculator at TUCSONAUDUBON.ORG/RAINWATER—you might be surprised with the results. Urban environments actually offer a variety of microclimates, often with more shade and concentrated moisture than the surrounding desert. This supports a greater biodiversity, similar to what you would find in a range of biomes throughout the Sky Islands. Rewilding our cities and suburbs means mimicking these healthy natural environments, with an overstory, midstory, and understory. The velvet mesquite is one of the best overstory trees you can plant for wildlife and it becomes established more quickly if aided by rainwater harvesting basins. This tree supports countless native pollinators and insects, which provide nourishment for birds like Bell’s Vireos, numerous migrating warblers, and Verdins. They are used as roosting or nesting sites by White-winged and Mourning Doves, Lucy’s Warblers, and Phainopeplas, and their seeds are eaten by a variety of mammals and birds, including Gambel’s Quail. Smaller midstory shrubs and trees are also essential—they provide hiding spots, nesting sites, and food for many birds. The desert hackberry, for instance, produces a bounty of orange berries that feed Northern Cardinals, Pyrrhuloxias, and Northern Mockingbirds. Finally, planting the rain creates pockets of coolness and moisture necessary for shade-loving understory plants like violet wild petunia, red justicia, and sacred datura that are important for pollinators, or grasses like side oats grama and bush muhly that birds use for nesting and coverage. Though rainwater harvesting may seem daunting, there are many great resources available to help you get started. Tucson Audubon’s Habitat at Home program offers landscape water conservation plans, native habitat consultations, and installation services for homeowners. The City of Tucson offers free rainwater harvesting workshops and a rebate that can be used towards installing a cistern or creating passive harvesting earthworks. And at a larger scale, neighborhoods can apply for mini grants to build water harvesting features. There are also government initiatives like the Storm to Shade Program that support rainwater harvesting on city property. Tucson Audubon helps maintain these public basins so they can be fully functional for the upcoming monsoon season. Through its Urban Conservation and Sustainability Department, Tucson Audubon is trying to make the city more resilient by using simple solutions like rainwater harvesting. With this approach, we can all help conserve water, create shade, and restore native habitats that will benefit birds, wildlife, and humans. A Permanent Wetland at the Ash Canyon Bird Sanctuary “The ciénega is dry. Unless we do something, it’s not going to be a ciénega anymore. Can you help?” asked Mary Jo Ballator in the fall of 2018. A few weeks later, we slowly walked down the hill from the backyard feeding station of the Ash Canyon B&B to what had formerly been a healthy ciénega replete with cottonwoods, sycamores, sedges, and spikerush constantly showing emerald green due to the abundant water. The ground was now parched and dry, deeply cracked and crusted with salts. A few months later in May of 2019, Mary Jo passed away. The project, to restore the ciénega, never left my mind, even as drought intensified and the feasibility plummeted. I then received a call from Tom Wood of Southeastern Arizona Bird Observatory (SABO), the new owners and managers of the renamed Ash Canyon Bird Sanctuary. They’d seen our pond and stream in the Grand Memorial Meadow at the Paton Center and wanted to create something similar. Could we help? The idea clicked: a unified wetland complex with a recirculating stream, a pond, and a ciénega, created and managed to support numerous threatened and endangered species. Partners for Fish and Wildlife loved the idea and agreed to help fund the project. Work began in earnest in 2022: excavating the pond, installing the underlayment and liner, and getting all the stream pool elevations just right to create appropriate spawning areas for Gila topminnows, and desert pupfish. “We should be getting fish in July!” said Tom at our last visit wrapping up the project. “And, our Safe Harbour Agreement is done, so hopefully Chiricahua leopard frogs will come soon, too.” The artificial ciénega is already proving to be a success: the threatened Arizona eryngo we planted last year set seed and there are over 30 little seedlings growing quickly. The whole complex is filling in quickly and starting to look natural. “It’s so much fun having wetland plants. As a desert gardener, anything that requires water seems like the Holy Grail to me” said Sheri Williamson of SABO. The project still awaits the correct clone of Huachuca water-umbel to be available to include, but even before things had started growing in at all it was a resource for the surrounding birds, bats, and insects—aquatic insects colonized the feature almost immediately. With two incredible monsoon seasons back to back, followed by a consistently wet winter, the ciénega at the bottom of the hill is looking renewed as well. So many of the plants that had lain dormant have sprung back up, sedges, spikerushes, and cottonwoods emerald green once more. How long it will last is anyone’s guess. Even with the new artificial ciénega proving to be a ready resource for the local wildlife, the desire to preserve and enhance the natural ciénega lies strong with Tom and Sheri, and with me. Plans are underway… Jonathan Horst Director of Conservation & Research email@example.com The Ash Canyon Bird Sanctuary now has a unified wetland complex with a recirculating stream, a pond, and a ciénega, created and managed to support numerous threatened and endangered species; Jonathan Horst Help Us Find Martins of the Monsoon If you spend time in Sonoran Desert habitat in Southeast Arizona between May and September you may encounter large swallows near saguaro cacti. These are Desert Purple Martins, a distinct subspecies of Purple Martin that nests exclusively in cavities in large columnar cacti such as saguaros in Arizona or cardons in Baja. Desert Purple Martins are loosely colonial and multiple pairs will nest in adjacent saguaros or even in different cavities within a single, large saguaro. They can be perched on top of saguaros, seen going in and out of cavities and frequently heard calling while flying around their territory. When they detect a threat or human intruder near their saguaro, they give a loud alarm call which attracts other Desert Purple Martins to the area to help them intimidate the target by calling and swirling around. They can be found on or near saguaros as early as late April after their migratory journey from South America. They will choose a saguaro for nesting through May and June but don’t actually lay eggs until July. This timing is very important as they depend on the insect abundance that comes along with monsoon storms and elevated humidity. The adults are very capable hunters and will catch dragonflies, damselflies, and other flying insects with agile and precise flying skills. Where do you come in? We need help finding and mapping the saguaros used by nesting Desert Purple Martins! If you have noticed a particular saguaro that seems to have been chosen by martins for nesting this summer, please share this information with Tucson Audubon. Your reports help with our ongoing project to identify and map patches of desert favored by nesting Desert Purple Martins. Sonoran Desert habitat faces serious threats from invasive grasses and associated fires that can kill full grown saguaro cacti. Since Desert Purple Martins have only been known to nest in cavities within saguaro cacti in Arizona, protecting these birds relies on preserving their nesting saguaros. Knowing which patches of saguaros they prefer for nesting helps Tucson Audubon prioritize sites for invasive plant control. To report saguaros used for nesting by Desert Purple Martins to Tucson Audubon, you can snap a photo of the saguaro with your smartphone and then submit the sighting to iNaturalist, a free app, and identify the species as “Purple Martin.” You can also report the details of your observation on our website: TUCSONAUDUBON.ORG/PURPLEMARTIN. Thank you! Jennie MacFarland, Bird Conservation Biologist firstname.lastname@example.org Like all wildlife, birds need water as well as food and shelter to survive. Although many obtain moisture from the fruits or insects they eat, almost all birds are attracted to some source of water, both for drinking and for bathing. Not only do birds seem to enjoy getting wet, they also require bathing for cleaning and realigning their feathers. If you watch an enthusiastic bather, you will see something like this: The bird will wade into the water, duck its head in, then quickly raise it, all the while vigorously beating its wings. The wing action causes water to be splashed over the ruffled feathers on its back. The bird may then fly to a less vulnerable spot, shake itself to dry and begin to preen, systematically drawing feathers through its bill to remove oil, dirt, and parasites. Water bathing may also be a means of temperature control. Water features can be as simple as a planter pot saucer or as elaborate and ornate as a three-tiered fountain with a pump that recycles water. Having the water raised off the ground helps protect birds from lurking predators. But a shallow dish, if placed away from dense shrubbery where stalking cats and other predators might hide, also works well. Ground level birdbaths have the advantage of attracting other types of wildlife such as ground squirrels, cottontails, coyotes, and bobcats. Whichever type of water feature you use, keep it shallow—no more than three inches in depth—suitable for some of the smaller songbirds. You can use flat rocks to create different depths. It is also important to keep your water source clean. Daily cleaning by scrubbing and rinsing is ideal. On the other hand, if you are able to provide moving water, it will stay cleaner longer. Even a slight flow can prevent water from stagnating and reduce the chances that disease-carrying organisms will be spread from one bird to another. The sound of moving water may also help to attract passing birds. The hookup for moving water can be as simple as a copper pipe connected to an irrigation tube or slow-drip faucet. Lynn Hassler Green Gardeners Volunteer Captain Historic Y Second Spring Brings Exciting Birds Arizona in the summer! This does not sound appealing to most people from outside Arizona, but Arizona birders revel in the monsoon season. In our “second spring,” the desert and grasslands become lush, and the birds respond with a flurry of breeding activity. This rainy season is famous for the grassland sparrows, in particular Cassin’s and Bottari’s. Like magic, they are suddenly everywhere singing their hearts out, as if they’ve emerged out of the ground like spadefoot toads. One of the most iconic birds of Southeast Arizona during July and August is the displaying Cassin’s Sparrow, rising and singing its distinctive trilling song in flight, and dropping like a rock to perch on a bush or fence. Bottari’s are perhaps even more common, and other sparrows such as Rufous-winged, Grasshopper, Black-throated, and the much sought-after Five-striped Sparrow, also become much more conspicuous once the summer rains start. Although it is exciting to see Arizona’s breeding birds at this season, the summer monsoons also extend down into Mexico, and we sometimes benefit from breeding successes south of the border, as rare species move north into the US from July through September. One in particular, the Aztec Thrush (first seen in Arizona in the summer of 1978), is exceedingly rare in Mexico, so it is amazing that it has shown up in Arizona about 30 times. In 1996 alone, there were about 20 individuals around Southeast Arizona, and some lucky birders saw as many as eight in one tree in Carr Canyon! Virtually all the Aztec Thrush records are in August and September during the monsoons. Another “vagrant” from Mexico that shows up during the monsoon season is the Yellow-green Vireo, which has occurred in Arizona no fewer than 20 times. Interestingly, this species occurs regularly along the California coast, but virtually all those records are from later in the fall, mainly September and October. The monsoon season is also an excellent time for rare hummingbirds from Mexico, such as Plain-capped Starthroat and White-eared and Berylline Hummingbirds. Other “Mexican” species, such as Black-capped Gnatcatcher and Rufous-capped Warbler, periodically become established in Southeast Arizona after what are presumably very good breeding seasons in Mexico during the summer monsoons, with dispersing birds colonizing areas farther north. It is also well-known that Painted Buntings, once thought of as a rarity in Arizona, stage and go through a molt in Southeast Arizona before migrating south. During especially wet monsoon years, as many as 50-100 individuals have been found during August and early September. The summer monsoon is an exciting season in Arizona! Gary Rosenberg is Secretary of the Arizona Bird Committee and co-author of the season bar graphs section of *Finding Birds in Southeast Arizona*. FROGS & TOADS of SOUTHEAST ARIZONA Amphibians were among the first vertebrates to colonize terrestrial habitats. They emerged out of the Devonian period’s lowland lakes and swamps about 370 million years ago. However, the first frogs and toads did not evolve until the early Triassic period about 240 million years ago. Today, 7,624 species of frogs and toads are known across the globe, but most are found in the tropics and many require surface water for reproduction. The New World tropics reach their northern limits in Sonora and some of that influence spills over into Arizona. But the biodiversity of southeastern Arizona is also enhanced by biotic influences from the Sonoran and Chihuahuan Deserts, short-grass prairies of the Great Plains, Mogollon Rim, and woodlands and forests of the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Madre Occidental and associated sky islands. Southeastern Arizona is relatively arid with a pronounced dry season from about April through June that limits the opportunities for amphibians; nevertheless, 21 frog and toad species occur in our corner of the state. Included are three spadefoots, six species of “true toads” (genera *Anaxyrus* and *Incilius*), four species of Treefrogs and Chorus Frogs, Sinaloan Narrow-mouthed Toad, Barking Frog, the introduced African Clawed Frog, and five species of true frogs (family Ranidae) including three species of leopard frogs, the Tarahumara Frog, and the introduced American Bullfrog. All of these species except for the Barking Frog lay eggs in aquatic habitats. Eggs hatch into tadpoles that develop in water and metamorphose into small frogs or toads that live a terrestrial or semi-aquatic lifestyle. The Barking Frog is the lone member of the tropical family *Craugastoridae* in Arizona: frogs in this family practice direct development, which foregoes an aquatic larval stage. Female Barking Frogs lay eggs in moist rock crevices, the larvae develop inside the egg, and small frogs hatch from those eggs. Frogs and toads in Arizona feed upon arthropods, mostly insects, but some larger individuals, such as large American Bullfrogs and Sonoran Desert Toads, can eat vertebrates, such as other frogs and toads, small snakes, lizards, rodents, and other small animals. Larvae are primarily herbivorous, but many will also feed on living or dead small animals. Although only one of southeastern Arizona’s frogs and toads (the Chiricahua Leopard Frog) is listed under the Endangered Species Act, in just the last two decades 168 species of amphibians around the globe are believed to have gone extinct and over 43% have populations that are declining. In southeastern Arizona, many frogs and toads are in decline due to habitat loss and degradation, disease (chytridiomycosis and ranavirus), introduced predators (particularly fishes, American Bullfrogs, and crayfishes), and climate change, which exacerbates wildfires and can lead to drying of wetlands. In the following series of images, I have included species birders and other naturalists are most likely to encounter in southeastern Arizona (e.g., Couch’s and Mexican spadefoots, Sonoran Desert Toad, Great Plains and Red-spotted toads, Canyon Treefrog, and American Bullfrog), but also species of special concern, like the Chiricahua Leopard Frog and Tarahumara Frog (the latter was extirpated from Arizona in 1983 but was reintroduced beginning in 2004), as well as species with interesting life histories. For further information, consult the following books: *A Field Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles in Arizona* (2022) and *Amphibians of the Sky Islands* (2023). Jim Rorabaugh has worked in Arizona and Sonora as a herpetologist for the last few decades. He is also an avid bird watcher, nature nut, and conservation advocate. COUCH’S SPADEFoot (< 3.5 inches): With the first heavy, summer rain, this spadefoot emerges from the ground where it spends the winter and moves to rain pools where it breeds. Common in the desert, its “waaaa” calls announce the beginning of the monsoon. MEXICAN SPADEFoot (< 2.5 inches): Also a summer rain pool breeder, this species occurs to higher elevations than Couch’s Spadefoot and into northern Arizona. The call resembles someone running a fingernail over the tines of a comb. ARIZONA TREEFROG (< 2.25 inches): Its southeastern Arizona distribution is limited to the Huachuca Mountains and Canelo Hills where it likely persists as a relict of wetter times. It is widespread along the Mogollon Rim and in the Sierra Madre Occidental. MAZATLAN NARROW-MOUTHED TOAD (< 1.5 inches): Arizona’s only representative of the widespread, mostly tropical family Microhylidae, this little toad breeds in summer in the lower, western sky islands but also in desert arroyos. SONORAN DESERT TOAD (< 7.5 inches): Our largest toad, this species occurs across southern Arizona, but is more common in the southeast. All toads and many frogs have poisonous skin secretions, but this one is particularly toxic. BARKING FROG (< 3.75 inches): This enigmatic and hard-to-find frog is usually located by its loud “walk, walk” calls that originate from bouldery slopes in the sky islands from the Quinlan Mountains east to the Huachucas. It breeds in summer and often overwinters in caves. RED-SPOTTED TOAD (< 3 inches): This small toad breeds in spring and summer in canyons, tinajas, and other water sources in mountains and bajadas. Its call is a high-pitched trill lasting 2–12 seconds. TARAHUMARA FROG (< 4.5 inches): Historically in Arizona, this species was limited to a few rugged canyons in the south-central portion of the state. It persists as a reintroduced species in remote areas of the Santa Rita and Atascosa mountains. GREAT PLAINS TOAD (< 4.5 inches): Occurring throughout much of Arizona outside of the high mountains, it breeds spring and summer in permanent and ephemeral ponds. Its call is an almost deafeningly loud trill lasting 25–50 seconds. CHIRICAHUA LEOPARD FROG (< 5.4 inches): Listed as a threatened species, this frog has disappeared from most of its historical localities. It has benefited from a state and federal recovery program that has restored habitats and reintroduced the species to many wetland sites. CANYON TREEFROG (< 2.25 inches): This is the common treefrog of southeastern Arizona montane canyons. It is often seen atop boulders where it blends in well or in rock crevices. Its call is a series of loud, short trills that may sound like they’re coming from inside a tin can. AMERICAN BULLFROG (< 8.5 inches): Introduced to Arizona from the central or eastern U.S., this adaptable frog is now found in most permanent or nearly permanent waters in southern and western Arizona. It preys upon and is a serious threat to a number of vulnerable frogs and gartersnakes and is a carrier of amphibian diseases. OPPOSITE: Woodhouse’s Toad All photos by Jim Rorabaugh Don’t miss out! The Southeast Arizona Birding Festival offers expert-guided birding and wildlife trips, photography and bird-ID workshops, free nature presentations, exhibitors, and activities. Check the festival site for openings. Be sure to drop by the Nature Expo at the festival venue, the DoubleTree by Hilton Hotel at Reid Park. Our hours will be: - Wednesday, August 9, 4–6pm - Thursday, August 10, 12–5:30pm - Friday, August 11, 12–5:30pm - Saturday, August 12, 10am–5:30pm The Nature Expo is free and open to everyone. “Happy Hours” from 4:30–5:30pm each evening with door prizes! Violet-Crowned Hummingbird, Mick Thompson Roadrunner Adventure Day SATURDAY, AUGUST 12, FROM 9–11AM AT REID PARK Join us for Mr. Nature’s Interactive Music Hour! Kindness, compassion, and mindfulness engagement through song, dance and interactive music. Little Leaf Community Garden activities. Bird walks every half hour (every other one in Spanish). Spanish/English story time. Thanks to Our Sponsors PRESENTING ASSOCIATE SUPPORTING CONTRIBUTING Focus on nature. Not your equipment. Maximum image quality. Minimum weight. ZEISS SFL binoculars With the NEW ZEISS SFL SmartFocus Lightweight binoculars, special moments can be experienced with ease. Optimized to be as lightweight and compact as possible, the SFL binoculars are a perfect addition to the SFL camera system. The new Ultra-High-Definition (UHD) Concept ensures true-to-life color reproduction and the highest level of detail. Thanks to its SmartFocus Concept, the focus wheel is perfectly positioned and enables fast and precise focusing – even with gloves on. The lightweight magnesium housing provides long-lasting durability and reduces weight generation. Up to 40% lighter than comparable competitors Scan to learn more When natural beauty, unique culture, and a growing tech sector meet, the opportunity is hard to ignore. See for yourself. ConnectTucson.com City of Tucson Office of Economic Initiatives email@example.com Oro Valley is just north of Tucson, set against the backdrop of the majestic Santa Catalina Mountains. Outdoor adventures abound, with views you won’t find anywhere else in Southern Arizona. Explore our trails and paved paths. Play a round of golf. Savor a meal at an OV Original restaurant. Relax in one of our spas. Enjoy all that Oro Valley has to offer. Scan the QR code for details on the adventures that await you in Oro Valley. © 2017 Vortex Optics, Inc. All Rights Reserved. All trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Natural Selections BIRDING, WILDLIFE, AND PHOTO TOURS SUPPORTING LOCAL GUIDES AND CONSERVATION THROUGH NATURE TRAVEL Birding Tours to Honduras, Guatemala, Peru and more Wildlife Tours to India, Sri Lanka, Borneo and more Photo Tours to Kenya, Brazil, Ecuador and more NATURALSELECTIONSTOURS.COM NL PURE ONE WITH NATURE SWAROVSKI OPTIK SOUTHERN ARIZONA IS ON THE CUSP OF A MINING BOOM—one that will forever change this special place we call home. Arizona is already the top mineral-producing and second most mining-friendly U.S. state, according to the Fraser Institute. With sustainable-energy technology drastically increasing the demand for critical minerals—and with profits to be made—multi-billion-dollar companies are scrambling to mine copper, silver, zinc, lead, and manganese in our backyard. Hard-rock mining produces more toxic waste than any other industry in America, and traditionally lax environmental regulations have been further weakened by a recent Supreme Court ruling gutting the Clean Water Act. The result: Arizona’s water, wildlife, and vulnerable communities are at increasingly grave risk. For those who seek a greener future and love birds, this “minerals rush” presents a conundrum: How can we support a rapid transition to sustainable energy without sacrificing what clean energy is supposed to protect? There are no easy answers. But the first tenet of responsible mining should be: some areas shouldn’t be mined. The Patagonia Mountains are one such place. This migration corridor, home to more than 100 federally endangered, threatened, and sensitive species, is one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots most in need of protection. No mining method or degree of environmental oversight will sufficiently safeguard it. Yet the federal government is heavily supporting mining here. South32’s Hermosa Mine, the first mining project approved for the FAST-41 process (to streamline federal environmental review of high-priority transportation infrastructure projects), is in the heart of the Patagonia Mountains. And two exploratory-mining proposals (one from South32, one from Barksdale Resources) were recently granted full approval without environmental review or consideration of the cumulative impacts of the area’s many proposed mines. Tucson Audubon recently joined a lawsuit to overturn these approvals. As for the Hermosa project, its “dewatering” plan risks lowering the underground water table thousands of feet and releasing 6.5 million gallons of water a day into Harshaw Creek, a small seasonal waterway lined with ecologically vital riparian habitat. Harshaw Creek flows into Sonoita Creek, which itself flows past Tucson Audubon’s internationally renowned... The Paton Center for Hummingbirds. As Jonathan Horst, Tucson Audubon’s Director of Conservation & Research, comments, “The Hermosa Mine dewatering will create an ecological boom and bust along Harshaw and Sonolita Creeks, with dense riparian vegetation growing in response to the newly available water, followed by a severe crash when the dewatering ends, leaving the habitat in worse shape than today.” While South32 claims the treated water will eventually find its way back into the aquifer, groundwater removed by mining can take thousands of years to replenish. It’s like putting a giant straw in the aquifer and sucking it dry — in a state already experiencing a water crisis! That crisis is about to worsen, thanks to the Supreme Court’s 5-4 ruling in Sackett v EPA, stripping Clean Water Act protection from all water “without continuous surface connection to navigable waters,” which includes most of Arizona’s waterways and wetlands. Says David Robinson, Tucson Audubon’s Director of Conservation Advocacy, “Without new clean-water legislation from Congress, this pollution-over-people ruling spells catastrophe for biodiversity, the environment, climate change, and human health.” Mining already disproportionately impacts Native American communities. A recent study in *Nature Sustainability* found that 54 percent of mining projects globally are on or near Indigenous people’s lands. And according to a 2021 study by MCSI, “97% of nickel, 89% of copper, 79% of lithium and 68% of cobalt reserves and resources in the U.S. are located within 35 miles of Native American reservations.” Health outcomes linked to mining include increased rates of cancer, respiratory illness, kidney disease, and miscarriage. Here in Arizona, Indigenous communities are fighting several proposed mines. Best known is the Resolution Copper project at Oak Flat, in the Tonto National Forest east of Phoenix. Sacred to the San Carlos Apache and other Indigenous nations, Oak Flat has been the nexus of Apache religious tradition since long before white settlers arrived. Resolution Copper would use “block-cave mining,” replacing the mountain with a two-mile-wide crater. In southern Arizona, the Tohono O’odham, Yaqui, and Hopi tribes are opposing Hudbay Minerals’ proposed Copper World (formerly Rosemont) Mine in the Santa Rita Mountains, east of I-19 in Green Valley. Hudbay plans to decapitate more than one mile of scenic mountain ridgeline, creating four open pits and building roads and waste dumps on the mountains’ east and west sides. Like Hermosa, Copper World benefits from a regulatory loophole removing most environmental oversight on private lands. Meanwhile, Arizona Senator Kyrsten Sinema has co-sponsored a bill, the Mining Regulatory Clarity Act, allowing mining companies to operate on land without having valid mineral claims, and preventing the BLM from regulating where mining pipelines and roads would go. In contrast, Arizona Congressman Raul Grijalva and New Mexico Senator Martin Heinrich have introduced the Clean Energy Minerals Reform Act to modernize the 150-year-old law still governing U.S. mining: the 1872 Mining Act. Says Grijalva, “Securing the minerals we need for our clean energy future cannot come at the cost of our environment, our health and safety, or tribal sovereignty. For more than a century and a half, the mining industry has operated under an outdated, free-for-all claims system that gives them carte blanche to pollute and destroy, while American taxpayers get stuck with the cleanup bill.” The act would bring requirements for hard-rock mining in line with those for oil, gas, and coal on public lands. To avert the worst impacts of climate change, the world urgently needs a swift transition to renewable energy. But while making that transition, we must protect human health, especially of communities long subjected to environmental injustice, and fight for birds, other wildlife, and the habitats they depend on. Laurie Cantillo is a Tucson-based writer, nature lover, and volunteer at the Paton Center for Hummingbirds. **SOME WAYS YOU CAN HELP** Urge your representatives in Washington to support the Clean Energy Minerals Reform Act and oppose the Mining Regulatory Clarity Act. Sign up for Tucson Audubon Action Alerts at: [TUCSONAUDUBON.ORG/E-NEWS](http://TUCSONAUDUBON.ORG/E-NEWS). Join Tucson Audubon’s nonpartisan Birding & Canvassing events ([TUCSONAUDUBON.ORG/COMMUNITY-EVENTS](http://TUCSONAUDUBON.ORG/COMMUNITY-EVENTS)) to ensure that environmentalists get to the polls and vote in every election! Monsoon season is just around the corner, hopefully. We’re never sure these days, though Patagonia and further to the southeast usually gets a bit more rain, starting earlier in July, than does Tucson. At the Paton Center, some water is reliable, regardless of the circumstances. Behind the viewing pavilion the small water feature brings birds in for a close-up look. Just around the corner, removed from the occasional “crowds” of the back yard, the quiet stream and pond in the Grand Meadow provide a respite to inhabitants and visitors alike. The endangered Huachuca water-umbel and Arizona eryngo are thriving there. Senior field crew member Dan Lehman has removed over 1500 bullfrog tadpoles from the pond this spring and found numerous egg masses for tiger salamanders. We’re still trying to fully identify whether they’re the endangered local subspecies or just escaped bait from the lake downstream. Tucked neatly into a heavily shaded area of the newest portion of the Paton Center lies a secret small depression, a constantly damp seep that even had standing water thanks to the wet winter. This area already has nutsedges and a variety of other uncommon plants that need very damp soils. This rare set of conditions converges with those needed by many of the favorite plants of Montezuma Quail: oxalis, nutsedge, and other plants with fleshy tubers, all surrounded by insects attracted to the humidity. Restoration project manager Aya Pickett is leading the effort to turn this, and other nearby sites, into prime quail foraging habitat. Unknown changes to Sonoita Creek itself are also at hand. The Hermosa Mine project in the Patagonia Mountains promises to tap into large deposits of manganese and zinc ore needed for batteries and has become the first mine project added to the FAST-41 process (learn more on page 22). To keep this deep pit dry enough to mine, water will be pumped out, treated, discharged into Harshaw Creek, and will then flow down to the Sonoita Creek and past the Paton Center. What this will mean, long-term, is still being debated. Whether the creek will flow perennially through town during the decades the mine operates remains questionable with models showing both outcomes. If the adage for the West holds true that “whiskey is for drinking and water is for fighting,” some contentious times are still to come for Patagonia on multiple fronts. ACCESS NOTE: If you have visited the Paton Center recently, you may have seen these signs on either side of the Sonoita Creek crossing. One of the new neighbors has closed off emergency flood access through their private land to the Paton side of the creek. Please make sure that you and your vehicle are on the town side of the creek at the first sign of flow in the creek during monsoon season. Flows can increase quickly and there will be absolutely NO escape route available, potentially for days, if you are caught on the wrong side of the creek. THE MONSOON IS HUMMINGBIRD SEASON! Want to see Southeast Arizona’s renowned variety of hummingbirds when numbers are at their peak? Surprising as it may seem, nothing beats the summer monsoon season for viewing sheer numbers of hummingbirds! Several factors contribute to the windfall of hummingbirds. First, the monsoons bring forth a wildflower bonanza that extends from the desert lowlands all the way up to the meadows of the sky island mountain ranges. Added to this nectar smorgasbord is an increased supply of tiny flying insects which make up a significant percentage of all hummingbirds’ diets, providing necessary protein. When you see a hummingbird zig-zagging erratically in the sky in short bursts, it is capturing insects, usually ones so tiny they can’t be made out with our eyes. In addition to the hummingbirds that have spent the summer in Southeast Arizona, there are plenty that were raised here during the late spring and early summer, augmented by fledglings from second broods hatched during the monsoon season itself. The migration of hummingbirds that nested or were hatched in the north also begins in earnest in late July, aiding those hummers that head south early to take advantage of the monsoon season bounty Southeast Arizona provides. Rufous Hummingbirds from the Pacific northwest are regular at this time of year, but it is also the best time to see a Calliope Hummingbird from the northern Rockies or even an Allen’s Hummingbird from coastal California or Oregon. Numbers of Black-chinned and Broad-tailed Hummingbirds swell as those that nested to the north join those that summered here. The presence of so many juvenile hummingbirds during this time of year poses some identification challenges. For example, even adult male Allen’s Hummingbirds are difficult to distinguish from the closely related Rufous Hummingbird without good looks (or photos) of the spread tail, but females and immatures are close to impossible to separate under most field conditions. Then there are those immature male Broad-billed Hummingbirds which resemble females but have variable amounts of blue on the underparts, sometimes possessing a blue throat patch that can cause confusion with the much larger Blue-throated Mountain-gem. Finally, this is one time of year when the hummingbird ranks are likely to be spiced up by a rare wanderer from Mexico such as the Plain-capped Starthroat. The first Cinnamon Hummingbird seen north of its normal range in Mexico and Central America (and one of only two United States records to date) was a monsoon season visitor, gracing the Paton Center for a few days in late July 1992. When storm clouds threaten, hummingbird activity reaches a fever pitch, with normally aggressive individuals (not all of them Rufous Hummingbirds by the way!) sometimes sharing feeders with the rest, as all tank up on sugar water fuel in anticipation of a possibly long stretch of rain during which none will be able to feed. The temperamental monsoon storms often begin with a deluge that sends the hummers diving for the cover of concealed sites deep in the foliage. Sometimes, though, the rain begins more softly. On one such occasion last August, a group of birders at the Paton Center were left spellbound at the sight of more than a half dozen hummingbirds, mostly Broad-billed but also two Violet-crowned, festooned in an elderberry tree, all fluffing up and flapping joyfully on their perches, shaking off water as they bathed in the gentle rain. Louie Dombroski Paton Center Birder-In-Residence Rufous Hummingbird. Nick Pulcinella It was another successful and fun Tucson Audubon Birdathon! Kudos to all involved—the dedication and creativity of every participant is truly inspiring. Thanks to the birders, their supporters, our sponsors, and most of all, the birds! We are grateful to you for making this another amazing Birdathon. **CATEGORY WINNERS** **Grand Champions** | Team Birdini (Peggy Steffens, Andrea Serrano, Marie Davis) **Big Day: Traditional** | Wrenegades (Sara Pike, Tim Helentjaris, Chris Rohrer, Jennie MacFarland, Matt Griffiths) **Big Day: Freestyle** | Kinda Hawkward (Nancy Bent, Sherry Massie, Taylor Rubin, Janel Miller, Roswitha Tausiani, Bea Mendivil) **Brand New to Birdathon** | The Hash-Slinging Curve-billed Thrashers (Audrey, Drake, and Colleen Ridge and Scott Murray) **Creative “Home” Patch** | Roadrunner Randy (Paula Palotay) **Best Bucks for Birds** | SaddleBrooke Ranch Cuckoos (Jim Hoagland, Jim Bradford, Laurie McCoy, Deb Sandin, Kathy Williams, Karen Vanderwall, Carrie Gelsey, Nancy & Ben Eisenstein, Sheree & Rick Gillaspie) **Social Media Storytellers** | Birdies, Bogeys and Eagles (Dan Weisz, Deb Vath, Jenise Porter, Deanna MacPhail, Danny Gin, Michele & Reuben Weisz) **Birdathon Beyond AZ** | Forts & Port (Laura Davis) **SPECIAL THANKS TO OUR BIRDATHON PRIZE SPONSORS!** Bawker Bawker Cider House Casa de San Pedro Coronet Erica Freese Southwest Solutions Tohono Chul Wild Birds Unlimited Tucson Audubon Nature Shop TOP: Costa’s Hummingbird, Shawn Cooper LEFT: Invasive Plants Shrike Team RIGHT: Kinda Hawkward BIRDS OF A FEATHER: Birding and Friendship in the Tucson Audubon Volunteer Community Volunteering is about lots of things: contributing to conservation, sharing knowledge, making an impact on birds and people alike… I could go on and on. But it’s also about making personal connections with others within the volunteer community—the friendship of Peggy Steffens, Marie Davis, and Andrea Serrano is a perfect example. Each of these women have contributed immensely as volunteers, but I want to highlight their personal story because it’s these small stories about friendship that really celebrate a community. Like many of us, both Peggy and Andrea started birding during COVID. They began separately, first with Tucson Audubon Zoom classes and then with field trips. It was on these field trips that they started seeing some of the same people repeatedly, including each other and fellow birder, Marie. Meanwhile, Peggy and Andrea started chatting about one of the controlled burns at Sweetwater Wetlands and decided to check it out together and Peggy invited Marie along. Peggy says, “It was the first time we birded together, and we learned that we have very similar birding styles.” Marie adds, “there’s something special when you immediately ‘click’ with someone else.” As Andrea sagely notes, “the basis for a strong friendship or community is a shared passion. Luckily, our shared passion is time together in nature.” Peggy, Marie, and Andrea started birding and volunteering together more often and they all noted that it made them stronger birders in addition to cementing their friendship. Peggy loves that they can “talk out loud the bird identification process” which can be a helpful way to learn. She also praised Marie’s skills at birding by ear and added that she has developed a better birding ear through birding with Marie. Peggy adds that they also “do bird surveys together, hang the hummingbird feeders for the Southeast Arizona Birding Festival, work at the Tucson Festival of Books booth and try to sign-up for similar events and field trips.” For the 2022 Birdathon, they created the team name Birdinis, and it stuck beyond Birdathon, as did their mentality as a team. I’m sure it was this friendship and team mentality that led them to win the Grand Champion prize for the 2023 Birdathon! In a full circle moment, all three women are now volunteer Field Trip Leaders with Tucson Audubon. Their friendship now goes beyond being birding buddies. Peggy says, “We have become great friends because of birding. The drives and time in the field have helped us bond and know about each other’s families and lives.” Marie adds, “before the Birdinis, I’d have said that I didn’t feel super plugged in to the birding community. Being a semi-introvert, the Birdinis really drew me out of my shell. Having close friends affects my birding experience because now I try to make conversations and connections with other birders on field trips. Andrea and Peggy have given me confidence to be myself. And that’s quite a gift!” Thanks so much to Andrea, Peggy, and Marie for letting me tell their story and for reminding us all about the personal connections that blossom through birds. A quote from Andrea wraps up this story so well: “I love seeing a new bird, but the memories I cherish are the adventures I’ve taken with my friends along the way.” Cheers to Team Birdini! Taylor Rubin Volunteer & Education Manager firstname.lastname@example.org We’d love to welcome more people to the Tucson Audubon volunteer team! TUCSONAUDUBON.ORG/VOLUNTEER From left to right: Andrea Serrano, Marie Davis, and Peggy Steffens Youth education is a crucial part of human development, playing a major role in the growth and success of an individual, and ultimately, the community in which they live. In any given community we have varied types of educators: formal teachers and those who take on the role of guides, community mobilizers, and mentors. Here are a few of the many faces that have brought immeasurable value to the learning spaces in Tucson and have partnered with Tucson Audubon to broaden our reach and share the joy of birding in the community. **Dru Berryhill** COMMUNITY MOBILIZER DRUTOPIA BOTANICAL GARDEN If you’ve been to the Dunbar/Spring Neighborhood you might have stumbled upon Dru’s space, a corner lot full of life. You can hear some of your favorite birds enjoying this urban oasis Dru has created, along with the joyful laughter of kids at the playground next door. You can find Dru watering plants and talking to the kids that will drop by, “Just to talk.” Dru stands by the belief that a strong community is made by fostering diverse, dynamic and intentional collaborations with its members. He prides himself in providing community members a space where they can gather, collaborate and heal. **Carmen Smith-Estrada** GARDEN TEACHER DAVIS BILINGUAL ELEMENTARY MAGNET SCHOOL Carmen became one of the first collaborators to reach out to our Education Department requesting full Spanish lessons. We were excited to use our resources for a classroom full of kids either fluent in Spanish or learning it as a second language. We love that Carmen has inspired students by framing success as the critical engagement with the world around them instead of just memorizing content. “I see success when the kids ask thoughtful questions and pose problems in garden class: What should we do about people from the district spraying Roundup chemicals all over the school grounds? What are the chickens trying to tell us when they make that sound?” **Kaitlyn Miller-Vargas** MUSICIAN, COMPOSER, MUSIC TEACHER MOUNTAIN VIEW HIGH SCHOOL Kaitlyn knew she wanted to be a teacher at a young age, and started giving her first violin lessons when she was still in high school. Kaitlyn talks about her students and their wins with pride. Her joy doesn’t only come from students getting good grades but more importantly from the connections she makes with them and the connections they make with their peers. Kaitlyn’s approach to student-centered teaching promotes the importance of curiosity and exploration of spaces where students feel they can thrive. She knows that empowering students will ultimately strengthen our communities and environment. **Meghan Hughes** INSTRUCTIONAL DATA INTERVENTIONIST, PALO VERDE Megan had been teaching in Arizona Schools for over 27 years, and as she was approaching retirement, she had the opportunity to work at Palo Verde to help students reach their potential. We love collaborating with Megan, as her excitement and passion for helping students brought Tucson Audubon in to assist with the restoration efforts of the school’s courtyard. As we begin planning for the new school year, we will draw inspiration from the Tucson community and come together to help our youth learn and thrive. Bea Mendivil Education Coordinator email@example.com Welcome New Community Engagement Manager Donito Burgess! Born and raised in Texas, Donito has extensive birding experience along the Texas Gulf Coast and the Hill Country areas around Austin and San Antonio. After several years of traveling to, and falling in love with, the Sonoran Desert, Donito relocated to Tucson to attend the University of Arizona and pursue a degree in Environmental Science. While attending classes, he volunteered extensively through Tucson Audubon, and was a natural fit to join the team. Whether it’s strolling around an urban park or bushwhacking through a remote canyon, he always finds a way to enjoy the birds and the unique environment of Southeast Arizona. As the Community Engagement Manager, Donito enjoys birding with birders of all skill levels and sharing his love of his new desert home. Get to know Donito on a field trip! He’ll be a regular leader at the Sweetwater Wetlands walk every week, among others. He hopes to meet you on a field trip soon! Upcoming Photography Virtual Presentations with Hunt’s Photo Tuesday, September 5, 11am–12pm, Virtual FINDING & PHOTOGRAPHING AMERICA’S 19 OWL SPECIES with Izzy Edwards Izzy is a 19-year-old wildlife photographer and conservationist based in Washington State. She has devoted the past four years to photographing and understanding all 19 of America’s owl species. Join her as she recounts her journey and passion for owls and discover how to observe these elusive birds in local habitats. Thursday, November 9, 11am–12pm, Virtual 2022: MY BIGGEST YEAR YET with Patrick Maurice Patrick, a birder and nature photographer from Atlanta, Georgia, has been birding for as long as he can remember and carrying a camera with him for over a decade. While he is primarily a bird photographer, he also enjoys photographing other wildlife and landscapes. Join us as he talks about his travels and the birds he saw in the United States, Ecuador, and Mexico in 2022. Visit Tucson Audubon at these upcoming partner events SEDONA HUMMINGBIRD FESTIVAL, July 28–30 CRITTER NIGHT at the Mission Garden, August 18 FAMILY SATURDAYS with Watershed Management Group, September 16 AN APPROACH TO SENIOR LIVING SO UNEXPECTED, IT’S TURNING HEADS Just when you thought you had senior living all figured out, discover why Splendido stands out from the crowd. Well-appointed homes and services to suit your style—all in a dynamic Life Plan Community that’s uniquely designed with the future in mind, so you can live life with confidence. (520) 762.4084 | 13500 N. Rancho Vistoso Blvd., Oro Valley BIRDING THROUGH EXPERT EYES: Get Tucson Audubon tips for spotting local favorites. Thursday, July 27, 10:00 a.m. • Register at Splendidotucson.com/events or call us! TUCSON AUDUBON WISH LIST Every donation you make to Tucson Audubon gets put to great use, expanding our mission of inspiring people to enjoy and protect birds. When you contribute to our general fund, you help us secure a long and productive future for the work we do. If you’d like to help us reach some specific funding goals, here is our current “Wish List”: $3000 — A GPS TRANSMITTER TAG DEPLOYED ON DESERT MARTINS $2000 — LAPTOP AND OTHER TECHNOLOGY SETUP FOR A NEW TUCSON AUDUBON EMPLOYEE $750 — SPONSOR A SAGUARO-CAVITY EXPERIMENTAL NESTBOX ARRAY $500 — SPONSOR A “BIRDING WITH A PURPOSE” FIELD TRIP $250 — SPONSOR A SAGUARO HOTEL FOR A YEAR If you’d like to provide funding for one of these specific projects, please note it in the comments section of your online donation, or on the memo line of your check. You may also contact Ethan Myerson (firstname.lastname@example.org) to talk about funding specific projects such as these. If the project you specify has become completely funded, we will apply your donation to the next closest area that needs funding. Thank you! Tagging Desert Purple Martins, Jennie MacFarland; Desert Purple Martini, Scott Olmstead; Birding field trip, Karen Howe THANK YOU, LINDA Tucson Audubon’s Board of Directors is a group of volunteer leaders tasked with providing guidance and governance to the organization. Most recently, our board was helmed by chairperson Linda McNulty. During her tenure as Board President, at a time of growth and change, she championed protection of Reid Park and led work to preserve and enhance the Paton Center, to recruit executive leadership, and to embark on strategic planning to ensure continuation of Tucson Audubon’s soon-to-be 75-year legacy of inspiring people to enjoy and protect birds. We are grateful for the leadership and service Linda provided during her tenure, and wish her well in all her future endeavors. The Board of Directors will choose their next president this summer. CONGRATULATIONS TO THE WINNERS OF THE PURPLE MARTIN NESTBOX DESIGN CHALLENGE! Thank you to all the brilliant minds and creative geniuses who participated in our Nestbox Design Challenge. Our judges had a tough time selecting the winner but it ultimately came down to temperature-buffering abilities. FIRST PLACE IN ADULT CATEGORY: Greg Corman RUNNERS UP: Lyle Hale, George Kleindienst, Russ Hefty, John Hoffman, Harlon Meryhew FIRST PLACE IN YOUTH CATEGORY: Sophie Nguyen RUNNERS UP: Brandon Russell, Devan Kramer We will be replicating the top three designs and will find out this summer if the martins prefer one over the others. Learn more at: TUCSONAUDUBON.ORG/PURPLEMARTIN The Desert Purple Martin project partners include Purple Martin Conservation Association, Northern Arizona University, University of Arizona, and Instituto Butantan (Brazil). Our work is made possible by the Wildlife Conservation Society’s Climate Adaptation Fund, the Disney Conservation Fund, private donations, Purple Martin Conservation Association, Arizona Game & Fish, North American Bluebird Society, and New York State Bluebird Society. GIFTS IN HONOR OR MEMORY OF In memory of Adele Benter from Karen Zadkovic To Bill Foster from Diane Schramm In honor of Cassin Jaquette from Lissie Jaquette & Dan Perelstein Jaquette In memory of Chris McCooey from Beryl & Donald Zerwer, Cynthia Dowd, Dale Bugasch, Douglas Browne, Elizabeth Giles, Kathleen Sayles, Louise Hedstrom, Pamela McKenna, Sandy Bland, Sheila & Matthew Dowd, Sue & JP Nelson, and William Reichwald In honor of Chris Rohrer from Julee Dawson In honor of Dan Weisz from Bonnie Sedlmayr-Emerson and Jill Bland In honor of Deb Sandin from Sandy Jessop In memory of Genevieve Hawxwell from Stephen Lubin In memory of Hazel & Herb Judd from Cheri McConnell & Mike Judd In memory of Jim Fisk from Alisa Master In honor of Karen Vanderwall from Rita Lepeska In honor of Kathy Jacobs from Christina Bickelmann and Regina Murphy-Darling In honor of Laura Davis from Janice Crist In honor of Laurie McCoy from Teresa Culkins In honor of Laurie McCoy & Kathleen Williams from Marcia Jacobson In honor of Luke Safford from Linda Phelan & Mort Womack and Matthew Derr In memory of Martha Pille from Lynn Hassler In memory of Mary Caldwell from Jane & Don Powers and Linda Phelan & Mort Womack In memory of Mary Lou Cole from Ann Powley, Jacquie Clark, Mary Jo Coleman, and Kevin Cole In honor of Matt Griffiths from Jan & Vic Schachter and Keith Ashley In memory of Michael Mardis from Eric Olson In memory of Miriam Abell from Shelly Abell & Dan Weisz In memory of Nancy Zook from Ellen Zook Osborn In memory of Patricia Griffiths from Denise Griffiths In honor of Prudy & Bob Bowers from Janet Fink In memory of Rico Guerrero from Epifanio Guerrero In memory of Roslyn Schiffman from Sandy Schiffman In memory of Rowyn Balman from Matt Griffiths, Lia & Jerry Lavallee, and Nalley Corral In memory of Ruth & Walt Hileman from Karen & Gilbert Matsushino In honor of Sherri Stolte from Laurie McCoy & Thomas Campbell In honor of Sorel Johnson from Mai Schaefer In memory of Terrie Merritt from Evelyn Thomas In honor of Terry Decarolis from Barbara Lowe In honor of the Milner & Swanson wedding from Philip Paige In memory of Walter Frederick from Holly Geiger Western Grebe, David Kreidler Ask anyone from southern Arizona what their favorite season is, and you’re likely to hear the same answer over and over. With the refreshing rains and the reprieve from the heat, our monsoons are beloved by longtime residents and newcomers alike. And for good reason: The monsoon rains replenish our water resources and rejuvenate our plant life. Local waterways, dry for much of the year, finally swell and flow. The rains bring insects and berries, leading to healthy reptile and bird populations. But just as significantly, *the rain just feels good*. The air gets heavy, the skies darken, the heady smell of creosote is everywhere. When the monsoons arrive, there’s a burst of activity, flashes of lightning, and the ground is suddenly soaked. It’s mesmerizing to watch; I’ll admit, there have been summer days when my colleagues and I would stop working just to stare out the windows at the torrential rainfall drenching the Mason Center. Arizona gets about half of its annual rainfall in roughly eight summer weeks. A good season of monsoon rain can mean the difference between a lush, green Sonoran desert habitat, and dry brush covering our mountain slopes and arroyos. Several times in recent memory, those dry slopes and washes have led to devastating wildfires. Tucson Audubon can’t do much to impact the amount of rainfall we get during the monsoon months, but with your help we can mitigate the effects of a dry season. When you support Tucson Audubon with a philanthropic gift, you give us what we need in order to fight back against invasive plants like stinknet that become the fuel in those wildfires. Because of your donations, we are working to replant thousands of saguaros that were lost to wildfire over the past few years. To Tucson Audubon, your support is like the monsoon rain—it replenishes, it rejuvenates, and it restores. When you see our Monsoon Magic letter in your mailbox in the coming weeks (or visit TUCSONAUDUBON.ORG/MONSOON), please think about how the monsoons make you feel, and remember that your support brings us that very same feeling. *Thank you.* Ethan Myerson *Director of Development & Communications* email@example.com Please note summer shop hours: Wednesday–Friday, 10am–4pm and Saturday, 10am–2pm. Always available online at tucsonnatureshop.com **Rainwater Harvesting for Drylands and Beyond** $40.00 Learning to live in harmony with the desert can take some time! In Vol 1, Lancaster outlines how to conceptualize and implement rainwater harvesting for your home and community. Includes success stories from those who’ve welcomed rainwater in their lives and landscapes. **Zeiss SFL 8x30** Member Price $1,500 The new Zeiss SFL makes a great companion on your next outing. Lightweight, ergonomic construction makes it easy to carry and focus quickly. With powerful optics that shine in those very early mornings or cloudy days, the SFL makes a great tool for the summer birder! **Sunday Afternoons Cruiser Hat** $36.00 Sun protection is a must if you’re exploring the great outdoors. The Cruiser Hat offers UP50+ protection and ventilation on those scorching days up ahead. It’s probably better to have it and not need it, than need it and not have it! Available in multiple colors. **Beat It! Insect Repellant** Starting at $12.00 The monsoon season can bring out some pretty annoying bugs! This new line available at the shop should be all you need to protect yourself when exploring the great outdoors. Repel all biting bugs at home or on your travels. Made with essential oils, DEET-Free. **Kowa BDII XD 8x42** Member Price $450 Either in brightest days, or in challenging light, the BDII XD from Kowa is a top-contender in mid-range binoculars. Easy to grip and maneuver, an extra wide field of view, and a very crisp image make these tools for birding a top pick! **Verdin/Balconcito Tee** $30.00 The verdin, or baloncito en espanol, is featured perched on a cactus and printed on a soft tri-blend. Makes for a comfortable shirt to go observe nature or run errands. Hand designed by our favorite local artist, this tee will make a great addition to your checklist!
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Perspective Australia’s Black Saturday Five Years Later 062 Introduction 066 Architects EAT 070 John Wardle Architects 074 Clare Cousins 080 Irons McDuff 084 Julie Firkin 088 BVN Donovan Hill Black Saturday Five Years Later It’s been five years since the Black Saturday bushfires caused devastation in Victoria, Australia. Jennifer Calzini looks back at what has been achieved by the Bushfire Homes Service, an initiative for coordinating the efforts of volunteer architects who were offering help. On 7 February 2009, following a prolonged heat wave that saw temperatures rise above 43 degrees C for three consecutive days, parts of Victoria reached a record-breaking 46.4 degrees C, accompanied by storm-force winds. On this day, known as Black Saturday, bushfires the likes of which Victorians had not seen before ravaged several towns in the northeast of Melbourne, and 2,029 homes were lost. The tragedy also claimed the lives of 173 people who had fought the fires, sheltered in their homes or tried to reach safety. Fire is a natural part of the Australian landscape, and many native plants now evolved to depend upon it for their regeneration. A review of the country’s history shows that its first inhabitants learned to burn extensively and often, as a means of managing the fire cycles of the bush. Since European settlement, urbanization and agriculture have made this regime more difficult, and bushfires regularly threaten rural communities, towns and, increasingly, the fringes of Australia’s larger cities. Black Saturday affected a large part of Victoria, and historical townships like Marysville and Kinglake were almost completely destroyed. The event was followed immediately by an outpouring of voluntary emergency assistance from all sectors of the community, including the building industry. At a series of ‘Built Environment Bushfire Support Roundtables’ organized by the Victorian Planning Commission, peak bodies representing numerous professional and trade groups, including the Australian Institute of Architects (AIA), offered a range of free services that had been volunteered by their members to help the stricken communities. Some of these services, like those offered by electrical contractors, were of obvious benefit. They could make damaged sites safe and were straightforward to implement. Seventy architects pledged pro bono assistance, but it was not immediately clear how these services could be made available where there was no clear prescribed lead map. It was at this point that the Victorian Government Architect, together with the AIA, created the Bushfire Homes Service, an initiative for... ‘People need to be able to live in the bush’ Cofounder Albert Mo and associate James Coombe of Architects EAT talk about the difficulties they’ve encountered in bushfire zones. What was the aim of the concept you submitted to the Bushfire Homes Service, and what strategies of bushfire design did you employ? ALBERT MO: The building responds to the basic requirements of designing in bushfire-prone areas. We started with a rectangular form to reduce the amount of surface area. The three most important things to consider for bushfire design are radiant heat, ember attack and flames. At the same time you want to make sure that the house is environmentally sustainable, for example by allowing for natural ventilation. It’s also important so that we can add on and subdivide later. We used blockwork construction, putting the thermal mass in the spine of the house. It was designed as slab-on-ground, so there are no crevices exposed to ember attack. The roof was a single span with no overhangs to allow ember attack. You didn’t need to comply with the most extreme case of Bushfire Attack Level (BAL) Flame Zone in this design, but with BAL40. Correct? MO: When we did this exercise, the BAL rating system and building rules (in bushfire-prone areas) were new. Since then, when working with the regulations on other projects, I’ve seen how this building might not comply. In actual fact, I don’t think many of the 18 schemes put forward to the Bushfire Homes Service would comply with the current standards. We used broad principles of bushfire design, which we will always do. JAMES COOMBE: It was a new area for everyone. We were breaking new ground. We relied a lot on our background knowledge of fire codes for commercial buildings. We thought about egress, for example, which you don’t normally think about when designing a house. We also wanted to keep the cost down; there was a budget for the council. MO: It was a large departure from what we normally design at Architects EAT. It was a very basic, functional, utilitarian building. It provided a base design rather than a site-specific response. We did have a bit of a fight—we specified a selection of material options, all noncombustible. Did many people approach you? MO: We were approached by only one potential client, who wanted to build a house on a commercial site. He owned a supermarket in Kinglake, and his house was next door. He wanted to build the house to our design and then adapt the same concept for a supermarket. But nothing ever came of it. How far did you move through the design process? MO: I think he got the impression we were working for the council. We didn’t draw anything more than was in our original proposal, but we helped him get the consultants together. Everything we did was pro bono. In the end it came down to money. He kept saying that the house would cost, but reality hit when it came to the commercial part. I don’t believe he’s built anything since. But it was an interesting exercise. Do you think the cost involved in having an architecturally designed home was a factor in how few of these schemes were built? COOMBE: That’s the hard part. It’s still about the cost of architecture, unfortunately. MO: The quantity surveyor came back with a cost of → Long House The proposal is made up of two primary envelopes. The outer skin allows light and ventilation into the internal spaces, and the inner skin serves as a thermal mass and an additional layer of fire protection for the individual rooms. Between these two layers of skin is the main access corridor, set away from the prevailing wind to provide safe passage out of the house during emergencies. The basic rectilinear form of the design reduces both the amount of surfaces exposed to wind and the risk of ember attack. COOMBE: One was in Eltham and one in Skene’s Creek, near Apollo Bay. Eltham is not really bush, but it has plenty of trees. And the Skene’s Creek project was in a BAL Flame Zone. MO: We went through the whole planning exercise, and the Colac Otway Shire Council basically said they didn’t want to make any changes, so they passed it on to the CFA (Country Fire Authority) to deal with. COOMBE: The CFA has a blanket policy: if a project’s in a Flame Zone, they do not support it. Our clients were devastated. The Australian Standard for Buildings allows for Flame Zone construction, but the CFA doesn’t. MO: The client still has the land, but he can’t even sell it now. The CFA policy has quite a big impact on the landowner. Eltham was a less extreme case, but because we had to do so much work going to make the building bushfire-proof, it’s not what the client wants to do there. So the client just has to go away. What do you think about the new national building standards for bushfire-prone zones? Are they too strict? COOMBE: Through these two projects, I had to make quite a few enquiries to the Royal Commission and to government bodies set up to deal with this stuff. They had lots of community helplines organized for people unable to rebuild. There is a lot of posturing going on; I suppose our outside view is that it’s too harsh at the moment, too legislated, too bureaucratic. There is no clear direction for these owners – they can’t build and they can’t move, and there’s no compensation. That’s why people are still living in temporary sheds, because by now long this is all taking to work out. As Tom Griffiths says in his book *Fragments of Ash: An Environmental History* “Fire analysis, focusing rainforest environments, however magnificent, however old their growth, may be described as ‘transient fire weeds’. Fire is not just any fire – but one of particular frequency, a particular intensity, a particular range. What is important is that the Australian landscape is to burn and that fires recur in the same areas: Black Friday, Ash Wednesday and now Black Saturday. Do you think Australians need to compromise when choosing where to live? MO: I don’t think that someone should control their choices, but for a city that wants to be a metropolis, it’s inevitable. You are building houses in the bush and you will get sprawl... I don’t think you can tell people where to live. COOMBE: It’s about education, isn’t it? I mean, where do you put the responsibility – should a building protect people, or should people protect themselves by getting out? In either case, it’s important on warning systems. I think people still need to be able to live on the bush. It appears that since Black Saturday the CFA has completely revolutionized the emergency system. MO: Technology helps, of course. The speed of communication has completely changed. I think technology can change the way the CFA can educate. Perhaps bushfire design should be part of our architectural education. Maybe that should be one of the principles of designing in this country. COOMBE: That’s another year at university, at least! ‘We really don’t know whether our design was built’ After fire victims had been offered a library of house designs, it was important to let them make their own decisions without feeling any pressure, says Andy Wong of John Wardle Architects. The concept of an oval house – designed by Melbourne-based John Wardle Architects (JWA) for the Bushfire Homes Service, an initiative that responded to the devastating fires of early 2009 – is a synthesis of ideas. With very little time to come up with a concept, residential-design specialist Andy Wong, together with principals John Wardle and David Mee, set a team task to make the design happen. ‘We wanted to provide variance within the library of designs we envisaged would be offered by other architects,’ says Wong, adding that he and his colleagues ‘believed that a perhaps joyful and high-quality architectural option should be offered to those affected something beyond the everyday’. What moved you to become involved? ANDY WONG: There was a lot of talk about reconstruction following the fires. Beyond making donations, we felt this was an area in which we could contribute our specialist skills. So when we heard about the Bushfire Homes Service – the call came from the Australian Institute of Architects and the Office of the Victorian Government Architect – we jumped at the chance. JWA’s prototype, Seed, is a rather quirky design and one of the more unconventional responses to the pro bono initiative. What can you tell us about it? The design was a simple response – a very basic design that gave us a starting point and allowed us to sketch the house might look like. The floor plan was purposely conceptual. We started with intensive research to get a better understanding of good bushfire-resistant housing design before turning our attention to creating something unique. Research favoured designs with fewer inns and outs to reduce the opportunity for ember attack, get out corridors as well as homes that were more streamlined in form – perhaps oval or elliptical. We had speculated that a number of architects participating in the initiative might create boxy rectangular designs, and we wanted to provide an alternative. Bushfire Homes Service was intent on procuring a variety of designs to meet the widest possible range of user needs in the aftermath of the bushfires. How did Seed fit into that? Speculating the demographic was the tricky thing. There was the challenge of speculating who the client might be and what the brief would include, and of hypothesising as to the site, orientation and terrain. Our initial idea was to design a solution that suit a family needing that home didn’t suit it. Seed is quite a generous four-bedroom home that targets a larger family in the country. Planning is rather conventional, with a living room downstairs that connects with the veranda and the landscape, and bedrooms upstairs. Why is the veranda so big? This home was designed for rural areas, and our assumption was that it was destined for a sizable block of land, possibly vegetated. An Australian home with a rural context often has a large veranda, which acts as a buffer off the living room. The proportions of Seed’s veranda are also based on the idea of partially offsetting the oval shape of the house. How does Seed address customization for different... Seed House Seed House is a generous four-bedroom home designed for a larger family in the country. The simple oval shape is meant to deflect wind, thus minimizing the danger of ember attack. The layout is conventional, with the living room downstairs and bedrooms upstairs. A big north-facing veranda forms an extension of the living room. clients and sites? We like the idea of providing a conceptual template. The base concept could then be modified and customized to a specific client and site. Seed was conceived as a house that could retain its organic form while offering the potential to shrink or grow according to the number of bedrooms needed. For homes located in areas classified as having higher bushfire attack levels, a conventional option would be to construct in place of timber frame on a timber frame. A choice of cladding – stone, sheet steel, stone or brick – can vary according to the fire-rating requirements and the client’s aesthetic preference. Given the same project today, would you do anything differently? No, I don’t think so. We really liked the design and thought it to be a simple and appropriate architectural response. Our speculation of the demographic may have shifted, and to reflect that shift we would probably design a reduced scheme to lessen the cost. What issues emerged from the enquiries that JWA received in the aftermath of the bushfires? We modified the design to fit the budget of one particularly enthusiastic couple who were interested in Seed, and at the same time retained the concept. Reducing the number of bedrooms from four to two and the overall area by 30 per cent cut the cost significantly. We were unaware of the reason why Seed didn’t proceed to building in that instance, and we don’t know whether the client chose to relocate or to rebuild. It was important to give people with the space they needed to make their decision without feeling any pressure. Something completely unanticipated has been the calls we’ve received from people who did not actually lose property during the bushfires, querying if they could use the JWA plans for their home for BFB purposes. As our contribution was intended as a first-pass design for people who wanted to like the way it looks and want to use it on their bush block, it’s been difficult to know how to reply to such requests. How does JWA ultimately react to these calls? We’re happy to clarify that anyone who wasn’t a victim of the bushfires but who seems to think that Seed is a free template for the general public, we clarify the situation by saying that the house was designed as a direct response to the tragedy. We’ll always work with anyone who wants to build a new architect-designed house. Should they wish to have a refined version of the Seed house, we communicate our position – that we think it’s fairer to enter a normal client-architect relationship. Fundamental to that position are benefits such as architectural thinking, material consideration, site-specific adaptation and so forth. As part of the pro bono service, the plans were freely available on the internet. Has that made it harder for you to ascertain whether Seed has been built, by whom and for what purpose? At this point, we really don’t know whether it was built. From an architectural perspective, it would be satisfying to see Seed realized somewhere for someone who had been affected by those bushfires. That said, the intention of the service was to provide a library of templates. As part of the response from our profession, plans were drawn up in good faith and provided as a quick, accessible solution for people who had been affected in the 2009 bushfires and were choosing to rebuild. If they were attracted to the organic design of Seed, they could pick it up and go with it, come to us or simply start building it. Have clients become more conscious of bushfire-resistant design? Half of JWA’s commissions are in the city and the other half in rural or coastal areas, which are commonly located in bushfire zones. Bushfire-resistant design in areas that require it is one of a multitude of factors that we discuss with clients. As climatic events appear to be increasing in ferocity, it’s not an issue that is likely to go away. When you look back, what factors appear to have influenced the uptake of architect-designed housing concepts by bushfire-impacted clients? I think people just wanted something fast; something economical and simple that they could grasp. Maybe they wanted a solution that was immediately tangible, something that didn’t push their comfort level, something other than what they might accept under different circumstances. There wasn’t a lot of time for people to say wow, let’s do an oval house. But more important than the design itself is the hope that all those who lost homes are now happily rehomed. johnwardarchitects.com ‘I’m interested in design that can be replicated’ Clare Cousins talks about her practice’s proposal for the Bushfire Homes Service and its outcome as a built project. Why did you participate in the Bushfire Homes Service? CLARE COUSINS: Victoria’s Black Saturday claimed 173 lives, so you can imagine that a significant number of houses burnt down – I think over 2,000 homes were lost. I registered my interest in doing something to help by entering the Victorian Chapter of the Australian Institute of Architects in February 2009. I had donated a couple of hundred dollars to one of the fundraisers, but I felt, as an architect, that I could offer more in terms of the rebuild process. The institute must have received emails from many architects, engineers, and more, because later I was approached about the Bushfire Homes Service initiative. They asked for four A3 pages documenting a house design that might be suitable for rebuilding in the affected area. They were clear that not even a submission would be included. They were looking for someone who may have some contacts. For me, there was a drive to help with the crisis, but as a relatively new practice we also recognized the opportunity to build a new house, which we hadn’t done yet. What was the aim of your concept design, the Hinge House? The new bushfire regulations were still being written at the time, so we didn’t know exactly what was required. We used the idea of the ‘shed’ as a starting point – a tough, rural building. The Hinge House is a modular design that uses standard materials. Our aim was to create a low-maintenance, easy-to-construct, affordable home. Orientation and siting are integral to designing in bushfire-prone areas, but your proposal was for no specific site. How did you allow for flexibility? The scheme is that you could add and subtract modules as required and ‘hinge’ the wings of the house to adapt to specific site conditions. In particular, we played with aspect versus orientation. The advantage of the long, linear form of the house can provide aspect, view and sun orientation all at the same time. Material choice is an important consideration that obviously depends on the Bushfire Attack Level rating. What BAL rating was specified for the scheme? What key design strategies protect the Hinge House from fire? We were asked to design a project for levels up to BAL 40, which is one level below Flanne Zone. I think they wanted a brief that was not too constrained. The Hinge House is clad in roof sheeting, which is relatively easy to replace after a bushfire. We designed integrated eaves that protect against ember attack while still providing sun protection. The subfloor is also completely enclosed. What level of detail was required in the scheme? They wanted documentation with enough information for a builder or draughtsman to pick it up and finish it off. The idea was that they could engage the architect but didn’t have to. We did an exploded structural diagram to show that it was quite a simple system. Your scheme was one of the 18 proposals chosen for the Bushfire Homes Service. Did many people approach you? → Hinge House Achieving a BAL 40 rating, the Hinge House demonstrates that bushfire-resistant design need not call for introverted living or be at odds with the natural environment. Clad in steel sheeting, the simple yet sculptural timber-framed house has a modular design that makes the most of conventional building techniques and standard materials. ‘Hinging’ the wings of the house allows adaptation to specific site conditions, and the corridor can be located adjacent to the eave or detached, depending on site orientation and potential views. Inside, the house exudes warmth through exposed natural finishes. We were only contacted once. Libby and Clare, who had lost their home in Christmas Hills, contacted us in August, about six months after the fire and before the bushfire inquiry was released. Christmas Hills Hostel clothesline was the only thing that survived at Libby and Clare’s block – it was such a traumatic experience for them that they weren’t sure they could bring themselves to rebuild on this site, despite its spectacular aspect. The Country Fire Authority (CFA) also told them that they would never fight a fire at this site again, as there is only one way in and one way out. Libby and Clare are schoolteachers – both lovely, down-to-earth people. On my way up to the first site meeting, I’d decided that if I had a client who wanted to rebuild, I’d work out a way to get involved if they wanted to go ahead. Based on this first meeting, we offered to document the project on a pro bono basis. A driving factor in this decision was that I feel passionate about bushfire and the amount of special housing cropping up across rural Victoria. Our clients weren’t concerned with aesthetics. They just wanted a comfortable and durable house from which to appreciate their spectacular view – the same thing they’ve wanted within the Bushfire Homes Service. We wanted to build a house that simply and efficiently builds efficiency, as was done in the days of Robin Boyd’s Small House Service. We wanted to provide a set level of detail and to use as few drawings as possible. It was a good challenge. Why do you think Libby and Clare approached you based on your design? The Queensland CFA had done preliminary cost assessments, excluding earthworks, for all 19 schemes. The information was available online. The Hinge House came in at A$270,000 (£187,000), much less than some of the other schemes, which is perhaps why these clients came to me. The cost assessment was an important step in the process, as clients always need assurance about cost. How did the Hinge House suit the Christmas Hills site and its BAL assessment? The site is a very large block, with a natural flattening along a ridge. We were looking for a way to do probate BAL ratings assessed the site at BAL 29. However, the CFA wasn’t going to fight fire at this site again, and as Libby and Clare had decided to rebuild, they wanted – and needed – as much fire resistance as possible. So we worked with one of the consultants and spent hours discussing claims to a BAL 50 or Flame Zone rating, giving the house the best chance in a future fire. For example, we put in a 20,000-litre tank that is purely dedicated to firefighting, and we substituted the metal cladding in our plan for the Hinge House to become in part wood – even though the steel sheeting was quite nice, changing the feel of the project considerably. Because of that substitution, we had to lop off an inverted truss in the Hinge House, and it was a shame to lose that form. We were keen... Christmas Hills House The Christmas Hills House is an adaptation of the Hinge House. The adapted model was designed and documented pro bono for a couple whose house was destroyed in the Black Saturday bushfires. Based on the adaptability of a hinge, the house has an orientation that provides the best solar access. Carefully reviewed materials were chosen for their fire-resistant properties, given the site’s extreme vulnerability to fire. The landslip potential of this highly pragmatic design was reduced by cantilevering a section of the building over the natural slope and having the cantilever accommodate a large tank for storing rainwater. To avoid brickwork that would make the project feel too urban, we used different shades to create a brick pattern that reflected the backdrop of the forest. The layout of the Hinge House didn’t change, other than the plan being flipped. Our clients wanted two bedrooms, but they also wanted a study. We moved the modules of the Hinge House around to satisfy the planning brief and added a couple of half modules as required. The footprint was enlarged, the materials were changed and a cantilever was added. How did this affect the cost of the build? The house came in at A$440,000 (€305,000), excluding GST [goods and services tax]. This covered all the groundwork, including concrete piers. Did you also design the landscaping for this project? If so, how does it respond to the risk of bushfire? There were some existing retaining walls that needed repairing. There was already a good service job of protecting the house from radiant heat from below. We were initially considering the addition of an external pergola – perhaps a steel pergola in the forecourt, facing the view. Pergolas and decks are counted as fuel sources, which is why we’re thinking of making it out of timber. It’s unfortunate that yours was one of only a few Bushfire Homes Service schemes built. Why do you think that was? Apparently there were plenty of enquiries but limited follow-through. Perhaps there wasn’t enough information or detail in the schemes. If someone were to take a three-bedroom single storey to a builder, it wouldn’t be enough information. I’m not saying that the scheme couldn’t have gone to give it a go – but it might end up in the ‘too-hard basket’. We tried to design a scheme that could be built without us. We’ve seen a lot of initiatives aimed at disaster areas lately – from the donation of tents and shipping containers to the gift of free designs. What do you think works? What they’ve done in Christchurch is fantastic – Shigeru Ban’s church replacing the cathedral, for example. People get disbandered after traumatic events, and I believe that what’s important is that they rebuild. On reflection, are you happy that you participated? Disasters are often a good reason to think about doing pro bono work. If you invest time in designing something, who keeps it? It might be repeated multiple times, but it won’t be every project you do. Earlier this year we had a call from a guy who is planning to relocate to the Grampians, and he wants to build a Hinge House there. He hasn’t yet bought the site, but I like the thought of doing that. I’m interested in design that can be replicated – and in seeing how disasters can lead to broader housing solutions. clarecousins.com.au ‘The Country Fire Authority told our clients that they would never fight fire at the site again’ ‘We need to review our defence plans’ Kim Irons of Irons McDuff thinks there are broader strategic issues to be examined, beyond the design of fire-resistant homes. As a volunteer with the Country Fire Authority (CFA), Kim Irons – a principal of Irons McDuff Architecture, located in Barwon Heads on Victoria’s Bellarine Peninsula – references her knowledge of fire behaviour to inform her building designs for regional and coastal locations. And while fire-resistant design is an Australian Standard 3959-2009 requirement to help reduce potential fire damage, Irons shares her concerns about the encroachment of urban sprawl on the natural environment, which she considers another frontier in need of a big picture focus. What role did you play in recovery efforts after the January–February 2009 Victorian bushfires? KIM IRONS: Initially I was involved in various firefighting efforts that occurred for several weeks beyond Black Saturday. Emotionally, it was quite draining. I’d return home each time, particularly from the town of [a seven-minute drive] 83 km northeast of Melbourne, where I had direct connection with people who had lost relatives in the fires. After getting in touch with the Australian Institute of Architects (AIA) to ask if there was anything we could do as professionals, I submitted a prototype, Bushfire House, to the Bushfire Home Services program. When did you start to understand the scale of the devastation? There had been some reporting of the devastation unfolding in the media throughout the day. But it was ultimately a telephone call instead of the usual page communication from the captain of our local fire brigade that made me realize we were facing a dire level of threat not seen before. At what point did you join the CFA and why? As part of a previous practice, I’d designed a number of houses and schools in bushfire-prone areas. The experience of living in the suburbs from a city workplace had made me feel useless during fire events. So when I moved to Barwon Heads from Melbourne eight years ago, I saw being involved in the CFA as a way of engaging with my local community. In what way has firefighting influenced your approach to bushfire-resistant design? Learning more about the nature of bushfire and witnessing its effects have given me an acute understanding of why 2009 was so devastating. The tragedy heightened my sensitivity as to how a fire might potentially play out. During the development of a proposal, knowing that it’s worse to be surrounded by bush than by grass, I sometimes wonder why the standard only indicates a particular BAL rating in one instance and not in another. Australian Standard 3959-2009, which was implemented soon after the January–February 2009 bushfires in Victoria, was a response to buildings that had burned in Canberra several years prior. More than five years on, I think there’s an opportunity for those standards to be reviewed to reflect the unprecedented nature of the 2009 fires and be cleared of possible misinterpretations. Strangely, the response of Irons McDuff Architecture was in writing. Stowed in a sketchbook in my bottom drawer was an idea for a shack that I had drawn up years ago. Thanks to its... Butterfly House Butterfly House is named after its pitched roof, which supports solar panels for power and hot-water supply. The skillion has a single central gutter that feeds water to a tank. The building, which sits on an elevated platform to make it suitable for sloped sites, can be prefabricated off site and craned onto the platform. The subfloor is clad directly to the underside of the joists, to form an enclosure beneath the floor for storage. Northern orientation is possible on three sides. A regular grid allows flexible distribution of windows to suit site and orientation. The steel structure and its almost timeless form, Butterfly House is suitable for any location and is flexible enough for most orientations. Essentially, it’s a simple, rational, well-ordered approach to creating a home. The skillion roof and guttered roof prevent expansion up but out towards the landscape with views of the sky. A single central gutter feeds into a rainwater tank, and glazing along the veranda side of the house is covered when shutters are closed to protect the interior from fire. Did it need modification to meet the latest building regulations for bushfire-prone locations? Some adaptation was required to ensure compliance with a BAL 40 rating. We used steel for the exposed frame and selected non-combustible cladding materials, toughened glazing and aluminium seismic framing. What type of enquiry did you field? While Butterfly House didn’t lead to immediate built work, it did generate important discussions with those who had lost their homes and lived within the bushfire-affected areas. Generally speaking, we tried to help people understand their options, to describe the stages needed to get to a particular point, and to explain what their next step should or could be. If people did wish to proceed with building on their site, we talked through the process with them, so they could make an informed decision about whether or not to go ahead. Many families wanted to rebuild their previous house. In this instance we found that their original drawings could still be sourced. We told them that a local drafting service would best meet their needs. For another client, a referral from the Bushfire Homes Service drew up an alternative response as a security which did provide some form. We also made a model for the client’s daughter to ease the stress of losing her previous home and to help provide a sense of ownership with regard to the new one. Are you interacting with victims; how did you assess their readiness to engage with the Bushfire Homes Service? For bushfire victims, a new home is a need suddenly thrust upon them, not a desire. They had lost their homes, their township, family and friends. People were at different stages of grief and were having trouble coping with it. It took an extraordinary long time to work through that. I gained a sense that people were working directly with local builders to resolve housing problems. Another factor was a shortfall in insurance coverage or a total lack of insurance. Typically, building a new house or renovating an existing home is a long process that can be overwhelming if you haven’t been there before. While it was useful to have the online catalogue, another bushfire victim made it clear that he and his neighbours were not accustomed to picking up the telephone and asking for charity. During my visits to the bushfire locations, I found that people appreciated initiative and understanding me for what I was. When I left my card, a call was unlikely. I went to one community information day that was very well attended. In light of the multitude of issues facing victims, our attendance as a group of architects at an event like that – and the representation of the AIA – could have been a perfect opportunity with the architects. Is it possible to design a house that can withstand the power of the bushfires that raged on Black Saturday? One of the biggest challenges is to appreciate the greatest issue of all: you can’t design something to be fireproof, but it’s very difficult to make a fireproof dwelling. There are no guarantees. Unfortunately, climatic changes seem to be indicating that it will happen again; our summers are getting drier and the winds are strengthening. Meeting with people who had lost their homes in bushfire-affected areas – standing where the wind had destroyed everything – drilled home the fact that conditions on Black Saturday were highly unusual, even in places where particular properties had low fire-risk ratings. Beyond offering victims individual house designs, what else do you need to be doing? The Bushfire Homes Service provided an opportunity for architects to pitch in and send a message to people who were thinking about rebuilding, letting them know that help was there if they needed it – including accommodation that would be rolled around quickly. I do recognize the need for an examination of broader strategic issues, such as urban growth on fringes adjacent to fire-prone areas and a review of defence plans for townships in these areas. Of particular concern are those who are moving into what they believe is an urban area, unaware that it borders on a rural environment – this is a situation with potentially disturbing ramifications. ‘Watching smoke in the distance had made me feel useless’ ‘Providing official community refuges is a contentious undertaking’ After contributing to the Bushfire Homes Service, Julie Firkin started looking into community centres that double as fire refuges. Julie Firkin was working in New York on 11 September 2001, and she had just launched her own architecture studio in Melbourne when the Victorian bushfires of early 2009 destroyed 250 homes and resulted in 173 deaths. Pro-bono participation following both events not only helped Firkin to personally process what had happened; her practice also acted as a catalyst for communities on both sides to move a way forward. How would you compare your architectural input in the wake of September 11 with your contribution following the bushfires? JULIE FIRKIN: The Bushfire Homes Service had a target with more clearly defined goals, whereas a lot of very different ideas emerged during my experience as a volunteer community-workshop facilitator for Imagine NY, a forum organized by the Municipal Arts Society. In New York I worked with a landscape architect and a group seeking to involve members of the public — our aim was to formulate a broad vision and to reimagine what could become of the World Trade Center site. One recurring theme – to treat at least part of the site as sacred and as a memorial – may have influenced the eventual redevelopment. As it turned out, my bushfire-resistant concept, Horizon House, became the first project in my residential portfolio, and a side effect of this – after I’d worked for around ten years on large mixed-use commercial and one-off projects with firms in Melbourne, New York, London, Basel and Boston. What was your approach to the design of a house for an unknown client, site and location? In some ways, not knowing the client provided the freedom to design a kind of ideal response, but in other ways it was difficult. The need for a sustainable response, is especially important; in helping to prevent bushfire attacks, the nature of this project precluded that. I focused on sustainable design and asked that the home be orientated north, to make it an effective passive solar house. In prototyping a single-level three-bedroom house with a standard open-plan kitchen, dining and living area, I had a family in mind. The house is designed to be almost see-through, to emphasize the horizon line. I was cognizant of trying to balance... Horizon House Forming a continuous line of defence against bushfires is the combination of three protective elements: a simple continuous roof, concrete walls and roller shutters. Together they create a noncombustible, streamlined barrier. Gaps between materials have been kept to a minimum. The span of the roof covers the load-bearing perimeter walls and contributes to the flexibility of the interior organization of the house. The architects have left room for extending the house without impairing its formal linear expression and undulating roofline. When the risk of fire is not present, the shutters can be rolled up, allowing sunlight and fresh air to reach the heart of the house and opening the interior to panoramic views. As well as maximizing the benefits of living in a natural environment, the house has an energy-efficient and sustainable passive solar design that is aided by its north-facing orientation. Bushfire-resistant design principles with a desire to open the house to views as much as possible. Avoiding a complicated profile and re-orienting the corridor was a key consideration, as I wanted to keep wind and rain, as well as any washing away debris that might otherwise be ignited by embers. Have you learned anything since the 2009 bushfires that could have influenced the design? In recent tests funded by CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation), which showed simple and inexpensive materials to be really effective, today I’d opt for fibre cement sheet cladding rather than the precast concrete panels I originally specified. For better protection against ember, I’d also replace the timber structure with a noncombustible steel structure. With the benefit of hindsight, any thoughts on what a future collective response from your professional body could look like? As an architect, it was great to be able to contribute to the Bushfire Homes Service. I did receive several enquiries from people who had seen my submission and called to seek advice. Questions related to the best place to locate a building on their site and to materials I might recommend. I think the response to the disaster would have been so many pressures on victims, money being one – it’s no surprise that a lot of people didn’t approach the architects involved in the initiative. The perception that architect design adds cost might have been a contributing factor; however, I was also worried to take on design from scratch. The Homes Service website had no provision. Perhaps as an adjunct to the service, a bunch of architects could make themselves available in a local hall to provide free consultation or to lead group sessions. I’d be really happy to do that. More recently, you’ve organized a design studio with architecture students from Monash University for the purpose of designing community centres that double as fire refuges. How did that evolve? I always like to work on new ideas and in new solutions, as opposed to architects who find a groove and do what they do well all of the time. It was obvious from media reports that people in bushfire-affected areas had a lack of community refuges to go to. In speaking to the CSIRO, I discovered that providing official community refuges is a contentious undertaking because authorities generally encourage people in high-risk areas to evacuate, and with no refuge to go to, they might decide to stay. Nevertheless, new codes and standards for community bushfire refuges are being developed. Following the fires, some 52 locations were identified by the state premier and the chief officer of the CFA, Country Fire Authority, as being at moderate risk for bushfire. These locations became candidates for the development of Township Protection Plans. In setting up the design studio, I selected Forrest, a beautiful hamlet in the Otways Mountains, as the working site. Each student team was given a design a unique project that would serve as a community refuge during fire season and a public amenity at other times. They explored the broadest possible variety of building types – town halls, schools, visitors centres – and, as part of the process, met in the town meeting and sought input from a local council. Should this be the preferred use for that township to gain a refuge, both council and community will have access to 15 design concepts as a source of inspiration for further discussion. What is it that makes a building a suitable refuge? To make it possible to use a refuge, you should offer them a place that is safe and that looks safe. Because refuges are costly to build and may only be inhabited for a few days a year, it makes sense to combine the protective function with some kind of public amenity that can be used for the rest of the year. Horizon House is also a dual-mode building, with metal shutters that can be closed tightly to provide protection against fire and smoke coming through. Should people reside in areas that top the scale in terms of bushfire risk? I would love to have a house surrounded by big trees, and I think it would be terrible if people couldn’t do that at all. But maybe those who make that decision need to take on some of the responsibility for protecting themselves. It’s not reasonable to expect the CFA to risk lives by sending firefighters into extremely dangerous areas. One of the reasons why some people may need to leave their homes is their choice to live in the bush is the presence of trees: a highly effective way to protect a building from being destroyed by bushfire is to clear away the trees and scrub that surround it. Materials Exterior walls Precast concrete (at least 150 mm thick) Flooring Timber floorboards and underlay on timber joists, or concrete slab on ground Busfire shutters Manually operated, manually operated shutters permanently fixed to the building Sole-hung external doors Light timber framed Windows and sliding glazed doors Timber framed or aluminium-framed glazing Roofing Metal roofing with fire-retardant coating, metal junctions sealed, openings fitted with noncombustible ember guards Garage – floor Concrete concrete (at least 150 mm thick) ‘The hall is the synthesis of everyone involved’ Ninotschka Titchkosky of BVN Donovan Hill recounts how the Narbethong Community Hall was rebuilt. What is the role of architects in post-disaster scenarios? The answer seems obvious when we consider that, both strategic and material, it is central to reviving devastated communities. Rarely are architects visible entities at these moments, however, despite the many skills they bring and the plethora of competitions that are waged for the sake of disaster recovery, housing and communities. This is what makes the Narbethong Community Hall such a unique case. The reasons behind its success are conventional – committed clients, strong partnerships and a successful site. But it is also a heart-warming tale of community struggle, and a pro bono project in a small country town in Australia, devastated by bushfires, that led to an award-winning piece of architecture. Australia has its fair share of natural disasters, but what became known as the 2009 Victorian bushfire tragedy was an unprecedented event in terms of both damage and loss of life. One hundred and seventy-three lives were lost and over 2,000 homes destroyed. Narbethong is a small community of 300 people in Victoria’s Yarra Valley. In one day the bushfires destroyed the majority of its built fabric and burnt the local hall to the ground. The project owes its beginning to the perseverance of a group of locals led by Jennifer Wood, who contacted Emergency Architects. Her initiative led to a conversation with Ninotschka Titchkosky of BVN Donovan Hill, one of Australia’s largest independent architectural practices. Talking with Titchkosky, I realize how much pride went into a project that incorporates what she calls ‘the great synthesis of individuals involved’. Although she doesn’t hesitate to acknowledge the contribution of others, it’s clear that she was a driving force in the project. At the opening of the hall, a committee member described the experience: ‘We thought she would just build something usable – we had no idea that she would put so much effort into it and treat us so seriously and so generously.’ All successful projects are built on the strengths of personal relationships, but in a situation where people are not getting paid, goodwill is all the more important. Titchkosky says that Narbethong Community Hall Committee members that inspired others to believe in the project was going to be essential to its realization. The long list of pro bono collaborators and those that gave their services and products at heavily reduced costs are testament to that aim. Among those devoting their time and resources towards Titchkosky’s, such as Peter Bowtell of Arup and Juliet Morris of Edwards Moore. Titchkosky recalls ‘what should have been a relatively simple project of rebuilding a small community hall. She → Narbethong Community Hall The rebuilding of the hall presented an opportunity to create an improved public space for the community and a new typology for community buildings. The previous hall was a basic timber structure built more than 50 years ago. It lacked adequate facilities and was not designed to capture the beautiful landscape aspects of the site. The outside of the building is made up of floor to ceiling double glazing wrapped in a bronze mesh fire resistant screen while internally, the primary material is local timber. Titchkosky points out that the community faced ‘a huge amount of hurdles’ – some even emerging from government funding and Red Cross donations – which necessitated help from Titchkosky and her team. ‘The sad thing,’ she says, ‘is that ordinary members of the community would have had almost no chance of navigating these alone.’ Although funding was made available for reconstruction, it was accompanied by typical governmental bureaucracy. Consequently, big-city construction systems were deployed at small-scale sites throughout the country. At the same time, the disaster activated a revision of building codes for bushfire-prone areas – regulations that continually turned design development for the Narbethong project on its head. The situation wasn’t helped by the committee’s desire to integrate time into the new hall as an important symbol of the town’s history. An example of what Titchkosky sees as the ‘tenacity of all those involved in the project to overcome hurdles’ was a government requirement stipulating that the company hired to rebuild the disaster areas – the construction company that had submitted the winning bid. This thwarted the Narbethong committee’s plan to support local tradespeople who had lost their livelihoods. This conflict of interests led to the development of an entirely new framework, which made the committee responsible for the funds. The ensuing procurement and construction processes were carried out in collaboration with the Victorian Bushfire Reconstruction Authority, but in line with the committee’s ideals. Great architects have the ability to envision ‘another reality’, and in this case, to show their clients what the future could look like. Titchkosky’s involvement in the project from the word go allowed her to help develop the brief beyond the clients’ original expectations and to provide the imagery and framework needed to get additional funding. She modestly admits that she didn’t know where there’d be precious doubling the money they were going to put into the rebuild. The result is a completely different kind of community hall from what anyone had in mind at the outset. Typological transformations in architecture tend to be sited in pockets, and it’s refreshing to see the rigour that has gone into rethinking the regional community centre. The programme is surprisingly complex. Narbethong has only one public building, and this is it. From births to deaths, public meetings to theatre events, mothers groups to marriages, it all happens here. Titchkosky explains that the most radical aspect of the new design involved ‘exploding’ a single-directional space to create a flexible open-plan interior. They used to have a long hall with a regular formal arrangement at the front, and a kitchen behind the stage. It was very cold and had no outlook. Despite ‘stunning’ surroundings, the interior ‘had no connection to the landscape’. She says the hall was often used for small community groups, ‘a mothers group of six people in a hall big enough for 100’. She talked to the committee about using a square configuration ‘that would be more adaptable for their purposes’, and use timber screens for partitioning the hall into smaller or larger areas. Another key design concept was that of a building that could unfold outwards to embrace its surroundings. What had originally been an entirely enclosed, inward-looking building had the potential to provide extraordinary views of the Black Spur landscape. The building also has to ‘protect itself’, she says, in the event of another bushfire. To meet this goal – and despite the tight budget – the team employed innovative technologies, including the bronze-mesh fire-retardant screen that wraps floor-to-ceiling double glazing around the entire perimeter of the building. Allowing the building to ‘bunker down’, such measures will enable the hall to celebrate the ‘timber town history of Narbethong’. Architecture takes on new meaning after appalling devastation. The process that goes into the rebuilding of a community – a collaborative, experimental and often inspirational process – can be an extraordinary experience for those living there. Even a single building may assume the symbolic resonance of survival. The Narbethong Community Hall does not rest on iconic language, however, but on a serious engagement with what the building does, how it’s used and experienced. It invests the architecture with purpose and potential. « ‘Ordinary members of the community would have had no chance of navigating the hurdles alone’ Photos John Gollings The Narbethong Community Hall was a pro bono project involving the collaboration of many professional disciplines: Emergency Architects, BVN Architecture, Arup, Contour, Bailey Architects, Baulchells, BSGM, Douglas and Partners, Redmayne Engineering, and was with the Victorian Bushfire Reconstruction Authority, DSE, Maribyrnong City Council, the Narbethong Community Hall Committee, and the generous services of Donovan Moore and Hedger Construction.
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Tell me about you Summary of research report October 2022 Before you read this document This is a long document. While it is written in Easy Read it can be hard for some people to read a document this long. Some things you can do to make it easier are: - read a few pages at a time - have someone help you to understand it. This report talks about abuse. This may make people upset when they are reading it. This information is: - not meant to scare anyone - not true for everyone with disability. This information does not mean that these things will happen to you. If you are worried after reading this document you can talk about it with your: - family - friends. What you will find in here Page number: What is this document about? ........5 Who asked for the research?........8 Who did the research?..................10 What is the research about?.........11 Why was the research important?..............................15 Who did the Donald Beasley Institute talk to?....................17 Aramahi / What we wanted to find out ................................19 How did storytellers share their stories? ...........................................23 Te Kāhui Arataki / Making sure that Māori storytellers felt safe......26 Who were the storytellers? ...............29 Kōrero / Stories.................................33 Kitenga / What we found out from the stories ........................................45 Titiro whakamuri kōkiri whakamua / Recommendations to make things better ..................................................58 Kupu whakamutunga / Conclusion .............................................64 What is this document about? The Donald Beasley Institute wrote a research report called: Tell Me About You. The Donald Beasley Institute does a lot of important research about lots of different things. Research is: - looking at things that have happened - trying to find out how to do things better. In this Easy Read document we call the Donald Beasley Institute the DBI for short. This Easy Read document is a summary of the things the DBI found out from their research. A summary: - is shorter than the full report - tells you the main ideas. For the research the DBI: - spoke to disabled people - wrote down their stories. The stories that people shared are an important part of the research report. In this Easy Read document we have also put in parts of the stories that people shared. We have included these stories using the same words the people used. The stories people shared are in orange boxes like this. The stories are not in Easy Read. Who asked for the research? The Royal Commission of Inquiry into Abuse in Care gave the Donald Beasley Institute money to do this research. The Royal Commission of Inquiry into Abuse in Care is an investigation by a group of experts. Doing an investigation means looking more closely at things that have happened in the past. In this document we call the Royal Commission of Inquiry into Abuse in Care the Royal Commission for short. The Royal Commission is **not** part of: - the Government - faith-based institutions like churches. The inquiry will make **recommendations** to the Government about what it has found. **Recommendations** are things that the Government should do to make things better for people. The Royal Commission: - started in 2019. - will finish in 2023. Who did the research? The people who worked on this project are part of the Donald Beasley Institute research team. Their names are: - Brigit Mirfin-Veitch - Kelly Tikao - Umi Asaka - Eden Tuisaula - Hilary Stace - Robbie Francis Watene - Patsie Frawley. The research is about disabled people who lived in care in Aotearoa New Zealand between 1950 and 1999. Lived in care means that the Government or a faith-based institution was in charge of your care / looking after you. People in care live in places like: - institutions - group homes - childrens homes - foster care - church-based homes or schools. Faith-based institutions are run by religious groups like churches. Faith-based institutions provide: - care - education. The research was done to find out about the experiences of people in care in New Zealand. This investigation happened because lots of people asked the Government to do it. The investigation looked into bad things that happened to people in care like: - abuse - neglect. **Abuse** means when people who lived in care were treated very badly. Abuse can be: - **physical** – a person kicking or hitting you - **sexual** – when someone does sexual things to you that you do not want them to - **emotional** – yelling or saying things that are not nice to you. Neglect means when caregivers do not give a person all the things they need to feel well looked after. Why was the research important? The Royal Commission wanted to: - learn about the kinds of abuse that happened - show they believe the stories of people who have lived through abuse - make sure that abuse in care does not happen again. The Royal Commission wanted as many disabled people as possible to tell their stories but some disabled people did not know about the Royal Commission. It was also hard for some disabled people to tell their stories. The Royal Commission asked the Donald Beasley Institute to set up the Tell Me About You project. The Tell Me About You project was a way of making sure disabled people could tell their stories. We called the people who shared their experiences storytellers. You can find more Easy Read information about the research project on our website: www.donaldbeasley.org.nz/tell-me-about-you Who did the Donald Beasley Institute talk to? The people we spoke to about their experiences included: - neurodiverse people who lived in care between 1950 and 1999 - people with learning disability who lived in care between 1950 and 1999. **Neurodiverse** means that: - the brain of a person works in a different way to others - a person learns things in another way. A learning disability is when you need support with doing everyday tasks like: - doing things at home like cooking or cleaning - understanding information - making friends and meeting new people - looking after your money - getting and keeping a paid job. There were 4 important things that the Royal Commission wanted to find out from the Tell Me About You project. The first 2 important things were: 1. Did the storytellers: - know why they were taken into care - think it was a good idea for them to have lived in care? 2. What type of abuse / violence did storytellers experience while they were in care? The other 2 important things were: 3. Did the storytellers have any thoughts about why the abuse / violence happened to them? 4. How did the abuse / violence affect: - the storytellers themselves - the families of the storytellers - the friends of the storytellers - any people close to the storytellers / their community? The researchers knew that some people who lived in care might not understand that they had experienced abuse. The researchers also knew that people might want to talk about both: - good experiences in care - bad experiences in care. The Tell Me About You project asked storytellers about their whole lives. This meant that storytellers talked about lots of things not just their experiences of care. You can read the storytellers’ kōrero / stories in their own words on pages 33 to 44. How did storytellers share their stories? Storytellers were able to choose how they shared their stories. This was to make sure that storytellers felt safe and comfortable when they shared their stories. The sorts of ways storytellers told their stories included: - having a friendly / relaxed chat over tea and biscuits - taking a walk through the places storytellers had lived and talking about their experiences. Some other ways storytellers chose to tell their stories included: - sharing things that helped them to remember / tell their stories about living in care like: - photos - films - music - other things. - telling their stories with people they trusted like: - whānau / family - close friends - other people who knew them well. Some more ways storytellers chose to tell their stories included: - using art or poetry to help tell their stories - telling their stories using the internet like: - in emails - using a video call program called Zoom - using another kind of online chat programme. Te Kāhui Arataki – Making sure that Māori storytellers felt safe The Tell Me About You project was given guidance by Te Kāhui Arataki. **Te Kāhui Arataki** is a group of Māori advisors / researchers from iwi and hapū across Aotearoa New Zealand. The group have **lived experience** / knowledge of disability and care. Lived experience means that a person has: - a disability - lived in care - a disabled family member who lived in care. Te Kāhui Arataki made sure that Māori storytellers felt safe telling their stories. Te Kāhui Arataki also supported the other researchers to make sure they thought about / understood Māori tikanga when they did the project. Tikanga means: - Māori customs - the Māori way of doing things. Who were the storytellers? Of the 16 storytellers who took part in the Tell Me About You project: - 12 were men - 4 were women. All the storytellers were between 45 and 75 years old. Storytellers could choose if they wanted to: - use their real name in the project - use a different name so no one else would know who they were. The storytellers had different cultural identities. Your **cultural identity** means you share things in common with other people like: - being the same race - speaking the same language - being the same nationality which is where you come from - your beliefs and art. 14 storytellers identified as European New Zealander. 1 storyteller identified as Sāmoan New Zealander. 1 storyteller identified as Māori and European New Zealander. 14 storytellers had a disability of some sort that included: - 10 storytellers who had learning disabilities - 3 storytellers who had autism - 1 storyteller who had a neurological disability. A neurological disability is a condition that affects how your brain works. At least 3 storytellers had more than 1 disability. Some storytellers had different reasons for being a part of the project like: - 1 storyteller was a family member of a storyteller who had been in care. - 1 storyteller used records from the care system to tell the story of their disabled family members. Kōrero / Stories In this section you can read what the storytellers said about being in care. You can also listen to recordings of the full stories on our website at: www.donaldbeasley.org.nz/tell-me-about-you The stories help answer the 4 important questions that the Royal Commission wanted to know about. The stories we have included here: - use the same words the storyteller used - are not in Easy Read. 1. Why were storytellers taken into care and did they think it was right for them to have lived in care? Not all storytellers understood why they had been taken into care. Rawiri said: “I was in Cherry Farm, sort of at the side. I think I was about 28 years old [when I went there]. I don’t know how I got there. I feel like I was born in Cherry Farm. Did you find out how I got there?” Some storytellers shared that they did not like being in care. Their stories show that they did not think that being in care was right for them. Jabert said: “My mum found it difficult to manage me so I went to stay at Templeton for short stays and then eventually these stays got longer. [...] I didn’t want to stay at Templeton. I wanted to get out. Happy to leave yes.” 2. What type of abuse / violence did storytellers experience in care? People experienced both good and bad things while in care. Storytellers shared stories about the physical and emotional abuse that they experienced from: - other children they lived with - the people who were supposed to be caring for them. Sometimes the abuse happened to them many times. Many storytellers said that if they tried to tell other people about what was happening to them nothing was done to support them. Graeme said: “The staff were no good to me at Cherry Farm. They used to give me a needle in the arse. They would stab it into me. And give me lots of pills. I hadn’t done anything. I was scared of them. [They would] just knock me around because I used to play up and that. They used to ah, hit me. I got locked up in Cherry Farm. The room was empty. Only floorboards and a big door. I was in that room for a long time. Sometimes I used to hurt people too –I don’t know why I done that.” Another storyteller shared how he was treated by the people who were supposed to be looking after him. David said: “I got put in a laundry bag once by staff and hung up high. I told the big boss of Templeton on him – he got a warning. I got strangled by another and that staff member got a warning also.” 3. Why did the abuse and violence happen to storytellers who lived in State care? There are many different reasons that explain why abuse / violence happened in places of care. A storyteller shared how she felt like she did not get good support from the people who were supposed to look after her while she was in care. Lusi said: The institute felt “dark and cold”… I think that the concept of institutions are not set up to care and look after the disabled people because it is built on a system that dehumanise disabled people. Lusi also said: And I think that hasn’t changed much for how the current State care works. Care was about medication, changing, showering and other very clinical procedure that does not take into account the very individual needs such as human connection and affection.” Another storyteller shared how he felt when the people who were supposed to look after him did not understand / listen to him. Allan said: “Because when staff didn’t understand me and expect me to do things that I wasn’t sure about, then yell at me for getting it wrong, then I would explode, they would just see me as a person who was trying to be naughty or out to be dangerous. And that wasn’t the case at all. I think there was a misunderstanding and I wasn’t being listened to is what the problem was.” 4. How did the abuse / violence affect: - the storytellers themselves - the families of the storytellers - the friends of the storytellers - any people close to the storytellers / their community? Storytellers were often split up from their family by being in care. Michael said: “Mum and Dad came up and visited me, but it was hard leaving, saying goodbye to them.” The storytellers told stories about their lives after leaving care that were important to listen to. Their stories showed what kind of lives people wanted to live as a part of the community. Graham said: “A good life is going and looking around shops, getting coffee. I’ll tell you a good thing right, if I’m on a radio show, you might hear my voice everywhere. I was on a radio show and I can still be on it. There’s a song I like. “I’ll be home for Christmas, you can count on me”. It makes me a bit happy. One thing that I know, stand up for your rights. You get together with someone and stand up. That means rights. That means rights.” Other storytellers talked about how they think their lives are much better now they are not in care. Allan and Nathan said: “I always say this, that everyone should be treated equally. I didn’t feel like I was treated equally before I started living in the community. I think when you are out in the community you have your own freedom and you’re not, you’re not told when to shower or when to eat and you have choices of what you want to do. Rather than what you were told to do. I have control on my own choices and more freedom too. I have a good landlord, a new couch and a new chair. I’ve been very settled here … I’m going to be living in the community until I’m an old man.” The people who gathered the stories from the storytellers used a certain way of looking at the information to help them understand: - the stories - why the storytellers experienced the abuse / violence that they did. The way they looked at the stories is called the ecological model of disability violence and abuse. An ecological model is a way of understanding the many things that affect health and wellbeing. A drawing / image of the ecological model looks like 4 circles that: - are placed inside each other - increase in size. Increase means to get bigger. The model is a way of showing how certain things can affect your life / experiences as a disabled person like: - the way you feel about / get on with people you know well / are close to - the places you live / grow up in - other members of a wider community / group you are part of called society. In the ecological model the storytellers are put in the middle of the first circle called the **individual** circle. The second circle is called the **relationship** circle that is about the storytellers: - family - friends - people they are close to / who support them. The third circle is called the **community** circle that is about where the storytellers: - go to school / work - live. The fourth circle is called the societal circle that is about how the storytellers are treated by people in the wider world. The story gatherers used the ecological model to look at how the things in all 4 circles: - connect with each other - affect the lives / experiences of the storytellers. We will explain how things in the 4 circles helped the story gatherers understand what the storytellers had told them on the following pages. 1. The individual circle Storytellers said that when they were in care people did not: - listen to them - trust them. They also said they did not have the freedom to make their own decisions. The people who were supposed to look after them did not respect: - their identity / who they were - their human rights. Respect is when someone shows they have thought about: - who you are / the kind of person you are - things that are important to you - how you might feel. Human rights are things that everyone should get to live a good life. For example everyone has a right to things like: - a safe place to live - enough food to eat. 2. The relationship circle Storytellers shared that they experienced physical and emotional abuse / violence in care by the people who were supposed to care for them. They said that other people made decisions for them. They also said that they were not given any chances to spend time with their families / friends. 3. The community circle Storytellers shared that sometimes they were not allowed to have people visit them while they were in care. This included people who were part of their family. Storytellers said they were not given the same opportunities / support as other people: - to be a part of their community - to assist them with getting: - an education - training - a job. 4. The societal circle The story gatherers learned from the storytellers that the laws of New Zealand did not respect the rights of disabled people. This meant that storytellers in care were separated from: - their family - their community. It also meant that disabled people were: - left out from being part of society - not treated fairly. How the 4 circles work together The story gatherers saw that the experiences of the storytellers were affected by things in all 4 circles. An example of this is disablism which is a type of discrimination against disabled people. Discrimination is when someone is treated differently to other people because of things like: - how old they are - if they are a man / woman / someone of another gender - if they have a disability. Disablism affected disabled people in a bad way by making it okay for disabled people to be: - taken out of society / taken away from their families - put into state care. This kind of treatment is called systemic abuse. Systemic abuse is when rules / laws that are put in place to support people end up harming them instead. This means that it was not the fault of disabled people that they were treated badly. Disabled people were treated badly because society did not: - respect the rights of disabled people - find ways to support them: - to live the life they wanted - to stay in their community. This kind of discrimination was not always here in Aotearoa New Zealand. Colonisation led to Māori disabled people being split up from their: - whānau / family - communities. Colonisation is when: - a group of people from one country called colonisers set up home in another country - take over the country from the people who already live there. Colonisers bring with them their own ideas about how they think people should live like: - the religion they follow - the language they speak - the money they use - the laws they agree to - other things they might do that are part of their culture. There are some things that must happen to make sure that abuse / violence in care do not happen again. The following pages include recommendations: - from the Tell Me About You project - to the Royal Commission of Inquiry into Abuse in Care - to the New Zealand Government. Recommendations are things that the Government should do to make things better for people. It is important that the people who experienced abuse in care are: - listened to - supported in the community so they can live well. Their stories need to be shared all over Aotearoa New Zealand and kept in public places so everyone can access them. This could be things like keeping the old institutions as places where people can visit / learn about what happened. It is important that people know about the rights of disabled people that are set out in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is also called the UNCRPD. The UNCRPD: - is a law that lots of countries have agreed to - says what governments must do to make sure disabled people get the same rights as everybody else. People who need to know about the UNCRPD include: - people who provide important services to disabled people - people who make policies / laws in Aotearoa New Zealand. It is important that these people use Article 12 of the UNCRPD. Article 12 says that everyone should have choice and control over their own life. The DBI thinks that the recommendations made in this report must be put in place quickly. It is very important that a system is put in place so that all disabled people who were abused in care can get access to justice for the way they were treated. Access to justice means that people can: - complain about what happened to them - be heard - be believed - get the support they need to: - understand why the abuse happened - live a good life now. The Tell Me About You project is a collection of stories from only a small number of disabled people. The DBI knows there are many more disabled people in Aotearoa who: - also have important stories to tell about being in care - were not able to be part of the project. All the storytellers were very brave to share their stories. The DBI research team wants to say thank you to all the storytellers. This information has been written by the Donald Beasley Institute. It has been translated into Easy Read by the Make It Easy service of People First New Zealand Inc. Ngā Tāngata Tuatahi. The ideas in this document are not the ideas of People First New Zealand Inc. Ngā Tāngata Tuatahi. Make It Easy uses images from: - Changepeople.org - Photosymbols.com - Sam Corliss - Huriana Kopeke-Te Aho. All images used in this Easy Read document are subject to copyright rules and cannot be used without permission.
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In recent decades, as more coins have been discovered in Israel, it is becoming clearer how the Jews paid the tax for the upkeep of the temple in Jerusalem in the centuries before it was destroyed in 70 AD. According to the Old Testament the first temple was built by King Solomon in about 950 BC, but coins were not invented until about 600 BC. That was in western Anatolia and it took a long time for them to be used more widely. So the Jews must have given goods, such as a proportion of their farm produce, or money in the form of irregular lumps of silver. The prophet Jeremiah who lived at the beginning of the 6th century BC bought a farm for 17 shekels of silver (Jeremiah 32:9). At that time the shekel was a weight equal to 11.4 grams, and Jeremiah weighed the pieces of silver on a balance scale. In one pan he would have put stone weights equal to 17 shekels and in the other pan, the pieces of silver. Hundreds of these weights have been found in Israel. They are polished domes of limestone, and many have the denomination engraved on them. In 586 BC Jerusalem and the temple were destroyed by the Babylonians, and many of the Jews, including their leaders, were taken to Babylon. Modern scholars generally agree that some parts of the Old Testament, such as the first draft of the Book of Exodus, were written in Hebrew by Jews in exile in Babylon. In the Book of Exodus the amount of money that a Jewish man should pay as an offering to the Lord is “half a shekel, according to the shekel of the sanctuary, which is 20 gerahs” (Exodus 30:13). Although this Figure 1 – Map drawn by the author to show the Persian province of Yehud. (It is based on the map in ‘The Numismatic Legacy of the Jews’ by C.W. Samuels, P. Rynearson and Y. Meshorer.) Figure 2 – A gerah. Diameter 8 mm. Weight 0.43 gram. Helmeted head of Athena / owl. YHD (Yehud) in palaeo-Hebrew letters to the right of the owl. The Athena / owl type derived from Athenian coins. (Collection of St John’s Cathedral, Brisbane) Figure 3 – A half-gerah. Diameter 7 mm. Weight 0.32 gram. Head of the Persian king wearing a crown / falcon, YHD (Yehud) in palaeo-Hebrew letters to the right of the falcon. (Collection of St John’s Cathedral, Brisbane) passage refers to the much earlier time of the exodus of the Jews from Egypt, which occurred in about 1280 BC, it seems that the exiled authors were thinking of a future time when the temple would be rebuilt. In 539 BC the Babylonians were defeated by Cyrus the Great, the king of Persia, and he allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple. Judah became a province of the Persian Empire and it was called Yehud, which is Persian for Judah. (Figure 1 – map) More likely, the verse about paying 10 gerahs to the temple was inserted into the first draft of the Book of Exodus after the Jews had returned to Jerusalem. A lot of small silver coins from the Persian period have been found in that part of Israel which was ancient Judah and presumably they are the gerahs mentioned in the Bible. They have an average weight of 0.48 grams. This means that 20 of them, i.e. “the shekel of the sanctuary”, weighed 9.6 grams. This was less than the ordinary shekel used for everyday transactions, which was 11.4 grams. Each Jewish man had to pay 10 gerahs to the temple, i.e., 4.8 grams of silver. There is a Judaean stone weight from the Persian period called a nezef, and it weighs 5/6 of the ordinary shekel of 11.4 grams, i.e. 9.5 grams. The nezef was equivalent to a qedet, which was one of the standard weights used in Egypt. As the Jewish people came from Egypt according to their religious history, it is not unexpected that “the shekel of the sanctuary” should relate to Egyptian standards. When Judah was part of the Persian Empire the Jews minted mostly small silver coins known as gerahs (Figure 2) and half-gerahs. (Figures 3, 4 and 5) But there is a variety of types, which makes them interesting. One coin has an ear on it. (Figure 6) None have been found north of Ramallah, which is about ten miles north of Jerusalem, indicating that they circulated only locally in Judah. Similarly, the coins issued in the adjacent provinces of Philistia, Edom and Samaria circulated locally. It thus seems likely that the Jews paid the temple tax with these gerahs and half-gerahs. The major commercial centres at the time were the Figure 4 – Another half-gerah (6 mms. 0.30 gram) next to an Australian 20-cents coin. If the image of the king is not just a stereotype, it is most likely of Artaxerxes II (404-359 BC) or his son, Artaxerxes III (359-338 BC). (Collection of St John’s Cathedral, Brisbane) Figure 5 – Detail of Figure 4. Figure 6 – A gerah with an ear on the obverse. Its significance is unknown, but it might refer to Psalm 40: 6. “Sacrifice and offering you do not desire, but you have given me an open ear.” (NRSV) (Deutsch Sale 15, Lot 14) Figure 7 – Double shekel of Sidon from the time of Baalshallim, King of Sidon (c. 401-366 BC). 35 x 30 mms. Weight 27.7 grams. Persian king in a chariot / Phoenician war galley. (Vcoins: Pars Coins) Figure 8 – Persian siglos (Caradice Type III, c. 490 – 375 BC). Diameter 13 x 16 mms. Weight 5.2 grams. Persian king / crude punch. (Collection of St John’s Cathedral, Brisbane) Phoenician cities of Tyre, Sidon, Byblos and Aradus, and the Philistine city of Gaza. These cities issued silver coins (Figure 7) that circulated widely in trade, but it seems unlikely that the Jews would have paid the temple tax with them. Also during the Persian period there were gold coins called darics and silver coins called sigloi. The singular is siglos, which is Greek for shekel, and it weighed about 6 grams. (Figure 8) They were minted by the Persian authorities in western Anatolia, probably at Sardis. Darics are mentioned in the Old Testament, but only two double-darics and one daric have ever been found in Israel, and not one siglos. Therefore sigloi probably did not circulate in Judah and were not used by the Jews to pay the temple tax. The image Figure 9 – Image of Artaxerxes II on his tomb at Persepolis. (Wikimedia Commons) Judah came under his control. He created mints in the major coastal cities of which Tyre and Akko were the nearest to Jerusalem. They issued gold and silver coins according to the weight standards of Alexander’s Greek homeland. So there were three silver denominations: a tetradrachm (4 drachms) of 17.28 grams, a drachm and an obol, which was 1/6 drachm. They have the head of Heracles on the obverse and Zeus enthroned on the reverse. (Figure 12) They were issued for many years after Alexander’s death in 323 BC, but the Jews probably did not use them to pay the temple tax because it seems that during this so-called Macedonian period (333 – 302 BC) small silver coins bearing Hebrew letters, were minted at Jerusalem. (Figure 13) They Figure 10 – Hemi-obol. Young male head / forepart of a chimera. Diameter 7 mms. Weight 0.2 gram. (Vcoins: Shick Coins) Figure 11 – Chimera on a bas-relief in enamelled brick, originally at Susa but now in the Louvre. (Photocopy of a picture in Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, Paul Hamlin, London, 1959) Figure 12 – Tetradrachm of Akko (311-310 BC). Diameter 26 mms. Weight 17.1 grams. Heracles wearing lion skin / Zeus enthroned. The Greek inscription reads “of Alexander”. (Vcoins: Agora) Figure 13 – A quarter-ma’ah-obol of Yehud during the Macedonian Period. Diameter 7 mms. Weight 0.19 gram. Facing head / owl. The palaeo-Hebrew letters to the left of the owl mean “the governor” and to the right, “Hezekiah”. Governor Hezekiah should not be confused with King Hezekiah (727-698 BC). (Holy Land Auction, April 2015, Lot 60) Exodus 38:26 (39:3 in the Septuagint) which states that the offering for the construction of the sanctuary was a *drachm, one per head, half of the shekel according to the holy shekel*. If the Greek text relates to the contemporary situation in Judah it means that in the middle of the 3rd century BC the temple tax was a holy drachm, which weighed 6 grams and was equal to about 33 of the smallest Ptolemaic Yehudah coins. Six grams is considerably more than the 4.8 and 3.8 grams of the Persian Period. Probably the amount of money that a Jewish man paid to the temple varied from time to time. In the 1st century AD the temple tax was a Tyrian didrachm (Matthew 17:24), which weighed about 7 grams. Tyrian silver coins were about 99% pure silver, so each Jewish man gave more silver to the temple than ever before, and the population was probably larger than before, but when Herod the Great (40-4 BC) began to build the temple (Figure 16) a lot of money would have been needed. As well as didrachms and tetradrachms a variety of bronze denominations were minted at Tyre, but no silver drachms. At that time there were bronze coins minted at Jerusalem but no silver coins, so to pay the temple tax the Jews had to use the tetradrachms and didrachms of Tyre. (Figure 17) Only these coins were acceptable to the priests because they were almost pure silver. So most Jews had to buy these silver coins with bronze coins, no doubt with considerable profit to the moneychangers. As fewer didrachms were produced than tetradrachms it seems that the Jews tended to pay the tax in pairs, as Jesus and Peter did (Matthew 17:27). Jesus and Peter, however, did not deal with the moneychangers, and their tetradrachm might have been minted in Jerusalem (CAB, May 2015, ‘Barbarous Coins’) Judah was part of the Seleucid Empire from 199 BC until 135 BC when it became independent under the Hasmonean kings. The Seleucid kings kept the mints at the major coastal centres such as Akko-Ptolemais and Tyre, but they put their images on the obverse of the tetradrachms. (Figure 18) Although the Hasmonean and subsequently the Herodian kings minted a lot of small bronze coins for local use they never minted silver coins. As the temple tax had to be in silver the Jews must have used the silver coins of the Seleucid kings for most of the 2nd century BC until 126 BC when Tyre became autonomous and began to produce its high-quality tetradrachms and didrachms. The Jews used these for the temple tax until the temple was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD. Today when Christians put money in the plate on Sundays they are following a practice that has existed for three thousand years. Numismatic Books & Catalogues 100’s of Australian and World Numismatic books and catalogues available on all subjects. We also have good stocks of: Bread, Milk, Ice, Ferry and Value-Stated Tokens Commemorative Medalets Petrol Coupons, World Banknotes Postal Notes, Postcards Transportation Tickets (Tram, Train, Bus & Ferry) WANTS LISTS WELCOME M.E.F. BOOKS PO Box 523 NARRABEEN NSW 2101 Phone (02) 9913 3036
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# Maths Level 1 ## Section 2 ### Working with fractions, decimals and percentages | SECTION B | Topic | Page | |-----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | | 1 Understanding fractions | 28 | | | 2 Finding fractions of quantities | 31 | | | 3 Remember what you have learned | 33 | | SECTION C | Topic | Page | |-----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | | 1 Understanding decimals | 36 | | | 2 Calculating with decimals | 38 | | | 3 Rounding decimal amounts | 41 | | | 4 Estimating and checking answers | 42 | | | 5 Remember what you have learned | 43 | | SECTION D | Topic | Page | |-----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | | 1 Understanding percentage | 45 | | | 2 Percentages of quantities | 47 | | | 3 One quantity as a percentage of another | 49 | | | 4 Percentage increase and decrease | 51 | | | 5 Remember what you have learned | 52 | Section 1: Working with Whole Numbers Section 2: Working with Fractions, Decimals & Percentages Section 3: Working with Ratio, Proportion and Algebra Section 4: Working with Measures Section 5: Working with Shape & Space Section 6: Working with Handling Data Section 7: Working with Probability Section 8: Test preparation & progress track A fraction is a part of a whole. Three out of four squares are red. Three out of four is the same as three quarters or $\frac{3}{4}$. red squares → 3 ← numerator (number on top) total squares → 4 ← denominator (number on bottom) This fraction wall shows how a whole can be split into different fractions. | Equal parts | Fraction | |-------------|----------| | 1 equal part | $\frac{1}{1}$ | | 2 equal parts | $\frac{1}{2}$ | | 3 equal parts | $\frac{1}{3}$ | | 4 equal parts | $\frac{1}{4}$ | | 5 equal parts | $\frac{1}{5}$ | | 6 equal parts | $\frac{1}{6}$ | | 7 equal parts | $\frac{1}{7}$ | | 8 equal parts | $\frac{1}{8}$ | | 9 equal parts | $\frac{1}{9}$ | | 10 equal parts | $\frac{1}{10}$ | Tip $\frac{1}{4}$ is smaller than $\frac{1}{3}$ because as you divide the whole into more parts, the fraction becomes smaller. Reading and writing fractions Example 1: a) write three fifths in figures b) write $\frac{7}{10}$ in words Answers: a three fifths $= \frac{3}{5}$ b $\frac{7}{10} = \text{seven tenths}$ Example 2: Students can have one third off the price of rail tickets if they have a valid student railcard. What fraction of the normal price would a student have to pay? One third in figures is the same as $\frac{1}{3}$. The diagram shows that, if you remove one third, there are two thirds or $\frac{2}{3}$ left. Answer: $\frac{2}{3}$ of the normal price Try the skill 1. Write these fractions in figures. a one quarter b three eighths c seven tenths 2. Write these fractions in words. a $\frac{1}{8}$ b $\frac{2}{5}$ c $\frac{3}{10}$ 3. In a sale, all items have a half off the price. What fraction of the original price do you have to pay? 4. One fifth of the Earth’s atmosphere is oxygen. What fraction is not oxygen? 5. A quarter of the population in a town do not vote at general elections any more. What fraction does vote at general elections? Ordering and comparing fractions **Example 1:** Write these fractions in order of size, starting with the smallest. \[ \frac{1}{2}, \frac{1}{4}, \frac{2}{3}, \frac{1}{3} \] Look at the fraction wall. | | | |-------|-------| | $\frac{1}{2}$ | $\frac{1}{2}$ | | $\frac{1}{3}$ | $\frac{1}{3}$ | | $\frac{1}{4}$ | $\frac{1}{4}$ | You can see from the fraction wall that $\frac{1}{4}$ is the smallest fraction and that $\frac{2}{3}$ is the largest. Answer: $\frac{1}{4}, \frac{1}{3}, \frac{1}{2}, \frac{2}{3}$ **Tip** You don’t have to use a fraction wall to do this. It just helps you to see how the fractions compare. **Try the skill** 1. Write these fractions in order of size, starting with the smallest first. a) $\frac{1}{2}, \frac{1}{5}, \frac{3}{4}$ b) $\frac{1}{3}, \frac{2}{5}, \frac{1}{4}$ 2. A quarter of school leavers last year went into further education and a third went into employment. Which was the more popular option for school leavers, further education or employment? 3. Half the residents in a street vote for Labour and two fifths vote for the Liberal Democrats. Which is the more popular party? 4. **Challenge question!** On a Saturday night, 3 out of every 10 television viewers prefer to watch light entertainment. 1 out of every 3 television viewers prefer to watch sport. Which is the less preferred option? Equivalent fractions The fraction wall on page 28 also shows how some fractions, even though they are written differently, give the same amount. These are equivalent fractions, for example: \[ \frac{1}{2} = \frac{2}{4} = \frac{3}{6} = \frac{4}{8} = \frac{5}{10} \] \[ \frac{1}{4} = \frac{2}{8} \] \[ \frac{1}{3} = \frac{2}{6} = \frac{3}{9} \] You find equivalent fractions by multiplying or by dividing the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same number. **Example:** Simplify \(\frac{12}{16}\). Choose a number to divide into the numerator and denominator (top and bottom). 12 and 16 can both be divided by 2. \[ \frac{12}{16} = \frac{6}{8} = \frac{3}{4} \] Answer: \(\frac{3}{4}\) --- 1. Write the following fractions in their lowest terms. a) \(\frac{6}{12}\) b) \(\frac{15}{75}\) c) \(\frac{21}{35}\) d) \(\frac{40}{100}\) e) \(\frac{24}{60}\) f) \(\frac{18}{27}\) g) \(\frac{36}{12}\) h) \(\frac{64}{80}\) 2. Eighty out of every one hundred families in the UK own more than one television. What fraction is this? 3. Six out of ten cats prefer Kitty cat food. a) What fraction prefer Kitty cat food? b) What fraction do not prefer Kitty cat food? To write one quantity as a fraction of another, put the first quantity on the top of the fraction, and the second quantity on the bottom. **Example 1:** What is 5 out of 20 as a fraction? In 5 out of 20: 5 is the first number, 20 is the second number. \[ \frac{5}{20} \div 5 = \frac{1}{4} \] Answer: \(\frac{1}{4}\) To find a fraction of an amount or quantity, you divide: - To find \(\frac{1}{2}\) of a quantity, you divide by 2. - To find \(\frac{1}{3}\) of a quantity, you divide by 3. - To find \(\frac{1}{4}\) of something, you divide by 4. - To find \(\frac{1}{5}\) of something, you divide by 5 ... and so on. **Example 2:** Find: \(a\) \(\frac{1}{2}\) of £16 \(b\) \(\frac{1}{3}\) of 18 cm. \(a\) \(\frac{1}{2}\) of £16 = £16 ÷ 2 = £8 Answer: £8 \(b\) \(\frac{1}{3}\) of 18 cm = 18 cm ÷ 3 = 6 cm Answer: 6 cm To find \(\frac{2}{3}\) of a quantity: - find \(\frac{1}{3}\) by dividing by 3 - then find \(\frac{2}{3}\) by multiplying your answer by 2. **Example 3:** Find: \(a\) \(\frac{2}{3}\) of £36 \(b\) \(\frac{3}{4}\) of £12. \(a\) \(\frac{1}{3}\) of £36 = £36 ÷ 3 = £12 \(\frac{2}{3}\) of £36 = £12 × 2 = £24 Answer: £24 \(b\) \(\frac{1}{4}\) of £12 = £12 ÷ 4 = £3 \(\frac{3}{4}\) of £12 = £3 × 3 = £9 Answer: £9 1. Write the following as fractions. a 6 out of 20 = b 14 out of 21 = c 24 out of 36 =_______ d 25 out of 35 = _______ 2. In a safety test, a car scored 35 points out of a possible 40. Write this as a fraction in its simplest form. 3. Find the following fractions. a $\frac{1}{2}$ of 36 kg ____________ b $\frac{1}{4}$ of £32 ____________ c $\frac{1}{3}$ of 27 cm ____________ d $\frac{1}{5}$ of £30 ____________ e $\frac{1}{6}$ of 24 m ____________ f $\frac{1}{10}$ of £80 ____________ g $\frac{1}{8}$ of 16 g ____________ h $\frac{1}{4}$ of 28p ____________ 4. A train ticket normally costs £54. Matt pays for the ticket using his student railcard and is given one third off the price. How much is the discount? 5. A trainee IT worker spends one tenth of her earnings on leisure activities. If she earns £1 500 a month, how much does she spend on leisure activities each month? 6. $\frac{1}{7}$ of a concrete mix is made of cement. How much cement is needed to make 56 kg of concrete? 7. Find: a $\frac{3}{4}$ of 16 ____________ b $\frac{2}{3}$ of 48 ____________ c $\frac{2}{5}$ of 45 ____________ d $\frac{3}{10}$ of 60 ____________ e $\frac{3}{8}$ of £48 ____________ f $\frac{4}{5}$ of 45 cm ____________ 8. One Saturday, 300 people go to the local cinema and $\frac{2}{5}$ of them pay the discount rate. How many people pay the discount rate? 9. Of 180 employees at a factory, three-quarters are female. a How many employees are female? b How many employees are male? First read this … A fraction is a part of a __________. To write one quantity as a fraction of another, put the first quantity on the _______ of the fraction, and the second quantity on the__________. To find $\frac{1}{2}$ of a quantity you divide by __________. To find $\frac{1}{3}$ of a quantity you divide by __________. To find $\frac{1}{4}$ of something, you divide by __________. To find $\frac{1}{5}$ of something, you divide by __________. To find $\frac{2}{3}$ of a quantity: find $\frac{1}{3}$: divide by __________. find $\frac{2}{3}$: multiply by __________. Use the skill 1. The diagram below shows four large glasses. Which one is approximately one third full? 2. An employer receives 36 job applications and decides to interview two-thirds of the applicants. How many applicants does she interview? 3. 1 000 raffle tickets are sold at a dance for charity. There are ten prizes to be won. What fraction of tickets will win a prize? A $\frac{1}{1000}$ B $\frac{1}{990}$ C $\frac{1}{100}$ D $\frac{1}{10}$ 4. An optician examines 48 patients. Three-quarters of them need spectacles. How many of the patients need spectacles? A 12 B 30 C 36 D 40 5. The table shows the ages of members at a local social club. | 14–19 | 20–24 | |-------|-------| | 50 | 100 | What fraction of members are aged 20–24? Hint Find the total number of members first. A $\frac{1}{3}$ B $\frac{2}{5}$ C $\frac{2}{3}$ D $\frac{4}{5}$ 6. A train ticket costs £12.00. With a railcard, there is a discount of $\frac{1}{3}$ off ticket prices. How much is the discount? A £36 B £3 C £8 D £4 7. Ten out of fifty runners complete a cross-country race in under an hour. What fraction is this? Challenge question! A $\frac{1}{5}$ B $\frac{1}{4}$ C $\frac{1}{3}$ D $\frac{1}{10}$ 8. There are sixty adults living in one street. One third of them cycle to work in order to help the environment. Two fifths of them drive to work. The rest don’t work. How many adults use the more popular type of transport to get to work? A 12 B 20 C 24 D 36 C Working with decimals and money You should already know how to: - read, write and understand decimals - add and subtract sums of money - round amounts of money - use a calculator to check answers. By the end of this section, you will know how to: - order and compare decimals with up to three decimal places - add and subtract decimals without a calculator - calculate with decimals using a calculator - round off decimals with up to three decimal places - use estimation to see if answers are sensible - use a calculator to check answers Understanding decimals Learn the skill Decimal numbers have two parts: a whole number part and a part that is less than 1. The two parts are separated by a decimal point. 3.2 metres means 3 whole metres and 2 tenths of a metre. | whole number | part less than 1 | |--------------|-----------------| | units | tenths | hundredths | thousandths | | 3 | . 2 | | | | 1 | . 2 | 5 | | | 0 | . 3 | 7 | 5 | The number of digits after the decimal point is the number of decimal places. You compare the size of decimal numbers by looking at the digits in each place-value position. Start with the largest place value. Tip You use and write numbers as decimals every day. Common examples include measures, such as length and weight, and money. Tip 3.456 means 3 units, 4 tenths, 5 hundredths and 6 thousandths. Example 1: Put these lengths in order of size, starting with the largest: 2.7 m, 2.57 m, 3.7 m, 2.575 m. Start by comparing the whole number parts first: 3 is bigger than 2 so 3.7 m is the largest length. Next compare tenths: 7 is bigger than 5, so the next largest length is 2.7 m. Next compare hundredths: the hundredths are the same in 2.570 and 2.575. So look at the thousandths: 5 is bigger than 0. So the next largest length is 2.575 m. Answer: 3.7 m, 2.7 m, 2.575 m, 2.57 m There are 100 pence in every pound. Example 2: Write £2.05 in pence. £2.05 is $2 \times 100p + 5p = 205p$ Answer: 205p 1. Put these lengths in order of size, starting with the largest. a 3.22 m, 3.2 m, 2.3 m, 3.23 m b 10.7 cm, 10.07 cm, 10.777 cm, 10.707 cm, 10.007 cm c 5.30 km, 3.55 km, 3.505 km, 5.55 km, 5.305 km 2. Write these sums of money in order, starting with the smallest. a £0.02, £2.22, £2.20, £0.22 b £3.33, £3.03, £33.30, £0.33, £30.03 c £15.17, £17.05, £17.15, £15.10, £15.07 3. Write these amounts in pence. a £3.50 b £0.65 c £0.03 4. Write these amounts in pounds. a 555p b 20p c 5p Learn the skill adding and subtracting decimals without a calculator Example 1: Bronwen runs 5.4 km on Friday, 4.69 km on Saturday and 11.85 km on Sunday. How far does she run, in total, from Friday to Sunday? Write the numbers with the decimal points lined up. Add the columns, from right to left, in the usual way. | | 5 . 4 0 | + | |---|---------|---| | 4 . 6 9 | | | | 1 1 . 8 5 | | | | 2 1 . 9 4 | | | Answer: 21.94 km Tip In total usually means ‘add’. Tip Get into the habit of checking to see if your answer makes sense. Add the whole number parts: \(5 + 4 + 11 = 20\). Example 2: An empty suitcase weighs 1.92 kg. When packed, it weighs 6.2 kg. How much do the contents of the suitcase weigh? Subtract the weight of the empty suitcase from the weight of the packed suitcase. Write the numbers with the decimal points lined up. Subtract in columns, from right to left, in the usual way. | 6 . 2 0 | − | | 1 . 9 2 | | | 4 . 2 8 | | Answer: 4.28 kg Tip Use any method of subtraction you prefer, for example, 6.2 subtract 2 then add 0.08. For some people, thinking of decimals as money can make adding and subtracting decimals easier to deal with. This example demonstrates how this can work. Example 3: A wall in Emma’s bathroom is 3.2 metres long. She wishes to position a bath along this wall. If the bath is 1.85 metres long, how much wall space is left? Think of 3.2m as £3.20 and 1.85m as £1.85. Count up from £1.85 to make £3.20 e.g. £1.85 counting up to £2.00 gives £0.15 £2.00 to £3.00 gives £1.00 £3.00 to £3.20 gives £0.20 £0.15 + £1.00 + £0.20 = £1.35 Change this back to metres. Answer: 1.35 metres Remember You don’t have to subtract in problems like this using ‘counting up’. There are many methods to add and subtract. Choose a method which suits you best. Try the skill Work out the answers using your preferred methods. Do not use a calculator. 1. Work out: a 4.23 + 5.66 b £4.69 + £5.98 c 8.45 – 4.07 d 4.5 – 3.22 2. Ring the correct answer. a 6.7 + 0.88 A 6.95 B 7.58 b £6.67 – £5.09 A £1.58 B £0.77 3. One piece of rope is 66.4 m long and another is 98.7 m. What is the combined length of the two pieces of rope? 4. Tim runs 100 metres in 12.38 seconds. Rob runs the same distance in 10.8 seconds. What is the difference between their times? 5. Ben and Nicky are travelling around the world. On Monday, they drove 502km, on Tuesday they walked for 0.34km and on Wednesday they cycled for 10.5km. How far did they travel in total from Monday to Wednesday? Using a calculator to calculate with decimals Example 1: Drinks at a party cost £1.80 each. If 250 drinks are bought, use a calculator to work out how much money this will raise. You need to multiply to solve this problem. Key into your calculator in \(1 \cdot 8 \times 250 =\) Answer: £450 Tip 1.8 has the same value as 1.80 If you want to key in £1.80 on a calculator, just key in 1 8 Example 2: Winnie purchases a coach ticket normally costing £91.80. She gets a third off the price because she is a senior citizen. How much does she pay? You need to find two thirds of £91.80. You can do this by dividing 91.8 by 3 and then multiplying the answer by 2. Key into your calculator \(91 \cdot 8 \div 3 \times 2 =\) The display will show 61.2 Answer: Winnie pays £61.20 Tip Some students may prefer to find a third of 91.80 and then subtract this answer from £91.80. Do it whichever way feels comfortable to you. Try the skill Use a calculator to answer the questions. 1. A magazine article recommends everyone to drink 2.5 litres of water a day. How many litres of water is this in a week? 2. Six friends shared the cost of a meal. The bill came to £78.12. How much did they each pay? 3. Tariq paid £436.80 for gas in a year. He paid in twelve equal monthly instalments. How much did he pay for gas each month? 4. The price of a train ticket that normally costs £8.31 is reduced by $\frac{1}{3}$ in a ‘summer special’ offer. How much is the discount? 5. A woman earns £344.80 per week. She spends $\frac{3}{4}$ of it on rent and food. How much does she spend on rent and food? 6. A shop sells cans of drink for 52p each. Thomas buys seven cans and pays for them with a £5 note. What change should he get? 7. An electricity company charges £12.50 each month for supplying the electricity and £0.12 for every unit of electricity used. Bill uses 250 units of electricity in one month. How much does Bill pay for the electricity he used? 8. **Challenge question!** The normal price of fuel is 101.6p per litre. Jill has a voucher for ‘2p off each litre of fuel’. She buys 35 litres of fuel and also selects a bag of chocolate éclairs at the checkout. If the éclairs cost £1.49 how much does she pay in total? Rounding decimal amounts Learn the skill You can round decimal numbers to the nearest whole number, nearest tenth, or nearest hundredth. To round a decimal number to the nearest whole number, look at the digit one place to the right of the decimal point (i.e. the digit in the tenths position): - If this number is 5 or more, increase the unit digit by 1. - If this number is less than 5, leave the unit digit as it is. Example 1: Round each number to the nearest whole number: a 3.4 b 8.54 a The digit in the tenth position is 4, so leave the 3 as it is. Answer: 3 b The digit in the tenth position is 5, so you must add 1 to the 8. Answer: 9 To round a decimal number to the nearest tenth, look at the digit two places to the right of the decimal point (i.e. the digit in the hundredths position): - If this number is 5 or more, increase the tenth digit by 1. - If this number is less than 5, leave the tenth digit as it is. Example 2: Round each number to one decimal place: a 4.65 b 56.982 a the digit in the hundredths position is 5, so add 1 to the digit in the tenth column. \[6 + 1 = 7.\] Answer: 4.7 b the digit in the hundredths position is 8, so add 1 to the 9. \[9 + 1 = 10,\] so 56.9 becomes 57.0 Answer: 57.0 You can round numbers in calculations to estimate answers. Example 3: A receptionist is paid £6.20 per hour. She works for 39 hours a week. What calculation could you do to estimate her total pay for the week? First, round the numbers: £6.20 to £6 and 39 to 40 Next, multiply: \[\£6 \times 40 = \£240\] Answer: £240 Remember Rounding to the nearest tenth is the same as rounding to one decimal place. Rounding to the nearest hundredth is the same as rounding to two decimal places. Tip When you round numbers to one decimal place, your answer should only have one digit after the decimal point. Tip You must write 57.0 and not just 57 to show that you have rounded off 56.982 to one decimal place. 1. Round these decimal numbers to the nearest whole number. a 7.6 b 12.89 c 6.567 2. A vet weighs a dog and finds it weighs 26.7 kilograms. What is the dog’s weight, to the nearest kilogram? 3. A householder reads her electricity meter: 2395.56. What is the reading, to the nearest whole number? 4. An officer assistant uses his calculator to work out $500 \div 37$. The display on his calculator shows: 13.513513. Round the answer to the nearest whole number. 5. Round these decimal numbers to the nearest tenth. a 5.63 b 12.856 c 6.899 6. A measuring jug contains 1.872 litres of lemonade. What is the volume of lemonade, to the nearest tenth of a litre? 7. Round these amounts to the nearest 10p. a £24.45 b 15.63 c £7.99 Tip $10p = £0.10$ Remember The digit you need to consider is the digit in the thousandths position, i.e. the digit three places to the right of the decimal point. 8. Round these decimal numbers to the nearest hundredth. a 6.375 b 0.403 c 23.498 9. A parcel waiting for delivery weighs 3.455 kg. Round this weight to two decimal places. 10. A man who earns £7.10 per hour works for 19 hours. What calculation can you do to estimate his pay? 11. Eleven people went out to dinner. Each meal cost £9.75. What calculation can they do to estimate the total bill? Example 1: Georgia has £44.45 in her purse. She spends £8.95 on a CD. How much does she have left? **Checking using estimation** Estimate each value in the question by rounding it off. £44.45 is roughly £44 (rounding off to the nearest pound). £8.50 is roughly £10 (rounding to the nearest ten pounds). *To round £8.50 to the nearest £10 in this case is close enough for the purpose of estimating.* £44 - £10 = £34. This is your estimated answer. *Is your answer close to £34?* Actual answer £44.45 - £8.95 = £35.50. This is close to £34 so it is likely you are correct. **Checking using a calculator** Key into your calculator \(4 \, 4 \, . \, 4 \, 5 \, - \, 8 \, . \, 9 \, 5\) The display on your calculator reads 35.5 Answer: £35.50 A student has completed the exercise below. Check to see if his answers are correct using the method given. If you think he is wrong, write down your reasons why. 1. The menu for a café is shown. Simon buys two cans of drink and an ice-cream. How much does it cost him? Student answer: £2.04 2. A woman has £420.65 in her bank account. She pays £182 into the account and then writes a cheque from her bank account for £83.67. What is her new balance? Student answer: £518.98 3. Belle works in a music shop and earns £7.80 an hour. One week she is paid £280.80. How many hours did she work? Student answer: 36 1. Juan writes a cheque for two hundred and two pounds and two pence. How does he write this amount in figures? A £202.02 B £202.2 C £220.20 D £220.02 2. A customer buys five packets of biscuits and two cakes in the supermarket. Use a calculator to work out this question. ![Image of a cake and a packet of biscuits] How much does he pay in total? A £6.93 B £9.03 C £11.40 D £15.96 3. A householder reads her electricity meter. ![Electricity meter reading: 45675.54] What is the reading, to the nearest whole number? A 45 680 B 45 675 C 45 676 D 45 670 4. In a supermarket, a man picks up shopping that totals £35.17. As he has only £35 in vouchers, he decides to put back a jar of coffee costing £3.49. How much is the new total? A £30.68 B £31.68 C £31.58 D £31.78 5. An assistant at a garden centre is paid £7.90 per hour. She works 40 hours per week. Which of these is the closest estimate of her total pay for the week? A £7 × 30 B £8 × 30 C £7 × 40 D £8 × 40 D Working with percentages You should already know how to: - recognise and use common equivalent fractions - read, write and understand decimals. By the end of this section you will know how to: - recognise equivalences between common fractions, percentages and decimals - calculate percentages of quantities or measures - calculate percentage increases and decreases - express one quantity as a percentage of another. Understanding percentage Learn the skill A percentage is the number of parts per hundred. 2% is 2 parts per hundred. A percentage is the numerator of a fraction, when the denominator is 100: 20% means 20 out of 100. The grid shows 100 equal squares. 50 squares (half of the grid) are coloured blue. \[ \frac{50}{100} \text{ is } 50\%. \] \[ \frac{50}{100} = \frac{1}{2}, \text{ so } 50\% = \frac{1}{2}. \] 25 squares (one quarter of the grid) are coloured red. \[ \frac{25}{100} \text{ is } 25\%. \] \[ \frac{25}{100} = \frac{1}{4}, \text{ so } 25\% = \frac{1}{4}. \] 10 squares (one tenth of the grid) are coloured green. \[ \frac{10}{100} \text{ is } 10\%. \] \[ \frac{10}{100} = \frac{1}{10}, \text{ so } 10\% = \frac{1}{10}. \] 1 square (one hundredth of the grid) is coloured yellow. \[ \frac{1}{100} \text{ is } 1\%. \] A percentage can always be written as a fraction with the denominator equalling 100. This is because a percentage is a number out of 100. For example, 5% is the same as $\frac{5}{100}$. This can be simplified to $\frac{1}{20}$ by dividing top and bottom by 5. $\frac{5}{100}$ also means $5 \div 100$ which equals 0.05. 5% also equals 0.05. A percentage can always be written as a decimal by dividing it by 100. **Example 1:** Write 20% as: a a decimal b a fraction. a $20\% = \frac{20}{100} = 20 \div 100 = 0.2$ Answer: 0.2 b $20\% = \frac{20}{100} = \frac{2}{10} = \frac{1}{5}$ Answer: $\frac{1}{5}$ You divide a percentage by 100 to change it into a decimal. So, do the opposite to change a decimal into a percentage. To change a decimal or a fraction into a percentage, multiply it by 100. **Example 2:** Write $\frac{2}{5}$ as a percentage. $\frac{2}{5} \times 100 = \frac{200}{5} = 200 \div 5 = 40$ Answer: 40% 1. Write 75% as: a a decimal b a fraction 2. Work out the missing decimals and fractions and write them in the table. | Percentage | Fraction | Decimal | |------------|----------|---------| | 50% | $\frac{1}{2}$ | | | 25% | | | | 10% | | 0.1 | | Percentage | Fraction | Decimal | |------------|----------|---------| | 30% | | | | 40% | | | | 5% | | | 3. Match each percentage to its equivalent fraction or decimal. | 50% | 30% | 75% | 60% | 3% | 80% | |-----|-----|-----|-----|----|-----| | 0.3 | 0.03| $\frac{4}{5}$ | $\frac{1}{2}$ | $\frac{3}{5}$ | $\frac{3}{4}$ | 50% is a half so, to find 50% of an amount, you halve it or divide by 2. **Example 1:** What is 50% of 30? \[ 50\% = \frac{1}{2} \\ \frac{1}{2} \text{ of } 30 = 15 \] Answer: 15 **Example 2:** What is 50% of £24? \[ \frac{1}{2} \text{ of } £24 = £12 \] Answer: £12 10% = — 1/10 so, to find 10% of an amount, you can divide the amount by 10. 10% of £1.00 is £1.00 ÷ 10 = £0.10. **Example 3:** What is 20% of £6.40? To find 10% of an amount, divide by 10: \[ £6.40 \div 10 = £0.64 \] This does not mean that, to find 20% of an amount, you divide the amount by 20! 10% is a special case. 20% is double 10%: \[ 2 \times £0.64 = £1.28 \] Answer: £1.28 **Example 4:** Find 5% of 250 ml. 10% of 250 ml = 25 ml 5% is half of 10%, so \(25 \text{ ml} \div 2 = 12.5 \text{ ml}\) Answer: 12.5 ml **Example 5:** 25 624 people went to a pop concert. 50% of them bought their ticket online. How many people bought their tickets online? First, work out what the question is asking for: \[ 50\% \text{ of } 25 624 = 25 624 \div 2 = 12 812 \] Answer: 12 812 people **Example 6:** A terraced house was worth £120 000 five years ago. It is now worth 75% more than this amount. By how much has the value of the house increased? First, work out what the question is asking for: 75% of £120 000 \[ 50\% \text{ of } £120 000 = £60 000 \\ 25\% \text{ of } £120 000 = £30 000 \] 75% = 50% + 25% = £60 000 + £30 000 Answer: £90 000 **Tip** Use 10% to find other amounts: \[ 20\% = 10\% \times 2. \] Find 10% then multiply by 2. \[ 5\% = 10\% \div 2. \] Find 10% then divide by 2. **Remember** To find half of an amount, you divide by 2. **Remember** 75% = 50% + 25% Try the skill 1. Circle the methods you could use to calculate 25% of £6.40. a) halve £6.40, then halve the answer b) divide £6.40 by 25 c) divide £6.40 by four d) multiply £6.40 by 25, then divide by 100 e) multiply £6.40 by 100, then divide by 25 f) divide £6.40 by ten to find 10% halve this answer to find 5% then add 10%, 10% and 5% 2. Find the following amounts. a) 50% of 48 b) 50% of 74 c) 25% of 16 d) 75% of 120 3. To buy a car costing £2 400, a woman has to pay a deposit of 25%. How much is this? 4. A house that was worth £59 000 three years ago has now increased its value by 50%. How much is this increase? 5. Find the following amounts. a) 10% of £40 b) 10% of £66 c) 20% of £8 d) 20% of £3.20 e) 5% of £60 f) 5% of £900 g) 30% of £4 h) 20% of £6.20 6. Amanda earns £285 a week. This is due to increase by 10%. How much is the increase? 7. The price of a DVD player is reduced in a sale by 20%. If it normally costs £90, what is the discount? Learn the skill You need to be able to find one quantity as a percentage of another. To find one quantity as a percentage of another: - divide the first quantity by the second: \(\frac{\text{first}}{\text{second}}\) - then multiply the answer by 100: \(\frac{\text{first}}{\text{second}} \times 100\) It helps if you simplify the fraction \(\frac{\text{first}}{\text{second}}\). **Example 1:** What is 5 as a percentage of 20? First, divide 5 by 20: \(\frac{5}{20}\) Simplify: \(\frac{5}{20} = \frac{1}{4}\) Then multiply the answer by 100: \(\frac{1}{4} \times 100 = 25\) Answer: 25% **Example 2:** Out of 80 guests staying at a hotel, 60 had the full cooked breakfast. What percentage of guests had the full cooked breakfast? First, divide 60 by 80: \(\frac{60}{80}\) Simplify: \(\frac{60}{80} = \frac{3}{4}\) \(\frac{3}{4} \times 100 = 75\) Answer: 75% **Example 3:** A company made £4 million profit in 2004 and £2 million profit in 2005. What was the profit in 2005 as a percentage of the profit in 2004? First, divide £2 000 000 by £4 000 000: \(\frac{£2 000 000}{£4 000 000}\) Simplify: \(\frac{£2 000 000}{£4 000 000} = \frac{1}{2}\) \(\frac{1}{2} \times 100 = 50\) Answer: 50% **Example 4:** A group of friends spent £250 on organising a shared birthday party. They spent £100 of this on drinks. What percentage of the total did they spend on drinks? First, divide £100 by £250: \(\frac{£100}{£250}\) Simplify: \(\frac{£100}{£250} = \frac{2}{5}\) \(\frac{2}{5} \times 100 = 40\) Answer: 40% 1. What is 15 as a percentage of 60? 2. What is 16 as a percentage of 80? 3. What is 8 as a percentage of 160? 4. What is 15 as a percentage of 50? 5. What is 36 as a percentage of 180? 6. What is 20 as a percentage of 400? 7. What is 12 kg as a percentage of 60 kg? 8. A garage MOT tested 40 cars in one week. 36 cars passed the test. What percentage passed? 9. Mrs Stamper’s weekly pay is £350. She receives a bonus of £70. Express the bonus as a percentage of her weekly pay. 10. The normal price of a two-week package holiday is advertised as £800. As a special offer, it is £200 cheaper. Express the saving as a percentage of the normal cost. 11. In a street there are 80 residents. 24 of them went to a meeting to discuss a proposed skate park. What percentage of the residents went to the meeting? 12. A company has 300 workers. 27 people work in the sales department. What percentage of the company work in the sales department? 13. A city has 15 leisure centres. Twelve of them will be closed on New Year’s Day. What percentage of the leisure centres will be closed on New Year’s Day? A service charge added on to a restaurant bill may be expressed as a percentage increase. You increase an amount by adding on. If an amount is increased, the new amount is more than 100%. Example 1: Increase 80 by 10%. First find 10% of 80: 10% of 80 = 8 The question is about percentage increase, so add: 80 + 8 Answer: 88 You can do the increase in one calculation: \[ 100\% + 10\% = 110\% \] \[ 110\% \text{ of } 80 = \frac{110}{100} \times 80 \] \[ = 11 \times 8 \] \[ = 88 \] Price reduction in a sale may be expressed as a percentage decrease. You decrease an amount by taking away. If an amount is decreased, the new amount is less than 100%. Example 2: Decrease 80 by 25%. First find 25% of 80: \( \frac{1}{4} \) of 80 = 20 The question is about percentage decrease, so take away: 80 – 20 Answer: 60 You can do the decrease in one calculation: 100% – 25% = 75% \[ 75\% \text{ of } 80 = \frac{3}{4} \times 80 \] \[ = 3 \times 20 \] \[ = 60 \] Try the skill 1. Increase 60 by 10%. 2. Decrease 40 by 10%. 3. Increase 84 by 20%. 4. Decrease 76 by 20%. 5. Ruth gets 60 marks in her maths test. a. Rachel gets 5% more marks. How many marks did Rachel get? b. Rafiq gets 5% less marks than Ruth. How many marks did Rafiq get? 6. Sajid earns £285 a week. This is due to increase by 10%. How much will his new wage be? 7. Kathy puts £2,000 into a savings account. The interest rate is 5% per annum. How much will she have in her account after one year, including the interest? A percentage is a number out of ________. \[ \frac{50}{100} = \frac{1}{2}, \text{ so } \_\_\_\_ \% = \frac{1}{2}. \] \[ \frac{25}{100} = \frac{1}{4}, \text{ so } \_\_\_\_ \% = \frac{1}{4}. \] \[ \frac{10}{100} = \frac{1}{10}, \text{ so } \_\_\_\_ \% = \frac{1}{10}. \] 50% is a half so, to find 50% of an amount, you _____ it or divide by ________. To find 10% of an amount you divide by ________. To find one quantity as a percentage of another: - ________ the first quantity by the second: \(\frac{\text{first}}{\text{second}}\) - then ________ the answer by 100%: \(\frac{\text{first}}{\text{second}} \times 100\%\) If an amount is increased, the new amount ________ ________ is than 100%. If an amount is decreased, the new ________ ________ amount is than 100%. **Tip** The three types of percentage question commonly asked are: - find the percentage of a quantity - increase or decrease a number by a given percentage - express one quantity as a percentage of another. Learn how to do them all. 1. Of 900 people who went to a concert, 60% of them were female. How many were female? A. 150 B. 360 C. 600 D. 540 2. Of the members at a gym, two-fifths were sent by their doctors to lose weight. What is two-fifths as a percentage? A. 12% B. 20% C. 25% D. 40% 3. Of the residents in a street, 75% subscribe to satellite TV. What fraction of the residents subscribe to satellite TV? A. \(\frac{3}{4}\) B. \(\frac{1}{4}\) C. \(\frac{1}{3}\) D. \(\frac{1}{2}\) 4. The normal price for a mountain bike is £402. A shop is selling the bike in a sale at a 20% discount. How much is the discount? A. £8.04 B. £20.10 C. £40.20 D. £80.40 5. What is one tenth as a percentage? A. 100% B. 10% C. 1% D. 0.1% 6. There are 80 guests at a wedding reception. 30% of them do not eat meat. How many guests do not eat meat? A. 24 B. 30 C. 50 D. 56 7. In an office, 75% of staff eat in the company’s canteen. What fraction does not eat in the canteen? A. $\frac{3}{4}$ B. $\frac{1}{4}$ C. $\frac{1}{3}$ D. $\frac{1}{2}$ 8. Out of 444 people working at a local factory, 111 joined the union. What percentage of employees are in the union? A. 25% B. 4% C. 20% D. 44% 9. At a local cinema, 250 people attended the 8.30pm showing of a film. Of these people, 40% were senior citizens. How many people attending this film were senior citizens? A. 40 B. 80 C. 100 D. 120
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The Three Facets of Ex-libris: A Piece of Art, A Functional Object, A school Subject I like books: “If only I would have a library” ABSTRACT Ex-libris is a kind of art which is made of printmaking technique. This small scale piece of art is glued on the inside page of the books. It is designed by the artist and includes the name of the owner of the book and some images identifying the person and his life. From this point of view, it is said that ex-libris is a kind of identity card of the book. Keywords: Ex-libris; Symbol; Library; Book; Creativity; Printmaking; Craftsmanship; Identity Card INTRODUCTION Ex-libris is a kind of art which is made of printmaking technique. This small scale piece of art is glued on the inside page of the books. It is designed by the artist and includes the name of the owner of the book and some images identifying the person and his life. From this point of view, it is said that ex-libris is a kind of identity card of the book. Hasip Pektaş explains the ex-libris in his book as follows; “Ex-librises introduce the owner of the book with honourable words and persuade the person who borrowed the book to return it to the owner. Ex-libris is also a kind of communicational vehicle through which people know each other. But, in the meantime, ex-libris brings the art as close and touchable position to people as possible (Pektaş, 2003). Ex-libris is definitely a kind of art definitely. It reflects the book owners’ personal and cultural identity. It is a kind of art which is contemporary, as well as historical and also traditional. It is definitely called art because it provides vast opportunities to the artist to apply his/her artistic creativity and craftsmanship in this piece of work. INSTRUCTIONAL AIMS: RATIONALE Just because of the artistic possibilities of the ex-libris mentioned above, and also practical and small scale print-making technique applicable in the classroom, persuade us to think ex-libris as one of the teaching subjects at schools. Ex-libris provides waste opportunities to the art teachers and students as well. The ex-libris; - Develops creativity. - While creating the piece of work, One can keep control over the materials what it is called craftsmanship. - Craftsmanship enhances the making knowledge through which bodily kinaesthetic intelligence is developed which happens through craft. - Just because creating ex-libris after order of a person, persuades the students to think from different angles. Firstly, it is necessary to think about the person’s life style and personal characteristics, his/her requests, and the second is the students’ (artist) creative world, imagination, and the third one is the limitations of ex-libris in terms of size, in terms of materials, and in terms of printing techniques. - Close the student to the art world. - Because of the small dimensions, it is applicable in the classroom. So, it is very convenient subject for classroom activities. OBJECTIVES: INTENDED LEARNING Under the illumination of rationales mentioned above, the objectives of the lesson are as follows: - To introduce the students with ex-libris. - Ensures the students with the ability to combine the creativity and the craftsmanship in their work, to help them to gain artistic discipline from imagining to practice. - To develop and increase their interest in books. - To teach them to create symbols for personal character and identity. TECHNICAL EXPLANATIONS ABOUT EX-LIBRIS Ex-libris for its printing characteristics can be applied directly to the books or separately on the paper then stick on the books later. Since is designed for the books, their size is small according to the book size. The most useful size nowadays are 6 -7 cm, for the short edge and 8-10 cm for the long edge. There is no any rule for the borders. They can be square or rectangular or free. It is up to the artist’s choice. Since it has to be adhered to the inside of the book, the printing paper should not be so thick. SOME NECESSARY INFORMATION ABOUT APPLICATION: SUGGESTED SCHEDULE For the students, the duration of the work is designed for 4 class hours. The work is carried out in the school art room. However if the students like they can continue to work at home. The work outside the school will provide the students with a free thinking atmosphere. The profile of the students age is 17. The number of the participants are 15. It can also be applied with the small age group. THE PROCESS OF THE WORK: SUGGESTED TEACHING METHOD In this study a different model of teaching method is tried to be applied. It is called “Constructivist approach” in art education. “Constructivist theory has many definitions in educational literature, but at the heart of constructivist approach to education is the understanding that students are in control of their own learning. Constructivist view, knowledge as constructed by the learner in a particular context and nor pre-exist or given from an expert or authority” (Milbrndt, and the others, 2004). In this approach, the students become in close relation with the others and reach the information through by their own effort. The constructive approach actually can not be called a teaching model, but it is called a kind of learning way. Also, this way of teaching provide different opportunities to the teachers as well as students. Such as: - The students can reach artistic information by themselves, - Everything is under the control of the students through the process of learning, Through this learning, Three learning behaviour are active in the studio or art class. 1) Active learners, 2) Cooperative learners, 3) Creative learners. In this study, the constructivist learning approach mentioned above is applied. Learning processes are as follows. **INSTRUCTIONAL RECOURSES** Some visual materials including some samples of the ex-libris, books about ex-libris and also some artists work, were brought to the art room, exhibited on the table for the students’ service. The teacher from time to time talk on the samples, explain the meaning and the techniques. **WORKING ATMOSPHERE IN THE ART ROOM** The Art room was designed in order to provide the students with creative and free thinking possibilities. Thorough this they can discuss and share their ideas freely with their friends. The teacher replied the questions coming from the students, helped them where they had difficulties to solve the problems in terms of artistic and craftsmanship and also functional aspect of the works. The teacher explain the solution of the problems on the samples of ex-libris. Ex-libris is a functional (Identify person) as well as artistic object. It is small scale work of art. Just because mostly it is designed on the name of person who orders exliblis for his/her library, one can say It is functional. OFFERING THE STUDENT SOME ALTERNATIVES The students are told to design ex-libris either for their own personnel library or for their friends. The draft copies can be realised in different techniques. Such as; water colour, gouache, collage are some proposed techniques. But, the students were warned not to forget to apply their design to different printing techniques later on. May be they should be asked to design at first according to the printing technique decided in advance. WORKING PROCESS The students start working. At the beginning they are slow and timid as it always happens. This creativity syndrome is not a strange behaviour for an art teacher. This resembles the artists’ behaviour during the creative process. During this process the most of the students very often try to consult samples again and again. They mostly find the difficulties in creating the meaningful symbol to identify the person who ordered the ex-libris, otherwise they have no problem with the drawing. As it has been said before, ex-librises always have meaningful symbols reflecting artists as well as the persons’ identity who has ordered the ex-libris. It should be necessary to put the owner’s name of the library on the ex-libris. Like every practical work, there are some students quick and who grasp in advance and, create meaningful objects. It happened in this study. These early students overtake the mentor role in the classroom. Then the others followed them. The works, then were exhibited in the studio. Every student explains his/her work. All class were discussed on the works. Every one chooses one work, discusses it thoroughly describing, analysing, interpreting and judging process. While the work was carried on the students’ attention directed to the importance of the books. Although new technology and electronic vehicles... overtakes the function of the books and provide the people to reach to the books very quickly and easily these days, but still quite a number of people think that beautiful visual and tactile sensations provided by the real books one can not be obtained from their electronic versions. CONCLUSION At the end of the practical study, the students said that they enjoyed the study, they think that creating meaningful symbols for the books is very interesting. The Time was not enough to apply the draft ex-libris to printing materials. If it were done, The students would learn how their design would change when applied to a different materials. The students learned different aspects of art; creating functional object and design a small scale piece of art. From the art education side the students gained such benefits which are as follows; - They were introduced to different styles of art which was quite strange to them. - They developed understanding, thinking and creating abilities. - They acquired making knowledge which is very close relation to kinaesthetic intelligence. - Learned creating meaningful symbols. Real learned behaviour can be come out in the next study, If the students apply freely what they have learned during the previous study. REFERENCES Kirişoğlu, O. T. (2014) Sanat Bir Serüven, Pegem Akademi, Ankara Milbrandt, M., Felts, J., Richards, B., Abghari, N. (2004) Teaching-To-Learn: Constructivist Approach To Shared Responsibility Art Education The Journale of The NAEA (Nationale Art Education Association 57 (5). Pektaş, H. (2003) Ex-libris, AED, Ankara
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10.1 Overview 10.1.1 Introduction Trade, in the form of buying, swapping, selling and giving goods and services, is a driving force that interconnects people and places all over the world. Trade has gone on ever since human societies existed. In contrast, international aid is a modern phenomenon, although countries have always had internal programs to help those in need. Trade and aid can bring people together to share the Earth’s resources, but there can be problems when those resources are limited and, potentially, negative consequences for the environment. The big question is how to organise trade and aid so that it fosters social justice and is fair and sustainable. Starter questions 1 What goods and services do you need to support your lifestyle? Think about your everyday life at home, at school, and in sport, recreation and hobbies. 2 Where do you access your goods and services? To what extent do you obtain goods and services online? 3 From what you know, do you think all trade that occurs in the world today is fair? How can fair trade and aid make the world a better place for all? Inquiry sequence | Topic | Title | Page | |-------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | 10.1 | Overview | 162 | | 10.2 | How does trade connect us? | 164 | | 10.3 | How does trade connect Australia with the world? | 166 | | 10.4 | How is food traded around the world? | 170 | | 10.5 | SkillBuilder: Constructing multiple line and cumulative line graphs | 173 | | 10.6 | How has the international automotive trade changed? | 173 | | 10.7 | Are global players altering the industrial landscape? | 176 | | 10.8 | Why is fair trade important? | 178 | | 10.9 | Why does Australia give foreign aid? | 180 | | 10.10 | Why is the illegal wildlife trade a cause for concern? | 182 | | 10.11 | SkillBuilder: Constructing and describing a flow map | 183 | | 10.12 | Review | 183 | To access videos, interactivities, discussion widgets, image galleries, weblinks and more, go to www.jacplus.com.au 10.2 How does trade connect us? 10.2.1 Trade in goods and services The Earth’s resources are not distributed evenly over space. For instance, some places may have an abundance of iron ore and others may have none. To solve this problem, nations have developed trade, allowing producers and consumers to exchange goods and services. The system of trade has been around for a long time. Its earliest form was bartering at local markets or fairs. Merchants also used land and sea routes to access markets in foreign lands, where they exchanged goods for payment. More recently, air transport has become a means of trade, and the internet has made it possible to instantly exchange information. Today, we have a highly sophisticated, large-scale, global system of trade. A modern example of the interconnection of trade is the production of the Airbus A380. To construct this plane, component parts must be purchased from different countries and transported over land and sea to reach their final assembly place in Toulouse, France (see figure 1). Goods and services, of which there are many, are generated by either processing Earth’s resources or people doing things for each other. A good can be an item as simple as a loaf of bread or it can be as complex as a motor car. A service is not something you can hold in your hand; examples of services are education in a school or the advice a doctor gives a patient. What types of goods and services do you use to support your lifestyle? As seen in figure 2, the processing of a resource into more complex goods can be a series of transitions, in which there is value adding at each level of industry (that is, its value increases). An important consideration in the production of goods and services is the impact on the environment. 10.2.2 How are goods and services consumed? Household final consumption per person Household final consumption per person is the value or money spent on all goods and services such as food, cars, washing machines, electricity, water and gas, education, medical service expenses and entertainment. The total figure of all goods and services when calculated for a country for a year is then divided by the total population of the country to give a figure in dollars and this is then referred to as the household final consumption per person. The highest consumers of goods and services on a per-person basis are wealthy, industrialised countries such as the United Arab Emirates, the United States and Hong Kong (see figure 3). However, countries such as China and India consume high levels of goods and services because they have very large populations. As would be expected, countries that are high-level consumers can have significant impacts on the environment, particularly in terms of energy use and waste production. **What about the poorest countries in the world?** At the lower end of the scale of household final consumption per person, people in countries such as Malawi and Burundi spend $507 and $468 respectively per year, or less than $1.40 per day per person. This expenditure is mainly for food (see figure 4). **FIGURE 3** Top 13 countries for household final consumption, per person. Australia is ranked twelfth in this list for the years 2013–2014 **FIGURE 4** Household final consumption expenditure per person for the 10 lowest ranked countries in the world for 2013–2014 ### ACTIVITIES **REMEMBER** 1. What reasons can you suggest as to why goods and services are traded? 2. Name the four levels of industry, and give an example of a good as it moves through the production process. **EXPLAIN** 3. What reasons can you suggest for component parts of the Airbus A380 having to come from different places (countries)? 4. Explain what is meant by the term value adding, as a product moves through the four levels of industry. Choose a product such as wheat or timber. **DISCOVER** 5. Suggest why the United States is one of the largest consumers of goods and services in the world. 6. Use the CIA weblink in the Resources tab to select a country to compare with Australia. Look up figures for population and trade and see if you can explain why the figures for the country you have chosen differ from the figures for Australia, based on the wider range of data presented for each country. **PREDICT** 7. It has been claimed that countries such as China and India, with growing middle classes that are now eager for goods and services, will put a strain on world resources. How might a growing demand for energy sources in these countries affect the environment? 8. How might a change, such as growth in Australia’s population from 23 million to 40 million, affect Australia’s trade? **THINK** 9. Why is Hong Kong, which is a Self Administered Region (SAR) of China, ranked third in household final consumption per person, while the wider country of China is ranked one-hundred-and-twelfth? 10. What reasons can you give for people being able to survive on $468 per person in countries such as Burundi? 10.3 How does trade connect Australia with the world? 10.3.1 Australia’s trade organisation Australia is one of the 162 members of the World Trade Organization (WTO), which covers 95 per cent of global trade. The organisation promotes free and fair trade between countries and, since 2001, its Doha Development Agenda has aimed to help the world’s poor by slashing trade barriers such as tariffs, quotas and farm subsidies. The Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) coordinates trade agreements on behalf of the Australian Government, and the Australian Trade Commission (Austrade) promotes the export of goods and services. About 73 per cent of Australia’s trade is with the member countries of the Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. FIGURE 1 People involved with trade 10.3.2 Australia’s trading partners China, Japan, the Republic of Korea and the United States were Australia’s top four trading partners in 2014. Figure 2 and table 1 show details of Australia’s import and export trade for the years 2013 and 2014. **FIGURE 2** Australia’s top five import and export partners, 2013 (A$ million) | Rank | Goods | Services | Total | % share | |------|-------------|----------|---------|---------| | 1 | China | 142 078 | 10 390 | 152 468 | 23.0 | | 2 | Japan | 65 431 | 4 787 | 70 218 | 10.6 | | 3 | United States | 40 635 | 19 807 | 60 442 | 9.1 | | 4 | Republic of Korea | 32 424 | 2 202 | 34 626 | 5.2 | | 5 | Singapore | 21 128 | 9 059 | 30 187 | 4.5 | | 6 | New Zealand | 16 083 | 7 384 | 23 467 | 3.5 | | 7 | United Kingdom | 9 920 | 10 868 | 20 788 | 3.1 | | 8 | Malaysia | 17 394 | 3 188 | 20 582 | 3.1 | | 9 | Thailand | 16 106 | 2 872 | 18 978 | 2.9 | | 10 | Germany | 13 725 | 3 000 | 16 725 | 2.5 | **TABLE 1** Australia’s top 10 two-way trading partners, 2014 (A$ million) 10.3.3 Australia’s types of trade Exports Australia’s export trade in 2014 was valued at $327 billion, and was dominated by the mineral products of iron ore, coal and natural gas. Recreational and educational travel were Australia’s leading services exports. (See figure 3 for details of leading exports.) International students A more recent high-level earner for Australia (now ranked as our number four export after iron ore, coal and natural gas), is the category of ‘education-related travel services’, which for 2015 was valued at $18.2 billion. With more than 450,000 international students from 191 countries studying in Australia (see figure 4), education is now very important for our economy. In effect, it is a service export in that students are paying for knowledge that they will take back to their home country. FIGURE 5 Education is now a major export for Australia, with the number of international students studying here increasing in recent years. Imports Like many countries, Australia is not self-sufficient in all goods and services. In 2014 Australia imported goods and services to a value of close to $337 billion. Figure 6 shows the main aspects of this trade. FIGURE 6 Australia’s leading imports for goods and services, 2014 (A$ million) - Passenger transport services: 6141 (1.8%) - Computers: 7316 (2.2%) - Medicaments (incl. veterinary): 7497 (2.2%) - Freight transport services: 9686 (2.9%) - Telecom equipment & parts: 9845 (2.9%) - Passenger motor vehicles: 17566 (5.2%) - Good vehicles: 6008 (1.8%) - Personal travel (excl. education) services: 24597 (7.3%) - Crude petroleum: 20050 (6.0%) - Refined petroleum: 18579 (5.5%) FIGURE 7 Oil and petroleum products make up a significant part of Australia’s import trade. ACTIVITIES REMEMBER 1 What is the interconnection between the World Trade Organization and Australia’s trade? 2 What are Australia’s three most important exports and imports? EXPLAIN 3 Refer to figure 2 and table 1. Compare Australia’s imports and exports with those of Asian countries. What changes have occurred in the imports and exports between countries from 2013 to 2014. Use data to support your answer. 4 Despite having a relatively small population, Australia has many goods and services to trade. Explain why this might be so. PREDICT 5 How might a change in the growth of Australia’s population affect the country’s agricultural exports? 6 Look at the list of goods that Australia imports (see figure 6). What factors could lead to a change in the types of goods imported by the year 2050? THINK 7 a What evidence is there in this section to confirm the fact that Australia is regarded as mostly a primary industry exporter? b Are there any figures of export trade that contradict this statement? c Why has Australia become such an important exporter of education services? learnON To access videos, interactivities, discussion widgets, image galleries, weblinks and more, go to www.jacplus.com.au primary industry industry involved in the gathering of natural resources, such as iron ore and timber, or activities such as farming and fishing 10.4 How is food traded around the world? 10.4.1 Trade in food The world’s population is unevenly distributed across space, as is the quantity of food produced. Some places, such as Australia, produce an abundance of food, while others struggle to produce enough to maintain food security. Traditionally, food production consisted of hunting and gathering or cropping and herding. Excess food was consumed locally or sent to nearby markets for barter or cash. While up to 41 per cent of the world’s population is still directly tied to subsistence agriculture, many of the world’s highly developed economies produce large surpluses of food specifically for international trade. For instance, Australia’s food production is estimated to be worth $100 billion annually, and of that, $44.3 billion-worth is exported. The flow of food trade Much of the flow of food trade is controlled by powerful nations, such as the United States, the European Union and China, and by international food trade agreements. The World Trade Organization (WTO) and G20 (a group of 20 highly developed and powerful nations) have a significant say in the flow of food products around the world, particularly with respect to tariffs and fair trade rules. Food trade is a complicated business, as can be seen in figure 1. It is estimated that for developing countries, three-quarters of exports are agricultural produce. While developed countries may need to import tropical foods, many actually export as much as they import in agricultural products. FIGURE 1 World trade flows — exports of agricultural products by region, US$ billion Source: Data from World Trade Organization produce. For instance, the United States, Canada and Australia use large farms to produce wheat, and they control 75 per cent of the global export trade in cereals. In 2015, Australia produced 23 million tonnes of wheat, the majority of which was for sale in overseas markets (see figure 2). Australia’s top 10 agricultural markets can be seen in figure 3. **FIGURE 2** Top export countries for Australian wheat --- **10.4.2 Trade in animals** World trade in animals as food is estimated at close to 50 million animals per year — pigs, cattle, goats and sheep. Using modern shipping methods, many animals are transported over long distances, and questions have been asked about potential cruelty in the operation of this trade (see figure 4). Australia’s exports of live sheep and cattle to Asia and the Middle East in 2014 amounted to 3.7 per cent of Australia’s total exports. The value of the live animal export trade to Australia is estimated at $1.6 billion or 3.7 per cent of all agricultural produce per year. The industry employs up to 10 000 rural workers at abattoirs, ports and in the transport industry. While there may be concerns about this industry, it should be remembered that countries request live animal exports so that they can be slaughtered according to **halal** religious customs. Due to the extensive nature of farming cattle and sheep in Australia, these animals must often travel very large distances to reach ports. They then travel by ship to distant markets. The Australian government has set high standards in the handling of live animals and is monitoring carefully how they are treated at destination ports. **halal** describes food that is prepared under Islamic dietary guidelines FIGURE 3 Australia’s agricultural exports to various countries, 2014 FIGURE 4 Live animal transport around the world Source: Spatial Vision ACTIVITIES REMEMBER 1. What is the value of Australia’s agricultural exports? 2. What is the percentage of world trade in animals that Australia controls? 3. Refer to figure 1. a. What is the value of food trade from Australasia to Europe? b. What is the value of food trade from Europe to Australasia? c. Is there a balance in this food trade based on your calculations in (a) and (b)? d. Place the regions of the world in decreasing order by volume of food trade. EXPLAIN 4. Refer to figure 2. a. Explain why Australia can export such a large quantity of wheat to the world. DISCOVER 5. Why do countries in places such as the Middle East and Asia have a preference for live animal imports? 6. Use the Trade weblink in the Resources tab to help you prepare a 200-word statement about the types of agricultural produce Australia exports and the nations to which we export. Also state which agricultural produce Australia imports. 7. a. Investigate the issue of live animal exports from Australia. b. How might a ban on live animal exports from Australia affect farmers? 10.5 SkillBuilder: Constructing multiple line and cumulative line graphs What are multiple line graphs and cumulative line graphs? Multiple line graphs consist of a number of separate lines drawn on a single graph. Cumulative line graphs are more complex to read, because each set of data is added to the previous line graph. FIGURE 1 Water use by five states: a multiple line graph Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2012 FAOSTAT, http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html FIGURE 2 Value of farms and fisheries food production: a cumulative line graph Source: © DAFF 2013, Australian Food Statistics 2011–12, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Canberra. CC BY 3.0. Go online to access: - a clear step-by-step explanation to help you master the skill - a model of what you are aiming for - a checklist of key aspects of the skill - a series of questions to help you apply the skill and to check your understanding. eLesson Watch this video to learn more about how to construct multiple line and cumulative line graphs. eles-1740 Interactivity Use this interactivity to learn how to construct multiple line and cumulative line graphs. int-3358 10.6 How has the international automotive trade changed? 10.6.1 The car trade Trade is one of the strongest interconnections between people and places on the planet, as goods are transported all over the world. Worldwide earnings from car exports make up 5.3 per cent of earnings from all international exports. Two countries with the largest share of the car export market are Japan in north-east Asia and Germany in Europe. Together, they have 61 per cent of the world’s net profits on international car exports. Other countries with significant car exports include China and South Korea in Asia. 10.6.2 The rise of the Asian car industry The Honda Motor Company is a Japanese multinational corporation. It is: - the world’s largest motorcycle manufacturer - the world’s largest manufacturer of internal combustion engines (by volume) - the second-largest Japanese car manufacturer - the fourth largest car manufacturer in the United States - the seventh largest car manufacturer in the world behind Toyota, General Motors, Volkswagen, Hyundai, Ford and Nissan. The company has assembly plants around the globe (see figure 1). Honda develops vehicles to cater to different needs and markets, so its vehicles vary by country and may feature vehicles exclusive to a region. 10.6.3 The decline of the American car industry Detroit is the largest city in the state of Michigan, in the United States, and was long known as the world’s automotive centre. Detroit and the surrounding region constitute a major centre of commerce and global trade, most notably as home to America’s ‘Big Three’ automotive companies: General Motors, Ford and Chrysler. These three car manufacturers were, for a while, the largest in the world, and two of them are still in the top five. Ford had held the position of second-ranked car maker for 56 years, but was relegated to third in North American sales after being overtaken by Toyota in 2007. That year, Toyota also produced more vehicles than General Motors. In the North American market, the Detroit car makers retain the top three spots, though their market share is dwindling, and Honda passed Chrysler for the fourth spot in the United States in 2008. The United States car industry is suffering from increased overseas competition and from the 2008–2012 global recession. Car dealerships across the United States are struggling, and many are closing. The Big Three manufacturers have suffered from perceived inferior quality compared to their Japanese counterparts. They have also been slow to bring new vehicles to the market, whereas the Japanese are considered leaders in producing smaller, more fuel-efficient cars. FIGURE 2 A Honda S2000 Falling sales and market share have resulted in the Big Three’s plants operating below capacity. General Motors’ plants were at 85 per cent capacity in November 2005 — well below the plants of its Asian competitors. This led to production cuts, plant closures and layoffs. Between 2000 and 2010, Detroit’s population fell by 25 per cent. It had been the nation’s tenth largest city but is now its eighteenth largest, with a population of 713 777. In April 2012, General Motors and Ford continued to lose market share, with yearly sales down 8.2 per cent and 5.3 per cent respectively. As a consequence, a rise in automated manufacturing using robotic technology has created related industries in Detroit. Inexpensive labour in other parts of the world and increased competition have led to a steady change in certain types of manufacturing jobs in the region. For example, the Detroit area has gained new lithium ion battery plants. As well, the Detroit car makers and local manufacturers have restructured in response to competition. General Motors has invested heavily in fuel-cell-equipped vehicles, while Chrysler has researched and developed biodiesel. **FIGURE 3** Car industry redistribution in the United States Source: Spatial Vision **ACTIVITIES** **REMEMBER** 1 Refer to figure 1. Honda cars are manufactured in many places around the world. Where is Honda’s manufacturing centre for the Australian market? **EXPLAIN** 2 Explain the advantages of the Big Three US car manufacturers being located in the same place. 3 Why has the Japanese automotive industry become a world leader in international exports? 4 What changes have Detroit’s industries made in response to the decline of the car industry? 5 Look at figure 3. Describe the location of foreign and domestic automotive plants. **DISCOVER** 6 Research the effects of the decline of the US car industry on Detroit and surrounding towns and businesses. 7 New Zealand used to have a Honda assembly plant. Find out when it opened, when it closed and the reason for its closure. 10.7 Are global players altering the industrial landscape? 10.7.1 Changing trends Until recently, designer clothing came from Italy, and jeans came from the United States. Today, that Italian suit might be designed in Milan, but it is woven from New Zealand wool and stitched together in China. **Globalisation** has brought global marketing, encouraging consumers everywhere to buy goods without a thought to where they come from. The clothing industry has faced several tough years. Until late 2008, Australians flocked to shopping centres around the country and spent freely on clothing. However, since the global recession, or global financial crisis, consumer spending behaviour has changed, and clothing retailers have suffered. Retailers have also been affected by the increase in online shopping, which has grown in popularity over the years, mainly because people find it convenient and easy to bargain shop from the comfort of their home or office. Online shopping has revolutionised the business world by making everything anyone could want available by the simple click of a mouse button. The Australian clothing manufacturing industry has produced some very recognisable brand names and distinctive products. One challenge facing this industry is international competition, especially from developing countries that can afford to mass-produce clothing more cheaply than Australian companies can. Australian clothing manufacturers tend to focus on high-end, high-quality products rather than attempting to compete with lower-cost producers. Many multinational firms have ‘**offshored**’ their production to China, owing to its low labour costs, stable political system, aggressive export promotion policies and exchange rate. There are no labour unions, and incentives offered by the government include tax breaks, low import duties, low-cost land and low construction costs for new factories. **Horror unfolding as Holden production goes off-shore** After months of speculation and days of denials, General Motors Holden has finally announced the decision its Australian workforce has feared. The company will stop production of its iconic Australian car brand from 2017. It means the loss of nearly 3000 jobs in Victoria and South Australia and may spell the beginning of the end for the automotive industry in this country. The company blames a high dollar, the rising costs of production and a small domestic market. Holden follows Ford and Mitsubishi in exiting Australia and it signals the demise of a cultural icon. Holden started making cars in Australia in 1917. Mass production started in 1948. The last car will roll off the production line in 2017, making it a century of car making. Source: ABC Online, 11 December 2013. --- **FIGURE 2** Ikea’s store in Beijing had more than six million visitors in 2011. --- 10.7.2 Foreign companies in China In 1979, there were 100 foreign-owned enterprises in China. In 1998, there were 280 000, and by 2012 there were 436 800. Since 2007, foreign companies have employed 25 million people in China. Foreign companies that operate in China include Coca-Cola, Pepsi, Nike, Citibank, General Motors, Philips, Ikea, Microsoft and Samsung. 10.7.3 Are your clothes made in sweatshops? If you buy the brands Puma, Nike, Adidas, Mizuno, New Balance, Bonds or Just Jeans, then you may be wearing clothing or footwear that was made in a sweatshop. A sweatshop is any working environment in which the workers experience long hours, low wages and poor working conditions. Typically, they are workshops that manufacture goods such as clothing. Sweatshops are common in developing countries, where labour laws are less strict or are not enforced at all. Workers have to use dangerous machinery in cramped conditions and can even be exposed to toxic substances. Child labour may be used. Despite the fact that sweatshop workers receive wages, many of them continue to live in poverty. Most are young women aged 17 to 24. FIGURE 4 A Bangladesh sweatshop ACTIVITIES REMEMBER 1 Why have many countries moved their production to offshore places? 2 What are sweatshops? PREDICT 3 What change do you think online shopping will make to the Australian retail industry? 4 What do you think would happen to the price of clothing if sweatshops were to close down? THINK 5 Look at figure 3. Give reasons why most offshore manufacturing companies are located in the Asia–Pacific region. 6 What impact does moving production offshore have on the Australian economy and its people? 7 If clothing carries the Ethical Clothing Australia (ECA) label, it means the garment was manufactured in Australia and the manufacturer has ensured that all people involved in its production received the legally stated wage rates and conditions — known in Australia as award wages and conditions. Find out which Australian-made garments you can purchase to support fair working conditions. 8 How might internet shopping affect places such as shopping centres? 9 Are sweatshops ethical or sustainable? Explain your answer. 10.8 Why is fair trade important? 10.8.1 Social justice and problems of trade The benefits of international trade are not evenly distributed around the world, and trade often favours large, developed countries rather than small developing countries. It is the role of governments, organisations and agencies to regulate this trade so that economic benefits are more evenly distributed. Australians benefit economically, culturally and politically from international trade, but social justice problems can arise from this trade. For example, when we import blood diamonds from Africa or carpets made by child labour from Nepal, we are supporting unethical industries. In addition, some countries can make it difficult for other countries to compete fairly, on a ‘level playing field’. They do this by: - imposing tariffs — taxes on imports - imposing quotas — limits on the quantity of a good that can be imported - providing subsidies — cash or tax benefits for local farmers or manufacturers. 10.8.2 Fair trade The fair trade movement aims to improve the lives of small producers in developing nations by paying a fair price to artisans (craftspeople) and farmers who export goods such as handicrafts, coffee, cocoa, sugar, tea, bananas, cotton, wine and fruit. The movement operates through various national and international organisations such as the World Fair Trade Organization and Fairtrade International (see figure 2). The fair trade labelling system is operated by Fairtrade International, of which Australia is a participating member. This system works to ensure that income from the sale of products goes back directly to farmers, artisans and their communities. Fairtrade International is present in over 120 countries worldwide and has a total of 1226 producer groups (see figure 3). The number of farmers and workers participating in Fairtrade is estimated to be 1.4 million, with 23 per cent of this number being women. Fairtrade food items currently include sugar, chocolate, coffee, tea, wine and rice. Other products include soaps, candles, clothing, jewellery, bags, rugs, carpets, ceramics, wooden handicrafts, toys and beauty products. In 2013, Australia and New Zealand had a combined retail sales total of AU$290.3 million in Fairtrade Certificate products. The highest volume of trade in tonnes for 2013 were bananas: 373 000, sugar: (cane sugar) 194 000 and coffee/cocoa beans: 138 500. On a global scale, 11.4 million producers and their families have benefited from Fairtrade-funded infrastructure and community development projects with a value of $8.4 billion. **FIGURE 1** Fair trade organizations promote fair labour practices such as preventing and eliminating child labour. 10.8.3 Non-government organisations and fair trade Non-government organisations (NGOs) such as Oxfam and World Vision also support fair trade, and oppose socially unjust trade agreements. They oppose attempts by developed countries to: - block agricultural imports from developing countries - subsidise their own farmers while demanding that poor countries keep their agricultural markets open. **FIGURE 2** Goods produced by workers for the World Fair Trade Organization mission **FIGURE 3** Fairtrade in the world, 2013 - Over 30 000 Fairtrade products on sale worldwide. - Shoppers spent $AU8.4 billion on Fairtrade products in 2013. - More than 1.4 million farmers and workers in 74 countries. - Nearly 6 in 10 consumers have seen the Fairtrade mark. Of those 9 in 10 trust it. - Average farm size is just 1.6 hectares for Fairtrade smallholders. - Fairtrade in the world, 2013 - National Fairtrade organisation - Fairtrade producer country - Fairtrade marketing organisation and Fairtrade producer country - SAU$127.4 million estimated Fairtrade premium paid in 2013. *Source: Fairtrade Foundation* 10.9 Why does Australia give foreign aid? 10.9.1 Introduction Countries give aid to other countries in order to help with their development and, for example, help people overcome poverty and resolve humanitarian issues. Aid often helps the donor country by promoting stability and prosperity in the region. Australia’s Official Development Assistance (ODA) program is known as Australian Aid. 10.9.2 Australian Aid aims Over one billion people in the world live in poverty and do not have easy access to education and health care. When disasters strike, they lack the resources to get back on their feet. Poverty needs to be addressed by the international community because it can: - breed instability and extremism - cause people to flee violence and hardship, thus swelling the number of refugees. Australia takes the stance that helping people who are less fortunate is a vital way of supporting humanitarian principles and social justice. Apart from showing we care, it is in the interests of our national security. It also increases our status throughout the world and creates political and economic interconnections with our Asia–Pacific neighbours. 10.9.3 The Australian Aid program The Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) manages the Australian Government’s multi-billion-dollar overseas aid program. To ensure that funds reach the needy, Australian Aid works with Australian businesses, non-government organisations such as CARE Australia, and international agencies such as the United Nations (UN) and the World Bank. 10.9.4 The Australian Aid plan Overseas aid is the transfer of money, food and services from developed countries such as Australia to developing countries such as Papua New Guinea. There are many programs that are part of the Australian Aid budget, which is classified as Official Development Assistance (ODA). (See figure 1.) These include: - aid to governments for post-war reconstruction, as in Afghanistan and Iraq - distribution of food through the United Nations World Food Programme • contributions to United Nations projects on refugees and climate change • disaster and conflict relief in the form of food, medicine and shelter, such as that given after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami • programs by non-government organisations to reduce child labour in developing countries • funding for education programs • support for Australian volunteers working overseas. A newly developed Australian Aid program for 2015–16 includes $50 million for gender equity and women’s economic empowerment. 10.9.5 The Australian Aid budget The Australian Aid program supports the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In addition, countries with a low Human Development Index (HDI) are the target for development assistance. The Human Development Index ranks a country according to life expectancy at birth, adult literacy, school enrolments and income. The highest possible score for a country is 1.0. (See figure 2.) The total Australian Aid budget for 2015–16 was over 4 billion dollars with 92 per cent of the Regional Budget of 2.5 billion allocated to our nearest neighbours in the Asia–Pacific region (see figure 3). **FIGURE 2** The Human Development Index, 2015 **FIGURE 1** Distribution of the Australian Aid budget **FIGURE 3** Australian Aid 2015–16 - Pacific: 44% - East Asia: 36% - South and west Asia: 12% - Africa and the Middle East: 7% - Latin America and the Caribbean: 1% **ACTIVITIES** **REMEMBER** 1. Which government department manages Australia’s Official Development Assistance program? 2. Which regions of the world receive most of Australia’s aid funding and why do you think this is so? **EXPLAIN** 3. What reasons can you put forward to explain why Australian Aid programs are worthwhile in terms of Australia’s *interconnections* with its neighbours? 4. Is there a case that could be argued for cutting aid budgets? Explain your reasons. **DISCOVER** 5. Undertake some internet research to find out how the Sustainable Development Goals guide the Australian Aid program. 6. a. Why is East Asia such an important *place* for the distribution of Australian Aid? b. Why does Northeast Asia receive little foreign aid from Australia? **PREDICT** 7. If Australian Aid were to stop, what *changes* do you think this would have on Australia’s reputation in the international community? 8. Which elements of the Australian Aid program do you think will have the greatest impact on the lives of people in the Pacific region? Give reasons for your selection. **THINK** 9. Can you suggest a better way of distributing the budget dollars of the Australian Aid program in order to improve the lives of people in the Asia–Pacific region? 10. If Australia’s economic prosperity were to decline in the next 50 years, which elements of the Australian Aid program do you believe would not be *sustainable*? --- **10.10 Why is the illegal wildlife trade a cause for concern?** Access this subtopic at [www.jacplus.com.au](http://www.jacplus.com.au). 10.11 SkillBuilder: Constructing and describing a flow map What is a flow map? A flow map is a map that shows the movement of people or objects from one place to another. Arrows are drawn from the point of origin to the destination. Sometimes these lines are scaled to indicate how much of the feature is moving. Thicker lines show a larger amount; thinner lines show a smaller amount. FIGURE 1 Interstate migration flows, 1996 to 2001 Go online to access: - a clear step-by-step explanation to help you master the skill - a model of what you are aiming for - a checklist of key aspects of the skill - a series of questions to help you apply the skill and to check your understanding. eLesson Watch this video to learn more about how to construct and describe a flow map. eles-1741 Interactivity Use this interactivity to learn how to construct and describe a flow map. int-3359 10.12 Review 10.12.1 Review The Review section contains a range of different questions and activities to help you revise and recall what you have learned, especially prior to a topic test. 10.12.2 Reflect The Reflect section provides you with an opportunity to apply and extend your learning. Access this subtopic at www.jacplus.com.au.
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President’s Message Welcome to spring/summer 2015! After a long, and difficult, winter, it seemed that spring would never arrive. However, as the multitudes of mosquitoes will attest to, spring is finally here. The trillia have flowered making the bush a panorama of colours as spring progressed. Spring ducks are in abundance as life returns to all of nature. The lake peaked this year at just under 8 feet above the dam so there may be some damage to buildings close to the water. Again this year, the Executive have decided to send out several reports which normally are presented at the AGM. Please retain the AGM Information Package and bring it with you to the AGM on Saturday, August 1, at 9:30am in Bennett’s Barn. Sending the information out early not only provides greater dissemination of the information (more people read the newsletter than attend the AGM - a situation that can be reversed!) but also saves considerable time at the AGM so we can all get back out to the sunshine and the lake we love. Work will start up again at the end of June on the section of the WahWashKesh Road that is being relocated. Please see inside the newsletter for important articles on various different topics. On behalf of the Executive, I wish everyone a healthy, happy, and safe 2015 at Lake WahWashKesh! Don Comrie This edition of the newsletter is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Kathryn Cook Kathryn passed away suddenly on June 11, 2015. She has been the creator and webmaster of the WWKCA website since 2007. To honour Kathryn, and to recognize her significant contribution to education and the Association, the Executive, on behalf of the Association, has made a $200 contribution to the West Parry Sound Health Center Foundation in Kathryn’s name. HELIPAD UPDATE After several futile attempts to contact the ORNGE representative in 2014, in early 2015 I sent a letter to the president and CEO of ORNGE with a cc to Dr. Hoskin, Minister of Health for Ontario, and another cc to Mr. Norm Miller, MPP for Parry Sound - Muskoka. A response from ORNGE was almost immediate and I agreed with the ORNGE rep to meet on-site once the snow had left the bush and the roads were completely passable. A meeting was scheduled for May 26 at the proposed helipad site. In attendance was the rep from the OMNR+F (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forests), Municipality of Whistone Fire Chief Bob Whitman, Ken Corbett, Ed Bennett Sr. and Ed Bennett Jr., and me. The rep from ORNGE said that he was very busy and would try to attend but did not. To my surprise, I learned that the next day the ORNGE rep would be in Ardbeg to examine their helipad! With the help of Bob Whitman I was able to learn that the ORNGE rep would be at Ardbeg on Thursday afternoon. I went to the Ardbeg helipad and met the ORNGE rep there. He asked several questions but did not have time to come to examine the proposed site. He did, however, send me revised minimum requirements for new helipads and suggested we establish a “day landing only” helipad to start with and then get it certified for night landings with lighting afterwards. I forwarded the revised area requirements to Dean Timson of the OMNR+F for his consideration and will talk to him next week. Don Comrie POWR MAG The Association Executive voted to join POWR MAG (Protector of Wetlands and River Magnetawan) late last fall and this will be done shortly. Tim Abbott has agreed to be the representative from the Association and we thank him for taking on this task. We are hoping to influence POWR MAG to do more widespread watershed testing once we have a seat at their table. We will keep you advised. Don Comrie 2016 CALENDAR The Association is well on its way to producing the Lake WahWashKesh Conservation Association 2016 calendar. We would like to thank all the people who submitted such great photos! It was hard to pick which ones to print. The calendars should be ready for sale by the July 1st long weekend and will be available at Bennett’s store and at Don Comrie’s cottage (120 WahWashKesh Road or Paddy’s Bay in the Big Lake). Same price as last year, 1 for $15.00, 2 for $25.00, or 3 for $35.00. Thanks for your support! Don Comrie BURSARY All members are reminded that a $100 bursary sponsored by the Association is available to one applicant who has finished secondary education and is registered for environmental studies in a post-secondary institution. The applicant must be a member of the Association or the immediate family of a member. The deadline for applications is July 31, 2015. Further information can be obtained by contacting Don Comrie. Don Comrie Upcoming Water Quality Sampling in 2015 for WahWashKesh Lake During summer 2015, water quality monitoring will continue on Wahwashkesh Lake. This year, water quality data is being collected at 7 locations throughout the lake by our volunteers who worked with the Ministry of the Environment Lake Partner Program. Water quality will be measured at 11 sites in our lake using the Yellow Springs Instrument water quality meter in June, July, August, and September. Measurements will be made for the amount of dissolved ions in the water, pH (acidity), oxidation-reduction potential, temperature, and oxygen. This summer, the Executive proposes to collect phosphorus samples throughout our lake. Phosphorus is the limiting nutrient to algal and plant production and protection of lakes in our region usually focuses on phosphorus. These data will permit us to make an assessment of water quality entering Wahwashkesh Lake and also determine if any nutrient loadings are coming from the surrounding land. Major inflows including the Magnetawan River, Farm Creek, and the Whitestone Exemplary Standing for our Cottage Hospital Last fall West Parry Sound Health Centre (WPSHC) was awarded ‘Accreditation with Exemplary Standing’ the highest possible recognition by Accreditation Canada, the national surveying body for health care quality and safety standards. This distinction, according to Accreditation Canada, is reserved for health care “organizations that go beyond the requirements of Accreditation Canada and demonstrate excellence in quality improvement. This is the highest level of accreditation.” A team of three surveyors from across Canada was at WPSHC for four days in October. The surveyors evaluated the health centre against a number of priority processes, and more than 1,900 quality standards. The health centre was successful in meeting every required organizational practice. Health centre CEO Donald Sanderson stated that he is very proud to be “part of a team so committed to enhancing the health status of the community that together we are privileged to serve. The health centre’s commitment to quality, safety and continuous improvement is never ending.” In their remarks, the surveyors noted the support from Foundation donors. With all equipment purchased through donated dollars, donors can also take a bow for the Exemplary Standing. Foundation donors provide the equipment that meets the standard of care. Lynne Atkinson, Executive Director West Parry Sound Health Centre Foundation Caring for You in Cottage Country T: 705.746.4540 x 3346 • TF: 1.888.262.0436 • F: 705.773.4059 www.wpshcf.com You are the difference. A donation to the Foundation saves lives locally! SHORELINE VIDEO PROJECT You may remember that in 1993 then president Wayne Lennox received a grant to have the entire shoreline of the lake recorded in a video. In 2013, 20 years later, the Association tried to find a volunteer to re-video the entire shoreline. With new technology such as cameras that take out the rocking of the boat, this should not be a difficult or time consuming project. The Executive are still looking for a couple of volunteers willing to spend several sunny days in a boat going slowly around the shore. Expenses such as gas and lunch will be covered by the Association. This is an extremely important project since it will give us a permanent record of how the lake has changed over the years. When it is completed, DVD copies will be made available for a minimum cost. If interested, please contact Don Comrie. Don Comrie Enclosed with this newsletter an Annual General Meeting Information Package Please keep this package until August 1, 2015 and bring it with you to the AGM in Bennett's Barn at 9:30 AM. Again this year, the Executive are sending out several of the reports which previously were presented at the AGM. This not only increases significantly the dissemination of this information (more people get the newsletter than attend the AGM) but also reduces the amount of time spent in the AGM. FISH ENHANCEMENT COMMITTEE The Fish Enhancement Committee held a meeting on May 25. Also attending this meeting was Murray Chambers, President of the Whitestone Rod and Gun Club. A general discussion of the committee’s progress over the last couple of years followed with general agreement that the spawning bed work that has been done is now bearing fruit since many people are now catching their limits of pickerel and bass on a regular basis. In the last two years, however, the momentum has slowed since we are trying to find ways to monitor the results of the spawning bed rehabilitation. The OMNR & F (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources & Forests) has been working on developing a monitoring system for all lakes but this is still a work in progress. To continue this proactive work, the committee is considering joining with the Whitestone Rod & Gun Club. Each organization would have a representative of the other organization as a member. The Fish Enhancement Committee is in favor of joining with the Whitestone Rod & Gun Club since this move greatly expands our options such as working with other lake associations that have hatcheries. The Whitestone Rod & Gun Club is hoping to involve other lakes in our area with a common agreement on purpose and responsibilities. If several of the lakes in the area have a common goal through this organization, we collectively have a stronger voice when dealing with governments. Adding our voice to this organization would also have positive insurance implications for our committee since the Whitestone Rod & Gun Club is a member of OFAH (Ontario Federation of Anglers & Hunters) and they would cover all future spawning or hatchery work. I have not discussed this proposed merger with the Executive due to the short time frame until the newsletter is to be published but I see the advantages of joining with the Whitestone Rod & Gun Club. Don Comrie TREASURER’S REPORT Don asked me to write a quick note summarizing some facts and figures on how the year has gone so far. So I explained that we’ve seen a 90% increase in mass; a 30% increase in length and a 100% increase in “caah” sounds. Don said to me, a little exasperated, “Not about your baby, Mike, about the Lake WahWashKesh Conservation Association.” I guess any new parent goes through a similar period of single mindedness where the sole purpose of new life is to take care of the little one’s needs and track the oh and ahs and tiniest signs of learning. But it also brings into focus the importance of the work that the Lake WahWashKesh Conservation Association does. If my vision of Courtney Anne sitting on the deck that her parents built 50 years earlier and staring out at the sunset over a clean clear WahWashKesh is to be the reality the association needs to continue to thrive. I am happy to report that the association is financially healthy. In 2014, subject to our accountant’s review of the books and records, our revenues ($15,646) ran slightly ahead of our expenses ($14,023). We ended the year with a cash balance of $11,624, giving us plenty of flexibility. As Don outlined in his recent letter to members, we are making efforts of reducing the significant printing and postage expenses that the association incurs. This should help with the 2015 expenses. Thus far in 2015 we have collected well over 80 memberships as well various parking fees, advertising revenue and donations, and the bank account remains in fine shape. The finances are continue to support Mike Maceina’s water quality monitoring and other associate activities. We have made some progress with greater use of paperless transactions including sending this newsletter electronically to many members and some use of paypal. We hope to make electronic payments easier for members as time goes on. The full financial statements will be presented at the AGM. Until then, I hope everyone is enjoying the summer thus far. Michael Lewis, Treasurer Enjoy comfortable heat in any type of: • Cabin, Lake or Vacation Home • Room Addition or Sunroom • Mobile Home Approved • Whole-Home or Zone Heating Modulating gas valve and variable speed blower maintain consistent room temperature WHERE CAN I USE A RINNAI DIRECT VENT WALL FURNACE? Cold Back HERE Cold Up HERE Cold Over HERE Cold in Basement, too? Rinnai DIRECT VENT WALL FURNACES 800-621-9419 www.rinnai.ca THE CURE FOR COMMON COLD SPOTS We Love Our Sponsors! Throughout this newsletter you will find advertisements placed by many local businesses. These advertisements generate needed revenue for the Association to support our goals and programs. Please use their services and let them know you saw their ad in the newsletter or on the WWK website. Visit our WEBSITE www.lakewwk.ca JOIN US ON facebook® Jim Summersides has been a cottager on Lake WahWashKesh for decades. The 90 year old Second World War veteran received a very special honour many years overdue. In February, Mr. Summersides, his wife, and family members, travelled to Washington D.C. to receive this special award. Forty-two surviving members of a joint American-Canadian special forces military unit called the Devil’s Brigade were honoured with the U.S. Congressional Gold Medal in February — the highest civilian honour the United States Congress can bestow. In 2013, Congress voted unanimously to award the medal to the joint Canadian-American commando unit. This came about after lobbying by the units American members to include their Canadian comrades (about one-third of its members were Canadians). There were a total of 2,400 men who served in the Devil’s Brigade, and no one escaped uninjured. Roughly 150 members of the unit remain alive “including 46 Canadians, 21 from Ontario.” The brigade was an elite special service force during the Second World War, and it served as the model for the U.S. Navy SEALs. The force saw heavy action as commandos on the beaches and in the mountains of Italy and France. The award ceremony took place at Emancipation Hall on Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C., and was attended by dignitaries from Canada, the U.S. and the military. The Gold Medal was first awarded in 1776 to George Washington. Other recipients included Thomas Edison, Sir Winston Churchill, Nelson Mandela, Martin Luther King, Neil Armstrong and Peanuts creator Charles Schulz. Summersides was just 19 years old when he volunteered to join the force from the Canadian Army in Italy in 1943. Summersides is a member of the Royal Canadian Legion Branch 613 hall. He also became a regular speaker and organizer of Remembrance Day programs for Niagara area schools. For more stories about Jim Summersides and the Devil’s Brigade: Welland veteran wins Congressional Gold Medal - By Dan Dakin, Welland Tribune, February 2, 2015 http://www.stcatharinesstandard.ca/2013/11/22/us-congressional-medal-of-honor-for-welland-vet U.S. Congressional Medal of Honor for Welland Vet - By Joe Barkovich, For The Tribune, Nov. 22, 2013 http://www.wellandtribune.ca/2015/02/02/welland-veteran-wins-congressional-gold-medal Fonthill Vet Going to U.S. Gold Medal Ceremony - By Wayne Campbell, For The Voice, January 29, 2015 http://www.thevoiceofpelham.ca/fonthill-vet-going-u-s-gold-medal-ceremony/ Experience a Golfer’s Paradise Lakeside Dining at its Best Golf & Dine Packages $99 For Whitestone Community specials golf rates and Ridge events click www.ridgeatmanitou.com/wca Come Golf, Dine, Stay, Enjoy A Certified Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary on Manitouwabing Lake, just east of Parry Sound. LAKELAND CONTRACTING Your Whole Home Experts! Beautiful design, professional craftsmanship and peace of mind. Design - Build - Remodel Completing projects with professionalism and pride of workmanship for more than 35 years. Whether we are working on a home or cottage, completing a repair or building new - we do it all. You’ll love the quality of our work… We guarantee it! ✔ Warranty on Workmanship ✔ 2 Million Liability Insurance ✔ Clean Job Sites ✔ Fixed Price Proposals ✔ Full WSIB Coverage ✔ Prompt Return Responses Call NOW for your FREE consultation! 705-378-0544 www.lakelandcontracting.com 238 Oastler Park Drive, Seguin ON Decks - Roofing - Interior Finish - Siding - Windows - Eavestrough HARRIS FURNITURE & ANTIQUES Since 1982 FOR HOME & COTTAGE Come Home to COMFORT & WARMTH Visit us for our advice, our quality brand names & our unique & unusual antiques & collectables Fabric & leather sofas, sofa beds & futons, mattresses, bedroom furniture, quilts & blankets. Painted, rustic & reclaimed furniture, area rugs, unusual collectables & quality antiques. Ask about custom orders and take advantage of our FREE delivery, set up & disposal 17 Parry Sound Drive, Parry Sound, ON P2A 2W9 Tel: 705.746.5100 Toll Free: 1.800.633.9066 www.harrisfurniture.ca firstname.lastname@example.org ROSS WINDOWS & DOORS Designed for Living Handcrafted Wood & High Performance, Energy Star Approved, Vinyl Windows & Patio Doors Visit our showroom at 7 Mall Dr., Parry Sound for expert consultation and free estimates. Tel: 705-746-2495 Fax: 705-746-5281 www.rosswindowsanddoors.com There are concerns over a large range of invasive forest pests threatening our local forests including the Emerald Ash Borer, Asian Long-Horned Beetle, Beech Bark Disease, and Hemlock Wooly Adelgid. The loss / decline of species such as Elm, Ash, American Beech, American Chestnut, Hemlock, Butternut and potentially Red Oak now will continue to have a significant influence (augmented by climate change, invasive species) on, species-at-risk, biodiversity, wildlife, natural heritage areas, etc. It is all a scary prospect but one thing we have learned over time is that trees are incredibly resilient and much more able to adapt to these changes than we give them credit for. That’s something to keep in mind for the future. **Beech Bark Disease** This disease is still having a devastating presence throughout the Archipelago as well as the Baysville area near Huntsville. Adding to the previous findings of Beech Bark Disease (BBD) there is significant scale insect as well as the disease showing up extensively throughout Blackstone/Crane Lake area as well as the Healey Lake area. The epicenter still remains Killbear Provincial Park and Parry Island First Nation. Forested areas to the north of Parry Sound have not yet shown signs of the disease – mainly due to the lack of American Beech as a component of forest stands to the north of Parry Sound except where it appears in smaller isolated blocks and so far, these areas have not been infected. **Oak Wilt** This is not exactly the news that one wants to hear. As the political/jurisdictional boundaries are just imaginary lines that DO NOT stop climatic, ecological and other natural and human generated processes, based on the past experience with other pests and diseases, it will likely be just a matter of time until this comes to Ontario. Please read the information provided in the link below. The more eyes out there watching, the better prepared we will be. Oak Wilt kills healthy red oaks. White oaks can also be affected but are more resistant and less vulnerable to mortality from the disease. Once a red oak becomes infected with the Oak Wilt fungus, the tree will die, and there is no treatment to save the infected tree. Once an Oak Wilt infection is confirmed, however, treatments are available to save surrounding oaks and stop the spread of this disease. *What is at risk?* All red oaks are susceptible to Oak Wilt. Red oaks are common urban and suburban landscape trees. The loss of these trees can have a significant negative impact. In the forest, red oaks are also an important producer of acorns for wildlife habitat. Analysing data along with the current average stumpage price for red oak sawlogs, it is estimated that the value of red oak timber in the state of Michigan is approximately 1.6 billion dollars. *The threat:* Oak Wilt moves slowly on its own through root systems and travels short distances overland when new spores are moved by beetles from an infected tree to a freshly pruned or injured tree. Oak Wilt can be moved long distances when people move infected firewood from one location to another. Look for red oaks that suddenly drop their leaves in the summer. The disease spreads, killing nearby oaks from one year to the next. Currently, Oak Wilt is generally distributed throughout the Midwest and Texas. *What could happen?* Once established, if not treated, Oak Wilt will continue to spread, killing all red oaks in a neighborhood or a forest. *What can you do?* DO NOT prune oak trees during the growing season. If you need to prune oaks, DO NOT prune them between April 15 and July 15. DO NOT move firewood: Oak Wilt is spread by the movement of infected wood. For more information, check out: [http://www.michigan.gov/dnr/0,4570,7-153-10366_54559-342619--,00.html](http://www.michigan.gov/dnr/0,4570,7-153-10366_54559-342619--,00.html) **Emerald Ash Borer** The link (below) for “A Visual Guide to Detecting Emerald Ash Borer” contains information to identify trees that have been attacked and damaged by the Emerald Ash Borer. Ideally, it is best to find beetles in an area before they harm or kill trees. Unfortunately, this is not easy, and for now, we can only rely on the visual signs and symptoms as a guide to detect damage by the emerald ash borer. [http://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/pubware-house/pdfs/26856.pdf](http://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/pubware-house/pdfs/26856.pdf) **Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) question:** Will the cold winter of 2013-14 affect EAB populations? - Not likely to affect EAB populations enough to reduce tree mortality rates, EAB populations, or EAB spread - EAB is cold tolerant to -35C or more • Temperature under the bark is not the same as air temp. Solar radiation can warm the bark, and the bark insulates the insect from rapid temperature changes, allowing the insect time to adjust to temperature swings • Cold temperature reports based on wind chill have no relevance to cold-blooded insects not exposed to the wind **Dutch Elm Disease** This disease, which took over the elms in Ontario in the 1960’s is showing up again throughout the area. **How to Identify Symptoms of Dutch Elm Disease** • Symptoms can first be seen in June and early July • Leaves wilt and curl, turning yellow and brown in the summer • Branches begin to dieback and then result in death • Brown staining can be seen on the side of the tree when bark is peeled back **What You Can Do** • Learn how to properly identify the signs and symptoms of Dutch Elm Disease • Never transport elm wood or wood products with bark to new areas • Buy firewood locally when travelling or camping. Never bring unused wood home with you • If planting elm trees, buy from a local and reliable source. Control of Dutch Elm Disease usually requires an integrated approach. Preventive pruning of dead branches to remove beetle breeding sites is essential, as is the removal and destruction of infected trees. It is also recommended that decadent trees with significant dieback be removed, even if not diseased. Tree removal also includes stump pulling or grinding to 10 cm below soil line. All wood from cut elms should be destroyed through burning or burial, as any wood with existing bark will serve as a breeding site for the beetle. In the case of high-value elms, the injection of fungicides through the roots or butt has been shown to be reasonably effective, although it is expensive and possibly damaging to conductive tissue at the injection point (injection should be done by a qualified arborist, and only those fungicides that are currently registered for control of this disease should be used). Diseased trees should be replaced with elm hybrids that show some resistance to the disease or with other species suitable for the local. *Ken Webb* Early in its term, your current Council decided that the Municipality of Whitestone should have a strategic plan to serve as a framework for our decisions as we seek to make Whitestone a better place to live, work, and play. We therefore set aside several special meetings to consider guiding principles, objectives, and key action items. This version of the Strategic Plan will remain open for consultation and comment until the end of September 2015, after which Council will review the feedback received and make any necessary revisions. Please note that this Strategic Plan is intended to be a living document – to be reviewed periodically and updated to reflect both changing circumstances and our achievement of its objectives. Please also note that your Council is already working to prepare detailed implementation plans for some elements – in fact, some tasks have been completed already. Watch for progress reports on implementation of the plan in our Newsletters and on the Municipality’s website. Thank you in advance for your important contributions to the Municipality of Whitestone’s strategic planning process. George Comrie, Councillor Municipality of Whitestone A draft of this plan has now been uploaded to the Municipality’s website at www.whitestone.ca It represents the current consensus of Council as to the vision, mission, and core values for our Municipality, and defines a number of high-level objectives organized under seven broad headings. We are pleased to submit this plan to the Community for your consideration and comment. Are there elements of the plan that resonate with you, or that you feel are unnecessary? Are there things you think we missed, or that could be stated more clearly? We welcome your feedback, which should be forwarded to our CAO/Clerk/Treasurer Tammy Wylie. In addition, I and my colleagues on Council will be happy to discuss it with you. RONA The Canadian How-To People - Estimates & Designs are Free - Large inventory of landscape stone, pavers & retaining walls - Septic Systems & Culverts - Kitchen & Bath Designer on staff - We have all your building & decorating needs FREE Delivery to Lake WahWashKesh (some conditions apply) 115 Bowes Street, Parry Sound 1.888.464.7596 705.746.5894 email@example.com RE/MAX Parry Sound-Muskoka Realty Ltd., Brokerage 47 James Street Parry Sound, Ontario P2A 1T6 tel: 705-746-9336 fax: 705-746-5176 DIRECT: 705-346-1552 www.greig.ca firstname.lastname@example.org Tina Greig Broker “EXPERIENCE COUNTS” Each office independently owned and operated Expert • Professional • Experienced McNabb Home Building Centre Formerly Beaver Lumber From Foundation to Roof, your Complete Building Supply Centre Same great service and products! 22 Seguin Street, Parry Sound (705) 746-5825 (705) 726-2147 1-800-810-0156 GEORGIAN RENTALS Bill Robinson Henry Thornton 3 Queen Street, Parry Sound, Ontario P2A 2W1 (705) 746-5243 • (705) 746-7368 Fax (705) 746-6129 O/B 832395 ONT.INC For Great Service and Excellent Food come join us down by the docks at the Bay Street Café Overlooking Georgian Bay 22 Bay Street, Parry Sound 705-746-2882 If you are looking for practical or entertaining items for the cottage, these environmentally-friendly products will be of interest. **Britannia Compendium of Games** www.leevalley.com Whether you enjoy board and card games or you want to reduce your family’s use of electronics the Britannia Compendium of Games contains a good selection of games in one box. There are 10 games in all: checkers (both traditional and Chinese), chess, pick-up sticks, tiddlywinks, dominoes, steeplechase and poker dice, snap, muggins. A traditional deck of cards is also included. Whether you want to revisit some of the games of your childhood or you want to teach your children or grandchildren (not for children under three years as the games contain small parts) these easy-to-learn games, the Britannia Compendium of Games is a fun collection (item#45K22.64). **Bug Off! Spray** www.NorthHillSoap.com If you don’t like bug sprays or lotions that contain harsh chemicals, you might consider Bug Off! Spray from North Hill Soap. While I haven’t used it when the bugs are at their worst (or best depending on how you look at it) I have found it effective when I used it at the end of last summer and again during the beginning of “bug season” this year. The bug spray features a “…blend of essential oils in a Grape Seed Oil base”. **Touch-Activated Micro Light** www.leevalley.com This handy touch activated flashlight (item#68K06.88) is small but it has a bright light (the high setting is 16 lumens). You easily turn it on by swiping your thumb to the left which activates the internal sensor to the brightest setting. A second swipe to the left lowers the brightness (saving the battery) and a third swipe results in an “attention-getting blink setting.” This light features an S-Biner that conveniently attaches it to a key ring or a zipper pull. We have ours attached to a key ring and turn it on when we arrive somewhere in the dark. It’s small, lightweight size is easily kept in your pocket as it doesn’t add much to a key ring. It is reported to run for nine hours on the bright (16 lumens) setting and for 64 hours on the minimum brightness setting (2 lumens). The light uses (and which are included) two lithium CR2032 3V batteries. **Soulful Soap** www.soulfulsoap.ca Recently I tried three soaps from Soulful Soap: Zen Garden, Dharma and Clear Complexion Facial Bar. All three contain coconut oil, palm oil (which is sustainably sourced), vegetable oil, castor oil, organic shea butter and reverse osmosis water. They also all smell nice and the bars are large – approximately 5 ounces. I cut the bars in half and they’re still a generous chunk of soap! Zen Garden is a shea butter soap with a nice blend of lavender, lemongrass and orange essential oils. I really liked Dharma which features cinnamon, patchouli, orange and eucalyptus essential oils and coloured with cinnamon and turmeric. Every time you use the soap you can enjoy its nice, calming scent. **Hook-Anywhere Clothesline** www.leevalley.com Electric clothes dryers use lots of energy. You can save considerable money, and help the environment, by using clotheslines. We use clotheslines in spring, summer and fall and we hang washed clothes inside to dry during the winter (which adds moisture to dry, heated air in the house). This inexpensive Hook-Anywhere Clothesline (item#ET130) is easily installed (and taken down) and doesn’t require special fasteners. This makes the clothesline good for using in temporary situations such as camping, at the cottage or when travelling. The line consists of “polypropylene braided into a weave resembling a ladder, it has a pattern of small openings to help register clothespins and capture coat hangers, so articles don’t slide and gather in the middle of the line.” The line can be hung between two supports and comes with two galvanized steel hooks. The line itself is 5 metres (16 feet). L.M. CHIMNEY SERVICES and PARRY SOUND HEATING Professional Chimney & Heating Services 117 North Road, Parry Sound phone: 705-746-5377 or 705-746-8835 cell: 705-746-0415 • fax: 705-746-4062 www.lmchimney.com • email@example.com Why let an amateur practice on your chimney? LOGGERS STATION HOUSE ARDBEG, ONTARIO LICENSED RESTAURANT CONVENIENCE STORE AND GAS TAKE OUT WINDOW OPEN 7 DAYS A WEEK DURING SUMMER & SNOWMOBILE SEASON WORMS, FISHING GEAR ICE, CUBE & BLOCK PROPANE TANK EXCHANGE MENUS AND HOURS ON OUR WEBSITE www.loggersstationhouse.com 1294 HWY 520, ARDBEG 705-389-1966 Pioneer Handcraft Furniture Handmade in Canada Since 1946 Visit Our Showrooms & Workshop Hwy 11 South, Severn Bridge & Hwy 400 North, Waubaushene 800-567-6604 www.pioneerhandcraft.ca We’ve Got Your Lumber. Magnetawan Building Centre We Deliver • Gift ideas & toys • Bedding & potted plants • Hanging baskets • Water pumps • Paint • Plumbing • Electrical • Forney welding supplies • “Exchange a saw blade” • Culligan water • Propane filling station Tel: 705-387-3988 Fax: 705-387-4712 Your Water Footprint Stephen Leahy Firefly Books, 2014, 143 pgs ISBN: 9781770852952 While more people recognize the importance of recycling and trying to reduce the amount of garbage that they produce, most have little knowledge of how their lifestyle impacts the most precious resource – water. In *Your Water Footprint: The Shocking Facts About How Much Water We Use to Make Everyday Products* Stephen Leahy provides some sobering information pertaining to our use of water. According to Leahy “the average American’s ‘water footprint’ – the total amount of direct plus virtual freshwater use – is about 8,000 liters (2,115 gallons) per day.” Leahy also looks at other water-related issues including the impacts of bottled water, the affects of large-scale irrigation on aquifers and “Water-saving Tips”. When it comes to food consumption vegans and vegetarians are significantly more eco-friendly than those who eat meat and other animal products. To grow an apple requires 125 litres of water. A kilogram of tomatoes requires 214 litres while a kilogram of beef requires an incredible 15,400 litres. Trying to decide whether to use cloth or disposable diapers? Leahy says that the water footprint of one cloth diaper is 15 litres while a disposable diaper uses 545 litres! If a new couch is in your future you will want to know (or you may not) that a synthetic sofa (3-seater) uses 1,610 litres while a leather couch requires 136,000 litres! When it comes to our dependence on water, ignorance isn’t bliss. Once we are aware of how our day-to-day living impacts the world’s most precious resource we can start taking responsible actions to reduce our water footprints. A Seed Needs Sun Kate Riggs, illustrated by Fiammetta Dogi Creative Editions 2014, 14 pages, ages 2+ ISBN: 9781568462547 *A Seed Needs Sun* is a very good nature book for young children that illustrates the growth cycle of a seed. Simple text combined with wonderful, colour illustrations shows how a seed, with the help of a hole, dirt, water, air, light and sun, grows roots, leaves, stems and flowers. Illustrations of plants and animals complement the simple text. The Chessmen Peter May, Quercus 2012, 2015, 309 pages ISBN: 9781623656041 *The Chessmen* is one of the books that I’ve most looked forward to reading. Last year I read the first two books in the Lewis Trilogy, the Blackhouse and *The Lewis Man*, and they were extraordinary mystery novels. And while my expectations of the final book in this trilogy were very high, I wasn’t disappointed. *The Chessmen* is an excellent read. The stories take place in the Outer Hebrides off the coast of Scotland and Peter May does a fantastic job describing these harsh, beautiful places and the people who live there. *The Chessmen* sees ex-Detective Inspector Fin McLeod working in security for a local landowner on the Isle of Lewis. While visiting with his childhood friend Whistler Macaskill they witness a “bog burst”. This natural phenomenon results in the draining of a loch. At the bottom of the loch is an aircraft and they are pretty sure whose remains they will find inside – Roddy Mackenzie, a friend of theirs who went missing on a flight seventeen years earlier. What Fin doesn’t expect to see is Whistler’s reaction when they pry open the door to the plane. As Fin investigates the case of Roddy, who appears to have been murdered, he learns many things from his past including some that changed the course of his own life. May’s ability to create interesting characters and describe the harsh environment of the Outer Hebrides is impressive. *The Chessmen* is a wonderful final book in this excellent mystery trilogy. Highly recommended. The Boy in Number Four Kara Kootstra, illustrated by Regan Thomson Puffin, 2014, 32 pages, ages 3+ ISBN: 9780670067138 Children will enjoy this book about arguably the best hockey player of all time. The rhyming text follows a young Bobby Orr and his desire to play professional hockey starting in his home town of Parry Sound and into junior with the Oshawa Generals before joining the Boston Bruins in the NHL. The illustrations produced from old photographs are good – particularly the famous image of Bobby Orr flying through the air after scoring the cup-winning goal against St. Louis. Complementing the story is an afterword by Bobby Orr who tells of the importance of playing hockey, and other sports, simply for the fun of the game. **From Tadpole to Frog** *Sally Hewitt* *QEB Publishing, 2014, 24 pages, ages 4+* *ISBN: 9781609926939* Frogs are amazing animals who play an important role in nature. But they are threatened by things like habitat loss and pollution so learning about them is important. *From Tadpole to Frog* begins with frogspawn (thousands of tiny frogs’ eggs) with the author providing the stages of tadpoles turning into frogs. Information includes what the tadpoles eat, who eats them, how they breath through their gills, when they grow legs and when they lose their tails. Before you know it the tadpoles have grown into little frogs called froglets! What the frogs do during the different seasons is also looked at. There is also a glossary at the back. Lots of good photographs show the different stages of tadpoles and frogs. **What’s That Rock or Mineral? A Beginner’s Guide** *Tom Jackson* *Dorling Kindersley Limited* *2014, 128 pages* *ISBN: 9781465415929* If you don’t know much about rocks and minerals, but would like to, check out *What’s That Rock or Mineral? A Beginner’s Guide*. Short sections on what a rock and a mineral are along with identifying rocks and minerals get the reader started. Next are profiles for coarse-grained rocks, medium-grained rocks, fine-grained rocks, and minerals. There are also useful rock and mineral galleries at the back of the book along with a glossary. **Peanuts Every Sunday: 1956 – 1960** *Charles M. Schulz* *Fantagraphics Books, 2014, 273 pgs* *ISBN: 9781606997949* *Peanuts Every Sunday: 1956 – 1960* is a wonderful collection of Charles M. Schulz’s exceptional Peanuts comic strips in colour from Sunday newspapers in the years from 1956 to 1960! Fans of Peanuts will enjoy the large, colour strips featuring the antics of Charlie Brown, Linus, Lucy, Pig-Pen, Sally, Patty, Shermy, Violet, Schroeder and of course Snoopy. Charlie Brown is still trying to put together a good baseball team – and kick the football that Lucy is holding. He also has difficulty playing hockey and flying a kite. And then there are all of the wonderful seasonal strips (some of my favourites) featuring the Peanuts gang. There are also significant events occurring during these years including Charlie Brown getting a baby sister – Sally. Reading such large (approximately 13.25” by 9.5”) comic strips in colour is a real treat. **A Nest Is Noisy** *Dianna Hutts Aston, illustrated by Sylvia Long, Chronicle Books 2015, 34 pages, ages 5+* *ISBN: 9781452127132* *A Nest Is Noisy* is a fascinating children’s nature book that looks at some of the incredible structures built to protect young animals. Some of the nests featured includes the massive structure built by the bird the Dusky Scrubfowl. Made of decomposing twigs and leaves the nests can measure more than 11 metres in diameter and nearly 5 metres high! In contrast, the nest of the Bee Hummingbird is only about the size of a golf ball. The nest is made of leaves, moss, lichen and bark and is “…usually wrapped in spider’s silk” that stretches allowing the nest to expand as the young birds grow. Other interesting nests include the “living nests” made by Army Ants and the nests constructed by Cave Swiftlets who make their nests entirely of saliva. These nests are prized by some as a food. “Bird’s nest soup, made from swiftlet nests, is among the most expensive foods eaten by humans.” Other animals whose nests grace the pages of this book include: Honeybee, American Alligator, Lamprey, American Flamingo, Baya Weaver, Elf Owl, Platypus, Orangutan – and more. And while the nests are quite different, they are all incredible works of art. Tim Stiles CONSTRUCTION Ltd. Custom Homes & Cottages Renovations/Additions Custom Kitchens Decks & Docks Foundations Security Checks Tilework 39 Edgewood Rd., RR#2 Dunchurch, P0A 1G0 Tel: 705-389-1726 ■ Fax: 705-389-1546 E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org BOARD OF DIRECTORS President • Don Comrie Suite 501, 44 Longbourne Dr, Etobicoke, Ontario, M9R 2M7 home: 416-241-5353 cell/cottage: 416-407-0175 email@example.com Vice-President • Morgan Millward firstname.lastname@example.org Secretary • Jeanine Ferris email@example.com Directors • Mike Maceina firstname.lastname@example.org • Carey Frew • Terry Tweed Membership • Don Comrie email@example.com • Morgan Millward firstname.lastname@example.org Treasurer • Mike Lewis email@example.com Advertisement Coordinator • Lynn Abbot-Lennox firstname.lastname@example.org Newsletter Editor • Lesley Hugill 2258 Yates Crt., Oakville, Ontario, L6L 5K6 905-847-8748 email@example.com Clip this form. Fill in your lake address or your water access number. Place on your refrigerator and by the phone or C.B. 9-1-1 EMERGENCY NUMBER FOR THIS COTTAGE IS: Lake WahWashKesh ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 1. Provide the dispatcher with this number 2. Hang a white sheet on your porch
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Spina Bifida Spina bifida (also called meningocele or myelomeningocele) is a condition that starts in the very early development of the unborn child. It happens when some of the back bones (vertebrae) do not close over the center tube of nerves (spinal cord). As a result, a soft unprotected area is left, which may bulge through the skin as a dark bag. This “bag of nerves” is covered by a very thin layer (membrane) which may leak liquid from the spinal cord and brain. While the exact cause is unknown, spina bifida is hereditary, and taking folic acid during pregnancy can lower a baby’s risk of developing it. One out of every 1000 babies in the world is born with spina bifida. Signs of spina bifida - **High risk.** Without early surgery to cover the bag of nerves, it almost always gets infected and the child dies of meningitis. - **Muscle weakness and loss of feeling.** The legs or feet may be paralyzed and have little or no feeling. - **Hips.** One or both hips may be dislocated. - **The feet** may turn down and in (club feet), or up and out. If the condition occurs relatively high up the back (L1 or above, see next page), there may be muscle spasms (spasticity) in the legs and feet (see p. 176). - **Difficulty with urine and bowel control.** The child may not feel when he pees or has a stool. When he gets older he may not develop control, and will pee or shit without knowing it. - **Big head.** Hydrocephalus, which means “water on the brain,” develops in 4 out of 5 children with spina bifida. The liquid that forms inside the head cannot drain as it should into the spinal cord, so it collects and puts pressure on the brain and skull bones. Although the child’s head may not look different at birth, little by little it becomes swollen with liquid, like this. - **very big head** - **big veins** - **The eyes** may turn downward because of pressure in the head. This “setting sun sign” means danger of loss of vision and severe brain injury. - **Brain injury.** Without early surgery to lower the pressure of the liquid in the head (and sometimes even if the surgery is done), some children lose their vision, develop cognitive delay, have seizures (see p. 233), or develop cerebral palsy (see Chapter 9). PROBLEMS THAT MAY OCCUR WHEN THE CHILD IS OLDER: - **Curve of the spine** (see Chapter 20). - **Urinary infections and kidney damage** (see p. 210). - **Pressure sores** may form over the bones, because the child cannot feel (see Chapter 24). - **Foot injuries.** Children who can walk but have no feeling in their feet may easily develop sores or injuries. If neglected, these can lead to severe infections of the flesh, bone infection, and deformities or loss of the feet (see p. 222). What is the future for a child with spina bifida? This will depend first on how serious the condition is, next on medical treatment and general care, and finally on special training and on family and community support. The higher up the back the condition is or the more severely the spinal cord is affected, the worse the paralysis and other problems are likely to be. If the head is already very swollen, the effects will probably be severe. The costs will usually be great, even for a rich family. Surgery to drain the liquid from the head is sometimes followed by infection. The operation may need to be repeated several times. In spite of the best medical attention, at least 1 of every 4 or 5 children born with severe spina bifida dies in the first months or years of life. However, a child in which the condition occurs low down on the back usually has less paralysis. With good family and community support, many children with spina bifida go to school, learn to do many kinds of work, get married, and have children. Often these children are late in learning basic skills for self-care (getting dressed, eating, going to the bathroom). This is partly because of the disability. But it is also because their parents often overprotect them and do everything for them. It is important for parents to help these children to do more for themselves. What are the chances that my child with spina bifida will walk? This depends on many factors. However, the higher up the spine that the condition occurs, the more paralysis the child will probably have. The drawings below show how likely it is for the child to walk, based on the level of the condition. The shaded areas show the parts of the body affected by paralysis and loss of feeling. | BONES OF THE "BACKBONE" (SPINE) | LEVEL OF CONDITION | PROBABLE AMOUNT OF DISABILITY | |---------------------------------|--------------------|-------------------------------| | 7 neck bones (cervical vertebrae) | C7 T1 | • probably will not walk • cannot control urine or stools | | 12 back bones (thoracic vertebrae) | T12 L1 L3 L5 S1 S5 | • may walk using aids when small • later may need wheelchair • cannot control urine | | 5 waist bones (lumbar vertebrae) | | • may walk with little or no help • may be able to control both urine and stools (peeing and shitting) | | 5 joined bones at the seat (sacrum) | | | CARING FOR THE CHILD WITH SPINA BIFIDA Care of the condition. When there is a “bag of nerves” on the spine of a newborn baby, his chances of living are much better if he has an operation within a few weeks. The surgery covers this bag with muscle and skin. Without this operation there is a high risk of injury and brain infection (meningitis); the child will probably not live very long. For children who cannot get an operation, try to protect the bag of nerves so that its thin covering is not injured or broken. (If it breaks, meningitis can occur.) One way to protect the bag is to make a ring or “donut” of soft cloth or foam rubber, and to tie it so that it surrounds the bag. Do not let the ring or clothing touch the bag. Hydrocephalus. It is important to measure the distance around the head of the child at birth, and every week or so afterward. If head size increases faster than is typical (see chart on p. 41), or if you notice that the head is swelling a lot the child probably has hydrocephalus. A surgical operation called a “shunt” may need to be done before the pressure of the liquid in the brain causes much injury. A tube is run from a liquid-filled hollow in the brain into the entrance to the heart or into the belly (abdominal cavity). This way the extra liquid is drained from the brain. Not all children who have early signs of hydrocephalus need this operation. If the head is not very swollen and stops increasing rapidly in size, it may get better by itself. CAUTION: Shunts do not always give good results. Even with surgery, 1 out of 5 children with hydrocephalus dies before age 7 and more than half develop cognitive delay. Others do not. Before deciding on the operation, get advice from 2 or 3 specialists. Note: We realize that, for many families, the operations described here will not be possible. Except where free hospital services are available, they are very costly. Before deciding on surgery, there are several things to consider: - What will the child’s future be like, if he lives? Is he likely to suffer greatly, or might he have a chance to live a full and happy life? - If the family spends much money on operations, and then on daily care of the child, how will this affect the health and well-being of the other children in the family? In short, before deciding whether to operate, it is important to consider carefully how this may affect the quality of life for both the child and the family. Bladder and bowel management A child with spina bifida usually does not develop the same control of peeing (bladder control) and shitting (bowel control) as other children do. The child may always dribble urine. Or, as she gets older, she may continue to empty her bladder or bowels without warning, perhaps without even knowing or feeling it. Standard methods of toilet training will not work. Do not blame or scold her for her accidents. **WARNING:** In some children with spina bifida, the bladder does not empty completely. This is dangerous because if urine stays in the bladder for a long time, bacteria will grow in it and this can lead to infection of the bladder and kidneys. In children with spina bifida, urinary infections are a frequent cause of death. Some children may need to use a “catheter” or rubber tube to get the urine out. By age 5 they can often learn to catheterize themselves (see p. 206). As they grow older, boys are often able to use a condom connected to a bag that collects the urine (see p. 207). Most children with spina bifida can be helped to take care of both their bladder and bowel so that they stay relatively dry, clean, and healthy. Then they can go to school and do things outside the home with greater confidence. Therefore, it is extremely important that rehabilitation workers and family members help the child work out a good bladder and bowel program. **IMPORTANT INFORMATION** on urinary and bowel problems and prevention and treatment of urinary infections is in Chapter 25, pp. 203 to 214. Be sure to study this chapter! PREVENTION and correction of contractures Some children with spina bifida tend to develop contractures either because of muscle imbalance (see p. 78) or, less often, because of spasticity (extreme muscle tightness). Contractures most often develop in the feet, hips, and knees. Range-of-motion and stretching exercises, as discussed in Chapter 42, can help prevent and correct early contractures. **CAUTION:** Do stretching exercises only where there is stiffness or limited range of motion. When joints are floppy, **do not stretch them more** where they already bend too much. For example: If the foot is stiff in this position, | YES | NO | |-----|----| | do exercises to gradually bring the foot up (see p. 383). | But if the foot is floppy or already bends up more than is typical. | Because children with spina bifida have stronger muscles for bending than for straightening the hips, they tend to develop hip contractures, like this child. Stretching exercises (p. 385) and lying on the belly (p. 86) may help. Also, make sure walking aids help correct rather than increase the contractures. This expensive metal “walker” lets this child with spina bifida walk with hips bent. It can cause hip contractures and make walking without aids less possible. When the child is changed to parallel bars adjusted to the right height, he walks more upright. This helps prevent contractures and increases the possibility of walking without aids. Sometimes a child stands with hips and knees bent, partly because his feet bend up too much. This can lead to hip and knee contractures. Lightweight below-knee braces that hold the feet in a more firm position may be all the child needs to stand straighter, walk better—and prevent contractures (see p. 550). HELPING THE CHILD DEVELOP Many children with spina bifida are paralyzed from the waist down. In spite of their disability, it is important for them to develop their bodies, their minds, and their social abilities as much as possible. Certain adaptive aids can be used to help children with paralysis go through the same stages of development as children without disabilities, at close to the same age (see the developmental chart on p. 292). For the child to progress through the early stages of development, it is important that he can see straight ahead. | NO SPINA BIFIDA | SPINA BIFIDA | |-----------------|--------------| | ![Image] | ![Image] | If she cannot get herself into a position where she can see what is happening in front of her, lie her on a “wedge” or fix a carton or box so she can sit leaning back in it. You can make a seat from an old bucket or some other object, so that she can sit and play. You can make a little cart that helps her to move. The cart can have a handle so that another person can push it. Make a standing frame that holds her in a standing position. Holding up the weight of her body on her legs will strengthen her bones, so they will not break as easily. She can use a brace that holds her up, so that she can walk with crutches. It helps if the brace has hip and knee hinges so that she can sit down (see p. 575). When adapting aids for children with spina bifida, remember that each child is different. Some children manage to walk without braces, perhaps with the aid of parallel bars like these, and later crutches. Others will need above-knee or below-knee braces (see Chapter 58). Other children will need wheelchairs. This child with spina bifida learned to walk using elbow crutches adapted to form a walker. As his balance and control improved, the supports on the crutches were gradually removed until he could walk with the crutches alone. Surgery and orthopedic corrections To prevent or correct foot contractures in many children, it may be necessary to straighten the feet in the same way as for club feet (see p. 565). So that the contractures do not come back, the children will need to do exercises (see pp. 115 and 383) and perhaps use simple plastic braces (see p. 550), at least at night. For curving of the spine, if severe, some children need surgery or a body brace (see p. 164). For children with spina bifida who have one hip dislocated, corrective surgery is sometimes helpful. But surgery generally is not recommended for those children with both hips dislocated. Usually they will walk just as well, and with fewer complications and less suffering, if the hips are left dislocated (see “Hip Problems,” p. 156). **CAUTION:** Before any orthopedic surgery is performed on a child with spina bifida, carefully evaluate the possibility she has of walking and whether the surgery will really help her. **PREVENTION of pressure sores and injuries** As a child who has no feeling in parts of his body grows older and heavier, there is increasing danger that pressure sores (bed sores) will form over bony areas that support his weight (mostly his butt or his feet). To prevent this: - Have the child sleep and sit on a mattress or cushion that is soft (such as foam rubber), and move or turn over often. - Examine the child’s lower body daily for early signs of irritation or sores. Check especially the hips, knees, and feet. - When he is a little older, the child can learn to check his own body each day for sores. **DANGER:** Whether the cause is spina bifida or leprosy, children who walk but have no feeling in their feet run a high risk of cuts, burns, sores, and serious infections on their feet. Teach them to check their feet every day. Also, be sure that sandals, shoes, and orthopedic braces fit well and do not cause blisters or irritation. This child with spina bifida cut her feet on broken glass. Because the cuts did not hurt, they were neglected and became severely infected. In time, the infection spread to the bones in both her feet and began to destroy them. As a result, her feet are very deformed and she may lose them completely. **IMPORTANT:** Information on prevention and treatment of pressure sores is in Chapter 24, p. 195 to 202. Be sure to read it. Also see Chapter 26 on Leprosy, p. 223 to 225, for special footwear and ways to protect the feet. You will find other important information that relates to a child with spina bifida in other chapters of this book, especially: Chapter 23, “Spinal Cord Injury” Chapter 24, “Pressure Sores” Chapter 25, “Urine and Bowel Management” Also refer to the chapters on contractures, club feet, exercises, developmental delay, braces, wheelchairs, and special seating. This child with spina bifida was born to a village family that could not afford surgery. The PROJIMO team made her a seat with a bowl attached to a hole in the back to protect her “sack on the back.” A child with spina bifida learns to walk with the help of a homemade walker. (PROJIMO) A one-year-old with spina bifida in a mini wheelchair made by workers with disabilities. (PROJIMO)
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Educator Sheet 1: Young people have the right to proper education and information about HIV Guidance for Educators HIV is a potentially sensitive subject and discussion about it can provoke strong views as well as highlighting the need for additional information. Here are some guidelines: 1. Create a fun activity by dividing learners into five groups. Ask each group to come up with the meaning of the following acronyms and terms: HIV, AIDS, OI, ARV, PLHIV, STI, TB, Viral load, window period. The group that comes up with all the correct answers can win a small prize. 2. Ask learners what are the ways in which HIV is transmitted and not transmitted. Educators Answers (Definitions) **HIV** – Human immunodeficiency virus. The virus that, untreated, leads to AIDS. AIDS is the most advanced stage of HIV infection. **AIDS** – Acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Acquired means you catch it. Immune deficiency means your immune system is weakened and can no longer fight off bacteria and diseases; syndrome means a combination of symptoms or illnesses that indicates a particular disorder. If left untreated, AIDS may lead to death. Nobody dies from AIDS itself, but from the illnesses that develop as a result of AIDS. **ARVs** – Antiretrovirals. Powerful medicines that can stop HIV from growing in the body. They cannot cure HIV, but can help you live a long and healthy life when taken correctly. **PMTCT** – Prevention of mother-to-child transmission **PLHIV** – People/person living with HIV **OI** – Opportunistic infection. Opportunistic infections are illnesses caused by various organisms, which do not usually cause disease in people with healthy immune systems. People living with advanced HIV infection may have opportunistic infections of the lungs, brain, eyes and other organs. An opportunistic illness common in people living with HIV is tuberculosis or a special kind of pneumonia. **STI** – Sexually transmitted infections. An infectious disease that spreads from person to person during unprotected sexual contact. They can also be passed from mother to baby during pregnancy, delivery and breastfeeding. Sexually transmitted infections (such as syphilis, HIV infection, and gonorrhoea) may be caused by bacteria, parasites, fungi and viruses. **Viral load** - is the amount of HIV in the blood of an infected person. **Window period** - is the time period from infection with HIV until the body produces enough HIV antibodies to be detected by an HIV antibody test. This generally takes 2-8 weeks, but for some it can take up to six months. During the window period a person can have a negative HIV antibody test despite being infected with HIV. During this period, a person is also more likely to transmit HIV. **Transmission** - HIV may be transmitted through contact infected with body fluids (blood, semen, vaginal fluids, breast milk) in the following different ways: - Through unprotected sex (without a condom) with an infected partner. This includes anal sex (penis in anus), vaginal sex (penis in vagina) or oral sex (penis in mouth; or mouth to vagina; or mouth to anus). - From mother-to-child during pregnancy, delivery or breastfeeding. - Through contact with infected blood, for example, by sharing injecting needles or razors with an infected person or receiving a blood transfusion of infected blood. You cannot become infected by: - Sharing drinking glasses or eating utensils with an HIV positive person - Using the same toilet as an HIV-positive person - Hugging, kissing or shaking hands - Mosquito or dog bites - Sharing meals, plates or spoons with a HIV infected person - Sharing a bed or linen with an HIV infected person - Kissing, touching or hugging a HIV infected person - Regular activities of daily life. Choose to Become a Young Champion Today! This activity is about the risks that adolescents face as they relate to HIV. The very fact of being adolescents puts them at risk because of their developmental stage in life. In addition, other factors such as poverty, gender inequality and cultural issues impact on the levels of risk that apply to adolescents. 1. Ask young people to list down the top 10 reasons that put adolescents at risk of HIV infection on a piece of paper. Collect all the papers, then write up the various risk factors and discuss them with the group. 2. Ask group members to share their experiences of when they were at risk (referring to any of the risk factors already identified). 3. Ask them to brainstorm a list of ways they can reduce the risks they face in relation to HIV. **Educator Answers** **Risk factors** - Learning about sex from movies and friends who have more experience. - Sexual abuse or being coerced into having sex. - Experimenting with alcohol or drugs, because that is what your friends are doing. - Having sex because your friends are laughing and saying you are not ‘doing the in-thing’. - Engaging in sex in exchange for food, shelter, nice things, or money. - Having a sexual relationship with someone much older than you. - Not paying attention to your health (taking medications) because it is ‘uncool’. - Sharing needles (even in teen rituals such as blood brothers/sisters). - Rebell ing against the rules set by your parents. - Not having accurate information or someone to talk to who does not judge you. - Not believing you have a future, so why bother. **Risk reduction options** - Being young makes young people more at risk because they may experiment with sex, alcohol or drugs and try to please their friends. All of these are risky behaviours. - Avoiding all the behaviours mentioned above. The most serious risks are: unprotected sex (without a condom), exposure to contaminated body fluids and blood and sharing needles that have not been sterilised between each use. - Girls are more vulnerable because of their biology. During unprotected sex, their genital area is more likely to tear, exposing them to the virus. Girls are also vulnerable when they engage in relationships with older men or in sexual encounters in exchange for food or goods, where they cannot negotiate for safer sex. Girls are also vulnerable to sexual violence. - If you were born with HIV, you have the responsibility to take care of your sexual, emotional and physical health. This means HIV is an issue for you, as you need to be informed so you can live a full and positive life. - When taking drugs and alcohol, it is much more likely that young people will engage in unprotected sex. No one can predict the future. Anything can happen – both good and bad - so expect the best and prepare for it by protecting yourself from HIV, STIs and unplanned pregnancy. Adolescents’ HIV Prevention and Treatment Toolkit for Eastern and Southern Africa Educator Cards 2 Educators/teachers can use these sheets as they incorporate HIV into their lesson plans. Feel free to adapt them to suit the needs of your learners. Refer to other pieces in the Toolkit, including the Workbooks, during your lesson plan and when using these sheets. Design & Layout by SAfAIDS Educator Sheet 3: Young people have the right to know their HIV status and to access youth-friendly HIV testing and counselling services Guidance for Educators This activity is about being tested for HIV. If you know your HIV status, it opens up possibilities for both treatment and prevention. HIV still has stigma and fear of death attached to it, which makes it scary to talk about freely. Talking about HIV and sharing one’s positive HIV status is one of the most significant actions that can be taken to help control the disease. Here are some activities to engage adolescents to begin discussing the challenges and fears around testing. 1. Ask the group to think about what would make them feel safe in the discussion. Create that safety by giving them small pieces of paper to write down what they would need for a ‘safe space’ for the discussion. Collect all the papers and write out each aspect on the board or on a flipchart. 2. Agree with the class or group that everyone will adhere to the safe space guidelines. 3. Now hand out small pieces of paper and ask them to write down their fears related to HIV and fold them up, so that their fears remain anonymous. Mix up the papers and then read them out, clustering them on the board or flipchart. 4. Go through each question with the group and discuss possible answers. 5. Most likely the questions will be around what it would mean to receive an HIV positive result, not understanding the HIV test, the procedure itself, where to go for it, and fear of others finding out one’s test results. Educator Answers - Check the regulations relating to testing consent for young people in your country so that you can advise them whether or not they will need the consent of their guardian in order to have an HIV test. - Find out where there is safe testing for young people in your community and share this information with the group, giving them the address of the testing centre. - Get some help if you are not comfortable discussing the fears of learners (school counsellor/social worker/nurse). - Explain the testing procedure and that they will be asked to give their informed consent for an HIV test to take place. - Encourage commitment to going for testing. - Explain that the HIV test is preceded by counselling to help them explore their understanding of HIV, their available support system and what they will do if they get a positive result. - It is their right to receive counselling as part of both the pre- and post-HIV test process. - Explain that their HIV test result is confidential. - Highlight that knowing your HIV status is important as it means that if you are positive, you can seek the necessary treatment, support and information. You can also ensure you do not infect others, or get re-infected yourself. - Show them the Positive Living diagram in Section 6 of the Young Champions Handbook. Choose to Become a Young Champion Today! Design & Layout by SAF/AIDS Educator Sheet 4: Young people living with HIV have the right to decide if, when and how to disclose their HIV status HIV is linked with stigma and discrimination. Many keep their HIV positive status secret for fear of being stigmatised. **Guidance for Educators** 1. Ask learners of a time when: (a) they have witnessed someone being stigmatised, and if (b) they have ever stigmatised someone else. 2. Facilitate a discussion on what the impact was in both cases. 3. Ask learners to come up with suggestions on how to address and reduce stigma. Invite learners to create posters that would convey these messages. **Educator Answers** - Explain what stigma and discrimination are, giving examples related to race, colour, economic status or disability, that the learners are familiar with. - List the reasons for stigma and discrimination, e.g. fear, ignorance and lack of knowledge on how HIV is transmitted. - Agree with adolescents on ways to stop stigma and discrimination, such as talking openly about HIV and sharing facts; getting on treatment to stay healthy and prove that living with HIV does not stop someone from doing well in school in sports, or being a productive member of society. - Remind them that Article 16 of the Childrens Rights Convention says that no child shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation. - Exhibit the posters in the class to remind learners of the importance of an environment free from stigma and discrimination – and invite others from the school and parents to see the posters during an open day or other school event. Educator Sheet 5: Young people have the right to know how to protect themselves from HIV (re-)infection Preventing new infections and re-infection is the most important strategy in tackling HIV. It is important for both young people who are HIV positive, as well as those who are negative, to understand what is needed to protect themselves. **Guidance for Educators** 1. Ask participants to share what they know about preventing HIV infection. 2. Ask the group to indicate whether they know what treatment as prevention means? Describe it. 3. Divide the group into five – each group has to work on an area of HIV prevention: - Knowing your status – what are the challenges – what are the messages we can use to get more young people to know their status? - Dealing with stigma and discrimination – how can we address stigma in schools? - Delaying sexual activity – what can be done to help young people delay beginning to have sex? - Safer sex counselling – what could be done to get more young people to practice safe sex? - What can be done in schools to support young people taking medicines? - Psychosocial support – how can we create safer spaces in schools for adolescents to discuss issues related to HIV? 4. Facilitate a discussion on the various areas. **Educator Answers** Refer to Section 5 in the Young Champions Handbook for guidance on each of the issues. Educator Sheet 6: Living a positive life No matter how a young person gets HIV, it is not his or her fault. While a young person may not have chosen HIV, they can still choose to live positively. **Guidance for Educators** 1. Ask the group what are the different elements of living positively. 2. Ask participants to share how they live their life positively (even if they are not HIV positive). 3. Divide the group into four. Each group has to work on an area of living positively: - Taking medication and taking care of your health. - Nutrition and exercise. - Taking care of your emotions. - Creating a circle of support (psychosocial support). 4. Facilitate a discussion on the different areas. **Educator Answers** Top five tips for young people to live positively: - Know your status (and your CD4 count) – so go for regular check ups. - If you are taking ARVs, take them exactly as instructed by your health worker. - Follow a healthy diet and exercise. - Have a support circle of friends and family around you that cheer you on. - Take care of your emotional well-being. - Always use condoms plus another form of contraception (dual protection) to protect your own health and the health of your partner, as well as prevent unintended pregnancy. - Helping others makes us feel good about ourselves. Think about joining an HIV support group or participating in another charity work. Refer to Section 6 in the Young Champions Handbook for guidance on each of these areas. Medicines have been developed that block HIV’s ability to replicate (make copies of itself and reproduce) in the body. These medicines are called antiretroviral medicines, or ARVs, for short. When a person living with HIV is given ARVs, the person is said to be on antiretroviral therapy, or ART, for short. The terms ARV and ART are sometimes used interchangeably, but technically they mean different things. ART includes other aspects such as adherence, having a healthy diet, making sure you do not pass the virus on to others and positive living. Antiretroviral medicines do not cure HIV, but they keep the virus in check and allow the immune system to recover. Once a person is infected with HIV, the virus remains in their body for life. A person on successful ART will experience near normal quality of life. Generally, there is no way to distinguish a young person on ART by appearance or activity. **Guidance for Educators** 1. Open a brainstorm session with learners on the following issues around ART for young people, e.g. adherence, resistance, side-effects and nutrition and ask: - What do they think young people on ART can do to help them adhere to their treatment? How can the school assist them? - What are treatment buddies? How can one become an treatment buddy. 2. Discuss how learners and teachers can assist adolescents on ART to stay on their treatment, giving practical examples. 3. Discuss why nutrition is important for adolescents on ART. Educator Sheet 8: Young people have the right to access health care services, support and education One of the reasons that many young people do not access services is because the services are hard to get to or not youth-friendly. This is a critical barrier in helping young people and adolescents to reduce their risk of HIV infection and re-infection. Guidance for Educators 1. Open a brainstorm session and ask participants what are rights and why they are important. 2. Ask them to look at each of the areas of: (i) Services, (ii) Support, and (iii) Education for adolescents around health care. They should identify barriers to access and come up with proposals to address them. 3. Ask the group to develop messages or write letters to their local clinics/councillors to appeal to them to make services more accessible to adolescents. 4. Discuss the area of rights and access, and their role in preventing HIV infection and re-infection. Educator Answers Refer to Section 8 of the Young Champions Handbook. Design & Layout by SAF/AIDS Although adults continue to believe that talking to adolescents about sex will increase their sexual activity, in practice, many young people are already engaging in unsafe sexual activity with messaging they get from friends, from the media, mobile phones, TV, through their desire to experiment, etc. This results in young people making decisions based on incorrect information and due to peer pressure. Young people need to be given the space to decide how far their dating and sexual activity should go, based on what they want from life. Giving them accurate information allows them to decide to delay sex, as well as to choose to protect themselves should they decide to have sex. **Guidance for Educators** 1. Ask adolescents what are the key messages they get about sex from adults. 2. Ask them what are some of the key questions they have about sex. 3. Ask them what are some concerns they have about sex and HIV. 4. Split them into buzz groups of three and give them one minute to do a quiz on ‘what is safer sex’. In that one minute they should list as many safer sex practices as they can. 5. The group that lists the most correct safer sex practices can win a small prize. **Educator Answers** Some messages to give learners during this session include: - Do not feel rushed into having sex. - If you have not yet had sex, consider delaying it. Do not begin a sexual relationship until you are ready. Talk together with your partner and agree on the limits of your physical intimacy. - Masturbation is okay. - If you are with a new partner, find other safer ways of giving each other pleasure until you are ready to have sex in this relationship. Enjoy other activities together. When you have sex, use a condom correctly every time, even if your partner is also HIV-positive. Condoms prevent HIV transmission and also prevent unplanned pregnancy – but it is also a good idea to use another kind of contraceptive too. - Drinking alcohol and substance abuse increase the risk of unplanned and unprotected sex. - Avoid situations or people that may put you at risk of unwanted sex. - Reduce the number of people with whom you have sex. - Consider disclosing to trusted people so that they can support you, if you are HIV positive. - Go for an HIV test together with your partner before deciding to have sex – but still use condoms. - Talk about what you want and do not want with your partner before you start having sex. - Rubbing, kissing, cuddling and mutual masturbation are safe. - Any vaginal, anal or oral sex is not safe sex, unless a condom (plus another form of contraception) is used correctly every time. Design & Layout by SAF/AIDS Violence or abuse can happen to anyone – it can happen to young people of any nationality, race or family background. It can happen in same-sex relationships as well as in heterosexual relationships. Teenage relationship abuse can also happen after a relationship has finished. Abuse can also be from someone the adolescent knows (family friend or member). **Guidance for Educators** Be aware of participants’ emotional reactions to this activity. Some people in the group may know people who have been raped or sexually assaulted. Others may be survivors of rape or sexual assault (or from sexual abuse as children), or still be in an abusive relationship. Doing this activity may remind participants of painful experiences and be upsetting. Let participants know that this is a possibility, and that it is important for people to take care of themselves. Remind the group that it is OK if anyone needs to step out of the activity or the room in order to take care of themselves. 1. Split the group into two to hold a debate on violence against young people. One group should raise points on why young people face violence and the types of violence they face; and the other group should debate on how young people can stay safe from violence. 2. As a group, discuss how sexual violence can place young people at risk of HIV infection. 3. Remind young people that violence or abuse is not acceptable. It is a very serious and sensitive issue. It is also against the law. 4. Ask young people in groups to draw images of the violence and abuse that they are aware of. After they have drawn those images, ask the groups to identify ways of preventing violence against people – both females and males. 5. Ask them to list reasons why young people living with HIV may be abused and how they can make a difference to prevent or report the matter if this is happening to any YPLHIV they know. **Educator Answers** - Remind participants that they have a right to be free from violence. - Ask everyone to share their pictures and then hold a discussion on violence. - If anyone in the group needs counselling, tell them where they can go for help. - Support adolescents by identifying what they can do if they are in a situation where abuse or violence is happening. (a) They can tell an adult they trust. (b) They could go to the police (provide them with information to this effect). (c) They should seek out counselling. (d) They could speak to an NGO that addresses children’s and youth rights to find out if there is anything else they can do. - They should seek services – get an HIV test and post-exposure prophylaxis if needed, as well as test for sexually transmitted infections and access emergency contraception if it is available. Design & Layout by SAF/AIDS Many young people who were infected with HIV from birth are now reaching adulthood. All young people should be encouraged to think about and plan for their futures. **Guidance for Educators** 1. Ask each member of the group to think about their dreams for the future. 2. Using old magazines and sheets of flipchart paper, get each person to do a dreamboard that outlines their dreams for the next 5-10 years. 3. Once the group has done that, ask them to share their dream – and help them to break it down into small achievable goals. Conduct role plays on the sections on: - Decision-making. - Problem-solving. - Assertiveness. 4. Facilitate a discussion on key learnings and lessons to take into their lives. **Educator Answers** Refer to Section 10 in the Young Champions Handbook for guidance on conducting this session.
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School Philosophy At Hilwie Hamdon School, building authentic relationships and meeting the needs of diverse learners are essential to who we are. Our classrooms consist of vibrant and dynamic groupings of students where teachers and support staff collaborate to ensure the success of all students. Our priority is student success, growth and engagement. We envision our students becoming responsible, ethical and respectful global citizens. At Hilwie Hamdon, we are committed to partnering with the community to provide a safe and caring environment for students, staff, and parents. Teachers and support staff will address the diversity of our students’ needs and individual interests through differentiated planning and instruction. Community Profile Hilwie Hamdon School includes students from Kindergarten to Grade Nine and is located in Northwest Edmonton in the Hudson neighborhood. Along with students who reside within the boundaries of the Hudson community, staff also welcome students from the Cumberland community. The population for 2024-2025 includes 820 students with a multitude of diverse backgrounds. Our student population exhibits an array of cultures along with 34 languages, including English, spoken in their homes. In partnership with the school we have a parent society and school council in place. Programs and Organization Hilwie Hamdon School offers regular programming for students in Grades One to Nine along with a half-day programming for Kindergarten. For families requesting a congregated program, we provide three classrooms from Grades Seven through Nine for students on the Autism Spectrum (Interactions). Our mainstream classrooms are inclusive learning environments that strive to develop competencies across grade level curriculum. Through cross-disciplinary learning, students are able to cultivate meaningful knowledge within an authentic learning context. Starting in Grade Four through to Grade Nine, students receive instruction in French as a Second Language (FSL). At Hilwie Hamdon School, students have access to technologies that support our focus on removing barriers for students. The removal of barriers allows students to enhance their learning, thinking, communicating, and collaborating skills. School Community Relationships We would like to acknowledge the following community members who have helped to foster the growth and success of our students: Cumberland Oxford Community League Division Priorities 2022-2026 1. Build on outstanding learning opportunities for all students. 2. Advance actions towards anti-racism and reconciliation. 3. Promote a comprehensive approach to student and staff well-being and mental health. Based on the goals that were established for 2023-2024, report on the results you achieved (with evidence, including referencing the school’s Assurance Measures results, if applicable) and describe how achievement of the goal supports the above Division’s Priorities (reference the priority number in your response). By June 2024, all students in the Ross Sheppard catchment will demonstrate measurable growth in the areas of literacy and numeracy. Students who have been at Hilwie Hamdon for at least one year, will demonstrate growth in Literacy (English as an Additional Language, Reading and Writing) and Numeracy skills. Staff will continue to work collaboratively around planning at each grade level using school data to target goals in Reading, Writing and Math. Achievement of these goals will be supported by: - Staff utilization of evidence-based literacy practices, professional learning and coaching from colleagues - Collaborative practices and professional learning with assessment in writing and reading - Targeted Levelled Literacy Intervention (LLI) - Early Identification of Junior High students reading levels supported by push in and pull out support - Release time for collaborative planning at each grade level Results Achieved: Literacy Grade level and division teams collaborated regularly to share best practices and implement high-impact literacy strategies, such as Writing Workshop, guided reading, small group instruction, literacy centers, phonemic awareness, and read alouds. 52 students in Grades 2-6 received Leveled Literacy Intervention, demonstrating growth in reading, with 60% achieving at least one year's progress. Division 3 had a dedicated teacher that supported reading assessments to identify at-risk students. Canadian Achievement Test 4 (CAT4) reading achievement data showed an 8% increase in students achieving stanine 4 or above from fall 2023 to spring 2024. 70% of students are reading at grade level, consistent with the previous year. UDecide continued to foster a love of reading, recommending 15 books per student in Division 2 and 3. While 1739 books were read by students, a decrease of 548 from the previous year, 42 students read all 15 titles. The Highest Level of Achievement Test (HLAT) in writing results indicate that 66% of students made a year’s growth and 60% are writing at grade level, representing a 15% increase from the 2022-2023 school year. On the Grade 9 Provincial Achievement Tests, 87.5% of students achieved acceptable standard in writing, which was an increase of 7.5% from the previous school year. 25% achieved the standard of excellence, representing an increase of 9.6%. In reading, 70.8% achieved the acceptable standard and 16.7% achieved the standard of excellence, which is an increase of 9%. Numeracy To enhance numeracy instruction, teachers employed various strategies, including daily math review, small group instruction, math games, math stations, vocabulary development, cross-curricular connections and the use of manipulatives. Grade 9 students received an additional math period each week (five per week). Math intervention was provided to Division 3 students through pull-out support and lunchtime assistance. The 2023-2024 CAT4 math results indicate a high percentage of students achieved stanine 4 or above in both fall and spring assessments across all grades. Grade 5 particularly excelled, with 92% of students achieving stanine 4 or above in the fall and 86% in the spring. Overall, there was a 7% increase in students achieving at or above grade level stanine 4 from fall 2023 to spring 2024, including a 7% increase in the area of computation and estimation. Grade 9 Provincial Achievement Test results show improvement, with a 15.7% increase in students achieving the acceptable standard and a 5.9% increase in those achieving the standard of excellence. By June 2024, we will support students and staff in building skills, strategies and relationships that contribute to positive mental health. Students and staff at Hilwie Hamdon will be supported in building skills, strategies, and relationships that contribute to positive mental health. Achievement of these goals will be supported by: - Staff professional learning around six research based practices around the theme of Belonging (Ross Shep Catchment) - Continued support of wellness activities for staff and students - Support for student learning to develop self esteem through academic achievement - Student voice in demonstrating our School’s core values of Kindness, Citizenship and Determination Results Achieved: During the 2023-2024 school year there was an intentional focus on teaching, recognizing and celebrating the core value of kindness. Restorative practices as a means to effectively resolve conflict continued to be implemented to support conflict resolution between students. A half-time Success Coach provided support to at-risk student’s emotional wellbeing and their relationships. On the Division Feedback Survey (DFS) there was a 4% (88% to 92%) increase in the confidence of staff to support student mental health across all types of support. Teachers utilized emotional regulation tools and flexible seating in classrooms and implemented intentional strategies such as morning meetings and mindful minutes. Staff worked on building a sense of belonging across the school community by actively greeting students at the door, implementing buddy activities and professional learning opportunities. On the DFS, 100% of staff felt that our school works towards supporting a sense of belonging and inclusion for everyone. According to the Division Feedback Survey, 76% of students feel that Hilwie Hamdon School helps them develop skills that support their wellness, which is a 6% increase from the 2023-24 school year. As well, 80% of students felt that they had opportunities to be involved in activities that support their sense of belonging, an increase of 9% from the previous year. According to the DFS, there was a 24% increase in overall well-being of staff and 100% of staff feel their workplace is respectful. The Alberta Assurance Measures Survey indicates that 76% of Grade 7-9 students but only 54% of Grade 4-6 students feel that at school students respect each other. 80% of students feel supported to try their best even when learning is hard and 85.7% of students feel that they have the opportunity to be successful in their learning consistent from the previous school year. What were the biggest challenges encountered in 2023-2024? - Complex learners required accommodations to support a wide range of student learning needs. - Intervention was inconsistent due to the reassignment of the educational assistant because of supply staff shortages. - High number of teacher absences and staffing shortages impacted the delivery of instruction and continuity of learning for all students. - Professional learning opportunities did not adequately address the distinct needs of individual divisions. - The implementation of the new math curriculum required more professional learning and resource allocation to ensure effective math instruction. What are the opportunities for improvement from 2023-2024 that will inform your plan for 2024-2025? - To ensure the effective implementation of high-impact instructional strategies across all K-9 classrooms, we will provide ongoing professional learning opportunities and collaboration for teachers. This professional development will focus on evidence-based practices such as: UFLI, Writing Workshop, differentiated instruction, formative assessment and inclusive classroom communities. - We will enhance the mathematics curriculum by integrating real-world applications, such as financial literacy, and continuing to provide an extra math period for Grade 9 students. - We will establish a Numeracy Team to focus on highlighting best practices, professional development and the celebration of numeracy school wide. - We will participate in Instructional Talk Throughs with three other division schools. Teachers will share feedback to students and colleagues with the goal of improving student achievement. - We will recognize student achievements, implement monthly celebrations and provide increased student leadership opportunities to strengthen a sense of belonging and school culture. ## Required Alberta Education Assurance Measures - Overall Summary **Fall 2024** **School: 1931 Hilwie Hamdon School** | Assurance Domain | Measure | Hilwie Hamdon School | Alberta | Measure Evaluation | |------------------------|----------------------------------------------|----------------------|---------|--------------------| | | | Current Result | Prev Year Result | Prev 3 Year Average | Current Result | Prev Year Result | Prev 3 Year Average | Achievement | Improvement | Overall | | Student Growth and | Student Learning Engagement | 81.9 | 88.8 | 85.2 | 83.7 | 84.4 | 84.8 | n/a | Maintained | n/a | | Achievement | Citizenship | 78.7 | 85.1 | 81.4 | 79.4 | 80.3 | 80.9 | High | Maintained | Good | | | 3-year High School Completion | n/a | n/a | n/a | 80.4 | 80.7 | 82.4 | n/a | n/a | n/a | | | 5-year High School Completion | n/a | n/a | n/a | 88.1 | 88.6 | 87.3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | | | PAT6: Acceptable | 75.7 | 64.9 | 64.9 | 68.5 | 66.2 | 66.2 | Intermediate | Improved | Good | | | PAT6: Excellence | 27.0 | 7.4 | 7.4 | 19.8 | 18.0 | 18.0 | High | Improved Significantly | Good | | | PAT9: Acceptable | 62.2 | 51.6 | 51.6 | 62.5 | 62.6 | 62.6 | Very Low | Improved | Issue | | | PAT9: Excellence | 14.6 | 7.7 | 7.7 | 15.4 | 15.5 | 15.5 | Intermediate | Improved | Good | | | Diploma: Acceptable | n/a | n/a | n/a | 81.5 | 80.3 | 80.3 | n/a | n/a | n/a | | | Diploma: Excellence | n/a | n/a | n/a | 22.6 | 21.2 | 21.2 | n/a | n/a | n/a | | Teaching & Leading | Education Quality | 84.5 | 91.4 | 87.1 | 87.6 | 88.1 | 88.6 | Intermediate | Maintained | Acceptable | | Learning Supports | Welcoming, Caring, Respectful and Safe | 83.1 | 87.2 | 86.0 | 84.0 | 84.7 | 85.4 | n/a | Maintained | n/a | | | Learning Environments (WCRSLE) | 65.8 | 68.8 | 71.0 | 79.9 | 80.6 | 81.1 | n/a | Maintained | n/a | | Governance | Parental Involvement | 75.6 | 81.0 | 74.9 | 79.5 | 79.1 | 78.9 | Intermediate | Maintained | Acceptable | **Notes:** 1. Data values have been suppressed where the number of respondents/students is fewer than 6. Suppression is marked with an asterisk (*). 2. Caution should be used when interpreting high school completion rate results over time, as participation in the 2019/20 to 2021/22 Diploma Exams was impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. In the absence of Diploma Exams, achievement level of diploma courses were determined solely by school-awarded marks. 3. Aggregated Grade 6 Provincial Achievement Test (PAT) results are based upon a weighted average of percent meeting standards (Acceptable, Excellence). The weights are the number of students enrolled in each Grade 6 course. Courses included: Social Studies (Grade 6). 4. Aggregated Grade 9 PAT results are based upon a weighted average of percent meeting standards (Acceptable, Excellence). The weights are the number of students enrolled in each Grade 9 course. Courses included: English Language Arts (Grades 9, 9 KAE), Français (9e année), French Language Arts (9e année), Mathematics (Grades 9, 9 KAE), Science (Grades 9, 9 KAE), Social Studies (Grades 9, 9 KAE). 5. Participation in the PATs and Diploma Exams was impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic from 2019/20 to 2021/22. School years 2019/20, 2020/21 and 2021/22 are not included in the rolling 3-year average. Caution should be used when interpreting trends over time. 6. Participation in the PATs and Diploma Exams was impacted by the fires in 2022/23. Caution should be used when interpreting trends over time for the province and those school authorities affected by these events. 7. Beginning in 2022/23, results for the Grade 6 Provincial Achievement Tests do not include students participating in subjects where the tests were not administered due to new curriculum being piloted or optionally implemented. 8. Security breaches occurred over the last few days of the 2021/22 PAT administration window. Students most likely impacted by these security breaches have been excluded from the provincial cohort. All students have been included in school and school authority reporting. Caution should be used when interpreting these results. 9. Aggregated Diploma results are a weighted average of percent meeting standards (Acceptable, Excellence) on Diploma Examinations. The weights are the number of students writing the Diploma Exam for each course. Courses... Division Priorities 2022-2026 1. Build on outstanding learning opportunities for all students. 2. Advance actions towards anti-racism and reconciliation. 3. Promote a comprehensive approach to student and staff well-being and mental health. In reflecting on our work towards continuous improvement as a Division, reflective questions have been included in the Planning Guide as a resource to help inform goal setting: Goals must align with 2022-2026 Division Priorities. All schools are to set two goals with one being in support of Priority 1. Schools also have the flexibility of setting an optional third goal. All Central DU’s are to set two or three goals and indicate the priority area each goal supports. Division Priority 1 By June 2025, all students who attend Hilwie Hamdon for the 2024-25 school year will demonstrate measurable reading and writing growth. The following indicators will serve as targets to help monitor progress: Canadian Achievement Test 4 - CAT4 • An increase of 5% in the number of students reading at or above (stanine 4 and above) as measured by the CAT4 reading assessment measures from fall to spring. • An increase of 5% of students demonstrating a year’s growth in writing as measured by the 2025 administration of the Highest Level of Achievement Test in writing. Division Feedback Survey - DFS • 5-10% increase in students feeling that they are getting better at writing and reading during the 2024-25 school year. • 5-10% increase in the percentage of teachers agreeing that they have the knowledge and skills to support the literacy learning of their students. Provincial Achievement Test - PAT • On the Grade 6 and Grade 9 Provincial Achievement Exams, a 3-5% increase in the number of students meeting the acceptable standard and standard of excellence in reading. Achievement of this goal will be supported by: • Staff implementation of evidence-based high-impact instructional practices (Writing Workshop, University of Florida Literacy Institute [UFLI], targeted small group instruction, Foundational Literacy strategies) to build knowledge and confidence when working with students who are not yet reading and writing at grade level. • Monitoring all students for growth using triangulation of evidence and data tracking. • Collaboration and professional learning to develop teacher capacity in the area of refining phonemic awareness, phonics instructions and small group instruction to apply evidence based reading and writing best practices. • Building teacher capacity to meet the diverse learning needs of all learners. This may include professional development, modeling of lessons, and providing coaching and feedback. • Resources will be aligned to staff a 0.25 FTE push-in teacher to support Division 3 students. What data will you use to track continuous improvement? Growth will be measured by informal reading inventories, teacher reported reading levels (at, above, or below grade level), CAT4 data, Highest Level of Achievement Test in writing data, Provincial Assessment Test results and student perception of their reading and writing progress from the Division Feedback Survey. Division Priority 1 By June 2025, all students at Hilwie Hamdon School will demonstrate growth in numeracy. The following indicators will serve as targets to measure progress towards this goal: Canadian Achievement Test 4 - CAT4 • There will be a 5-10% increase from fall to spring in the percentage of students achieving at or above average (stanine 4 and above) as measured by the mathematics and computation and estimation components of the CAT4. Division Feedback Survey - DFS • 5% increase in the percentage of students agreeing that they are improving in their math learning. • 5-10% increase in the percentage of teachers agreeing that they have the knowledge and skills to support the numeracy learning of their students. Alberta Education Assurance Measures survey - AEAM • 8% increase in the percentage of students agreeing that the math they are learning is useful and interesting. Provincial Achievement Test - PAT - There will be a 5% increase in the percentage of students achieving an acceptable standard on the Grade 6 and Grade 9 math PAT. Achievement of this goal will be supported by: - Targeted collaboration time and professional learning will be provided to build teacher capacity and confidence around evidence based best practices and triangulation of data to support the numeracy progress of their students. - A Numeracy Team will support the implementation of best practices (e.g. instructional routines, manipulatives, guided math and math games) through modeling and sharing strategies. - Using the CAT4, provincial screeners, PAT data, and teacher observations and conversations to identify specific areas for small group instruction and targeted intervention. - Resources will be aligned to staff a 0.25 FTE push-in teacher to support Division 3 students. What data will you use to track continuous improvement? Growth will be measured by the Provincial screening assessments; teacher triangulation of evidence of learning; CAT4 and Provincial Achievement Tests, Division Feedback Survey and Alberta Education Assurance Measures. Division Priority 3 By June 2025, students at our school will feel more connected and a greater sense of belonging to their school community. The following indicators will serve as targets to help monitor for progress: Division Feedback Survey - DFS - 10% increase in students feeling like they belong at Hilwie Hamdon School. - 10% increase students feeling like the adults at Hilwie Hamdon care about them. Alberta Education Assurance Measures - AEAMs - The Welcoming, Caring, Respectful and Safe Learning Environment (WCRSLE) results in the Assurance Measures will increase by 5%. - 10% increase in students feeling like they belong (WCRSLE). - In the area of Citizenship, a 10% increase in students feeling that students at Hilwie Hamdon School respect each other. Achievement of this goal will be supported by: - Development and implementation of school-wide approaches such as Dr. Ungar’s R2 program to support meaningful relationship building between staff and students to support increased sense of belonging and inclusion for all students. - We will participate in the Creating Schools that Listen professional learning to advance action towards anti-racism, reconciliation, and revitalization. We will develop the capacity of staff to think and work collaboratively with students, parents, and the broader community. - Intentional professional development for staff to implement inclusive instructional strategies, culturally responsive practices, recommendations from the OECD Promising Practices, trauma-informed and restorative practices. - Staff will engage in school-wide approaches to foster and celebrate students demonstrating Hilwie Hamdon’s core values of kindness, determination and positive citizenship to enhance students in feeling more connected to our community. What data will you use to track continuous improvement? Survey questions in the DFS, YRS and AEAMs related to belonging, engagement and connectedness; Qualitative data signaling improvement in student-staff relationships and peer relationships. The WCRSLE measure results; A collection of student engagement samples that demonstrate progress over time. | Category | 2024-25 Spring Proposed | 2024-25 Fall Revised | |--------------------------------|-------------------------|----------------------| | Resources | 5,625,976 | 5,519,990 | | Internal Revenue | 0 | 0 | | **REVENUE TOTAL** | **5,625,976** | **5,519,990** | | Classroom | 35,019,000 | 34,279,000 | | Leadership | 3,000,000 | 3,000,000 | | Teaching - Other | .000000 | .000000 | | Teacher Supply | .000000 | 115,673 | | **TOTAL TEACHER** | **38,019,001** | **37,278,999** | | (% of Budget) | 76.69% | 76.68% | | Exempt (Hourly/OT) | .000000 | 91,730 | | Support | 10,600,000 | 10,700,000 | | Support (Supply/OT) | .000000 | 6,200 | | Custodial | 4,000,000 | 4,000,000 | | Custodial (Supply/OT) | .000000 | 7,500 | | **TOTAL NON-TEACHER** | **14,600,000** | **1,055,194** | | (% of Budget) | 19.12% | 19.12% | | **TOTAL STAFF** | **52,619,001** | **51,978,999** | | (% of Budget) | 95.81% | 95.8% | | SUPPLIES, EQUIPMENT AND SERVICES | 177,515 | 181,739 | | INTERNAL SERVICES | 55,750 | 50,250 | | OTHER INTEREST AND CHARGES | 2,500 | 0 | | **TOTAL SES** | **235,765** | **231,989** | | (% of Budget) | 4.19% | 4.2% | | **TOTAL AMOUNT BUDGETED** | **5,625,976** | **5,519,990** |
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An electroencephalogram (eh-leck-tro-en-SEF-uh-low-gram), or EEG, is a recording of the brain’s electrical activity (brainwaves). Many children with seizures or epilepsy have different brainwave patterns. A doctor can look at the EEG and get information about how the brain is working. This can help diagnose your child’s health problem or help the doctor choose the best treatment. **How does an EEG work?** The EEG technician will put small metal tabs (electrodes) on your child’s head. These do not hurt and do not give a shock, but just sit on the skin. These electrodes sense the brain’s electrical messages. The EEG machine then records these electrical messages as little squiggly lines on a computer screen and stores the information so a doctor can look at it later. **Who does the EEG?** An EEG technician will perform your child’s EEG. A neurologist will look at the EEG and tell your child’s primary healthcare provider what the EEG shows. **How do I prepare my child for the EEG?** - Give your child all of their prescribed medicines, unless the doctor tells you to not to. - Shampoo your child’s hair the night before the EEG. Do not use conditioners or other hair products. - Do not give your child any sugary foods or caffeine the day of the test. - Have your child sleep less than normal the night before the test so they can fall asleep for part of the EEG. However, keep your child awake on the way to the test and in the waiting room. **How can I help my child be sleepy for the EEG test?** | Infants | Toddlers | Younger children (5–9 years old) | Older children (10 years old and older) | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | • The EEG lab will try to schedule your baby’s EEG during a naptime or time you think they will sleep. | • The EEG lab will try to schedule your child’s EEG during a naptime. | • Keep your child up well past bedtime the night before the EEG. | • Keep your child up well past bedtime the night before, and wake them by 4 AM. | | • Please bring a diaper, bottle, pacifier, familiar blanket, pillow, or anything that may help your child relax to sleep. | • If your child has a familiar stuffed animal, toy, or blanket, bring it to the EEG test. | • Make sure they have no more than 6 hours of sleep before 4 AM. | • Keep your child awake and active until the EEG. | | • Try to keep them awake for at least 1-2 hours before the test. | • Keep your child awake 2 hours past their usual bedtime the night before, and wake them up 2 hours earlier than normal. | • Wake your child up at 4 AM. | • It is best if your child sleeps less than 5 hours the night before the EEG. | | | • Try to keep your child awake before the EEG. | • Try to keep them awake and active until the EEG. | • Try to keep them awake and active until the EEG. | How will the technician prepare my child for the EEG? The EEG technician will put about 23 small electrodes on your child’s head. This most often takes 15–30 minutes. 1. The technician will clean the places on your child’s head where the electrodes will be with cotton-tipped swabs and special cream. This is so the electrodes can track the brain’s electrical activity. 2. Next, the technician will put the electrodes on your child’s head. 3. The technician begins by putting a little bit of conductive cream on each electrode. They part your child’s hair and put the electrode on the scalp. 4. The technician then puts a small piece of tape on the electrode to hold it in place. 5. They will wrap your child’s head with gauze to keep the electrodes in place during the EEG. **Note:** Your child will need to stay still while the EEG technician puts the electrodes on their head. It does not hurt, but it frightens some small children. You and a child life specialist can play with and reassure your child while the technician puts the electrodes on their head. Where does my child go for their EEG? Your child may have routine outpatient or long term inpatient EEGs. The outpatient EEGs will take 1–2 hours. However, the long term and some hospital EEGs may take hours or several days. In either case, the procedure is similar. - **Routine outpatient EEGs:** Go to the Eccles Outpatient Services Building, Level 3, Station 6, at your child’s EEG appointment time if you preregistered. If no one called you to preregister, arrive about 20 minutes before your child’s EEG appointment time. - **Long-term inpatient monitoring EEGs:** Go to Inpatient Admitting at the main hospital entrance (north end of the hospital) 30 minutes before your child’s appointment. If you can’t keep your child’s appointment or have any questions, call the EEG department at 801.662.1606. **Note:** If there is an emergency EEG, the technician must take care of it first. Appointments are sometimes delayed or must be rescheduled when emergencies happen. The EEG staff will tell you if there is a delay and reschedule your child’s EEG at your convenience. What happens during the routine EEG? The routine EEG takes about 1–2 hours and your child can fall asleep during part of it. The technician will put a flashing light few inches away from your child’s head, and it will flash faster and slower. They may ask your child to do some simple tasks during part of the EEG, like: - Open and close their eyes - Repeat simple words - Breathe quickly and deeply for 3–4 minutes (usually by blowing on a pinwheel) The EEG measures small electrical signals from the brain and does not hurt. It does not send electric shocks or other electricity to your child’s body, and there are no risks. However, there is a chance your child will have a seizure during the EEG. If this happens, it will show on the EEG and help the doctor diagnose and treat your child. The EEG technicians and nurses are trained to help children who have seizures, and they will have equipment close by. **What happens after the EEG?** After the EEG, the technician takes the discs off, but there will be some paste left in your child’s hair. The technician will gently clean the electrode sites with a warm, wet washcloth. You can clean any leftover paste with soap and water, and you may need to comb your child’s hair. The technician will remove most of the glue from the electrodes if they used it. It will turn into flakes and look like dandruff or cradle cap as you brush your child’s hair at home. If your child still has flakes, brush their hair with a little bit of baby oil or conditioner before shampooing. You may need to repeat this more than once to get all the glue out. For routine EEGs, your child’s doctor can tell you the results in a few days. If the EEG took several days, it may take several weeks for you to get the results. **What if I have other questions?** If you have other questions about your child’s EEG, call your child’s healthcare provider.
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I was dazzled on a cold November morning in 1979 to see my new solar water heater turn on. The gauges showed 50°F (10°C) water going to the collectors and 60°F (16°C) water coming back. At that moment, I became a believer. Even in the cloudiest climates, the sun can provide 50 to 60 percent of a household’s annual water heating, and in sunnier places, 80 percent or more. How does it work? Here is a simple breakdown of the most common solar water heating systems and their main components. Systems vary—not all equipment is necessary for every system type. For the sake of simplicity, some lesser yet necessary, components have been omitted. Equipment such as drain and fill valves, temperature and pressure relief valves, air vents, check valves, and temperature and flow gauges are important to the safety and function of these systems. See past *Home Power* articles for detailed descriptions of the importance, placement, and use of these components. **System Types** Five main types of solar water heating systems are sold today. These five are a distillation of dozens of types sold over the past 25 years. They are: - Batch - Thermosyphon - Open-loop direct - Pressurized glycol - Closed-loop drainback The proven winners are simple, reliable, and long lasting. Some systems are “open loop” (the domestic water itself is directly heated) and some are “closed loop” (a heat transfer fluid is heated by the collector and the heat is passed on to the domestic hot water by means of a heat exchanger). Some systems are “active,” using moving parts such as pumps and valves, and others are “passive,” using no mechanical or moving parts. ### SDHW System Characteristics | Characteristic | Batch | Thermosyphon | Open-Loop Direct | Glycol | Drainback | |--------------------------------------|-------|--------------|------------------|--------|-----------| | Low profile—unobtrusive in appearance | | | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | | Lightweight | | | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | | Freeze tolerant | | | | ✓ | ✓ | | Easy installation & infrequent service | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | | | | Passive operation—no pumps or controls | ✓ | ✓ | | | | | Space saving—storage tank unnecessary | ✓ | ✓ | | | | Solar Collectors AKA: Solar thermal panels A solar collector consists of a network of pipes through which water (or in colder climates, antifreeze) is heated. Collectors come in various sizes, with 4 by 8 feet (1.2 x 2.4 m) the most common. On a typical summer day (sunny and warm), the fluid in the collectors reaches 140 to 180°F (60–80°C). On a clear winter day (sunny and cold), it can reach 120 to 150°F (50–65°C). When it’s cloudy and warm, it can reach 70 to 90°F (20–30°C), and when it’s cloudy and cold, 50 to 60°F (10–15°C). As long as the temperature in the collector is greater than that of your incoming cold water (usually about 50°F; 10°C), your solar hot water system is saving you energy. Several types of solar collectors are on the market. Flat plate collectors are often compared to skylights. They are thin (3–4 in.; 7–10 cm), black, and covered with glass to hold in the sun’s energy. In evacuated tube collectors, a glass tube surrounds each individual pipe in a vacuum. This nearly eliminates the influence of ambient air temperature. Evacuated tubes perform better than flat plate collectors in cloudy weather, and can achieve higher temperatures compared to other collector types, but are typically more expensive. All active systems and some thermosyphon systems may use either flat plate collectors or evacuated tube collectors. A third type, called integrated collector storage (ICS) or batch, combines the solar collector and storage tank into one unit. An ICS panel can resemble a flat plate collector with greater depth (6 inches; 15 cm). A simple batch heater can be a tank within a glazed box. Collection and storage in one unit: thermosyphon (left) and batch (right) Collector Mounting System AKA: Mounts, racks The three most common mounting systems for solar collectors are the roof mount, ground mount, and awning mount. Roof mounted collectors are held by brackets, usually parallel to and a few inches above the roof. Ground mount systems can be as simple as four or more posts in the ground, lengths adjusted to affect optimal tilt. An awning mount attaches the collectors to a vertical wall. Horizontal supports push the bottoms of the collectors out to achieve the desired tilt. When choosing a mounting system, roof mounts are usually the cheapest option, provided tilt and orientation are within acceptable parameters. If weight is an issue, ground mounts can be a good choice. Wall mounts are another solution that can work well in some situations. Find the sunniest spot for your collectors. Generally, you want no shading between 9 AM and 3 PM. Facing collectors up to 30 degrees east or west of true south, and at your site’s latitude plus 15 degrees tilt, generally will still yield results within 15 percent of optimum. Any nominal losses from tilt, orientation, or even shading can usually be overcome by adding more collector area. Solar Storage Tank AKA: Solar water tank, solar tank A solar water tank is an insulated water storage tank. Cold water that used to go directly to your conventional water heater enters the solar tank and solar-heated water exits. In closed-loop systems, the water is heated by contact with a coil of pipe containing the water or antifreeze that circulates through the collectors. In open-loop systems, the potable water is directly circulated up through the collectors and back. The preheated solar water is then plumbed back to the cold side of your existing heater, which now functions as a backup. Whenever hot water is turned on in the house, preheated solar hot water is moved from the solar tank to the backup heater. Water Pump AKA: Circulating pump, circulator Pumps are used in active systems, but are not required in batch or thermosyphon systems. They circulate water or antifreeze between the solar collector and the storage tank. The right pump for the job depends on the size of the system and the distance and height between the collector(s) and the storage tank. AC pumps plug into a wall outlet while DC pumps are powered from a DC source, such as a photovoltaic panel. Good pumps can last as long as 20 years with heavy use. SOLAR BATCH HEATERS For a hundred years, simple solar batch heaters have been used in the United States. The term ICS (integrated collector storage) tells us that the collector and storage tank are combined into one unit. A tank of water, enclosed in an insulated box covered with glass, is placed in the sun facing south. Cold water is piped to the bottom of the tank; hot water is taken off the top. Whenever there’s a call for hot water, water pressure from the home moves hot water from the top of the solar batch heater as cold water is pushed into the bottom. Since the potable water is heated directly, this system is open loop. And since no pump is used to move the water from collector to end use, it is passive. The batch heater is a popular choice for homes in moderate climates where freezing is not much of an issue. Commercially manufactured batch heaters are relatively low cost. Crude batch heaters can even be homemade. If batch heaters are installed on the roof, weight has to be taken into account. Commercial batch heaters can weigh 200 pounds (90 kg) dry, and when filled with 40 gallons (150 l) of water, more than 320 pounds (145 kg) is added. Because of their relatively low cost and simplicity, for those living in moderate climates with good sunshine available, the batch heater is probably the best value for heating domestic water. Heat Exchanger Heat exchangers are used in closed-loop solar hot water systems. They enable the transfer of heat from one fluid to another without the two mixing. Internal heat exchangers are inside the tank and not visible. They can be as simple as a coil of pipe resting in the bottom of the tank, or wrapped around the outside beneath the insulation and cover. As the heated fluid from the solar collector travels through the coil, the heat is passed from the hotter fluid to the cooler potable water. An external heat exchanger is usually a pipe within a pipe. The solar fluid and potable water flow counter to one another, and heat is transferred within the heat exchanger pipe. Fluid may be moved with pumps, thermosyphoning, or a Expansion Tank Closed-loop systems require an expansion tank. An expansion tank has a chamber in which air is locked inside a bladder or diaphragm. It screws into standard 1/2-inch or 3/4-inch threaded plumbing fittings. When pipes are filled with heat transfer fluid (water and glycol), and the operating pressure of the system is set, the fluid will occupy a given volume based on the temperature. As the fluid is heated by the sun, it expands. This is where the expansion tank is critical. Without it, something would blow! The expansion tank allows the fluid to safely expand by compressing the air in the chamber. The size of the expansion tank needed depends on the total volume of fluid, which is determined by the number and size of collectors, and the length and diameter of the pipes in the solar loop. In most cases, a total of 3 to 6 gallons (11–23 l) of fluid is in a solar loop. A #15 (2 gal; 7.6 l) expansion tank is usually adequate. It never hurts to go larger, especially for systems with more than 60 square feet (5.6 m²) of collectors. A #30 has twice the expansion capability. With the proper expansion tank in place, the fluid can go from 0 to 200°F (-18–93°C) with the pressure in the solar loop remaining the same. Thermosyphon Systems Another relatively simple, passive system, and the most popular solar water heater worldwide is the thermosyphon. Common in Japan, Australia, India, and Israel, they are easily recognizable by the fact that the tank must be located directly above the collector. Thermosyphon systems work on the principal of heat rising. In an open-loop system (for nonfreezing climates only), the potable water enters the bottom of the collector and rises to the tank as it warms. In colder climates, an antifreeze solution, such as propylene glycol, is used in the closed solar loop, and freeze-tolerant piping, such as cross-linked polyethylene (PEX), is used for the potable water lines in the attic and on the roof. Several international manufacturers make thermosyphon systems. The advantage of this system over the batch heater is that solar heat is stored in a well-insulated tank, so hot water can be used any time, without the penalty of overnight losses. Controls AKA: Differential controls, PV module In active systems using pumps, whenever the collector is hotter than the storage tank, the pump should be on and the system circulating. When the tank is hotter than the collector, the pump should be off. This function is performed by either a differential thermostat control system or the use of a PV-powered pump. The differential thermostat controller compares heat sensor readings from the storage tank and collectors and switches the pump accordingly. With a PV-powered pump, a solar-electric panel is connected directly to the pump. It’s a simple setup—when the sun comes out, the pump comes on. The brighter the sun, the faster it pumps. Controls are not needed in batch heater systems, where energy is moved by simple water pressure, or in thermosyphon systems, where energy is moved naturally by heat rising. Isolation Valve AKA: Solar bypass An isolation valve should be a part of every solar water heater to isolate the solar tank in case of a problem, while still allowing the backup water heater to remain in service. The isolation valve is a manual valve or valves placed in both the incoming and outgoing potable water lines to the solar tank. It can be a three-valve configuration, or a three-port and two-port valve. Manually turning the valve or valves will place the solar tank “on line” or “off line.” It works by directing the flow either through or past the solar tank. These valves can also be plumbed to bypass the backup gas or electric water heater, allowing them to be turned off (eliminating standby heat loss) during the seasons when the SDHW system can supply 100 percent of the household’s hot water. OPEN-LOOP DIRECT SYSTEMS Used in tropical settings where freezing never occurs, this is the simplest of the active systems. A standard, 52-gallon (200 l) electric tank can be used, teamed with a 40-square-foot (3.7 m²) solar thermal collector. Normally the electric element is not hooked up, so this tank becomes a storage tank only, for preheated water feeding an existing backup water heater. An air vent, automatic or manual, is installed at the high point of the solar thermal collector to initially purge air. The pump, a small circulator pump using as little as 10 watts, can be powered directly by a 10-watt PV module, or a thermostatically controlled AC pump can be used. If desired, a snap-switch sensor can be installed to limit the temperature the solar tank reaches. Standard snap-switch sensors are available for 160 or 180°F (71 or 82°C). The backup water heater ensures that hot water is at the tap whether the sun shines or not. On a sunny, hot day, if the sun has preheated the water to 140°F (60°C) or more, the backup water heater uses no energy at all because the solar preheat temperature is greater than the typical 120°F (49°C) thermostat setting. On a day when the solar preheat is 85°F (29°C), the backup heater boosts the temperature the remaining 35°F (19°C). Since incoming cold-water temperatures are at ground temperature (usually about 50°F; 10°C), 85°F represents 50 percent of the energy needed to bring the water from 50 to 120°F. Not all backup water heaters use a tank. Keeping a tank of water warm between uses can account for 15 percent or more of the total energy expended for hot water. Tankless water heaters eliminate this standby loss. Solar hot water systems and tankless water heaters are a winning combination. If you’re in Seattle, for instance, and can reduce your water heating cost by 60 percent using solar energy, and save another 15 percent by going tankless, this results in a 75 percent total savings. The household that used to spend US$300 per year to heat water now only spends US$75. In sunnier climates, this number can approach zero. Not all tankless heaters can be used as a backup heater for solar. Check with the manufacturer. In this active, closed-loop system, incoming potable water is routed to the solar storage tank, but never into the collectors. A water and antifreeze mixture circulates from the collectors through a coil of pipe in the solar tank, and then is pumped back through the collectors. The potable water is warmed by heat transfer through contact with the pipe. In most climates, a 50/50 propylene glycol and water mixture will keep collectors from freezing. These systems require an expansion tank and a few other auxiliary components for filling, venting, and maintaining the system. A definite advantage to antifreeze systems is that the collectors can be mounted anywhere. These systems are pretty much the only choice in very cold climates. The closed-loop drainback system requires perhaps the least routine service of any active system. The heat transfer fluid is distilled water, which seldom has to be changed. When the system is at rest (not pumping), the solar collector is empty and the distilled water is stored in a 10-gallon (38 l) reservoir tank, usually located just above the solar storage tank. Higher capacity reservoir tanks are typically required in large systems. When the pump turns on, the distilled water is circulated from the reservoir back through the collector and heat exchanger, passing heat to the potable water in the solar tank. When the pump shuts off again, the distilled water drains back into the reservoir. The collector must therefore always be higher than the storage tank, and there must be sufficient continuous slope in the piping to ensure against freezing. Drainback systems are effective and reliable. They work great, even on the hottest and coldest days of the year, and can go twenty years in operation without needing service. The only downside is that larger pumps usually have to be used, especially if you’re pumping water two stories or more, since the drainback pump has to lift the distilled water to the height of the solar collectors. One way around the height problem is to place the reservoir in the attic, reducing the height the pump has to lift. If it’s located in a place where the pipes going to and from the reservoir could freeze, glycol must be added. This is also done when long, horizontal pipe runs do not allow drainback to occur quickly. Hot Water Options So now you know how solar domestic water heating works. There are many considerations in choosing the right system for a home. I have installed all of the major system types. Often the client and the situation will dictate the right system. For instance, for a one- to two-person household in a temperate climate where hard freezing rarely occurs, I might propose a batch heater, especially if the hot water will be used more at the end of the day rather than first thing in the morning. In a household with three or more people, where aesthetics and weight are not an issue, the thermosyphon system might fit the bill, especially if there’s no room for an additional tank near the existing water heater. The drainback system, my personal favorite here in the Northwest, requires continuous fall between the solar collector and the solar storage tank. If continuous fall is not possible, there’s always the pressurized glycol system where piping can go up, down, over, and around without concern, since the entire loop will be pressurized. Usually more than one option can work for any situation. The number of people in the household will dictate how large the system will need to be, and which systems are even possible. Rebate and incentive programs may only qualify certain systems in a given area. Some systems are relatively easy to install for do-it-yourselfers, while others most laypeople shouldn’t attempt. See the comparative chart showing features of the different system types. Make your choice, and enjoy using solar energy to heat your water! Access John Patterson, Mr. Sun Solar, 3838 SW Macadam Ave., Portland, OR 97239 • 888-SOL-RELY or 503-222-2468 • Fax: 503-245-3722 • email@example.com • www.mrsunsolar.com Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA), 805 15th St. NW, #510, Washington, DC 20005 • 202-682-0556 • Fax: 202-682-0559 • firstname.lastname@example.org • www.seia.org • Listings of manufacturers, distributors & installers of solar energy systems National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 1617 Cole Blvd., Golden, CO 80401 • 303-275-3000 • www.nrel.gov • Renewable resource maps & data Do The Bright Thing! The Independent Magazine Dedicated to Home-Scale Renewable Energy Since 1987 Solar Electricity • Wind Turbines • Microhydro Power • Water Heating • Appliances • Home Efficiency • Solar Home Design • Transportation • Home Heating & Cooling • Biofuels • Green Building • And much more! Click Here to Subscribe! • Six Bimonthly Issues - $22.50 (inside U.S.)
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Textbooks for All: The promise of accessible digital books for learners with disabilities Textbooks are key to education of children with disabilities Textbooks are not available or accessible to many children, especially children with disabilities. Besides the serious problems with quality of content, cost of production and effective distribution of textbooks... ...many learners are “PRINT DISABLED”. Overall Objective of Innovation UNICEF seeks to harness technologies to ensure ALL children can access books and assistance with learning. - books need to be produced in text and digital formats - Digital textbook need to be accessible to all children via open-source software and include guidelines and guiding principles. DAISY Consortium Develops technology solutions to enable access to information for people with disabilities Works on accessible reading in the most advanced nations, and in developing countries Partners with the global technology giants and with teachers and end users Luisterpunt is a member of the DAISY Consortium What can accessible digital textbooks do now? Choose size and style of text, magnify the pictures Helpful for people who: • have sight problems • are Dyslexic or have other specific learning disabilities Read the text aloud Helpful for people who: • are Dyslexic or other specific learning disabilities • Are blind or partially sighted Read the text as braille Helpful for people who: • are blind • are deafblind But what about... • Sign language? • Easy to read? Activities to Date • Development of Prototypes • Engaging with Publishers/Authors • Evaluation with end users (students and teachers) • Conducting Expert Workshops El gato con botas- signed video Workshop at Gallaudet, US university for people who are deaf or hard of hearing Universal design textbook prototypes Universal design textbook prototypes LOOK AT THIS SCENE YOU WILL COLOR THE PICTURE. PICK DIFFERENT COLORS FOR: • THE CHILDREN • THE ADULTS • THE PLANTS USED FOR EATING • THE PLANTS NOT USED FOR EATING • OTHER ANIMALS Accomplishments • Innovative reading software applications are currently under development • First accessible digital textbook prototype of Brazil being tested and validated in 30 schools • In Paraguay, ten children’s books with sign language and narration were launched • Publishers and authors engaged through presentations and dialogue at the London Book Fair and other fora Conclusions • Currently digital textbooks provide great accessibility for many learners with disabilities— but not all. • The existing technologies could be extended to include signed and simplified content. • More evaluations with learners and teachers are required to ensure technical solutions solve the human issues. For more information Richard Orme Chief Executive DAISY Consortium email@example.com
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APH ACCESSIBLE MATERIALS FOR STUDENTS WHO ARE BLIND OR LOW VISION Portland State University Leslie Weilbacher Outreach Specialist Northwest Region American Printing House for the Blind Objectives of Session • Understand the Act to Promote the Education of the Blind and its importance. • Describe a variety of tools available to modify core curriculum or address the expanded core curriculum for someone with a visual impairment. • Differentiate the audience and usability of the Virtual ExCEL Academy, Virtual ExCEL Camp, Access Academy, and the APH Hive. BACKGROUND The American Printing House for the Blind is the world’s largest company devoted solely to creating products and services for people who are visually impaired. APH was founded in Louisville, Kentucky in 1858, making it the oldest institution of its kind in the United States. Mission and Vision • “Empowering people who are blind or visually impaired by providing accessible and innovative products, materials and services for lifelong success.” • “An accessible world, with opportunity for everyone.” Start with the Students THE OLDEST LEGISLATION RELATING TO VISUAL IMPAIRMENT! The Act to Promote the Education of the Blind was enacted in 1879 to provide adapted educational materials to eligible students who meet the definition of blindness. Who is Eligible? For students to be eligible to participate in the Federal Quota Program, they MUST fulfill the following requirements: • Meet the definition of blindness - That is, have a "central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with correcting glasses or • a peripheral field of vision no greater than 20 degrees or • visual performance reduced by brain injury or dysfunction when visual function meets the definition of blindness as determined by an eye care specialist or neurologist And • Be enrolled in a formally organized public or private, nonprofit educational program of less than college level • Be enrolled with the registering school or agency on the first Monday in January (adult students must have received 20 hours of instruction per week for a total of 12 weeks in the previous calendar year) How Does it Work? • Congress appropriates funds each October. • The allotment is then divided by the total number of registered eligible students. • The multiplied registration of the per child amount is credited to each account establishing the “quota” for the federal fiscal year. • Quota monies are then allocated to accounts administered by Ex Officio Trustees. • Quota monies can only be used by APH for the payment of labor and materials plus reasonable administrative overhead. Who are the Ex Officio Trustees? • Designated individuals for each residential school, state department of education, and agency for the blind that participates in the Federal Quota program. • Each Ex Officio is entrusted with the administration of the Federal Quota Program within his or her system. Outreach Services Goal The goal of the Outreach Services department is to promote the education of the blind by increasing awareness about the many products and services offered by APH. This includes but are not limited to the following: distance learning and statewide/nationwide training opportunities; exhibits and presentations at regional, statewide and national conferences; expanded core curriculum academies/professional learning communities; and parent and family training opportunities. APH Resources - National Prison Braille Network - Museum - Migel Library - Hall of Fame - InSights Art Contest - Accessibility Hub - NIMAC - Louis Database - Tactile Graphics Image Library COMMON CORE Math and Science Hundreds Board and Manipulatives - Use these large print protractors for classroom and assessment — include built-in wands for exploring angles. Tactile Five & Ten Frames Learning and understanding that numbers are composed of tens and ones is an important foundational mathematical concept. TactileDoodle Kit - Use TactileDoodle and quickly generate tactile, raised-line graphics to convey a variety of concepts or art within the classroom or at home. Braille-Large Print Protractors - This is a braille-large print protractor with pivoting wand that allows for tactile exploration of angles. - Large Print only Geometro Sets Geometro materials provide hands-on experiences with manipulatives that aid in teaching 3-D geometry. Large: 1-03024-00 Medium: 1-03023-00 Mini: 1-03022-00 Cylinder and Cone: 1-03030-00 Tactile Algebra Tiles - Tactile Algebra Tiles are colorful, magnetic tiles that can be manipulated on a steel board to assist students in solving math problems. Light In-Sight Reflection & Refraction Kit - Learn about reflection and refraction by using the tools in this handy kit. Adapted Science Materials Kit - Enables students with visual impairments to participate in science lessons and experiments alongside their sighted peers. Azer’s Interactive Periodic Table Study Set (NEMETH) - Designed to make the Periodic Table of the Elements accessible to students with visual impairments and blindness. Build and discover the different characteristics of bacterial, animal, and plant cells with Build-A-Cell. DNA Twist - Learn about the structure of the DNA molecule with this accessible DNA model. Learn about the formation of single and double strands of DNA, DNA replication, and transcription of DNA to messenger RNA with this accessible kit. Protein Synthesis Kit - Decode messenger RNA with the genetic code and create transfer RNA molecules that bring amino acids in the correct order to form a protein. TECHNOLOGY AND CODING The Mantis Q40 - 40 cell braille display - QWERTY laptop keyboard - Stand-alone features - Connects via USB or Bluetooth Chameleon 20 • Speech – coming soon • 20 cell braille display • Perkins style 8 key keyboard • Stand-alone features • Connects USB or Bluetooth Comparing: Mantis vs Chameleon Mantis reinforces letter to letter recognition - Learning to touch type - For some, keyboard layout is more familiar - Works with Chromebooks Chameleon is smaller so more portable - Speech output (coming soon) - Braille entry for Braille Math Editor with JAWS - Braille keyboard for braille character reinforcement Code Jumper • Code Jumper™ assists students in learning computer coding and programming skills through a unique, physical system. • Originally designed by Microsoft® and developed by APH, this fun and engaging product is designed to teach students how to write computer code. Code Jumper technology takes block coding off the screen and puts it on the table in front of you, making it accessible to all students. Snap Circuits Jr., RC Snap Rover Snapino, BRIC Structures • Snap Circuits Jr. Access Kit Learn about circuits, current, resistance, switches, motors, and other basic electronics concepts. Combine kits and assemble into projects that illuminate, make sounds, and more. Providing parts labeled in braille, Written project instructions in braille and large print. Code and Go Mouse • Build on the basic coding concepts • Tactile maps and a robot mouse • Program the mouse to go through the maze and find the cheese • Great for young students • Work on O&M skills • Cause and Effect • Sequences OTHER BRAILLE PRODUCTS BOP Full Braille Learning Curriculum Pre-K Kindergarten First Grade Second Grade • Language Development • Sound Discrimination • Tactual Discrimination • Hands-on Concept Development Building on Patterns is fun, effective, and easy to use. Moving Ahead Books Goin’ on a Bear Hunt Retold by Suzette Wright Tactile Illustrations by Suzette Wright The Boy and the Wolf by Lois Harrell Tactile Illustrations by Lois Harrell & Suzette Wright Print Illustrations by Terri Gilmore Catalog No. 6-77900-00 PageBlaster Tractor-fed design Produces double-sided interpoint braille. Emboss PRN files from APH’s Tactile Graphics Image Library or Create your own using the included Firebird tactile graphics software. Available on Quota Funds PixBlaster Easily produces double-sided interpoint braille with smooth, rounded dots industry-leading, High-quality tactile graphics with seven variable dot heights. Connect to Wi-Fi to translate and emboss documents on the fly from your computer or mobile device using the included PIXie box. Available on Quota Funds BrailleBlaster Transcription Software - Free - Translate braille in UEB or EBAE - Style, Print, and Braille Views - Both Windows® and Mac® LEGO Braille Bricks - Learn through play - Lessons online - Letters and Numbers - Braille and Print Braille Buzz Free app you can use with any braille display Phonics Mode: fun sound and letter associations are made. Keyboard Mode: all key combinations are announced with dot numbers. Letters Mode: dot number announcement reinforces the relationship between reading letters and writing on the keyboard. All Aboard the Sight Word Activity Express Instruction and Assessment recognition of high frequency words Contracted/uncontracted braille/print on magnets Categorized according to grade level: pre-primer, primer, first, second, and third. Book of activities such as sorting Quick Picks Independent practice or challenge a friend Multi choice questions Make a choice with the wooden tool If correct cards come out of case No battery or screens needed Brl contractions, Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division LOW VISION AND Video Magnifiers Juno Students and adults with low vision Capture and process multiple pages of printed text using Optical Character Recognition (OCR). 7-inch LCD screen with 2x-30x magnification 24 high-contrast color modes, read aloud with text-to-speech (TTS). Jupiter • Jupiter Portable Magnifier 13 in high-definition screen Very easy to use tactile buttons and dials Classroom, workplace, or at home Folds down 8.6 lbs. Distance view Multiple color/contrast Freeze image and zoom in more Matt Connect • The MATT (Magnifier and Tablet Together) Connect • Compact all-in-one magnifier, distance viewer, and educational Android tablet. • The MATT Connect features three interfaces to enhance user-ability for learners of all skills and ages: Basic, Standard, and Advanced • Read books as downloads or under the magnifier • Desmos Calculator EARLY CHILDHOOD AND COMPLEX LEARNERS Hop-A-Dot Mat • Social interaction skills • Self-expression • Creativity • Physical activity • Body awareness • Tactile discrimination • Spatial concepts Reach and Match Learning Kit The Sensory Learning Kit Symbols and Meaning Tactile Connections Kit LED Mini-Lite Box I-M-ABLE • Individualized Meaning-centered Approach to Braille Literacy • I-M-ABLE book, written by Dr. Diane P. Wormsley (2016) • I-M-ABLE teacher workshop training videos (link to videos provided in Teacher Instruction Booklet) and handouts • APH Word PlayHouse Kit - assists with development of phonics skills as detailed in the I-M-ABLE book • Four nonslip, desktop APH Sorting Trays for playing games with word cards O&M AND TACTILE GRAPHICS Picture Maker: Wheatley Tactile Diagramming Kit Tactile Town: 3-D O&M Kit Treks Practice compos directions Route Planning Make it more or less complicated Color Raceway Kit MUSIC, ART, GAMES AND TACTILE GRAPHICS Feel the Beat • The lessons in this curriculum teach Music Braille Code, and focus on reading, playing, and memorizing measures using a soprano recorder. • Catalog Number: 5-41100-00 Color, Paint and Draw Games of Squares - Tic-Tac-Toe - Trading Places - Square It - ZigZag - Checkers - Lucky Roll - Corner Chase Textures and Lines ASSESSMENTS Functional Skills Assessments FVLMA Practitioner's Guidebook For Students Who are Pre-Academic or Academic and Visually Impaired in Grades K-12 PRACTITIONER'S GUIDEBOOK NewT Assessment Kit Barraga Visual Efficiency Program VIRTUAL OFFERINGS Virtual ExCEL Academy, Virtual ExCEL Camp, Access Academy, APH Hive FREE Engaging Lessons • Tuesday: Focus from Birth to 6th grade • Wednesday: Focus from 7th to 12th grade • Thursday: Focus on students with multiple impairments Live and Recorded • Attend live lesson together for supplemental instruction • 2 pm Eastern • Monday through Friday of their week • Assign video for independent homework • Provide to parent/caregiver for activities at home • 5 extension activities emailed For the Professionals • Your one-stop resource for the meaningful education and training webinars you need to get the most out of APH products and services • Live and recorded Information for Classroom, Home and Workplace • Tutorials on new products • Hacks on how to get the most from your beloved technology • Information on resources, services, and programs • ACVREP credit for live events Learning Management System APH HIVE The Benefits • One-stop shop for professional development • FREE • ACVREP credit • Resources • Self-paced learning One of a Kind ❖ Offers both FREE access and ACVREP credit ❖ Bite-size instructional video modules ❖ Activities that bridge learning with professional application ❖ Peer reviewed content Course Catalog • Foundations • Assessment • Early Childhood • Core Curriculum • Expanded Core Curriculum THANK YOU email@example.com Leslie Weilbacher firstname.lastname@example.org aph.org
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| Month | Description | Image | |-------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | January | Ceremonial Huipil Patzicía, Chimaltenango Mayan Language: Kaqchikel Ixchel Museum Collection: MI-05163 This is a ceremonial Huipil made of two canvases, woven on a waist loom with cotton cuyuscate, mercerized cotton and silk. In this huipil, the color red predominates. It also presents the symbol of a dog, which is associated with the name of the Patzi'a community, which means water dog. | | | Month | Description | |-------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | February | Nahualá, Sololá Mayan language: K’iche’ Ixchel Museum Collection: (MI-05384) Year of manufacture: 1970 c. This is an everyday huipil made out of two cloth panels woven on a backstrap loom with mercerized cotton. It features a “star or ch’umil”, that according B. Arathoon (Sown symbols, 2005), “This motif has been a part of the Mesoamerican cosmological repertoire since Olmec times. It can be seen in celestial bands along with the sun, the moon and particularly Venus. It is also featured in codices, such as the Popol Vuh. It is known as “the star that precedes the sun.” | | Month | Description | Image | |-------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | March | Ceremonial Huipil San Martín Jilotepeque, Chimaltenango Mayan language: Kaqchikel Ixchel Museum Collection: Julia de Plocharski (P-138) Year of manufacture: 1920c. This is a ceremonial huipil made out of two cloth panels woven on a backstrap loom with brown cotton (Cuyuscate). It features geometric designs a “Kumatzin or arco”, “;Kumatz in Kaqchikel means snake, which may be associated with the feathered serpent, a pre-Hispanic concept”. (text extracted from calendar Textile Symbols, Ixchel Museum of Indigenous Dress, 1999.) | | | Month | Description | Image | |-------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | April | Ceremonial Huipil San Juan Comalapa, Chimaltenango Mayan language: Kaqchikel Ixchel Museum Collection: (MI-03245) Year of manufacture: 1930c. This is a ceremonial huipil made out of two cloth panels woven on a backstrap loom with brown cotton (Cuyuscate) and silk. It presents geometric designs and symbols like the “Rupan Plato” defined as “valuable or esteemed ritual object: a deep dish of majolica with a figure such as a tiger or b’alam. Cofradía members in Comalapa use it to bless bread and fruit in church”. (text extracted from calendar Textile Symbols, Ixchel Museum of Indigenous Dress, 1999.) | | | Month | Description | Image | |-------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | May | Ceremonial huipil Tecpán Guatemala, Chimaltenango Mayan language: Kaqchikel Ixchel Museum collection: Julia de Plocharski (P-64) Year of manufacture: 1940 c. This ceremonial huipil is made of two cloth panels woven on a backstrap loom using natural brown cotton (cuyuscate) and silk. It features geometric motifs known as “snake or kumatz’in”. “It represents the hills that go up and down (juyu) or the ups and downs in a woman’s life.” (B. Arathoon, Sown Symbols, 2005). | | | Month | Description | Image | |-------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | June | Ceremonial huipil San Juan Cotzal, Quiché Mayan language: Ixil Ixchel Museum collection: Julia de Plocharski (P-22) Year of manufacture: 1920 c. This ceremonial *huipil* is made of three cloth panels woven on a backstrap loom using mercerized cotton, wool and silk. It features geometric and zoomorphic designs, such as the “two headed eagle” symbol, which is “a motif of European origin that represents pre-Hispanic concepts: the great god who had two faces; one looking forward and the other, backward; one that saw good and the other, evil; or one that saw towards the earth and the other, towards the sky.” (Text taken from the calendar: Textile Symbols, Ixchel Museum of Indigenous Dress, 1999) | | | Month | Description | Image | |-------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | July | Ceremonial huipil San Marting Jilotepeque, Chimaltenango Mayan language: Kaqchikel Ixchel Museum collection: (MI-04068) Year of manufacture: 1920 c. This ceremonial huipil is made of two cloth panels woven on a backstrap loom using mercerized cotton and silk. It features geometric designs known as “kumatz’in or arch”. “The Kaqchikel term kumatz means snake, which gives the idea of it being associated with the feathered serpent, a concept of pre-Hispanic origin.” (Text taken from the calendar: Textile Symbols, Ixchel Museum of Indigenous Dress, 1999) | | | Month | Description | Image | |-------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | August| Ceremonial huipil Chajul, Quiché Mayan language: Ixil Ixchel Museum collection: MI-05892 Year of creation: 1940 c. This ceremonial huipil is made of two cloth panels woven on a backstrap loom using mercerized cotton and silk. It features geometric and zoomorphic designs, such as the “two-headed eagle” symbol, which is “a motif of European origin that represents pre-Hispanic concepts: the great god who had two faces; one looking forward and the other, backward; one that saw good and the other, evil; or one that looked towards the earth and the other, towards the sky.” (Text taken from the calendar: Textile Symbols, Ixchel Museum of Indigenous Dress, 1999). | | | Month | Description | Image | |-------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | | **Everyday huipil** San Juan Cotzal, Quiché Mayan language: Ixil Ixchel Museum collection: MI-00929 Year of creation: 1970c. This everyday *huipil* is made of two cloth panels woven on a backstrap loom using mercerized cotton. It features geometric motifs that represent “the four cardinal points”. The four corners of this motif embroidered on the neck of the *huipil* probably represent the four cardinal points of the universe, a concept of pre-Hispanic origin. *(Text taken from the calendar: Textile Symbols, Ixchel Museum of Indigenous Dress, 1999).* | | | Month | Description | Image | |-------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | October | Ceremonial huipil San Juan Comalapa, Chimaltenango Mayan language: Kaqchikel Ixchel Museum collection: MI-03256 Year of manufacture: 1930 c. This ceremonial huipil is made of two cloth panels woven on a backstrap loom using mercerized cotton. It features geometric designs and the “rupan plato” symbol, which is “a prized ritual object: a majolica bowl with a peculiar figure on the bottom, such as a tiger or b’alam. Members of the cofradías of Comalapa use it to bless bread and fruit in the church.” (Text taken from the calendar: Textile Symbols, Ixchel Museum of Indigenous Dress, 1999). | | | Month | Description | Image | |-------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | November | Everyday huipil Nebaj, Quiché Mayan language: Ixil Ixchel Museum collection: MI-04305 Year of creation: 1970 c. This everyday huipil is made of two cloth panels woven on a backstrap loom using mercerized cotton and silk. It features anthropomorphic, zoomorphic and phytomorphic designs that represent the legend of “a princess who fell in love with a young man of lower lineage. The king did not approve of the relationship, which is why he spied on them. One of the spies, the bird, went against the king’s orders and told them that the father of the princess wanted to separate them, thus becoming their nahual. They all fled on a donkey.” (Text taken from the calendar: *Textile Symbols*, *Ixchel Museum of Indigenous Dress*, 1999). | | | Month | Description | Image | |-------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | December | Ceremonial huipil San Pedro Sacatepéquez, Guatemala Mayan language: Kaqchikel Ixchel Museum collection: Julia de Plocharski (P-11) Year of manufacture: 1970 c. This ceremonial huipil is made of two cloth panels woven on a backstrap loom using mercerized cotton. It features a symbol defined as “the Tree of Life”. “It represents a tree that blooms and bears its fruit. According to an informant, the three is like the life of a woman, for she blooms, bears fruit and has branches, which are her children.” (B. Arathoon, Sown Symbols, 2005). | |
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Applying Theory One: So All May Learn Philippe Ernewein, MA Director of Education, Denver Academy Please Consider: When you think about your work as an: - Advocate - Teacher - Administrator - Parent What is your guiding: - Rule - Theory - Mantra That you follow to make sure students are receiving the best education possible? AN EDUCATION AS DISTINCTIVE AS YOUR CHILD 40+ YEARS OF INNOVATION www.denveracademy.org Philippe Ernewein Teacher/Writer/Coach/Consultant/Student "It's not how smart you are, it's how you are smart." www.rememberit.org/ctr What did you write? When you think about your work as an: - Advocate - Teacher - Administrator - Parent What is your guiding: - Rule - Theory - Mantra That follow to make sure students are receiving the best education possible? Objectives: 1. Learn about Theory One. 2. Design & apply Theory One to classroom, advocacy or parenting. 3. Address potential obstacles to implementation of Theory One. 4. Reflect on our own learning & what’s best for our students. Guiding Question How are we supporting our students' best potential? Mindset All students can learn. Students learn at different rates. Students need different degrees of difficulty. Students learn in different ways. Students need different support systems. The 5 most important things to consider when choosing a social media platform for your business 1. **Audience** - Who is your target audience? - What platforms do they use? 2. **Engagement** - Which platforms have the highest engagement rates? - How can you increase engagement on each platform? 3. **Content** - What type of content works best on each platform? - How often should you post? 4. **Analytics** - Which platforms provide the best analytics? - How can you use these analytics to improve your strategy? 5. **Budget** - Which platforms are free and which require paid advertising? - How much budget can you allocate to each platform? U.S. AIR FORCE 285-799 TA-799 A formation of ten Grumman TBM Avenger torpedo bombers from the Naval Air Station, Corpus Christi, Texas, fly in echelon formation during a training exercise. The aircraft are flying at an altitude of 10,000 feet and are headed toward Corpus Christi. The planes are painted in the standard U.S. Navy gray and white camouflage scheme. The tail numbers on the planes are visible, indicating their individual identities within the squadron. The image captures the precision and discipline required for such aerial maneuvers, showcasing the skill and coordination of the pilots and crew. Consolidated B-24 'Liberator' USAF Museum Photo Archives Wright-Patterson Air Force Base Dayton, Ohio The pilot is seated in the cockpit of an aircraft, wearing a flight suit and helmet with a communication device. The cockpit is filled with various instruments and controls, including dials, switches, and levers. The pilot appears to be focused on the controls, possibly preparing for takeoff or during flight. The image captures the complexity and precision required in aviation operations. height shoulders chest waist hips legs reach torso neck thigh How many pilots really were average? | Range of Average: 30% | | |----------------------|-------| | 5’7” ft | 1,70 m| | 5’9” ft | 1,75 m| | 5’11” ft | 1,80 m| | Feature | Low | Average | High | |----------|-------|---------|-------| | Height | | | | | Weight | | | | | Reach | | | | | Torso | | | | | Shoulders| | | | | Chest | | | | | Waist | | | | | Hips | | | | | Legs | | | | The classroom is empty, with rows of desks and chairs neatly arranged. Educational institutions are designed to teach to the average. Addressing “Apprenticeship of Observation” Dan Lortie: “Apprenticeship of Observation” - Phenomenon of teachers arriving/participating in teacher training with thousands of hours of school children observing and evaluating professionals in action. - This apprenticeship is largely responsible for many of the pre-conceptions that pre-service teachers hold about teaching. Identifying the problem low average high memory language knowledge reading vocabulary curiosity perceptual cognitive interest “People learn much of what they have a reasonable opportunity and motivation to learn.” David Perkins, Smart Schools (45) Theory One: two guiding principles 1. Learning is a consequence of thinking, and good thinking is learnable by all students. 2. Learning should include deep understanding, which involves the flexible, active use of knowledge. Theory One: seven key principles 1. Generative knowledge 2. Learnable intelligence 3. Focus on understanding 4. Teaching for mastery & transfer 5. Learning-centered assessment 6. Embracing complexity 7. The school as a learning organization Source: http://www.pz.harvard.edu/projects/smart-schools GRANDMA! Philosophy Theory One Process Journal Product PACE Project 3-Idea Link He uses WiFi Dear Reader, Your notebook is a place for us to talk this year about books, reading, authors and writing. You’ll be talking about literature in letters to me; I’ll write a letter back to you within twenty four hours. All our letters will stay here together; arranged chronologically, as a record of the thinking, learning, and reading we did together. In your letters talk to me about what you’ve read. Tell what you noticed. Tell what you thought and felt and why. Tell what you liked and didn’t like and why. Tell how you read and why. Tell what these books said and meant to you. Ask questions and for help. And write back about ideas, feelings, experiences, and questions. As a bare minimum for passing this course you must write at least one letter a week in your own literature journal. You may write as often as you wish. I promise to write back at least once a week. When you write to me, put your journal in my mailbox near the homework trays. Again, your journal will be returned within twenty four hours. The only exception to this would be when a journal is turned in on Friday; then it will be return first thing Monday morning. You may write letters and respond to letters both during and outside the reading workshop. Please date your letters in the upper right-hand corner. Please number the pages of the notebook, as in a book. Please mention the title of the book you’re talking about and, since the proper way to indicate the title of the book is to capitalize and underline it (e.g. *Jay’s Journal*, *To Kill a Mockingbird*), please capitalize and underline the titles of books to which you make reference. Finally, enter the title and author of each book you finish this year on the log sheet that we will keep in the reading workshop section of our 3-ring binder. This record will serve as a quick reference. Your collection of letters will provide one-fourth of your grade in the reading workshop. Follow the procedures outlined above, write often and a lot, and correspond about your thoughts on literature with involvement and care, and you’ll do well. I look forward to your letters. Sincerely, Mr. Ernewein Core Division I really have nothing to say, except, "How". How if possible that I get stuck with the people honestly Don't Like!!! And... Will never like!!! - R&R "Respect & Responsibility" - Concerned - Mindful - Thoughtful - Ability to respond Dear Josh, Although there is no name to be found, I can only assume it is you. First of all, you are an amazing writer. You expressed yourself in that letter better than anyone has ever expressed themselves in an opening letter. Ok... Ok... there are a few kids that I do get along with. (I'll admit that much!) But I just can not deal with these kids. The first day at school I couldn't wait until I found out who's class I was going to be in! I can remember that someone told me that it I was in your class, so I was like "ok that's good." As I walk up the ramp to the room my head was filled with thoughts of who I will see and what people are going to be in class too. So I walk in and as I was looking for a desk I realize that there are NO girls IN THE WHOLE CLASS!!! It was all guys. So I stated thinking "Narco I bet most of these kids are just visiting from another classroom and that there is no way they would make up a class with all guys! Why would they make a class up of all guys!!!" 9/5 Ok ummmm, This past week has been very overwhelming and hard to get through. I don't know if I am going to make it through the year! Every day just seems to get worse and worse. I'm fighting more with my mom and I really don't know why. If I have been getting more along with the class, lunch is really not that bad. I guess its just me but I really want to pass the test to get off-campus lunch. As I look up I see the word Video on the board and I really want to see that simson thing. Josh F. DEAR FRISBIE, YOU WILL GET THROUGH THE YEAR, BUT YOU MUST TRULY BELIEVE THAT YOU WILL MAKE IT THROUGH THE YEAR. I KNOW YOU CAN. YOU ARE AN INCREDIBLY SMART YOUNG MAN AND I'M SURE THE NEXT (FIRST REALLY) BIG PROJECT IN THIS CLASS WILL SHOW THAT. I'LL INTRODUCE IT TOMORROW AND SHOW YOU EXAMPLES OF PREVIOUS STUDENT WORK. THE NEW RHCP ALBUM IS SOLID, BUT COMPARED TO OTHER ALBUMS, MOTHER'S MILK + BLOOD SUGARSEX MAGIC, A BIT SOFTER. MAYBE I'M GETTING OLDER. ACTUALLY I'M ABOUT AS OLD AS MOST OF THE GUYS IN THAT BAND. DID YOU LOSE MY COOL PUNK ROCK BOOK? LET ME KNOW OR GET ANOTHER BOOK. I'LL BURN THE NEW RED HOT AS SOON AS I CAN. SINCERELY [Signature] This past week has gone pretty good. The book *I KNEW CBS* is just getting good. Oh my knee is not 100% but I'm having fun skating on it. It seems that the less I skate, the better I get. It's really weird. It's like every time I take a few weeks or days off when I come back I'm great. I love skating. On Tuesday I went to this school near me to skate and I haven't been there in a long time. At the school there are these metal benches. I can do so many new tricks on them. It's tight. Today I'm going to study Kennedy Park and I met my friends Holly there. She is going to take me up to Fort Cates. I guess a new park just opened, so I'm going to go check it out. Me and my friends are making this video. And I just found the music for my part. I just found that song "Magic Carpet Ride." Hi! It's me "gimpo" I can walk my knee is screwed. Well, it's not really my knee but more like under it. It all happened on Sunday after a full day of skating. I was trying to do this big gap thing when I got too much speed and over shot. I landed on the flat bottom. When I got up my legs were shaking like crazy. At first I thought there it would just be ok and that I could just walk it off. But every time I stood up the thing was that both knees were hurting so I thought it was just sore. Well that was now its Thursday and I feel a lot better. The thing was that both knees were hurting so I thought it was just sore. Well that was new on Thursday and I feel a hole lot better guess I just really broozed my knee joint. I bet by next Wednesday I'll be good as new or at least I hope so. My mom got my wallet from the R&D! I was so happy. Last night chapter was really good. Dear Josh (aka Frisbie), I enjoyed lunch yesterday; I think we could talk for a long time about music. This weekend I plan to hook-up my computer & burn CDs. I love to burn CDs. When I was your age I used to create mix tapes with my double-deck cassette recorder. O.K., that was in the days of vinyl & records. If you like chapters 7+8, I bet you found chapter 9 good too. Simon on the beach. What really did happen? We’ll talk about it in class today. Hopefully your knee is 100%. Check out Fuzazi on your music internet site. Sincerely, [Signature] Josh, I appreciate the time you gave me on the phone last night. I value your concern and I hope you realize I will make changes when I can. I look forward to the writing you will do. You are a talented & smart young man. What are your thoughts on Tales of Punk Rock Nothing so far? It is a true story about the music coming out of Washington D.C. area in the late 1980s. Bands like Fugazi, Dag-Nasty, and Minor Threat. Have you heard of them? Let me know. Sincerely, [Signature] Dear Josh (aka Frisbie), I enjoyed lunch yesterday; I think we could talk for a long time about music. This weekend I plan to hook-up my computer & burn CDs. I love to burn CDs. When I was your age I used to create mix tapes with my double deck cassette recorder. A.K., that was in the days of vinyl & records. If you like chapters 7+8, I bet you found chapter 9 good too. Simon on the beach. What really did happen? We’ll talk about it in class today. Hopefully your knee is 100%. Check out Fugazi on your music internet site. Sincerely, [Signature] Dear E, This suck my computer is slowly breaking. Something is going on and I don't know what the hell is going on. Any way, I really excited for this trip that coming up with satellite. I can't wait to get away for a while and just feel the helplessness stress. I really feel that this trip will help me finish out the year strong. God I can't wait. It's in nearly a week of doing a WWI on the hole trip like I would keep a journal about how every day was like. I think it would be a long story. Like every day would be a chapter or there were any events and stuff. Tell me what you think Thanks. “People learn much of what they have a reasonable opportunity and motivation to learn.” David Perkins, Smart Schools (45) 1. Learning is a consequence of thinking, and good thinking is learnable by all students. 2. Learning should include deep understanding, which involves the flexible, active use of knowledge. Theory One: seven key principles 1. Generative knowledge 2. Learnable intelligence 3. Focus on understanding 4. Teaching for mastery & transfer 5. Learning-centered assessment 6. Embracing complexity 7. The school as a learning organization Source: http://www.pz.harvard.edu/projects/smart-schools Philosophy Theory One Process Journal Product PACE Project 3-Idea Link | Process | Audience | Connection | Expression | |---------|----------|------------|------------| | Knowledge: name, define, recall, list, report, narrate, recognize, describe, draw. | Self/Friends | Write/Create Blog | Linguistic: write a poem, myth, legend; invent slogan for; write a journal. | | Comprehension: review, summarize, discuss, explain, paraphrase, restate, locate, tell, express, report. | Family | Post on YouTube | Logical/Quantitative: translate into mathematical formula; represent through graphic organizer; create a timeline of | | Application: illustrate, apply, make, interview, translate, operate, show, interpret, practice, model, demonstrate. | School | Email Letter | Kinesthetic: rehearse/perform a play on; role-play/simulate; build/construct a model of; design a product for. | | Analysis: diagram, compare, contrast, deduce, order, outline, disassemble, teach. | Community | Enter Contest | Spatial: chart, map, cluster, or graph; sculpt; draw; paint; create a mural. | | Synthesis: combine, predict, systematize, connect, infer, extend, plan, propose, design. | Country | Design Website | Musical: write song lyrics; explain how musical lyrics relate; create short musical on. | | Evaluation: judge, interpret, criticize, imply, conclude, decode, measure, rate. | Global | Create Podcast | Interpersonal: conduct a class meeting that; assume role to; participate in a service project. | | Create: design, assemble, construct, conjecture, develop, formulate. | Combination | Combination | Intrapersonal: self-assess; receive feedback; describe your values about. | **Written Component** Following the writing process (draft 1, draft 2, rewrite, finalize), each student is required to compose an essay: thesis/focus statement in the first paragraph, two supporting quotes for each paragraph in the body of the essay, and conclusion. **Presentation** At the conclusion of the project each student has the opportunity to share their learning (5-8 minutes) using the following guidelines: use handout or visual, share thesis, support, connection, and exit slip/assessment tool. At the Core of Differentiated Instruction... **Student Traits** - Readiness Level - Interest - Learning Profile - Affect **Classroom Elements** - Content - Process - Product - Learning Environment PACE Project Steps Identify - Diagnostic learning profile, learning modalities, personality inventory, MI survey, formative assessment, exit slips. Facilitate - Dedicate classroom workshop time, offer examples, conduct conferences, environmental structure. Celebrate - Create ongoing opportunities for students to share process and final products. Math & Science Projects - Stairs Project: slope, equation of a line - Cookie Project: multi-step equations, point of equilibrium, TOV - Postcard Project: estimating profit, price-setting, supply & demand, equations - Mural Project: scale, ratios, proportions The Cookie Project: Systems of Equations “You bring the cookies, I’ll bring the milk!” Goal: To determine the expense of making cookies and decide on an appropriate selling price in an effort to make a profit. | Math: calculations, solutions, mistakes | Cookies & Recipe | |----------------------------------------|------------------| | Essay: drafts, evidence of self-edits, conferences | TI-83 Calculator & Graphing Paper | | Presentation: hand-outs, examples | Presentation Folder | Math Part: Finances - **Cost Equation:** - Calculate the cost of the ingredients in one batch of cookies - Variable: receipt versus actual ingredients used - **Profit Equation:** - Research a reasonable price for selling individual cookies - Think about quality versus quantity - **Analyzing Data:** - Create a table & graph to model cost and profit - Illustrate the point at which you would make profit - Create a handout that shows this data Write a report (at least 3 paragraphs) about your capitalistic cookie adventure. Keep the following questions in mind: - What decisions did you make concerning ingredients, labor, costs and pricing? - How could you market this product outside the classroom? - How and why do manufacturer’s prices differ from yours? - Consult friends, family, and foes regarding price; how much would they be willing to pay? Presentation: Milk & Cookies ● Presentation Day ○ Business attire ○ Hand-outs & visuals ○ Cookies for all students ○ Write, solve & graph equation ○ Self-evaluation “People learn much of what they have a reasonable opportunity and motivation to learn.” David Perkins, Smart Schools (45) 1. Learning is a consequence of thinking, and good thinking is learnable by all students. 2. Learning should include deep understanding, which involves the flexible, active use of knowledge. Theory One: seven key principles 1. Generative knowledge 2. Learnable intelligence 3. Focus on understanding 4. Teaching for mastery & transfer 5. Learning-centered assessment 6. Embracing complexity 7. The school as a learning organization Source: http://www.pz.harvard.edu/projects/smart-schools 1. What can you bring back to your classrooms, homes, advocacy? 2. What questions or concerns do you have? National Center For Learning Disabilities (NCLD): State of Learning Disabilities Report (May 2017) National Center For Learning Disabilities (NCLD): State of Learning Disabilities Report (May 2017) 1. 48 percent of parents believe incorrectly that children will outgrow these brain-based difficulties 1. 48 percent of parents believe incorrectly that children will outgrow these brain-based difficulties 2. 33 percent of educators say that sometimes what people call a learning disability is really just laziness 1. 48 percent of parents believe incorrectly that children will outgrow these brain-based difficulties 2. 33 percent of educators say that sometimes what people call a learning disability is really just laziness 3. Learning and attention issues are far more common than most people think—1 in 5 children in the U.S. have learning and attention issues such as dyslexia and ADHD 1. 48 percent of parents believe incorrectly that children will outgrow these brain-based difficulties 2. 33 percent of educators say that sometimes what people call a learning disability is really just laziness 3. Learning and attention issues are far more common than most people think—1 in 5 children in the U.S. have learning and attention issues such as dyslexia and ADHD 4. Learning disabilities is the largest of the 13 disability categories covered under special education law 1. 48 percent of parents believe incorrectly that children will outgrow these brain-based difficulties 2. 33 percent of educators say that sometimes what people call a learning disability is really just laziness 3. Learning and attention issues are far more common than most people think—1 in 5 children in the U.S. have learning and attention issues such as dyslexia and ADHD 4. Learning disabilities is the largest of the 13 disability categories covered under special education law 5. A third of students with LD have repeated a grade, which increases the risk of dropping out. 1. 48 percent of parents believe incorrectly that children will outgrow these brain-based difficulties 2. 33 percent of educators say that sometimes what people call a learning disability is really just laziness 3. Learning and attention issues are far more common than most people think—1 in 5 children in the U.S. have learning and attention issues such as dyslexia and ADHD 4. Learning disabilities is the largest of the 13 disability categories covered under special education law 5. A third of students with LD have repeated a grade, which increases the risk of dropping out. 6. Students with disabilities are more than twice as likely to be suspended as those without disabilities 1. 48 percent of parents believe incorrectly that children will outgrow these brain-based difficulties 2. 33 percent of educators say that sometimes what people call a learning disability is really just laziness 3. Learning and attention issues are far more common than most people think—1 in 5 children in the U.S. have learning and attention issues such as dyslexia and ADHD 4. Learning disabilities is the largest of the 13 disability categories covered under special education law 5. A third of students with LD have repeated a grade, which increases the risk of dropping out. 6. Students with disabilities are more than twice as likely to be suspended as those without disabilities 7. More than half (55 percent) of young adults with LD have been involved with the justice system. LOOK, IT'S ALMOST 11 O'CLOCK! WOW, THE LAST TWO HOURS REALLY FLEW BY! I HOPE THE TEACHER DIDN'T SAY ANYTHING IMPORTANT. Suggested Reading 1. **Dyslexia Focused** a. Dr. Sally Shaywitz’s *Overcoming Dyslexia: A New and Complete Science-Based Program for Reading Problems at Any Level* b. Dr. Maryanne Wolf’s *Proust & the Squid: The Story and Science of the Reading Brain* c. Brock & Fernette Eide’s *The Dyslexic Advantage: Unlocking the Hidden Potential of the Dyslexic Brain* 2. **Parenting** a. Dr. Robert Brooks’ & Dr. Sam Goldstein’s *Raising Resilient Children: Fostering Strength, Hope, and Optimism in Your Child* b. Wendy Mogel’s *Voice Lessons for Parents: What to Say, How to Say it, and When to Listen* 3. **Good Reads** a. Andrew Solomon’s *Far From the Tree: Parents, Children and the Search for Identity* b. Malcolm Gladwell’s *David and Goliath: Underdogs, Misfits, and the Art of Battling Giants* 4. **Academic Stuff:** a. Dan Lortie’s *Schoolteacher: A Sociological Study* b. Adam Cohen’s *Imbeciles: The Supreme Court, American Eugenics, and the Sterilization of Carrie Buck* c. Lynn Meltzer’s *Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (What Works for Special-Needs Learners)* Originals: How Non-Conformists Move the World Adam Grant Reader, Come Home: The Reading Brain in a Digital World Maryanne Wolf make it stick The Science of Successful Learning Peter C. Brown Henry L. Roediger III Mark A. McDaniel 1. www.understood.org a. Our goal is to help the millions of parents whose children, ages 3–20, are struggling with learning and attention issues. We want to empower them to understand their children’s issues and relate to their experiences. 2. http://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/ a. A clinical tool designed for healthcare professionals to help them gain a better understanding of learning disabilities to be used in their practice. 3. http://med.stanford.edu/neurodiversity.html a. Our goal is to draw from people with a variety of backgrounds and life experiences to reach a new level of innovation in teaching, research and caring for patients. Innovative programs ensure diversity is reflected in our programs, culture and leadership. 4. https://youtu.be/4eBmyttcfU4 a. High school dropout turned Harvard faculty talks about how a simple new way of thinking helps nurture individual potential. Todd Rose is the author of the *End of Average*. What did we learn? To ensure a fair selection, you all get the same test. You must all climb that tree. Implications of “Apprenticeship of Observation” “The average student has spent 13,000 hours in direct contact with classroom teachers by the time they graduate from high school (61).”
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Writing Poetry Outdoors Write a poem inspired by being outdoors! Leaf Yellow, orange, honestly I don’t know what color you are. At the tip, you are as crisp as a potato chip. In the middle, you are a sky with yellowish sun and orange bursting out like a firework. –Kyla Z., 3rd grade You will need: something to write with: pencil or pen. something to write on: paper, clipboard, or journal. Find somewhere to write. - Choose a spot. - Slow down and take a big breath. - Notice what is around you. I notice: Write what you see, hear, smell, touch. • Focus on anything that catches your interest! • If you’re in a group, share some observations out loud. Example: Ants crawl in a line. I wonder: Write questions about what you notice or anything! Example: How many times have ants crawled along this path? It reminds me of: What memories, ideas, or objects come to mind? Examples: - They remind me of people walking on a busy sidewalk. - Ants, their shiny bodies move like lines of seeds. Write about how you’re feeling right now. Examples: • Sitting here leaning against the tree trunk, with friends around me, I feel calm, like I have strong roots too. • I feel grateful and sad remembering looking at leaves with my grandma. Make a poem by combining or changing the order of your lines. - Include what feels meaningful to you. - Shift between observations, thoughts, and feelings. - Poems don’t need to rhyme. Stuck? Look around. • Notice something and write it down. • Then, notice what that makes you think of and write that down. There are no rules. If the poem goes somewhere unexpected, follow it. “Poems hide . . . What we have to do is live in a way that lets us find them.” —Naomi Shihab Nye First Rain First rain strikes the heron-blue lake. (I notice) Water meets itself with a million tiny hands. Applause. (It reminds me of) —Arthur Dawson When revising your poem, you may choose to include the words I notice, or leave them out. For example: • I notice the first rain strike the heron-blue lake. OR • First rain strikes the heron-blue lake. Read and write more poems. • Read more poems. • Try writing more poems in different places. Tree Circle I notice roots of a tree growing into the ground. They remind me of elephant legs, or columns on a building. I wonder how many people have visited this place? How many birds have sat on this tree? I notice sitting here leaning against the trunk, with friends around me, I feel calm, like I have strong roots too. —Alex P., 9th grade My Leaf My leaf smells like a rose, stem like yarn. How long have you lived? Why did you fall? Must your tree tell the tale, or does it know at all? You remind me of the fall. So crisp. Wet in the heavy mist. My leaf. —Max S., 4th grade My Backyard in the Spring I sit in the backyard for hours looking up and noticing the clouds swiftly drift by. When I’m there I hear the bees buzzing, the birds chirping, and wind gently blowing the trees. I let the low wind hit my face with warm spring air. I let the warm air flood through my body. I sink into the hot grass trying to figure out the shapes of the clouds. The wind gently pushes the trees toward us. —Brooke Y., 3rd grade If you want, you can share your poem. Read your poem to a friend or family member. Take a photo and share it online. Think back on your experience. Discuss or share with a partner: • What was it like to write a poem? • Did anything surprise you about the process? To see more *Flipping Through Nature: Card Decks to Guide Outdoor Exploration* activities, visit [lwrnce.org/center-for-environmental-learning](http://lwrnce.org/center-for-environmental-learning). There you will also find guides for using the *Flipping Through Nature* card decks, photo and poetry acknowledgments, and more information. Funding for *Flipping Through Nature: Card Decks to Guide Outdoor Exploration* has been generously provided by Woka Foundation.
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MEMORIZE 90 90 VERSES IN 90 DAYS Romans | Student Guide # Table of Contents - What is Memorize 90? ................................................................. 3 - Greetings from Paul ........................................................................ 8 - Longing to Fulfill His Calling ....................................................... 9 - Unashamed ..................................................................................... 11 - The Self-Evident Truth of God .................................................... 12 - Distorting God’s Truth .................................................................. 13 - The Judgment of Man and of God ............................................... 15 - God is Not a Respecter of Persons .............................................. 16 - The Law Written in Man’s Heart ................................................ 17 - Those Who Do Not Walk Their Talk .......................................... 18 - The Condition of the Heart ........................................................... 20 - God is True .................................................................................... 21 - God’s Righteousness Upheld ..................................................... 22 - No One is Righteous ..................................................................... 23 - Understanding of Sin Via the Law ............................................. 24 - Fallen but Justified ........................................................................ 25 - The Law of Faith ........................................................................... 26 What is Memorize 90? Life is full of tests and the Word of God contains the answers. Then the questions come and it is important to have the answers. Memorize 90 is a tool you can use to be equipped when life puts you on the spot. Memorize 90 (M90) is a very easy-to-use systematic Scripture memorization program developed by the Youth Ministries of the United Pentecostal Church International. It is also a personal devotion guide. Who is it for? It is for anyone who wants to memorize and apply Scripture, especially our target audience of teenagers and young adults. How does it work? Memorize 90 verses in 90 days. 3 months. 1 verse per day. Not just Scripture memorization, but Scripture application. M90 is designed to help you understand the Scriptures you are memorizing so they can be applied to your life. Our prayer is that the verses will become more than just words on a page but rather words that come alive. Personal Devotion Guide Here are some easy steps to put M90 into action in your life as a personal devotion guide. 1. Pray before you begin each day and ask God to open your mind and heart by giving you understanding of the Scripture. Pray that God will speak to you through His Word and that His Word will become alive in you. Some days you may pray for five or ten minutes. Other days your prayer time will be much longer as you grow in your relationship with the author of each Scripture. Be sensitive to the Spirit of God and don’t rush through your prayer time. 2. Review the verses you have already memorized. See review methods in the Memorizations Methods and Tips section. 3. Read the topic description of the passage you are memorizing. 4. Memorize your Scripture for the day. See memorization methods in the Memorization Methods and Tips section. 5. Use the margins of your M90 guide to write notes. What is that particular verse speaking to you? Write out why a particular topic is relevant to your life? 6. Complete the *Apply the Scripture* section at the end of each topic when you have memorized all the verses in that section. You may need to “Google” some words used in these questions or even terms used in the Scriptures themselves. You can also use www.dictionary.com, Bible study software, or a good old-fashioned concordance and Bible dictionary. They still work. 7. Check the corresponding box (☐ Day 1) each day after you have memorized your verse and finished your personal devotion time. **Memorization Methods and Tips** Anybody can memorize. Yes, even you. If you have a brain you have the ability to memorize. You already memorize things that are important to you. It is simply a matter of priority and a commitment of time. The human brain has an amazing capacity to store information. Through focus and repetition an immeasurable amount of data can be stored for a lifetime in the long-term memory of the brain. You have used this ability to commit to memory phone numbers, songs, poems, passwords, answers to a test, obscure facts, and the statistics of professional athletes. Much of this information is important and useful in life, while some of it is simply trivial. But what about Scripture? What if you memorized the Word of God! This information is definitely not trivial, and far more than just useful. It is critical. It is eternal. It is alive! It is wisdom, inspiration, and encouragement. Following are some memorization methods and tips that will help you commit Scripture to memory. Everyone’s memorization ability is unique to that individual and everyone has their own style of memorizing. However, you will discover that repetition is the key to memorizing, no matter which method you use. You do not have to do each of the following methods or try every tip. Find out what works for you and go with it. These are simply listed to assist you in your Scripture memorization journey. - Read the verse out loud one time for every word in the verse. If there are ten words in the verse, read it ten times. - Write the verse out by hand. Writing it out will cement the Scripture into your memory. You can write one verse out multiple times on a sheet of paper. You can also write it out on an index card with the Scripture text on one side and the Scripture reference on the other side. Create these flash cards so that you can take them with you anywhere you go to assist you with your memorization and review. • Record yourself reading the verse and play it back to yourself on your smartphone. • Sing the verse. Singing the words of the verse to a melody can help you retain the Scripture. We only recommend doing this when no one else is around. • The 15-repetition method. Break the verse down into smaller portions (phrases or sentences). Say the first phrase fifteen times without looking at the verse. Say the second phrase fifteen times. Now add the second phrase to the first phrase and say them both fifteen times without looking at the verse. Say the third phrase fifteen times and then add it to the first two and say them all fifteen times without looking. Keep doing this until you can say the entire verse fifteen times without looking. This method takes a little bit of time, but you will have no problem memorizing or recalling verses if you use this method. • Review every day. Reviewing what you have already memorized is absolutely critical to your long-term recall of memorized Scripture. It is very important that you have someone listen to you quote the verses and make sure they correct you when you miss a word. The more accurately you memorize and review, the more likely you will be to remember these verses for the rest of your life. Memorize 90 Interactive Use the #memorize90 hashtag and join the M90 conversation. You can share how many students you have participating, testimonies about the impact of M90 in the lives of your students, and creative ideas (challenges or incentives) that you have incorporated into the program. Introduction Who was the tallest president? What is that hanging thing in the back of your throat called? How much did the first Big Mac cost? How can I get rid of that shirt Grandma bought for me that I hate? Life is one big, ginormous question mark. Questions are a daily ritual for us as students. Our brains are constantly in motion, jumping from one question to the next like a kangaroo that had a little too much sugar in their Starbucks. But fortunately for our generation, there is this tiny little invention called the Internet. Ever heard of it? The Internet is a one-stop guide to all the news, status updates, and cat pictures that your heart so desires. It is the new coffee shop. It’s where we develop and exchange our ideas, thoughts, and dreams. And while the social aspect is a huge benefit, the main objective of the Internet is, and always will be, one thing: Information We now have access to more knowledge than we have ever had at any point in the history of humanity. We have access to the answers to those questions that we encounter on a daily basis. In just a few short keystrokes we can discover that Abraham Lincoln and Lyndon B Johnson share the top spot in height at 6’4” each. We can determine that the little thing in the back of your throat is called the uvula. We quickly discover that the first Big Mac cost $.49 in 1968. We can even find a step-by-step tutorial for turning ugly clothes into art projects. Or if that doesn’t work, directions to the closest thrift store to unload them on someone else. But the accessibility of information does come with fine print. Studies now show that the more accessible information is, the less we actually commit to memory. So, in a sense, the more information we have access to, the less we truly know. And while it is amazing to have access to the pure volume of information that we do thanks to technology, if we aren’t careful we can become content to know where to find the Word of God, as opposed to having it nestled deep in our heart and soul. David was on to something when he stated in Psalms 119:11: *Thy word have I hid in my heart, that I might not sin against thee.* Notice he didn’t say: Thy word have I hid in my cell phone. Or on the Internet. Or in my Bible App. Or even in his dusty book by my bed. David understood that for the Word of God to truly change us, it has to be inside of us. It has to be committed to memory. It has to be buried deep within our hearts if we ever hope to have a continual and vibrant relationship with Him. Because the time will come when you face even more difficult questions: **Why do I believe what I believe?** **What is God calling me to do?** **How can I survive this current struggle I’m dealing with?** **How can I keep my relationship with God strong when I am the only one in my school living for Him?** **What is my purpose here on this Earth?** And those answers won’t be found on Google or Bing. Those answers can only be found in the Word of God. And in that moment, as you stand in the face of temptation, trial, and decision, you may not have cell signal or Internet access. Whatever you have hidden in your heart is what is going to sustain you. So don’t settle for only having access to the Word of God, but rather allow God’s Word to access your heart and mind. Allow it to take root in the deepest places of your memory. Allow it to change you from the inside out. And then, and only then, will you have all the answers you need to the big, ginormous question mark that we call life! Greetings from Paul Romans was authored by Paul, a highly educated Jew who became the chief apostle to non-Jews. The letter was written during the first half of Nero’s reign during a relatively peaceful time for the Empire. - **Day 1** Romans 1:1 Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ, called to be an apostle, separated unto the gospel of God, - **Day 2** Romans 1:2 (Which he had promised afore by his prophets in the holy scriptures,) - **Day 3** Romans 1:3 Concerning his Son Jesus Christ our Lord, which was made of the seed of David according to the flesh; - **Day 4** Romans 1:4 And declared to be the Son of God with power, according to the spirit of holiness, by the resurrection from the dead: - **Day 5** Romans 1:5 By whom we have received grace and apostleship, for obedience to the faith among all nations, for his name: - **Day 6** Romans 1:6 Among whom are ye also the called of Jesus Christ: - **Day 7** Romans 1:7 To all that be in Rome, beloved of God, called to be saints: Grace to you and peace from God our Father, and the Lord Jesus Christ. **Apply the Scripture:** - Paul introduces himself as a servant of Jesus Christ. How would you describe yourself? Are you a lukewarm fan, a follower, or a servant of Jesus? - In verse six, Paul talks about grace (the unmerited favor of God). In what ways has God extended unearned grace to you? Do you extend that grace to others? Longing to Fulfill His Calling Paul was a missionary through and through. He longed to travel to Rome, to meet the church, and to fellowship with the people. He felt a tug at his heart and was eager to come as soon as God opened a door. - **Day 8** Romans 1:8 First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for you all, that your faith is spoken of throughout the whole world. - **Day 9** Romans 1:9 For God is my witness, whom I serve with my spirit in the gospel of his Son, that without ceasing I make mention of you always in my prayers; - **Day 10** Romans 1:10 Making request, if by any means now at length I might have a prosperous journey by the will of God to come unto you. - **Day 11** Romans 1:11 For I long to see you, that I may impart unto you some spiritual gift, to the end ye may be established; - **Day 12** Romans 1:12 That is, that I may be comforted together with you by the mutual faith both of you and me. - **Day 13** Romans 1:13 Now I would not have you ignorant, brethren, that oftentimes I purposed to come unto you (but was let hitherto,) that I might have some fruit among you also, even as among other Gentiles. - **Day 14** Romans 1:14 I am debtor both to the Greeks, and to the Barbarians; both to the wise and to the unwise. - **Day 15** Romans 1:15 So, as much as in me is, I am ready to preach the gospel to you that are at Rome also. Apply the Scripture: - The Roman church was known for their great faith. What are you known for? - This generation doesn’t do things by halves. Do you, like Paul, have a longing to do something with as much as is in you? Unashamed Paul stated that he was “not ashamed.” By using double negatives, he was implying that not only wasn’t he embarrassed and ashamed by the Gospel, Paul was “Holy Ghost proud” to be living, breathing evidence of the transformational power of God. He preached the Gospel wherever he went, be it in Jerusalem or in worldly Rome. - **Day 16** Romans 1:16 For I am not ashamed of the gospel of Christ: for it is the power of God unto salvation to everyone that believeth; to the Jew first, and also to the Greek. - **Day 17** Romans 1:17 For therein is the righteousness of God revealed from faith to faith: as it is written, The just shall live by faith. **Apply the Scripture:** - Have you seen people who, like Paul, are unashamed of the Gospel? Where do you think their inner confidence comes from? - The Christian walk is a process of faith from start to finish; it progresses from one step of faith to another. What is your next step of faith? The Self-Evident Truth of God If a person will observe nature and reflect on it, he will realize creation has a Creator. He will also realize this Creator has great power - in fact, He must be divine. By contemplating God’s creation, we can discover many aspects of God’s character such as wisdom, order, and goodness. Because of this, no human being has an excuse for not serving God. If a person will act on the information that is available to him, God will lead him to a saving knowledge. - **Day 18** Romans 1:18 For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who hold the truth in unrighteousness; - **Day 19** Romans 1:19 Because that which may be known of God is manifest in them; for God hath shewed it unto them. - **Day 20** Romans 1:20 For the invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead; so that they are without excuse: - **Day 21** Romans 1:21 Because that, when they knew God, they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful; but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened. - **Day 22** Romans 1:22 Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools. - **Day 23** Romans 1:23 And changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image made like to corruptible man, and to birds, and fourfooted beasts, and creeping things. **Apply the Scripture:** - When your distractions are turned off and you’re surrounded by nature, what does God’s creation tell you about God? - What are ways that we, in our own lives, dim the glory of God and allow our hearts to be darkened? Distorting God’s Truth Because humanity persisted in distorting the truth of God, they began a headlong descent into depravity. And so, God allowed their shameful passions to control them. Whenever a society rejects God, they lose the sense of what is right and wrong. The result is a distortion of everything which is good. - **Day 24** Romans 1:24 Wherefore God also gave them up to uncleanness, through the lusts of their own hearts, to dishonour their own bodies between themselves: - **Day 25** Romans 1:25 Who changed the truth of God into a lie, and worshipped and served the creature more than the Creator, who is blessed for ever. Amen. - **Day 26** Romans 1:26 For this cause God gave them up unto vile affections: for even their women did change the natural use into that which is against nature. - **Day 27** Romans 1:27 And likewise also the men, leaving the natural use of the woman, burned in their lust one toward another; men working that which is unseemly, and receiving in themselves that recompence of their error which was meet. - **Day 28** Romans 1:28 And even as they did not like to retain God in their knowledge, God gave them over to a reprobate mind, to do those things which are not convenient; - **Day 29** Romans 1:29 Being filled with all unrighteousness, fornication, wickedness, covetousness, malice, full of envy, murder, debate, deceit, malignity; whisperers, - **Day 30** Romans 1:30 Backbiters, haters of God, despiteful, proud, boasters, inventors of evil things, disobedient to parents, - **Day 31** Romans 1:31 Without understanding, covenantbreakers, without natural affection, implacable, unmerciful; Day 32 Romans 1:32 Who knowing the judgment of God, that they which commit such things are worthy of death, not only do the same, but have pleasure in them that do them. Apply the Scripture: - Who was Paul commissioned to bring the gospel to? - Which of these verses is the most challenging for you, and why? The Judgment of Man and of God It can be easy to sit back and look at the sins of others and congratulate ourselves on our purity and goodness in comparison, but God offers us no such opportunity. We, who think we can judge others, do these very same things listed at the end of Romans 1. God’s goodness and kindness is meant to lead us to repentance. - **Day 33** **Romans 2:1** Therefore thou art inexcusable, O man, whosoever thou art that judgest: for wherein thou judgest another, thou condemnest thyself; for thou that judgest doest the same things. - **Day 34** **Romans 2:2** But we are sure that the judgment of God is according to truth against them which commit such things. - **Day 35** **Romans 2:3** And thinkest thou this, O man, that judgest them which do such things, and doest the same, that thou shalt escape the judgment of God? - **Day 36** **Romans 2:4** Or despisest thou the riches of his goodness and forbearance and longsuffering; not knowing that the goodness of God leadeth the to repentance? **Apply the Scripture:** - God extends kindness and patience toward us even when we aren’t serving and pleasing Him. What are ways you can extend kindness and patience to those around you? - Which of these verses is the most challenging for you, and why? God is Not a Respecter of Persons All humanity—Jew and non-Jew, rich and poor, educated and uneducated—stands equal before the Lord. Every person faces the choice between salvation and condemnation. God judges everyone fairly and without favoritism. - **Day 37** Romans 2:5 But after thy hardness and impenitent heart treasurest up unto thyself wrath against the day of wrath and revelation of the righteous judgment of God; - **Day 38** Romans 2:6 Who will render to every man according to his deeds: - **Day 39** Romans 2:7 To them who by patient continuance in well doing seek for glory and honour and immortality, eternal life: - **Day 40** Romans 2:8 But unto them that are contentious, and do not obey the truth, but obey unrighteousness, indignation and wrath, - **Day 41** Romans 2:9 Tribulation and anguish, upon every soul of man that doeth evil, of the Jew first, and also of the Gentile; - **Day 42** Romans 2:10 But glory, honour, and peace, to every man that worketh good, to the Jew first, and also to the Gentile: - **Day 43** Romans 2:11 For there is no respect of persons with God. **Apply the Scripture:** - The church, like God, shouldn’t distinguish between people groups and ethnicities. Is this lived out in the UPCI? Do other denominations live this out? - Which of these verses is the most encouraging for you, and why? The Law Written in Man’s Heart When people who have never heard of God’s law follow it more or less by instinct, they confirm its truth by their obedience. They show that God’s law is not something alien, imposed on us from without, but woven into the very fabric of our creation. There is something deep within us that echoes God’s yes and no, right and wrong. This innate moral code points only to our Creator. - **Day 44** Romans 2:12 For as many as have sinned without law shall also perish without law: and as many as have sinned in the law shall be judged by the law; - **Day 45** Romans 2:13 (For not the hearers of the law are just before God, but the doers of the law shall be justified. - **Day 46** Romans 2:14 For when the Gentiles, which have not the law, do by nature the things contained in the law, these, having not the law, are a law unto themselves: - **Day 47** Romans 2:15 Which shew the work of the law written in their hearts, their conscience also bearing witness, and their thoughts the mean while accusing or else excusing one another;) - **Day 48** Romans 2:16 In the day when God shall judge the secrets of men by Jesus Christ according to the gospel. **Apply the Scripture:** - “With great power comes great responsibility.” How is the responsibility of the church greater than the responsibility of those who have never heard the gospel? - In your words, how would you describe God’s law written in people’s hearts? Those Who Do Not Walk Their Talk The Bible has always had strong words for people who do not practice what they preach. It’s easy to be sure you have it all together because you know God’s revealed word inside and out, and to feel qualified to guide others through their blind alleys and dark nights to God. But when you feel you have all the answers, that’s a good time to check yourself. - **Day 49** Romans 2:17 Behold, thou art called a Jew, and restest in the law, and makest thy boast of God, - **Day 50** Romans 2:18 And knowest his will, and approvest the things that are more excellent, being instructed out of the law; - **Day 51** Romans 2:19 And art confident that thou thyself art a guide of the blind, a light of them which are in darkness, - **Day 52** Romans 2:20 An instructor of the foolish, a teacher of babes, which hast the form of knowledge and of the truth in the law. - **Day 53** Romans 2:21 Thou therefore which teachest another, teachest thou not thyself? Thou that preachest a man should not steal, dost thou steal? - **Day 54** Romans 2:22 Thou that sayest a man should not commit adultery, dost thou commit adultery? Thou that abhorrest idols, dost that commit sacrilege? - **Day 55** Romans 2:23 Thou that makest thy boast of the law, through breaking the law dishonourest thou God? - **Day 56** Romans 2:24 For the name of God is blasphemed among the Gentiles through you, as it is written. Apply the Scripture: - While you are guiding others, who is going to guide you? - Are you sitting in a comfortable place right now, watching the actions of others more closely than your own? The Condition of the Heart Circumcision is the surgical ritual that marks a man as a Jew. The issue of whether a believer needed to be circumcised was a hot topic in the early church. Paul is setting the record straight in Romans. It’s not the cut of a knife that makes a child of God. It’s the mark of God on your heart, not a knife on your skin, that makes you a part of the family. - **Day 57** **Romans 2:25** For circumcision verily profiteth, if thou keep the law: but if those be a breaker of the law, thy circumcision is made uncircumcision. - **Day 58** **Romans 2:26** Therefore if the uncircumcision keep the righteousness of the law, shall not his uncircumcision be counted for uncircumcision? - **Day 59** **Romans 2:27** And shall not uncircumcision which is by nature, if it fulfill the law, judge thee, who by the letter and circumcision dost transgress the law? - **Day 60** **Romans 2:28** For he is not a Jew, which is one outwardly; neither is that circumcision, which is outward in the flesh: - **Day 61** **Romans 2:29** But he is a Jew, which is one inwardly; and circumcision is that of the heart, in the spirit, and not in the letter; whose praise is not of men, but of God. **Apply the Scripture:** - What does it mean to inwardly be a Jew? - How does this passage tie into the earlier passages about hypocrisy (Romans 2:17-24)? God is True In times of confusion and doubt, mankind’s unbelief cannot destroy God’s faithfulness. God’s Word is true, even if it means every man is a liar. - **Day 62** Romans 3:1 What advantage then hath the Jew? or what profit is there of circumcision? - **Day 63** Romans 3:2 Much every way: chiefly, because that unto them were committed the oracles of God. - **Day 64** Romans 3:3 For what if some did not believe? shall their unbelief make the faith of God without effect? - **Day 65** Romans 3:4 God forbid: yea, let God be true but every man a liar; as it is written, That thou mightest be justified in thy sayings, and mightest overcome when thou art judged. **Apply the Scripture:** - Can you remember times when it seemed that in order for God’s Word to be true, everyone around you had to be lying? What happened? God’s Righteousness Upheld When confronted with their sin, Paul encountered people who argued, “How can God judge me a sinner if my lie highlights his truthfulness and brings him more glory?” Ain’t nobody got time for that! God has always called His people to holiness; in no way do we glorify Him when we sin. - **Day 66** Romans 3:5 But if our unrighteousness comment the righteousness of God, what shall we say? Is God unrighteous who taketh vengeance? (I speak as a man) - **Day 67** Romans 3:6 God forbid: for then how shall God judge the world? - **Day 68** Romans 3:7 For if the truth of God hath more abounded through my lie unto his glory; why yet am I also judged as a sinner? - **Day 69** Romans 3:8 And not rather, (as we be slanderously reported, and as some affirm that we say,) Let us do evil, that good may come? whose damnation is just. **Apply the Scripture:** - If our sin doesn’t glorify God, how is He able to work good out of our weakness? - What would your response be if someone asked you the same question found in verse seven? No One is Righteous From the moment the juice dripped from bitten side of the fruit in the Garden of Eden, humanity has been under the power of sin. No one is innately righteous, or good, or even has pure motives for seeking God. All of us are in the same boat; all of us desperately need a savior. - **Day 70** Romans 3:9 What then? are we better than they? No, in no wise: for we have before proved both Jews and Gentiles, that they are all under sin; - **Day 71** Romans 3:10 As it is written, There is none righteous, no, not one: - **Day 72** Romans 3:11 There is none that understandeth, there is none that seeketh after God. - **Day 73** Romans 3:12 They are all gone out of the way, they are together become unprofitable; there is none that doeth good, no, not one. **Apply the Scripture:** - What did Paul mean by “there is none that understandeth?” - Do you think it’s possible for someone to understand their need for a savior if they do not first understand their own sinfulness? Why or why not? - Think of and apply three ways to ensure that you are following the will of God and not loving the world. Understanding of Sin Via the Law The purpose of the law given through Moses was to keep people from having excuses—to show that the entire world is guilty before God. The law was never a means to give salvation; it exposed how sinful we are. - **Day 74** Romans 3:13 Their throat is an open sepulchre; with their tongues they have used deceit; the poison of asps is under their lips: - **Day 75** Romans 3:14 Whose mouth is full of cursing and bitterness. - **Day 76** Romans 3:15 Their feet are swift to shed blood: - **Day 77** Romans 3:16 Destruction and misery are in their ways: - **Day 78** Romans 3:17 And the way of peace have they not known: - **Day 79** Romans 3:18 There is no fear of God before their eyes. - **Day 80** Romans 3:19 Now we know that what things soever the law saith, it saith to them who are under the law: that every mouth may be stopped, and all the world may become guilty before God. - **Day 81** Romans 3:20 Therefore by the deeds of the law there shall no flesh be justified in his sight: for by the law is the knowledge of sin. **Apply the Scripture:** - Was anyone ever able to live up to every expectation spelled out in the law? - In light of our failure to measure up to the law, can anyone make it to heaven based on their good works or because they’re a “good person”? Fallen but Justified Since we’ve compiled this long and sorry record as sinners and proved that we are utterly incapable of living the glorious lives God wills for us, God gave His life for us. Out of sheer generosity, He put us in right standing with Himself. A pure gift. He got us out of the mess we’re in and restored us to where He always wanted us to be. And He did it by means of Jesus Christ. - **Day 82** Romans 3:21 But now the righteousness of God without the law is manifested, being witnessed by the law and the prophets; - **Day 83** Romans 3:22 Even the righteousness of God which is by faith of Jesus Christ unto all and upon all them that believe: for there is no difference: - **Day 84** Romans 3:23 For all have sinned, and come short of the glory of God; - **Day 85** Romans 3:24 Being justified freely by his grace through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus: - **Day 86** Romans 3:25 Whom God hath set forth to be a propitiation through faith in his blood, to declare his righteousness for the remission of sins that are past, through the forbearance of God; - **Day 87** Romans 3:26 To declare, I say at this time his righteousness: that he might be just, and the justifier of him which believeth in Jesus. **Apply the Scripture:** - If the law only reveals our sinfulness, what does it reveal about Jesus? - What does “propitiation” mean? The Law of Faith We’ve established that we’re all pretty sinful and can in no way make it to heaven by obeying the law. Is there any hope for our eternity? How can we possibly draw near to God? The answer is faith. - **Day 88** Romans 3:27 Where is boasting then? It is excluded. By what law? of works? Nay: but by the law of faith. - **Day 89** Romans 3:28 Therefore we conclude that a man is justified by faith without the deeds of the law. - **Day 90** Romans 3:29 Is he the God of the Jews only? is he not also of the Gentiles? Yes, of the Gentiles also: CONGRATULATIONS! You’ve completed Memorize 90. Let us know by using #Memorize90 on your favorite social network.
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Groundnut Pod & Oil Cake Domestic Scenario Groundnut or peanut, *Arachis hypogaea* is commonly called the poor man's nut. Today it is an important oilseed and food crop. This plant is native to South America and has never been found uncultivated. Groundnut is the single largest source of edible oils in India and constitutes roughly about 15 per cent of the total oilseed production. It is estimated that 14 million farmers are involved in oilseed cultivation, while one million persons are involved in processing of oilseeds and oils. Oilseed products contribute 14.4 and 48.8 per cent to agricultural exports and imports respectively, whereas their contribution towards national export and import is 1.6 and 2.2 per cent respectively. Paralleling area under production in 2017-18, about 90 per cent of the production comes from the five major states in India. These states are Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra. Gujarat and Tamil Nadu alone contributes to about 47.99 per cent of the total production. India's groundnut production fluctuates between 4.5 to 10 million MT a year. Groundnut is grown both in Kharif and Rabi season. In 2016-17, Gujarat accounts for over 34.73 per cent of India's groundnut seed production, followed by Tamil Nadu (13.25 per cent) and Andhra Pradesh (11.89 per cent), which is expected to rise in 2017-18 at around 8.31 million MT. State wise Production of Groundnut in India | States | 2009-10 | 2010-11 | 2011-12 | 2012-13 | 2013-14 | 2014-15 | 2015-16 | 2016-17 | 2017-18* | |-----------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|----------| | Gujarat | 1757.00 | 3366.10 | 2717.00 | 758.00 | 4917.57 | 3018.00 | 2339.10 | 2628.01 | 2553.65 | | Tamil Nadu | 889.77 | 895.70 | 1060.65 | 783.21 | 915.89 | 926.41 | 892.29 | 1002.50 | 602.57 | | Andhra Pradesh | 1006.00 | 1458.00 | 582.40 | 780.40 | 881.30 | 493.00 | 801.00 | 899.94 | 1678.40 | | Karnataka | 512.00 | 742.00 | 485.00 | 395.00 | 565.00 | 502.00 | 395.00 | 443.79 | 1042.31 | | Maharashtra | 359.00 | 460.00 | 351.00 | 285.00 | 393.00 | 379.00 | 334.00 | 375.25 | 531.54 | | Madhya Pradesh | 217.90 | 301.60 | 344.60 | 311.70 | 324.20 | 370.00 | 331.56 | 372.51 | 392.75 | | West Bengal | 113.02 | 103.17 | 105.57 | 170.50 | 200.49 | 179.86 | 189.90 | 213.36 | 135.04 | | Others | 573.81 | 938.21 | 1317.50 | 1210.07 | 1516.45 | 1533.44 | 1450.49 | 1629.65 | 1375.02 | | All India | 5428.49 | 8264.78 | 6963.72 | 4693.88 | 9713.90 | 7401.71 | 6733.33 | 7565.00 | 8311.28 | Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation & Solvent Extractors' Association of India *NBHC Estimates The average Indian consumption of groundnut is 5 million MT per year. The Indian variety of groundnut has 45-48 per cent oil content of which 30 per cent can be extracted, while the rest is retained by the cake. Among prominent cultivated crops in the developing countries, groundnut is unique because the plant and its produce have a wide range of uses in the daily life of the people as well as in the various industries. The roots of the plant help to enrich the soil and the vines serve as excellent fodder for cattle. The nuts, in addition to being the most consequential source of edible oil, are useful in numerous other ways. When the cake is powdered and extracted in solvent, it yields defatted groundnut. meal. Thus the crop has gained great popularity, based on its all-around usefulness and the financial returns it brings to the grower. Approximately one-third of world production is used in the confectionery products. Groundnuts is sorted according to Grades likewise Grade 1, Grade 2, and Grade 3 where Grade 1 and Grade 2 are sent to confectionary market and Grade 3 sent to oil crushers from which oil and oil meal is made. SEA has estimated the kharif Groundnut production in Gujarat this year is a record of sorts and it is also expected that the situation for oil mills is likely to improve in the coming days, as government has announced that the procurement will be done in a staggered manner, farmers with less holding capacity are reluctant to sell at market prices lower than the MSP to oil mills and 50 per cent of produce has already been sold which is major drawback for small farmers. State wise Production of Groundnut meal in India | States | 2009-10 | 2010-11 | 2011-12 | 2012-13 | 2013-14 | 2014-15 | 2015-16 | 2016-17 | 2017-18* | |-----------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|----------| | Gujarat | 351.40 | 673.22 | 543.40 | 151.60 | 983.51 | 603.60 | 467.82 | 525.60 | 510.73 | | Tamil Nadu | 177.95 | 179.14 | 212.13 | 156.64 | 183.18 | 185.28 | 178.46 | 200.50 | 120.51 | | Andhra Pradesh | 201.20 | 291.60 | 116.48 | 156.08 | 176.26 | 98.60 | 160.20 | 179.99 | 335.68 | | Karnataka | 102.40 | 148.40 | 97.00 | 79.00 | 113.00 | 100.40 | 79.00 | 88.76 | 208.46 | | Maharashtra | 71.80 | 92.00 | 70.20 | 57.00 | 78.60 | 75.80 | 66.80 | 75.05 | 106.31 | | Madhya Pradesh | 43.58 | 60.32 | 68.92 | 62.34 | 64.84 | 74.00 | 66.31 | 74.50 | 78.55 | | West Bengal | 22.60 | 20.63 | 21.11 | 34.10 | 40.10 | 35.97 | 37.98 | 42.67 | 27.01 | | Others | 114.76 | 187.64 | 263.50 | 242.01 | 303.29 | 306.69 | 290.10 | 325.93 | 275.00 | | All India | 1085.70 | 1652.96 | 1392.74 | 938.78 | 1942.78 | 1480.34 | 1346.67 | 1513.00 | 1662.26 | Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation & Solvent Extractors’ Association of India. *NBHC Estimates Groundnut meal is used primarily as a protein supplement in the livestock feed rations. The supply of groundnut meal is directly influenced by demand for groundnut oil, the primary product from crushed groundnut. Thus, production and price trends of meal are similar to those of oil, but with similar fluctuations across years. There is a high level of technical and economic substitutability in the market for oilseed meal; all meals can be used as livestock feed although the protein contents are different. Consequently, demand for groundnut meal depends largely on relative prices; between oilseed meals and cereal based meal substitutes on one hand and between competing oilseeds on the other hand. The demand for oil meal is increasing in the world market which has indirectly increased the production of groundnut meal in India. The major top five producing states of groundnut meal are Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra which constitute of 34.74 per cent, 13.25 per cent, 11.90 per cent, 5.87 per cent and 4.96 per cent respectively. Due to the recent Government initiatives, as it has hiked import duty on edible oils and raised incentives under the Merchandise Exports from India Scheme (MEIS), Indian oil meals have become more competitive in the world market. Developing countries contribute about 94 per cent of the world peanut production, grown mostly under rainfed conditions, predominantly in Asia and Africa. Oilseed crops form the second largest agricultural commodity after cereals occupying 14 per cent of the gross cropped area. Groundnut is cultivated in more than 60 countries in the world. From the above table we can see that the global productions over the years have shown gradual improvement. It showed an increase of about 12.59 per cent since 2003-04. The domestic consumption has also shown a marginal improvement of 12.90 per cent. But, the imports and exports have dropped significantly by 54.64 per cent and 39.86 per cent respectively. The negative fact about the groundnut meal trade is the level of decline in global trade. There has also been decline in the global ending stock over the above period, which is 53.84 per cent, as the ending stock has decreased this will be a lowering factor as it may not absorb the demand from other countries and may not sustain the prices at a upper level. Countries like India, China, Nigeria and Argentina have good potential to utilize the opportunity to export groundnuts or groundnut products to the developed countries. They can earn valuable foreign exchange to improve their economic conditions. In the international market demand for groundnut products is determined by several factors. The primary factor in Africa has been population growth. In Asia, demand has grown due to a combination of population growth, increase in per capita income and urbanization. Expansion of urban areas signals higher incomes, higher opportunity cost of time and therefore greater demand for convenience foods. Groundnut production and consumption in the coming period is likely to shift progressively more to developing countries. This boost will be seen in all regions with most rapid growth in Asia. Per capita consumption will grow sharply in Asia, slowly in sub-Saharan Africa and will decline in Latin America. More than half of groundnut production is crushed into oil for human consumption or industrial use. Protein meal, a byproduct of crushing, is an ingredient in livestock feeds. ## Country wise global Supply –n – Demand of Groundnut (‘000 MT) | Country | 2008-09 | 2009-10 | 2010-11 | 2011-12 | 2012-13 | 2013-14 | 2014-15 | 2015-16 | 2016-17 | 2017-18* | |----------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------| | **Production** | | | | | | | | | | | | China | 14,286 | 14,708 | 15,644 | 16,046 | 16,692 | 16,972 | 16,482 | 16,440 | 17,000 | 17,500 | | India | 5,920 | 5,120 | 5,840 | 6,015 | 4,334 | 6,482 | 4,855 | 4,470 | 6,700 | 6,500 | | Nigeria | 2,873 | 2,978 | 3,799 | 2,963 | 3,314 | 2,475 | 3,413 | 3,000 | 3,000 | 3,000 | | Burma | 1,202 | 1,305 | 1,362 | 1,399 | 1,372 | 1,375 | 1,375 | 1,375 | 1,375 | 1,375 | | Argentina| 860 | 836 | 1,033 | 1,020 | 1,016 | 997 | 1,188 | 930 | 1,288 | 1,160 | | Indonesia| 1,250 | 1,250 | 1,250 | 1,165 | 1,145 | 1,160 | 1,150 | 1,130 | 1,120 | 1,100 | | Cameroon | 484 | 503 | 536 | 564 | 634 | 636 | 614 | 550 | 550 | 550 | | Brazil | 301 | 226 | 227 | 295 | 326 | 315 | 346 | 406 | 466 | 459 | | Ghana | 470 | 526 | 531 | 465 | 475 | 409 | 426 | 440 | 440 | 440 | | Chad | 403 | 371 | 406 | 570 | 1,298 | 965 | 791 | 400 | 400 | 400 | | Others | 8,837 | 8,546 | 9,294 | 8,862 | 10,285 | 10,082 | 9,815 | 11,278 | 10,426 | 11,853 | | World | 36,886 | 36,369 | 39,922 | 39,364 | 40,891 | 41,868 | 40,455 | 40,419 | 42,765 | 44,337 | | **Domestic Consumption** | | | | | | | | | | | | China | 13,600 | 14,101 | 15,112 | 15,495 | 16,203 | 16,434 | 16,141 | 16,497 | 16,651 | 17,200 | | India | 5,690 | 4,520 | 4,530 | 4,400 | 3,995 | 5,060 | 4,250 | 3,900 | 5,650 | 5,700 | | Nigeria | 2,881 | 2,986 | 3,450 | 3,275 | 3,230 | 2,620 | 3,210 | 3,048 | 3,046 | 3,053 | | Indonesia| 1,465 | 1,487 | 1,499 | 1,437 | 1,455 | 1,440 | 1,386 | 1,390 | 1,410 | 1,440 | | Burma | 1,197 | 1,290 | 1,330 | 1,393 | 1,430 | 1,395 | 1,390 | 1,370 | 1,370 | 1,370 | | EU | 723 | 715 | 722 | 711 | 774 | 780 | 785 | 825 | 865 | 890 | | Cameroon | 484 | 503 | 536 | 564 | 634 | 636 | 614 | 550 | 550 | 550 | | Chad | 403 | 371 | 370 | 560 | 944 | 925 | 831 | 670 | 530 | 400 | | Ghana | 465 | 493 | 519 | 479 | 467 | 435 | 424 | 441 | 442 | 442 | | Mali | 327 | 317 | 317 | 317 | 320 | 315 | 430 | 430 | 430 | 360 | | Others | 8,622 | 9,126 | 9,900 | 10,099 | 10,098 | 10,786 | 10,654 | 11,791 | 11,587 | 11,764 | | World | 35,857 | 35,909 | 38,285 | 38,730 | 39,550 | 40,826 | 40,115 | 40,912 | 42,531 | 43,169 | | **Ending Stocks** | | | | | | | | | | | | Argentina| 18 | 4 | 137 | 269 | 429 | 568 | 564 | 275 | 433 | 427 | | India | 140 | 285 | 63 | 317 | 130 | 767 | 501 | 301 | 412 | 212 | | Nigeria | 0 | 0 | 357 | 48 | 138 | 0 | 213 | 170 | 127 | 77 | | Brazil | 240 | 195 | 142 | 136 | 102 | 117 | 77 | 69 | 97 | 101 | | Indonesia| 40 | 69 | 103 | 51 | 76 | 96 | 90 | 64 | 66 | 68 | | Mali | 57 | 37 | 30 | 25 | 29 | 13 | 88 | 175 | 66 | 27 | | Nicaragua| 43 | 41 | 37 | 38 | 37 | 40 | 22 | 32 | 33 | 15 | | EU | 8 | 10 | 8 | 5 | 30 | 21 | 19 | 23 | 31 | 31 | | Burma | 92 | 102 | 129 | 130 | 67 | 42 | 22 | 22 | 22 | 22 | | Mexico | 20 | 20 | 28 | 18 | 22 | 23 | 23 | 25 | 22 | 24 | | Others | 1,250 | 1,194 | 1,395 | 1,114 | 2,131 | 2,011 | 1,650 | 1,389 | 857 | 1,459 | | World | 1,908 | 1,957 | 2,429 | 2,151 | 3,191 | 3,698 | 3,269 | 2,545 | 2,166 | 2,463 | Source: Foreign Agricultural Service, Official USDA Estimates ## Country wise global Supply –n – Demand of Groundnut Meal | Country | 2008-09 | 2009-10 | 2010-11 | 2011-12 | 2012-13 | 2013-14 | 2014-15 | 2015--16 | 2016-17 | 2017-18* | |------------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|----------|---------|----------| | **Production** | | | | | | | | | | | | China | 2,770 | 2,812 | 3,032 | 3,237 | 3,434 | 3,484 | 3,358 | 3,520 | 3,580 | 3,700 | | India | 1,911 | 1,470 | 1,474 | 1,428 | 1,260 | 1,638 | 1,250 | 1,113 | 1,575 | 1,515 | | Burma | 248 | 275 | 290 | 300 | 325 | 325 | 325 | 325 | 325 | 325 | | Nigeria | 220 | 228 | 260 | 260 | 260 | 212 | 245 | 245 | 245 | 245 | | Argentina | 120 | 72 | 52 | 78 | 81 | 90 | 117 | 114 | 114 | 117 | | Burkina | 88 | 80 | 84 | 65 | 83 | 94 | 88 | 90 | 90 | 90 | | Brazil | 50 | 50 | 52 | 57 | 71 | 54 | 66 | 70 | 72 | 75 | | Cameroon | 55 | 56 | 56 | 59 | 59 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | | Niger | 36 | 36 | 47 | 47 | 47 | 51 | 54 | 54 | 54 | 54 | | Congo(Kinshasa) | 46 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | | Other | 688 | 814 | 946 | 897 | 950 | 1,004 | 1,049 | 1,034 | 1,043 | 1,084 | | **World** | 6,232 | 5,943 | 6,343 | 6,478 | 6,620 | 7,059 | 6,659 | 6,672 | 7,205 | 7,312 | | **Domestic Consumption** | | | | | | | | | | | | China | 2,787 | 2,846 | 3,060 | 3,237 | 3,441 | 3,539 | 3,356 | 3,522 | 3,702 | 3,798 | | India | 1,867 | 1,424 | 1,371 | 1,415 | 1,255 | 1,630 | 1,242 | 1,107 | 1,566 | 1,507 | | Burma | 250 | 277 | 290 | 300 | 320 | 320 | 325 | 325 | 325 | 325 | | Nigeria | 220 | 228 | 260 | 260 | 260 | 212 | 245 | 245 | 245 | 245 | | Argentina | 80 | 72 | 54 | 62 | 69 | 70 | 103 | 100 | 102 | 102 | | Burkina | 88 | 80 | 84 | 65 | 83 | 94 | 88 | 90 | 90 | 90 | | Brazil | 50 | 50 | 52 | 57 | 71 | 54 | 66 | 70 | 72 | 75 | | Cameroon | 55 | 56 | 56 | 59 | 59 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | 57 | | Niger | 36 | 36 | 47 | 47 | 47 | 51 | 54 | 54 | 54 | 54 | | Congo(Kinshasa) | 46 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | 50 | | Other | 687 | 820 | 948 | 901 | 911 | 942 | 1,039 | 990 | 913 | 958 | | **World** | 6,166 | 5,939 | 6,272 | 6,453 | 6,566 | 7,019 | 6,625 | 6,610 | 7,176 | 7,261 | | **Ending Stocks**| | | | | | | | | | | | Burma | 7 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 15 | | Argentina | 39 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | | Indonesia | 3 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | | Bangladesh | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Benin | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Brazil | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Burkina | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Cameroon | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Central African Republic | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Chad | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Other | 3 | 17 | 23 | 11 | 10 | 8 | 3 | 31 | 6 | 7 | | **World** | 52 | 32 | 33 | 20 | 23 | 29 | 25 | 53 | 29 | 30 | Source: Foreign Agricultural Service, Official USDA Estimates Global Trade Scenario for Groundnut Meal The top importing nation of groundnut meal is China which alone accounts for 86 per cent of the total global imports, this is because the continuous modernization of China’s domestic feed and livestock sectors are boosting the consumption of oilseed products, and getting advantageous price for imported Groundnut meal. The second most important destination is Guatemala contributing to 8 per cent of the total imports. The other countries worth mentioning are Mexico, Taiwan and United States. Thus, going by the share of the quantum of the imports done in the last year, one should be focused enough to track the prices and the sentiments of Groundnut meal trade in China and Guatemala. The major countries involved in the export of groundnut meal are explained by the following chart. As per the details, three countries competing for the share in the global exports together totaling of 92 per cent. The leading spot is shared by Sudan with shares of 76 per cent followed by Nicaragua at 10 per cent. The other exporting nations worth mentioning are Argentina, India and Uganda, each with share of 6 per cent, 5 per cent and 2 per cent respectively. | Major Importers of Groundnut Meal in World | ('000 MT) | |------------------------------------------|------------| | Country | 2008-09 | 2009-10 | 2010-11 | 2011-12 | 2012-13 | 2013-14 | 2014-15 | 2015-16 | 2016-17 | 2017-18* | | China | 24 | 37 | 32 | 3 | 9 | 56 | 0 | 3 | 123 | 100 | | Guatemala | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 12 | | Taiwan | 7 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 9 | 9 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 3 | | Mexico | 2 | 0 | 10 | 15 | 6 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | | United States | 8 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | | Others | 27 | 71 | 71 | 22 | 9 | 18 | 7 | 5 | 2 | 3 | | World | 68 | 113 | 120 | 47 | 39 | 97 | 24 | 25 | 144 | 122 | Source: Foreign Agricultural Service, Official USDA Estimates | Major Exporters of Groundnut Meal in World | ('000 MT) | |-------------------------------------------|------------| | Country | 2008-09 | 2009-10 | 2010-11 | 2011-12 | 2012-13 | 2013-14 | 2014-15 | 2015-16 | 2016-17 | 2017-18* | | Sudan | 16 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 19 | 53 | 12 | 12 | 150 | 120 | | Nicaragua | 12 | 10 | 5 | 15 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 19 | | Argentina | 8 | 32 | 4 | 16 | 13 | 17 | 13 | 14 | 11 | 15 | | India | 44 | 46 | 103 | 13 | 5 | 8 | 8 | 6 | 9 | 8 | | Uganda | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | | Others | 18 | 28 | 57 | 20 | 29 | 29 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 5 | | World | 103 | 137 | 190 | 85 | 90 | 131 | 62 | 59 | 197 | 172 | Source: Foreign Agricultural Service, Official USDA Estimates Features India’s Groundnut Meal Industry For a brief understanding of the groundnut meal, the process of making groundnut meal is shown in the adjacent chart. Over half of the groundnut harvested worldwide is crushed for oil and a substantial quantity of groundnut produced in developing countries is traded in domestic markets. International trade of groundnuts is mainly in the form of in shell (pods), shelled (kernels) and meal (cake). A large trade of confectionery groundnut is also booming in the international market. The international price of groundnuts is generally decided by the crop size and quality in United States of America. The fortunes for the Indian groundnut (shelled) export are bright and it may likely to emerge as a major supplier of raw and processed groundnut mainly because of its large production of Groundnut oil. It is thinly traded in international markets, because the major producers like China, India and the United States of America consume substantial amounts in their domestic markets. This national use reduces the quantities available for export. In the 1960s and 1970s groundnut oil was the major item traded as edible groundnut trade was negligible. Since that period, the reverse has occurred. Edible groundnuts dominate world groundnut trade while groundnut oil is of minor importance. The export trade of oil in developing countries is concentrated in Senegal and the Sudan. India has a self-sufficiency policy for vegetable oil, of which groundnut is a major component. In addition, India has producer subsidies, as do many other countries. Under GATT agreement, these markets would be opened up and costs of production could change. Slightly over half of the groundnut production is crushed into oil for human consumption or industrial uses. Protein meal, a by-product of crushing, is an ingredient in livestock feeds. Groundnut is also consumed directly and is used in processed food and snacks. Approximately one-third of world production is used in the confectionery products. Utilization of oil, meal and confectionery groundnuts are all increasing concurrent with a gradual shift away from oil and meal into confectionery use. In many groundnut-producing countries, several products and by-products are processed and consumed locally as a few are exported too. Among the by-products traded in the international market is peanut butter and roasted groundnuts. Maximum possible levels of aflatoxin in imported groundnut for human consumption and livestock and poultry feeds | Country | Aflatoxin type | Maximum permissible level (ng g\(^{-1}\)) | |-----------|----------------|------------------------------------------| | | | Foodstuffs | Livestock feed | | Belgium | B\(_1\) | 5 | 20 | | France | B\(_1\) | 1 | 20 | | Germany | B\(_1\) | 2 | 20 | | Ireland | B\(_1\) | 5 | 20 | | Italy | B\(_1\) | 5 | 20 | | Netherlands| B\(_1\) | 0 | 20 | | Sweden | B\(_1\), B\(_2\), G\(_1\), G\(_2\) | 5 | 10 | | UK | B\(_1\), B\(_2\), G\(_1\), G\(_2\) | 4 | 20 | | USA | B\(_1\), B\(_2\), G\(_1\), G\(_2\) | 20 | 20 | Source: Freeman et al. 1999, ICRISAT The world is experiencing a shortage of edible oil and proteins. Groundnut plays a useful role in alleviating these deficiencies as it is a rich source of edible oil and protein. Groundnut has an outer thick woody shell. Inside normally there are 2 or 3 embedded seeds (kernel). The seed consists of 2 cotyledons and the germ covered by an outer thin skin called the testa. The colour of the testa may be red, brown, purple or white depending upon the type and variety. Testa constitutes about 4 to 5 per cent of the weight of the kernel. The cotyledons constitute the bulk of the seed in the range of around 92 to 94 per cent of the weight. The germ constitutes around 3 to 4 per cent of the seed weight. The testa protects the seed against pests and diseases. Cotyledons are the storage organs, which supply food the germ during germination. As a result of these functional differences, the chemical make-up of the parts of the kernel also differ. | Year | Groundnut Meal | Total Oil Meal Export | % of total meal Exports | |--------|----------------|-----------------------|-------------------------| | 2012-13| 2883 | 48,46,013 | 0.06 | | 2013-14| 3290 | 43,81,994 | 0.08 | | 2014-15| 3013 | 24,65,663 | 0.12 | | 2015-16| 1102 | 15,29,115 | 0.07 | | 2016-17| 2918 | 18,85,480 | 0.15 | Source: Solvent Extractors’ Association of India The quantum and direction of Indian groundnut and its meal exports is dealt in the subsequent sections. As the trend suggests, the importance of meal export was declining till 2012 but it is seen that slowly and gradually it is increasing since 2012-13 year on year till now in 2016-17 it has shown the global improvement of about 0.15 per cent this gives an indication that the meal trade in groundnut is gradually gaining its importance in the global export market. The export of groundnut is also on global market which hints at the localized industrial usage of groundnut in the processing industry. The country wise direction of export of groundnut reveals that the top two exporters of groundnut globally are India and Argentina which accounts of 25.73 per cent and 21.63 per cent respectively. The other countries worth mentioning of the Export are China (17.63 per cent), Brazil (4.92 per cent), and Nicaragua (3.14 per cent) respectively. | Country | 2013-14 | 2014-15 | 2015-16 | 2016-17 | 2017-18* | |------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|----------| | India | 786 | 872 | 771 | 940 | 1,000 | | Argentina | 578 | 849 | 883 | 790 | 820 | | China | 565 | 502 | 484 | 644 | 650 | | Brazil | 93 | 146 | 163 | 180 | 190 | | Nicaragua | 133 | 130 | 100 | 115 | 115 | | Egypt | 52 | 28 | 30 | 35 | 35 | | Hong Kong | 3 | 4 | 33 | 30 | 30 | | EU | 26 | 31 | 32 | 27 | 30 | | Mexico | 21 | 20 | 19 | 21 | 21 | | Gambia | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | 18 | | Other | 627 | 700 | 996 | 852 | 1,208 | | World | 2,902 | 3,300 | 3,529 | 3,652 | 4,117 | Source: Source: Foreign Agricultural Service, Official USDA Estimates Chemical Composition of Groundnut Shell, Haulms and Oil Cake | Constituent | Percentage | |-------------|------------| | **Shell** | | | Cellulose | 65.7 | | Carbohydrates | 21.2 | | Proteins | 7.3 | | Minerals | 4.5 | | Lipids | 1.2 | | **Haulms** | | | Protein | 8.30-15.0 | | Lipid | 1.39-2.88 | | Crude fiber | 22.11-35.35| | Carbohydrates | 38.06-46.95| | Minerals | 9.0-17.04 | | Moisture | 7.13-10.0 | | **Oil Cake**| | | Moisture | 8-10 | | Oil | 0.7-6 | | Crude protein | 45-60 | | Carbohydrates | 22-30 | | Mineral matter | 4-5.7 | | Crude fibre | 3.8-7.5 | Source: Reddy, P.S., 1988 Important Factors Driving Groundnut Prices - The total sown area under Rabi oilseeds, as on 12th January 2018, has decreased compared to the previous year’s level which is down by 3.66 per cent at 78.62 lakh hectares compared to 81.61 lakh hectares during the corresponding period last year, while Groundnut area is at 5.13 lakh ha in 2017-18, than 4.51 lakh ha in 2016-17 increase of 13.74 per cent is seen. - The export during December 2017 is provisionally reported at 236,000 MT compared to 301,556 MT in December 2016 i.e. down by 22 per cent. The overall export of oil meals during April – December 2017 provisionally reported at 2,090,468 MT compared to 1,169,914 MT during the same period of last year. - Secondly, after two difficult years, export of oil meals has revived in the current year, but still lower than earlier years, when India used to export annually over 40 to 45 lakh MT of oil meals. - On 17th November 2017, Government raised the import duty on edible oils by 12.5 to 15 per cent across the board. This step has made Indian oil meal more competitive in the world market and may result in to larger export of oil meals and will also protect the domestic growers during current year. - Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs, has given its approval for Minimum Support Prices (MSP) for Kharif Crops of 2017-18 season, the MSPs of all the Kharif oilseeds are raised for this season, Groundnut -in- shell by 5.5 per cent to Rs 4,450/Quintal (including Rs 100 bonus) from Rs 4,220/Quintal. Price trend Analysis As per price seasonality index given in the chart, groundnut pod prices touches peak in March and July months that is lean season. The prices remain mostly stable or weak in February-May period that is peak arrival season for groundnut. However, the price movement are largely influenced by global demand and it dynamics in the US market. The movement in the current years can be slightly bearish as groundnut crop is expected to be higher than previous year. The downtrend is expected to continue for the next three -four months due to high carry forward stocks. Fresh crop harvest has started and peak season is in Feb-April. Irrespective of the bumper harvest this season farmers are holding on to stock, hoping that the government will acquire it at the minimum support price (MSP), which is higher than the market price. This, in turn, has led to a shortfall of raw material for oil mill this could further may put market prices under pressure as the government is only procuring quality Groundnuts as there are set norms for purchase of crop at MSP and also the low export demand is keeping prices stable for groundnut. **Price Trend Recommendation:** Overall, the market is expected to maintain a Weak trend till June 2018 after which the support to price is expected to come from the gradual increase in the domestic festive demand. Expected Downside in Groundnut Pod is 28000 and the Topside Resistance at 44000 (Support & Resistance Prices in Rs./MT). **Disclaimer:** This report has been prepared by National Bulk Handling Corporation (NBHC) for the sole benefit of the addressee. Neither the report nor any part of the report shall be provided to third parties without the written consent of NBHC. Any third party in possession of the report may not rely on its conclusions without the written consent of NBHC. NBHC has exercised reasonable care and skill in preparation of this advisory report but has not independently verified information provided by various primary & secondary sources. No other warranty, express or implied, is made in relation to this report. Therefore NBHC assumes no liability for any loss resulting from errors, omissions or misrepresentations made by others. Any recommendations, opinions and findings stated in this report are based on circumstances and facts as they existed at the time of preparation of this report. Any change in circumstances and facts on which this report is based may adversely affect any recommendations, opinions or findings contained in this report. © National Bulk Handling Corporation (NBHC) 2018 National Bulk Handling Corporation Private Limited, 7th floor, ‘A’ Wing, Dynasty Business Park, Andheri Kurla Road, Chakala, Andheri (E) Mumbai 400 059
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SCHR Director recognized as recipient of award at Annual SRF Conference The 32nd Annual Salmonid Restoration Conference was held in Santa Barbara this year. The conference focused on a broad range of watershed restoration topics of concern to restoration practitioners, watershed scientists, fisheries biologists, resource agency personnel, land-use planners, and landowners. SCHR lead a field tour to local fish passage restoration sites in Santa Barbara County and presented on the successful efforts of the Carpinteria Creek Watershed Coalition restoring habitat for the endangered southern steelhead trout. In addition SCHR Director, Mauricio Gomez was recognized as this year’s recipient of the Golden Pipe Award. The golden pipe award highlights individuals who have taken an innovative approach to carrying out salmonid restoration efforts. Mauricio’s efforts over the last 10 years have seen the removal of 12 fish passage barriers and opening up of over 30 miles of habitat thanks to his ability to foster positive relationships with property owners, funders and permitting agencies to complete meaningful restoration in a relatively short period of time. Refugio Creek Mouth Restoration Continues! South Coast Habitat Restoration has partnered with Channel Islands Restoration (CIR) and California State Parks at Refugio State Beach to plant thousands of potted native plants in an effort to restore the native habitat alongside the mouth of Refugio Creek. Since January 11, 2014 over 2,500 native container plants were installed at the site with the help of 214 community volunteers. The goal of the project is to increase the habitat and ecological value of the mouth of Refugio Creek through the removal of non-native flora and planting of native flora along the banks. Non-native vegetation at the site included Fan Palms, Guadalupe Palms, Myoporum, Arundo, Black Acacia, Pampas Grass, Fennel, Castor Bean, Brazilian Pepper trees, California Pepper trees, Eucalyptus, as well as annual grasses. Non-native trees and continued on page 3 ONE OF MANY RECENT VOLUNTEER PLANTING EVENTS AT REFUGIO STATE BEACH CREATURE FEATURE: PACIFIC LAMPREY (Entosphenus tridentata) The Pacific Lamprey is an anadromous, semelparous fish species occurring within the Pacific coast of North America and Asia. The adult fish is dark blue or brown in color and can grow to about thirty inches in length as an adult. The shape of the fish is that of an eel in form, but has a round sucker-like mouth, no scales, and breathing holes instead of gills. An identifiable characteristic of the adult Pacific Lamprey is the presence of three primary large teeth and additional posterior teeth in the mouth. This species is parasitic on other fish species such as Pacific salmon, flounder, cod, halibut, and even sperm whales. After spending one to three years at sea Pacific Lamprey return to freshwater streams between February and June to spawn. One year after their return to fresh water spawning occurs in the spring and summer months. After spawning the adults die. After hatching the lamprey larvae Ammocoetes spend between two and seven years in their freshwater streams feeding primarily by filter feeding on algae and detritus before they metamorphose into juveniles that migrate out to the ocean. Due to migration barriers, stream degradation, poor water quality and the impacts of climate change the Pacific Lamprey has been greatly reduced and even extirpated in certain streams along the Southern California Coast. Upcoming Events CCWC Quarterly Presentation Series The CCWC will be hosting its quarterly evening community presentation on Tuesday April 15th at the Veterans’ Memorial Hall in Carpinteria, 941 Walnut Avenue, from 7:00pm – 8:00pm. This month’s talk is entitled “Steelhead Trout: Why Are They Important?” For more information check out carpinteriacreek.org Earth Day Festivals Santa Barbara’s Earth Day festival at Alameda Park in downtown Santa Barbara, will be held on Saturday & Sunday, April 26th and 27th from 11:00am - 6:00pm. More info at sbearthday.org Ventura will also be hosting an Earth Day event, Saturday April 26th at Promenade park from 10:00am - 5:00pm. More Info at venturaearthday.org Ojai will celebrate Earth Day, Saturday April 19th at the Oak Grove School from 11:00am -4:00pm. For more information check out ojaiearthday.org SERCAL Conference The 20th Annual California Society for Ecological Restoration or SERCAL Conference, will be held at the Wells Fargo Conference Center in Santa Rosa, May 13th-15th, 2013. The three day conference will include workshops field tours, presentations, and other educational activities dealing with the restoration of California native habitats. For more information sercal.org 12th Annual H2O Conference The 2014 H2O conference will cover a wide spectrum of coastal and ocean issues, including but not limited to, climate change, sea level rise, coastal and estuarine processes, wetlands restoration planning and design, beach nourishment, water quality, ecosystem management, habitat management, invasive and exotic species management, wetlands biology and ecology, shore protection and erosion control, etc. The conference will take place May 27th-29th, in San Diego at the Catamaran Resort and Hotel. For more information check out www.coastalconference.org/ Tajiguas Project Update SCHR is excited to announce that the Rancho Tajiguas Barrier Removal Project Phase Three has been awarded implementation funding from the Department of Fish and Wildlife’s, Fisheries Restoration Grant Program. The project will remove two additional concrete barriers from the watershed. Due to delays in securing the necessary environmental permits phase two was not completed in 2013 as planned. With the award of this additional funding to the Tajiguas Watershed SCHR is now making plans to complete all four barrier removal efforts in the 2014 construction window. The project will significantly improve conditions for steelhead in the watershed, and follows on the success of Phase 1 which removed 5 low flow crossings from Tajiguas Creek. Plans for phase 2 and 3 have been designed by Waterways consulting out of Santa Cruz. SCHR is planning for the project to go to construction this coming August, with construction through the fall. The installation of erosion control measures, and planting of native plants will occur in to December. Stay tuned for more updates on the project. Once phase 2 and 3 are complete, a total of 5.47 miles of the historic steelhead habitat will once again be accessible to migrating steelhead trout. For more information check out our website. Refugio Creek Mouth continued shrubs were removed from the site in October, 2013. A number of existing native riparian trees, willows and cottonwoods were maintained on site. Native flora to be planted at the site includes riparian trees and coastal scrub species. The native vegetation will provide shade for the creek and over hanging cover habitat for aquatic species as well as forage and nesting habitat for birds. This project has been made possible with funding from The Earth Island Institute and support from the State Coastal Conservancy, the Wildlife Conservation Board, the Southern California Wetlands Recovery Project and Southern California Edison. The first phase of planting is now complete. Stay tuned for upcoming weeding and site maintenance volunteer events. Thank you to all the volunteers that have supported this effort to date. For more information and photographs check out refugioecreekmouth.blogspot.com CEC’s Santa Barbara Earth Day Festival Join SCHR Saturday, April 26th and Sunday, April 27th, 2014 at Alameda Park to celebrate Earth Day. We will have an exhibit as part of the festival which will include educational kids activities as well as information about SCHR and our efforts. Each year the Community Environmental Council (CEC) hosts Santa Barbara’s Earth Day festival at Alameda Park in downtown Santa Barbara. This the festival will feature over 200 exhibitors. For more info go to www.SBEarthDay.org SCHR Video Projects SCHR has created a new Vimeo account and video page on our website to highlight a recently produced short video by UCSB Bren School student Jordan Chamberlain on SCHR and our efforts. The video was created as part of an Environmental Media class Ms. Chamberlain was taking through the Blue Horizons program. Many thanks to Jordan and Michael Haranhan for his assistance. In addition SCHR has created a few time-lapse videos that show the implementation of fish passage restoration projects in our local creeks and watersheds. Check them out to see all the work that goes into completing these projects. Visit our website under the video tab, or visit our vimeo page http://vimeo.com/user17620709 CCWC Evening Community Presentation Series Continues The Carpinteria Creek Watershed Coalition’s next evening presentation will be on Tuesday April 15th from 7:00pm -8:00pm at the Veteran’s Memorial Building, at 941 Walnut Avenue in Carpinteria. Carpinteria local and creek expert, Tim Robinson will give a presentation entitled “Steelhead Trout: Why Are They Important?” The event is free and open to the public. Light refreshments will be served. Contact email@example.com with questions. SCHR receives funding from the CDFW’s Fisheries Restoration Grant Program The Department of Fish and Wildlife’s Fisheries Restoration Grant Program announced its 2014 funding awards in early February. SCHR is excited to announce that three separate applications to the Fisheries Restoration Grant Program last year were successful and awarded funding. SCHR has received funding to support our organization for an additional two years. The funding supports SCHR’s continued efforts to reach out to property owners across the south coast in an effort to implement voluntary steelhead trout restoration projects. It additionally funds our time to coordinate the Carpinteria Creek Watershed Coalition and attend/organize outreach and educational events in our community. Additional funding was awarded for projects that will remove barriers along Maria Ygnacio Creek and Tajiguas Creek, both of which will improve steelhead trout migration opportunities. Thank you to the California Department of Fish and Wildlife for their continued support of our efforts. The Mission of South Coast Habitat Restoration is to protect, conserve, and restore the various habitats and native biodiversity of Santa Barbara and Ventura. For more information please visit us at: schabitatrestoration.org Support SCHR Visit www.earthisland.org/schr/donate to support our ongoing efforts, your contribution is tax deductible Contact us: SCHR Director: Mauricio Gomez firstname.lastname@example.org 805-729-8787 SCHR Project Manager: Erin Brown email@example.com 925-548-2839 Production of this newsletter is funded by the Department of Fish and Wildlife, Fisheries Restoration Grant Program.
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MOUNT COOK Peak District Welcome to Mount Cook! Our mission: “To provide access to the outdoors for all, especially young people and those who would not otherwise have the opportunity.” Mount Cook is a not-for-profit organisation which opened in July 2016, on the outskirts of the Peak District. Our activities offer unique experiences which will increase your child’s appetite for learning, encourage resilience and equip young people with valuable life skills. Residential experiences provide powerful learning opportunities for young people of all ages and abilities. According to research by Learning Away... - 78% of KS2 pupils felt more confident to try new things after a residential - 79% of KS2 pupils said they knew their teachers better after a residential - 67% of KS2 pupils said they found it easier to make new friends after a residential - 67% of secondary students felt they could be role models to others after a residential - 84% of secondary students got on with their classmates better after a residential - 78% of staff involved felt that Learning Away had a ‘significant’ or ‘transformative’ impact on their understanding of their students’ strengths and limitations www.learningaway.org.uk Located on the outskirts of the Peak District, Mount Cook provides children with an adventure centre that breaks down the barriers schools find between learning and safely utilising the natural space the UK countryside affords. Mount Cook aims to encourage children to extend beyond their perceived capabilities through hands-on activities. This means young learners have the opportunity to: - Experience adventure - Engage with nature - Embrace our space 1 hr 45 mins from Manchester 1 hr 20 mins from Birmingham 35 mins from Derby 1 hr from Sheffield The building is located in a rural setting, with a windsock indicating the direction of the wind. The building has a modern design with large windows and a flat roof. There is a path leading up to the entrance of the building, which is surrounded by grass and trees. The sky is clear with some clouds, suggesting that it is either early morning or late afternoon. The view from the top of the hill, looking towards the countryside. There are picnic tables in the foreground and a path leading through the trees. The image shows a grassy field with a fence made of wooden posts and wires. In the foreground, there is a stack of tires placed on the ground. The background features a line of trees and a hill covered with more trees. The sky appears to be clear with a soft gradient from light blue to a warmer hue near the horizon, suggesting either sunrise or sunset. There are no visible people or animals in the image. A fog bank in the distance, with trees in the foreground. Located across two floors in the main building in 4 bedded pods, all rooms at Mount Cook come complete with private bathroom facilities. The modern design incorporates the centre's eco-friendly ethos with warm water and electricity being provided by the site's high tech solar powered energy portals. To ensure security, rooms are only accessed via a special key card with some corridors also secured by card access to ensure groups are safely kept together. To provide access to the outdoors for all, especially young people and those who would not otherwise have the opportunity. The children have been enjoying their breakfasts and lunches in the school hall. We had a great time at our school camp in September. We went to the Forest School and played lots of games. We also had a great time eating our meals together. Facilities - Access to local woodland - Outdoor Climbing Facilities - Wheelchair Accessible Rooms - Two Classrooms - Activity Field - Views across the Ecclesbourne Valley - Rooftop terrace with seating for evening entertainment - Indoor Climbing Wall - Outside Stage for Amphitheatre/Presentations/Dance Activities IN THE SKY - HIGH ROPE - IN THE WILDERNESS - BUSHCRAFT - - ORIENTEERING - - NIGHT WALKS - - EXPLORING NATURE - ON THE WALL - ABSEILING - - CLIMBING - ON THE WATER - CANOEING - - RAFT BUILDING - ## Activities ### Activities included - Abseiling - Archery - Buggy Building - Bushcraft Skills - Cirque d’JCA - Changing Woodland - Climbing - Crate Stack - Dance - Environmental Explorers - Fencing - Gladiator Challenge - High Ropes - Initiative Exercises - Low Ropes - Mini beast Hunt - Nocturnal Safari - Orienteering - Rocket Launch - Raft Building - Sensory Trail - Team Challenge - Trapeze - Wet and Wacky - Wide Games - Zip Wire ### Offsite activities at a supplement - Biking - Canoeing - Caving - On The Rocks Abseil - On the Rocks - Scramble/ Weasel - Rafting - Rock Climbing - Stream Scramble Sample Itinerary This is a sample itinerary to show how activities are scheduled. Your week will be structured to meet your requirements and choice of activities. | Morning | Afternoon | Evening | |--------------------------|-------------------------|-----------------------| | | Monday | | | Travel to the Centre | Intro Tour | Climbing | | | | Giant Cluedo | | Tuesday | | | | Buggy Building | Archery | Zip Wire | | | | Cirque Du JCA | | | | Runaround Quiz | | Wednesday | | | | Abseiling | Orienteering | Watersports (at required supplement) | | | | Egg Protector | | Thursday | | | | High Ropes | Fencing | Sensory Trail | | | | Disco | | Friday | | | | Team Challenge | Presentation | Travel back to School | Please note that the timetable is subject to change and is currently at the proposal stage. Off-site activities (all within a 10 minute drive) not included in basic tour price but available at a supplement Climbing at local crags Caving (approximately 10 mins drive) Stream scrambling (approximately 10 mins drive) Watersports - Open Canoeing and kayaking (canal or Carsington Water) Raft Building at Carsington water (approximately 10 mins drive) for the older students: Biking Winter/Summer Mountaineering Gorge Scrambling Rock Scrambling/weaselling And more intense climbing and caving The children had a fantastic time at the outdoor adventure centre. They took part in a range of activities including archery, climbing, zip wire and abseiling. The children were very brave and worked together to achieve their goals. They also enjoyed a campfire and marshmallows! High Ropes Our impressive 40ft high ropes course has five elements: - The Leap of Faith - Crate Stack - High All Abroad - Gladiator Challenge - Jacob’s Ladder Groups can expect to develop key skills such as teamwork, communication, perseverance and resilience. This activity will also encourage a sense of cohesion within the group. The students had a fantastic time at the outdoor adventure centre. They took part in a range of activities including abseiling, zip lining and climbing. The students worked together to overcome challenges and support each other. It was a great day for everyone involved! The team building activities were designed to be challenging and fun, encouraging participants to work together towards common goals. The activities included rope climbing, zip lining, and other outdoor challenges that required teamwork, communication, and problem-solving skills. These experiences helped to foster a sense of camaraderie and trust among the team members, which is essential for effective collaboration in any workplace setting. The children had a fantastic time on the adventure course at the weekend. They all worked together to climb, balance and problem solve their way through the obstacles. Well done everyone! The students had a fantastic time at the outdoor adventure centre. They all completed the high ropes course and enjoyed the zip wire. The students had a fantastic time on the adventure course and all completed the course with flying colours! Archery is a great way to develop hand-eye coordination, focus and concentration. It also provides an opportunity for children to learn about history and culture through the use of traditional bows and arrows. Archery We have been learning how to use bows and arrows safely. We have also been practising our aim by trying to hit targets. The students had a blast at the climbing wall! Fencing at Camp Canoeing Explore just under a mile of Cromford's historic canals on one of our canoeing expeditions. Each canoe can hold two people, and present minimal risk of capsizing. To paddle efficiently, this activity requires great team-work and communication skills. Along the way we will discover an abundance of wildlife and features of historic importance. Canoeing on the River Taw Rooftop Rider Zip Wire The first of its kind in Derbyshire, our Rooftop Rider Zip Wire starts 15 metres off the ground on the Centre's roof and finishes on the far side of Steeplehouse Quarry! The Rooftop Rider is 108 metres in length and guests can expect to reach speeds of up to 40 mph. Pupils will develop their self-confidence and resilience. The students had a fantastic time on the zip wire and abseiling! We had a fantastic day at Zip World in North Wales. The children had a great time and we all had a wonderful day. New for 2022... The Heights of Abraham Cable Cars, Caverns & Hilltop Park Matlock Bath in the Peak District The Great Masson Cavern A journey through 300 million years Excursion: the Heights of Abraham The Heights of Abraham had remained one of the Peak Districts most popular tourist destinations since it opened in 1780. After a ride on the unique cable car, the children will experience 2 show caverns, learn about Victorian tourism, and see plenty of fossils! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aFfpp6-xL58 Quotes from children’s letters after visiting Mount Cook in 2019…. “I really enjoyed going to Mount Cook and would really like to go there again just to see the instructors as I miss them already.” “Everyone was working together. The instructor was really encouraging and so was the team.” “My favourite activities were Gladiator wall, zip wire and canoeing because you encouraged everyone to have a go! That was the best residential trip ever.” “As soon as I completed the Gladiator wall I felt amazing!” “…****** had a phenomenal time thanks to everyone involved. The children have made memories that will last a lifetime and have developed life skills and boosted their confidence upon recognition…” (Parent – 2019 Residential) “The photos and updates on the Facebook page were fantastic and put us all at ease. We felt like we were there with them. Thankyou so much” (Parent – 2019 Residential) Your Adventure Begins Here! Questions?
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St Anne's Academic Review Volume 10 | Oct 2020 Contributors: Gregor Bauer, Lise Cazzoli, Daniel O'Callaghan, Dr Adrian Soto-Mota, Dr Ben Shaper, Joel Casey, Elena Porter Vicki Lee, Caroline King, Andreea Scridon, Siân Round. ISSN 2515-6527 (Print) St Anne’s Academic Review A publication by St Anne’s College Middle Common Room University of Oxford Issue 10 - October 2020 http://st-annes-mcr.org.uk/staar/publications/staar-10-2020/ This issue of STAAR is printed thanks to the generous support of Alpesh Patel Jeremy Lester Rina See Jane Stead Helen Parker Marcelo Zanon The editorial team extends the warmest thanks to everyone who donated through the 2018 crowdfunding campaign @ReachfortheSTAAR. Your support was crucial in making STAAR financially independent and will be well invested in all our future projects. Editorial Committee 2019-2020 Editor-in-chief Alexander Kither (MSt, Faculty of History) Editorial Board Humanities Erin Dolan (MSt, Humanities Division) Brittany Hause (DPhil, Faculty of Linguistics, Philology and Phonetics) Social Science Umar Azmeh (DPhil, Faculty of Law) Kunlong Jin (MSc, Department of Education) Science Aarati Joshi (MSc, Department of Education) Trisevgeni Bilia (MSt, Humanities Division) SPARK Reviews Daniel Mercieca (Alumnus, Humanities Division) Production and Web Design Manager Valeria Taddei (DPhil, Faculty of Medieval and Modern Languages) Senior Advisors Prof. Simon Park, Tutorial Fellow in Portuguese Prof. Kate Watkins, Fellow and Tutor in Psychology Prof. Liora Lazarus, Fellow and Tutor in Law Marcelo Zanon, Publishing Operations Director, Oxford University Press Cover Design Alex Kither Cover Photo Robert Stagg INTRODUCTION Letter from the Editor by Alexander Kither | Page i Due Diligence Report by the Editorial Committee | Page ii STAAR Modes of Expression in *Sonnets from the Portuguese* by Gregor Bauer, Faculty of English and Faculty of Philosophy | Page 1 Protecting People from Climate Change Harm by Lise Cazzoli, Oxford Department of International Development | Page 20 What is the Potential for the Use of Complexity Science in the Management of the National Health Service? by Daniel O’Callaghan, Oxford University Centre for the Environment | Page 46 Statistical Illiteracy Among Clinicians by Dr Adrian Soto-Mota, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics | Page 60 Towards an Understanding of the Authenticity of Digital Replicas by Daniel O’Callaghan, Oxford University Centre for the Environment | Page 70 Travel Report Loneliness on Valentine’s Day: My journey to the Lisbon Colloquium. by Dr Ben Shaper, Faculty of Medieval and Modern Languages | Page 89 TV and Film *A Hidden Life* (2019), Directed by Terrence Malik By Joel Casey, Faculty of English | Page 84 *Emma* (2020), Directed by Autumn de Wilde By Elena Porter, Faculty of History | Page 94 Book *Sentinels Aloft: An Indifference of Birds* (2017), by Richard Smyth By Vicki Lee, Faculty of English | Page 103 *homie* (2018), by Danez Smith By Caroline King, Department of Continuing Education | Page 108 Theatre and Exhibitions *Romeo and Juliet* (2017), originally directed by Rudolf Nureyev By Andreea Scridon, Department of Continuing Education | Page 116 *AMALGAM* (2020), curated by Theaster Gates at Tate Liverpool By Siân Round, Faculty of English | Page 123 As has been the case with much else this year, the production of issue ten of the St Anne’s Academic Review (STAAR) was confronted with numerous unforeseen challenges, both for myself, the editorial team and our writers. Not long after the editorial team was assembled, the country went into lockdown, college halls were evacuated and all plans were indefinitely postponed. The consequences of these global events profoundly affected the editorial process of the journal, and this is reflected in a due diligence report included on the following page. I am enormously appreciative of the continued efforts and perseverance of this year’s editorial team, who have successfully managed to organise their respective sections despite being displaced across different time zones and with only email threads and zoom calls to keep in contact with writers and reviewers. Organising reviewers for articles has proven to be exceptionally difficult this year, as the personal and professional consequences of the pandemic left many academics without the usual time to spare for peer-review. Not least was this an issue with some of our science articles, which required review from (extremely busy) medical professionals. Despite all this, our peer-review process was a success, and we managed to source at least two reviews for each of the articles published in this volume. Despite common adversity, I am pleased to present here twelve pieces from current or recent members of St Anne’s College, University of Oxford. Following the success of last year, we have chosen to continue without a theme, and have welcomed written work on all topics from members of the college. Consequently, this edition of STAAR includes a broad variety of research and opinion articles from the humanities, sciences, and social sciences as well as reviews of films, books, theatre and exhibitions. We are also pleased to include a travel report in this edition, which details the author's journey to an academic colloquium in Lisbon, funded by the college. It is by some coincidence that this report deals primarily with the concept of ‘loneliness’; something we have become all too familiar with over the course of the last year. The very idea of travelling to and from international colloquia now seems like a fond memory of yesteryear. We have been fortunate to keep hold of St Anne’s alumna Daniel Mercieca, who has continued in his role as editor of the SPARKS reviews, which he introduced last year. This year, we have seen a marvellous response, with a wide variety of submissions covering theatre, film, poetry and exhibitions. Like the rest of this year’s journal, these reviews reflect the unconventional year within which they were composed. It has been a pleasure to serve as the editor-in-chief. I hope you enjoy reading this, our tenth issue of STAAR. Sincerely, Alexander Kither Social Sciences The past academic year was quite ‘bumpy’ with the coronavirus (Covid-19) pandemic spreading throughout the world. Millions of people were either influenced by, infected with or even died of such an ongoing global pandemic. Both the writing and editorial process for STAAR 2020 were affected by the unexpected pandemic as we worked from home virtually. For writers, they worked hard at home, composing their articles and making numerous revisions in response to peer-reviewers’ and editorial feedback. A few of them have been struggling with mental health because of the lockdown; however, they overcame and survived those hard days. For the editorial committee, several meetings were organised online to discuss the issues and progress of each writer. I felt very proud of being a member of such a cooperative, energetic and committed editorial board. The editors, such as myself, tried our best to maintain a frequent line of communication between writers, editorial board and peer-reviewers. Although it took more time and was more demanding to contact people and handle issues than anticipated, each of us were devoted to overcoming these difficulties. All of us had to give up planned events and adapt the way we live, adjust to a different level of social contact and different practical and psychological challenges to achieve our common goal: make the STAAR 2020 a reality in time. I want to take this opportunity to thank everyone on this year’s STAAR issue, as well as all academic and administrative staff at St. Anne’s College. It was our joint efforts that made this year’s issue possible. I, personally, felt very proud of working throughout this academic year for STAAR journal and very much look forward to the publication version soon. Sciences The past academic year has been a roller-coaster ride for most of us, but it should be a matter of pride that we have so cooperatively adapted how we live and work such that we may continue to learn, create, and collaborate in different ways. Our authors, who have slaved over their work through its inception, creation, and the endless cycles of editing and peer-review thereafter, truly deserve all the praise we can offer them. They have been rigorous, diligent, and an absolute pleasure to work with throughout the process, in spite of the many commitments they have had to juggle and the various pressures that the present pandemic laid upon them. The situation affected not only their personal plans but also the editing and review timelines, which indeed turned somewhat chaotic as the Science section had particular difficulty in finding reviewers who had time to offer comments on the articles during these busy months. We were, however, somewhat lucky to work with articles and reviews that contribute to the current healthcare crisis conversation. On that note, we must express our deepest gratitude to the academics who were kind enough to offer valuable input to the authors – their contributions have unquestionably refined the work presented in this section. For us, the editors, this has been a novel and challenging experience as well – one that we are grateful to have had the chance to undertake. It was strenuous and long, but thoroughly satisfying; we have indeed learnt a lot along the way and done many things for the first time. In consideration of the circumstances, we did our best this year to be flexible with deadlines for the authors, communicate regularly with them, and offer timely edits and updates. We did struggle at times, as with the difficulties in ensuring that the articles have sufficient reviews or with the overlap of the extended timeline with our dissertations, but we were able to work together effectively and ensure that the process ends on a positive note. We thank everyone that we worked with for being understanding and helpful through our journey, and are thrilled for those who will see the fruits of their labour in print very soon. **Humanities** For this edition of STAAR, the Humanities section comprises an article on Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s Sonnets from the Portuguese and a travel report describing one Stanner’s experience of the International Colloquium on Loneliness at the Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa. Since initial write-up of both pieces took place largely during Hilary term and editing and review was carried out during Trinity term and the summer holiday, the timeline for work done on these contributions to the journal aligned squarely with the Covid-19 outbreak and related developments. As our editing team, authors, and reviewers have been spread across numerous countries (and even continents) during the pandemic, we’ve been affected in unique ways and to varying degrees by our regions’ respective lockdown restrictions and other circumstances impacting daily life and work routines. Despite this, we’re proud to say that everyone who participated in this project did so with great dedication. It’s a testament to the commitment of all involved that we’re publishing this edition of the journal on schedule, particularly as in recent months several contributors had challenging family and personal matters to which they needed to attend above and beyond their usual workload. We’re grateful to STAAR leadership and to the rest of the journal’s staff, too, for flexibility displayed in adjusting to inevitable delays to the writing and editing process. Covid’s most significant impact on this edition’s compilation took the form of obstacles to the meeting of original deadlines and more difficulty in tracking down available peer reviewers than might have been expected under other circumstances. We’re very grateful to the six people who stepped in to review the Humanities pieces in this issue even while dealing with various 2020-specific disruptions to their schedules, and we thank both them and our two authors for the hard work they put in to meet the non-negotiable deadline for final drafts. Our contributors were quick to respond to input and inquiries and maintained a positive attitude throughout the drafting and editing stages, which made the process a pleasure to manage as editors. It’s been encouraging to witness our peers’ perseverance throughout the pandemic, and we consider it a privilege to have participated in a truly international effort in bringing this year’s edition of STAAR to print. **SPARK Reviews** Established in STAAR Volume 9 (2019), SPARK Reviews are short 1500-3000-word reviews of any art form or critical text. One Editor of SPARK Reviews is appointed annually to manage the SPARK Review section of the Journal. This Editor is not beholden to the University, College or STAAR Editorial Board in the outcome of decisions made concerning publication or prize-giving. The SPARK Review section of STAAR is managed in accordance with the Privacy Policy, and Equalities Report stated on the St. Anne’s College website, which address concerns including GDPR, data protection, equal representation and inclusivity. SPARK Reviews follow a rolling-publication model and are not subject to peer-review. This in order to maximise opportunities for students to publish reviews alongside their studies on an accessible, online platform in addition to the Journal’s annual printed editions. The Editor of SPARK Reviews is solely responsible for sourcing, editing and publishing SPARK Reviews. Authors are given at least one month to compose their piece and receive guidance and feedback from the Editor via email. As with the rest of the journal, the SPARK Review section of STAAR is completely open access and is licensed under a Creative Commons CC-BY licence, which is detailed in the Intellectual Property and Plagiarism section of the St. Anne’s MCR website. The purpose of SPARK Reviews is to enable students to creatively and critically engage with artforms which ignite inspiration. SPARK Reviews are designed to be inclusive, interdisciplinary and intersectional writing opportunities which enable students to explore the work of artists from all backgrounds, many of whom may not traditionally feature on academic syllabi. Whilst being critical and evaluative, SPARK Reviews should not employ discriminatory or offensive language. We welcome submissions from the JCR, MCR and Alumni of St. Anne’s College and encourage writers of all backgrounds to review artforms which are of greatest interest and importance to them. The 6 SPARK Reviews which feature in STAAR Volume 10 engage with a diverse range of artforms, topics and communities, including the scars of slavery, African American LGBTQ+ experience and the effects of covid-19 upon theatre and ballet. A Firework Competition with a £50 prize for the most original SPARK Review has also been introduced in STAAR Volume 10. The Firework Competition is judged by the SPARK Reviews Editor in corroboration with the Editor-in-chief and one of the Humanities Editors. To ensure an unbiased and impartial decision, the Editor of SPARK Reviews ultimately selects the winner of the Firework Competition based upon the following criteria: creative thinking, stylistic flare, penetrating and personal engagement with an art form/critical text, originality, sharp analysis, strong argumentation, and sound research. Abstract. How does a poem mean? A formalist approach to Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s *Sonnets from the Portuguese* (1850) may provide a partial answer by demonstrating a poetry-specific potential of meaning-creation. To this end, this essay offers new perspectives on Barrett Browning’s playful interventions against a one-dimensional love discourse through poly-dimensional semiotics and explores how her sonnets expand the scope of linguistic expressability by transcending central axiomata of Saussurian structuralism avant la lettre. Numerous acrostics permeating the sonnets subvert their putative senses, but for a lack of formalist analysis, these have not previously been discovered and negotiated in scholarly works. This essay demonstrates how throughout *Sonnets from the Portuguese*, the fictional order is unhinged and the diegesis shifts to the reader’s material reality as language becomes indexical. Thus, space for a simultaneousness of contradictory discourses is melded in the tension between poetic form and explicit meaning, within which the woman poet creates and asserts her voice. A poem is a peculiar composition. At first glance, the reader recognizes the traditionally ‘poetic’ text as such by its line breaks, stanzas, and perhaps rhymes. But is form all that separates poetry from prose? If we were to squeeze the latest article from *The Guardian* into this spatial template, would that be a poem? The playful intricacies of Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s *Sonnets from the Portuguese* suggest that there is, perhaps, a domain-specificity to the linguistics of poetry as a function for expanding the scope of semantic creation. Barrett Browning was already a celebrated poet when she published this sonnet sequence in 1850. Alongside Tennyson, she was one of England’s most highly acclaimed poets and was recognized as an influential voice by readers, critics, and peers. Half a century later, however, her poetry did not meet with the same level of appreciation from the public. John William Cunliffe, for instance, claimed in 1908 that her ‘most enduring contributions to literature’ came in the form of her roles as Robert Browning’s wife and as auxiliary to his oeuvre. Another fifty years later, popular familiarity with her work was limited to a selective canonisation of her poetry in anthologies and literary histories, with *Sonnets from the Portuguese* usually introduced as a testimony to her status as Robert’s loving muse. It was not until the 1970s that feminist critics such as Ellen Moers, Cora Kaplan, Sandra Gilbert, and Susan Gubar rediscovered other aspects of Barret Browning’s work, mostly concentrating on Aurora Leigh’s (1856) female voice. From this point onwards, scholars have produced valuable analyses of her poetry from socio-political and historicising viewpoints, but rarely from a formalist perspective (cf. Stone and Taylor, pp. 392ff.). It is unsurprising that formalist and structuralist schools of criticism have largely ignored Barrett Browning’s work, as the resurgence of critical interest in her oeuvre came at a time when these approaches had already, to some extent, fallen out of vogue. Notably, in *Victorian Poetry and the Culture of Evaluation* (2020) Clara Dawson comprehensively attends to Barret Browning’s form in regard to her *Drama of Exile* (1845), acknowledging the semiotic depth of her formal structures, especially rhymes. This exploratory essay seeks to initiate a further closure of this gap in research pertaining to the *Sonnets from the Portuguese* and offers a new perspective on the poetics of form and the linguistic playfulness of Barrett Browning’s sonnet sequence. Looking beyond the contextualising, thematic, and political approaches typical to analyses of her work, it focuses on the techniques that facilitate new forms of expression within the sonnets. The implicit discourse on poetics and intricate compositions permeating Barrett Browning’s *Sonnets from the Portuguese* as they subversively negotiate the notion of text as a chain of words, the arbitrariness of the sign, and the primacy of the sound image avant la lettre demonstrate that there is an inherent semiotic potential specific to poetry which transcends Saussurian structuralism. Caroline Levine, commenting on Barrett Browning’s political poetry, states that these ‘metrically experimental and overtly political meditations [...] frustrate the reflective, expressive, and ideological models of reading’. She suggests that Barrett Browning’s rhythms function as means of disruptive expression within a persuasive alignment of content and form, both expressing and performing disruption (p. 238). The Sonnets also make use of expressive form. The following analysis, however, suggests that ‘content and form’ create semiotic counter-spheres rather than indicating alignments. Thereby, the sonnets subvert and recreate concepts of reality, selfhood, and love beyond that which mere syntactical logic is able to express. A discourse of love emerges in *Sonnets from the Portuguese* which resists expressing itself and subverts regular narrative strategies. Put simply, this formalist proposal focuses on exploring how the *Sonnets from the Portuguese* achieve meaning rather than on what their meaning is. Specifically, it will explain how Barrett Browning manufactures implicit poetics with striking semiotic focal points. She does so by means of the subversion of the diegetic framework as well as the referential function of speech on the one hand, and, on the other hand, by transferring the diegesis into the materiality of its text, rendering words indexical, and creating meaning through poetic form. By means of these structures, personhood, agency, and voice can be renegotiated in a dialectic composition between poeticity and face value meaning, as the latter fails to encompass a more ambitious love discourse and an independent agency of the woman poet within a romantic partnership. 1. Diegetic subversion *The Sonnets from the Portuguese* decisively problematise the creation of voice and meaning. Absence, fissuring and uncertainty are hallmarks of Barrett Browning’s language. The diegetic world is deconstructed as its order collapses and its inhabitants – somewhat – cease to exist. Barrett Browning’s use of metonymic tropes, formations of negatives, and imagery relating to absence destabilises the objects of the poetic world. Precise definition of selfhood or of the I-you dyad is generally avoided. As the reader encounters characterisations of the personae within the sonnet sequence, they appear indirect, imprecise, and blurry: the Belovèd, for instance, is never a prince, but only ‘princely’ (III, 1; VIII, 2) and never a king, but ‘like a king’ (XVI, 2). Physical selves are regularly portrayed within metonymies of peripheral headspace. To this end, both personae give their locks of hair as representations of their whole self (cf. XVIII; XIX) and love received transforms into crowns (XII, 3; XXI, 11; XXXVIII, 10). Besides metonymy, there are generally two main strategies used to subvert the totality of personae in the *Sonnets*. The first involves skewed allocations of personhood: whilst the persona of the speaker in XXVII, for instance, restricts herself to a role of passivity, i.e that of witness, the abstract concepts of Love and Death attain agency. The capitalisations of the nouns referring to these concepts suggest their role as quasi-personae\(^1\): [I m]ake witness, here, between the good and bad, That Love, as strong as Death, retrieves as well. (13f) The second is a disassembling of conceptual boundaries. The diegetic world systematically appears personified, blurring the boundaries of the personae as it transitions to a meta-persona itself. For instance: The face of all the world [...] (VII, 1) Additionally, systematically placed linguistic and figurative negatives throughout the sequence subvert a meaningful description of the personae’s selfhoods. Sonnet VIII, for instance, describes them as ‘unstained’, ‘untold’ (3), ‘unexpected’ (6), ‘[u]ngrateful’ (8) and ‘not cold’ (9); XIII proceeds with ‘unwon’ (11), ‘dauntless’ and ‘voiceless’ (13), and so forth. Inverted physical appearances also substitute the personae’s physicality within the diegetic world: For thine and thee, an image only so Formed of the sand, and fit to shift and break. (XXXVII, 3f) Thy purity of likeness and distort Thy worthiest love to a worthless counterfeit. (XXXVII, 9f) The self-image in the sand – whether drawn (negative) or sculptured (positive) – represents the self as form, not matter, either as a photographic negative or as similar to a mask. The ‘counterfeit’ mirrors a similar – shape-reduced – conception. Furthermore, --- \(^1\) All references to the sonnet sequence follow the first edition: Barrett Browning, Elizabeth: *Poems*, London 1850. the counterpart cannot be held within the notion of purity, as it is immediately undermined by its distortion. An additional concept of shape-reduced negatives may be found in the recurring shadow theme. The very first contact between the lovers in sonnet I is sub-physical (via a shadow) and then peripheral (via the hair). The Belovëd does not appear as a personal essence or physical whole, but as a shape. And even as such he is impalpable and unspecific (mystic). However, only this encapsulation of nothingness and indefiniteness is capitalised and thus appears as a persona or, rather, as an empty vessel within which a person should be. A shadow across me. Straightway I was ‘ware So weeping, how a mystic Shape did move Behind me, and drew me backward by the hair; (I, 9-11) In sonnet VI, the imagined romantic unification is diluted to a barely physical togetherness, as the shadow is a mere representation of shape (2). The physicality of the encounter is thus non-existent, as the shadow represents the absence of matter. The end of the sonnet resumes this trope; the shade is placed both within the memory (as a ‘Before’) and the grave (as one’s ‘After’). Hence, the shade here appears as a chronological negative of self, as between one’s before and after is all there is of one, but this formulation suggests the persona’s existence as a ‘gap’. My poet, thou canst touch on all the notes God set between His After and Before, […] Sad memory, […] A shade, in which to sing – […] A grave, on which to rest from singing? […] (XVII, 1f; 12f) The inhabitants and objects of the diegetic world are unsettled and undermined in their physical existence. It therefore comes as no surprise that many sonnets in the first half of the sequence (e.g. III; V; VII; IX; XV; XVI, 14) also end in tropes of movement. Clara Dawson posits that Barret Browning’s style indicates ‘excess, complication, and mist.’ (Dawson 91) In the early reception of her work in the 1830s and 1840s, this has caused criticism: she was ‘condemned for obscurity, ungainliness, mysticism, preposterous rhyme and metre.’ (cf. ibid) The broad spectrum of the aforementioned strategies circumnavigating definition and subverting any fixation within the diegetic world, however, suggests a wilful deconstruction rather than negligence (or even lack of expertise). Rather than allowing the reader to be drawn into the diegetic world and, for a short moment, believe its reality, the sonnets foreground the fictionality of the diegesis by perpetually undermining any template within which it may be clearly imagined. Fiction seems exposed as an insufficient container of a personhood sought, of love in freedom, of independent agency, and of a powerful poetic voice. But the *Sonnets* go further, indicating implicit mistrust and subversion of its linguistic medium itself, as will be shown below. 2. Semiotic subversion On a meta-level, the negation and unsettling of definition is also a semiotic issue, as language and speech cannot hold their diegetic world. Take for instance sonnet VII: ‘The names of country, heaven, are changed away’ (10) Stone and Taylor remark that Barrett Browning intersperses a wide array of ‘dialogically engaged voices’ throughout her oeuvre, from desire to grief and beyond (p. 392f). It may be argued that on one side of a dialectic composition, the voice of this sonnet sequence is one that proves powerless. Verbal utterances fail, as does their linguistic medium more generally. Three related utterances in sonnet XXIII can serve as examples: ‘Yes, call me by my pet-name!’ (1) ‘While I call God – call God! – [...]’ (9) ‘Yes, call me by that name, – [...]’ (13) Through the allocation of a pet-name, the speaker emphatically allows its counterpart, the Belovëd, to affirm an indirect definition of selfhood and relationship by means of language. However, the breadth of registers employed throughout the sonnet subverts this very effect. First, the speech-based dyad of you and I is triangulated by its members’ relationship with God (a recurring theme). Second, not only the call to God but also the Belovëd calling the prime persona by her name is followed by a silent dash. Third, the wording of the second appeal to the Belovëd renders the requested action more distant: ‘my’ becomes ‘that’, the ‘pet-name’ becomes a more neutral ‘name’, and the silent dash and comma replace the demanding exclamation mark\(^2\). From sonnet XXIII onward, each step of the romantic approach is accompanied by the interjection ‘o/oh’ (idealisation in XXXVII; the first kisses in XXXVIII; affirmation and acceptance of the other’s affection in XL): Pardon, oh, pardon, that my soul should make Of all that strong divineness which I know For thine and thee [...] (XXXVII, 1-3) [...] Than that first kiss. The second passed in height \(^2\) Pauline Simonsen ties the broken syntax to the persona’s loss of identity and social integration: ‘The speaker has been left forlorn of unconditional love and affirmation of identity.’ (Simonsen, p. 71). The first, and sought the forehead, and half missed, Half falling on the hair. O beyond meed! (XXXVIII, 7-9) Oh, yes! they love through all this world of ours! (XL, 1) Both speech and language thus fail in moments of supposed definition. This system of semiotic subversion is established as early as sonnet II. In this poem, the persona hears ‘this word’ (II, 2) spoken by her counterpart. A conversation might ensue, but the stanza’s syntax immediately disintegrates: One of us...that was God...and laid the course (II, 4) Time and again in the sequence, when the lovers approach each other, emotionally or physically, sentences dissolve into elliptic debris: Thou wait beside me for the wind to blow The grey dust up, . . . those laurels on thine head, (V, 10f) For where thou art, or shall be, there or here; And this . . . this lute and song . . . loved yesterday, (VII, 11f) I love thee . . . mark! . . . I love thee --- in thy sight I stand transfigured [...] (X, 6f) To come and touch my hand . . . a simple thing, Yet I wept for it!—this, . . . the paper’s light . . . (XXVIII, 7f) At other points in the sequence, the reader is confronted with a plethora of modes of speech that fail to communicate. In sonnet XXI, for instance, lines 2-3 read: […] Though the word repeated Should seem a ‘cuckoo-song’, as though dost treat it, The word as bird song is a word beyond clear comprehension, to the human ear more ornamental than comprehensible. The rhyme employed in these lines, a rare female cadence, adds an unstressed syllable to the end of each verse, thereby suggesting a sense of quietness. In line 8, the reader finds a destabilised relationship between reality and the spoken in the ‘doubtful spirit-voice,’ while line 9 demands: Cry, “Speak once more—thou lovest!” Crying poses an expression of emotions rather than a transfer of concrete elaborated meaning. This is followed by a remarkably expressive structure of repetition: Say thou dost love me, love me, love me – toll The silver iterance! (12f) The repetition of the affirmation of love in lines 12f ties into the ambiguity of toll. On the one hand, one may understand this in the sense of paying a toll, but on the other it implies a sound – that of a bell tolling, for example. If the reader assumes the latter meaning, the mantra-like repetition chimes with the structure of tolling. Either version transfers the utterance to a lifeless sphere. As the colour of silver is already tied to an ambiguous topos between love and death in sonnet I (cf. 13f), the toll as payment invokes the ferry toll across the Acheron. The toll as the repetitive affirmation of love equates these avowals to the sound of an inanimate object such as a bell. Thus, the ‘love-me’ is pushed away from the sphere of meaningful human communication. Finally, in line 14, the persona demands: To love me also in silence with thy soul. However, the expression of love in ‘silence’ naturally suggests the absence of its expression. The poetic romance appears as a negative abstractum: it is the textual expression of inexpressibility, and its discourse is simultaneously the rejection of its discourse. While negative imagery and its grammatical expressions, as shown above, undermine the validity of diegetic constructions as appropriate space and means for the love sought, the Sonnets here further suggest the insufficiency of its language as a container for a perhaps more ambitious concept of love and poetic existence. Personhood and, with the loss of language, poetic agency dissolve where diegetic love seems to be achieved. However, the *Sonnets* offer an alternative dimension for both the authorial agent and the personae’s romantic discourse: text as diegesis rather than its medium. 3. Text as diegesis, not its medium Collapsing speech is only one side of the dialectic equation seen in the sonnet sequence; the other introduces an empowered mode of speech and expressive functions of text, as the sonnets’ diegetic world fuses materially with its medium. An intricate network of references dissolves the boundary between the text and its inhabitants, including inanimate objects. On a discursive level, the boundary between poetry and person becomes increasingly blurred. ‘Instruments defaced’ (XXXII, 13), for instance, personify the symbol of poetry evoked in XXXII, while the persona is equated to an instrument herself. Simonsen posits that the speaker ‘has become the instrument for the master musician to play upon’ (Simonsen, p. 68); she is thus rendered a medium rather than a person: […] For perfect strains may float ‘Neath master-hands, from instruments defaced,– And great souls, at one stroke, may do and doat. (12-14) Sonnet XXXVIII explicates the unity of romantic physicality and poetry. First, the Belovëd’s kiss on her hands triggers the meta-poetic trope of her writing: […] he but only kissed The fingers of this hand wherewith I write; (1f) Second, his kiss on her hair evokes key imagery of the sonnet sequence (hair, chrism, crown, 9f). The final tercet then comprises one of his kisses on her lips (cf. 12), leading to her ability to verbally express her affirmation of love: I have been proud and said, “My love, my own.” (14) Physical affection, while having been regularly subverted and avoided thus far, now reaches a space in which it may exist: in poetry and speech. Letters, on the other hand, are positioned within the conditio humana of life and death: My letters! All dead paper, mute and white! And yet they seem alive and quivering (XXVIII, 1f) The subsequent line then equates the quivering letters to her hands via the parallelism of matching movements ('tremulous'). In XLII, the persona has gained control over her life, as the latter is dependent on her writing: I seek no copy now of life’s first half: Leave here the pages with long musing curled, And write my new future’s epigraph, (11-13) With the image of the ‘copy’, life is drawn into the materiality of texts, and the persona’s future appears simply as a performance of written instructions. Moreover, the pages are ‘curled’ and thereby equated to the persona’s hair, the key metonymic figure of selfhood. Another pars-pro-toto metonymy as prevalent as that of the hair represents the foot/feet, with nine mentions throughout the sequence. In its ambiguity, this motif playfully alludes to a tension between form and content; the poetic ambivalence of feet as the body part and the metrical unit blurs the boundary between human physicality and poetry. In XX for instance, the persona describes a visual impression of the other’s absence: And saw no footprint, heard the silence sink No moment in thy voice, […] (4f) However, the image transcends its visuality by juxtaposing the absence of noise. The foot may also be read as ambiguous, as the print alludes to material texts and the sinking and silence may evoke the notion of a sinking within a metrical foot. This theme is recurring. In IV, the dancers’ footing is juxtaposed with high poems, thereby commingling the physical footing with a second poetic meaning. Most gracious singer of high poems! where The dancers will break footing, [...] (2f) In V, the foot is tied to scorn, shifting the body part towards the realm of language. thy foot in scorn (7) While being linked to the poetic symbol of the musical instrument, the stressed and unstressed nature of metrical feet is also repeatedly alluded to in XLI. But though, who, in my voice’s sink and fall […] Own instrument didst drop down at thy foot (7-9) One particularly remarkable example of the fusion of textuality with diegesis and a poetry-specific interplay of form and narrative is the disruption of the regular rhyming pattern in sonnet XXIX. Firstly, the B-rhyme (‘tree’, ‘see’, ‘thee’, ‘instantly’, 2; 3; 6; 7) expands to the sestet’s D-rhyme (‘thee’, 10; 12; 14). Secondly, the D-rhyme consists solely of ‘thee’ as the rhyming word. Thirdly, this rhyming pattern further expands to the interior of the lines. The ‘Belovēd thee’ eventually literally replaces the poetic form by substituting the rhymes with mere repetition, ending climactically with a doubled ‘thee’ within the last line’s internal rhyme. Diegetic physicality and its linguistic medium seem to fuse into one meta-concept; body, selfhood, and words become a unified thematic node. This fusion is then performed and amplified in the indexicality of the sonnets’ words which transfers the diegetic world into the ‘real’ materiality of text, as will be discussed further. 4. The word as index *The Sonnets from the Portuguese* materialise the symbolic property of language into indexical representations\(^3\), bestowing a physical existence within the reader’s reality upon the diegetic world and thus rendering its language non-symbolic. Take, for instance, sonnet II: it begins to count ‘only three’ (1) who know of their romantic love (the two personae and God). At this point, the textual formatting, syntax, and punctuation dissolves into patterns of three as well. The following three lines are segregated into three clauses respectively. Furthermore, the ellipses also represent a treble design. --- \(^3\) Although seminal in detail and impact, Saussure was not the first to argue for a concept of arbitrariness in linguistic semiotics. Importantly, Charles Sanders Peirce’s sign theory posed a seismic shift in the understanding of material semiotics. Peirce categorises signs as icons, indices, and symbols; which differ according to the relationship between signifier and signified. Symbols, such as linguistic notations, bear no tie between the two; their relation is arbitrary in the sense suggested by Saussure. Indices connect signifier and signified by means of a factual connection. Icons show visual similarities (Turquette, p. 97). Have heard this word thou hast said,—Himself, beside Thee speaking, and me listening! and replied One of us . . . that was God . . . and laid the curse (2-4) In sonnet X, the integration of God into the relationship recurs (cf. 3, 11) and again the punctuation turns into three-element punctuation marks. I love thee . . . mark! . . . I love thee --- in thy sight (6) The reader also encounters further indexical expressions, as objects or tropes regarding lengthy shapes are systematically hyphenised: The ‘cedar-plank’ (X, 4), ‘palm-tree’ (XXIX, 5), ‘altar-stair’ (XXX, 7), and the ‘prison-wall’ (XLI, 3) all represent lengthy objects and are written and sketched simultaneously. Here, the sonnets’ textuality shifts the medial use of language to a physical representation, and the diegetic world is immersed into the reader’s physical reality. Material text substitutes the syntactically narrated fiction. In XIII, ‘me’ is separated from ‘myself’ with long dashes when the persona explicitly tells of her separation from her ‘spirits’. In XV, the insurmountable emotional distance, symbolised by the speaker’s unfeeling gaze, segregates the personae emotionally; and in XXVII, his ‘upper life’ isolates her from him and so does a dash. While describing a physical unification, sonnet XXIX simultaneously expresses an inner rebellion against the personae’s closeness – and puts a dash between them. I love thee . . . mark! . . . I love thee --- in thy sight (X, 6) My hand to hold my spirits so far off From myself –me– […] (XIII, 7) […] But I look on thee–on thee– (XV, 10) […] the tedious time he had In the upper life,—so I, […] (XXVII, 11f) I do not think of thee—I am too near thee. (XXIX, 14) Further examples physically depict movements, such as casting a ray of light in XIII or the possibility of the Belověd striking the persona’s inner chains in XX, the fall of greenery in XXIX or of tears in XXX. Between our faces, to cast a light on each?— (XIII, 4) Struck by thy possible hand,– […] (XX, 8) Drop heavily down,– (XXIX, 11) As now these tears come–falling […] (XXX, 14) The traditional sonnet shape further facilitates a textual organisation of diegetic space, as the division into stanzas creates opportunities for meaningful positioning. Sonnet XXV, for instance, evokes a spherical segregation of ‘above’ and ‘beneath’. While the second quartet ends in ‘above the world forlorn’ (cf. 8), the first tercet incorporates a semantic field of a ‘beneath’, with ‘drop’, ‘adown’, ‘Deep’, and ‘sinketh’ (10f). The stanza break between lines eight and nine then positions the ‘heavy heart’ within the textual space into the ‘beneath’ and separates it from the upper sphere. This resonates with the figurative trope of the heavy heart, which seems bound to sink: Could scarcely lift above the world forlorn My heavy heart. […] (8f) Saussure posits: ‘Language and writing are two distinct systems of signs; the second exists for the sole purpose of representing the first. The linguistic object is not both the written and the spoken forms of words; the spoken forms alone constitute the object.’ (Saussure, p. 23f) The signification via the sign’s visual materiality in the *Sonnets*, however, shows the potential of the sign’s textuality to constitute the object beyond the reach of arbitrary signification and the spoken form. The boundaries between textuality and meaning, and therefore the reality of script and the poetic fiction, are blurred. Barrett Browning creates a love discourse and a discourse of selfhood as language; the love expressed is poetry, not told by it. The resistance against the making of meaning within the syntactical order facilitates a transcended love discourse, defying the imposition inherent in the medium of language to define and therefore to restrict. While physicality and personhood in the diegetic system seem ephemeral, they are stabilised in an intermediary dimension between the reader’s reality and the diegesis. Notably, Clara Dawson attests that voice in Victorian poetry: ‘conveys sound and meaning to a reader across or through a printed text. Embedded in material forms, yet nonmaterial in its evocation of a presence beyond the page, voice is caught between its ancient oral past and its contemporary fixity in print. (Dawson 18) Barrett Browning breaches the gap of diegetic orality and textual fixation by fusing these spheres. The demonstrated indexicality foregrounds text and form as crafted; while the passive, silent (Petrarchan) persona-object is deconstructed, an alternative forceful female creator – the author – seems to take her place. The last example given in this chapter already crosses the threshold between signifying words and the creation of meaning by means of form. Within this poeticity, new trajectories of expression are facilitated. In playful variants the authorial voice showcases her power of creation by not only asserting her role, but also by expanding the scope of expressibility, eventually allowing for a simultaneousness of traditional love discourses as well as the renegotiation of female authorial space, as will be further discussed in regard to two specific concepts: purified absence and dialectic compositions. 5. Meaning through poeticity (metrics) Long lines and treble patterns visibly underscore the diegetic imagery of Barrett Browning’s sonnets. Admittedly, however, beyond the assertion of language foregrounding and giving shelter to an innovatively negotiated love discourse, they are little more than amplifying features. However, the *Sonnets* significantly expand the semantic scope on the basis of the expanded semantic medium, utilising metric structures to express purified absence. A series of studies in the field of phonosemantics suggests that there is a link between specific sound elements of languages and their meanings – irrespective of the word’s syntactical integration. Adelman, Estes, and Cossu found in 2018, for instance, that English, Spanish, Dutch, German, and Polish operate with phonemes at the beginning of their words signalling its valence (i.e. positivity or negativity). Considering that phonemes that are uttered fastest signal negativity in all languages investigated, they propose that it functions as ‘an early warning system in human languages, analogous to other species’ alarm calls’ (p. 122). Famously, the bouba/kiki effect is a widely corroborated tendency of humans across languages, cultures, genders, and age groups to relate roundness and sharpness to the nonsense words bouba and kiki respectively, even including a preference for people whose faces match the roundness or sharpness of the phonemes in their names (i.e. Bob and Lou as ‘round’ names) (Barton and Halberstadt, 2018)\(^4\). These studies suggest that there may be auditory and visual dimensions of text that hold meaning beyond the signification of the word sign, and that this meaning is perceived across languages and cultures. Non-arbitrary linguistic elements should therefore be considered. In *Sonnets from the Portuguese*, the device of poetic form takes this a step further: not just sound, but the lack thereof is rendered expressive, creating a purified articulation of absence. The first interaction of the I-you dyad, for instance, accommodates several markers: while most of the sonnets remain within the metrical standard of 5-feet iamb, --- \(^4\) Since Köhler’s introduction in 1929, the phenomenon has been observed in a large variety of age groups (cf. Ozturk et al.; Maurer et al.; Davis) and across cultures and languages (Davis; Bremner et al.; Sušević et al.; Markovic and Jankovic; Ramachandran and Hubbard), thus providing considerable support to the theory of ‘universal sensory underpinnings’ of the effect (Styles and Gawne, p. 1). the ‘shadow’ carries a dactylic disruption; two unstressed syllables substitute one, and thus create a moment of relative quietness: A shadow across me. [...] (I, 9) This strategy of signification recurs. In XXI, the shift to a dactylus within an iambic structure creates silence where silence is meant. A trochaic inversion at the opening of XXIV 5 creates a silent suspension of two unstressed syllables before the ‘click’, where a stressed syllable strikes. In XXVI, a dactylus creates an additional unstressed syllable where vanishing is expressed. Sonnet XXXIII incorporates an anapaestic foot speaking of dead (thus absent) people. Finally, a trochaic inversion at the opening of XXXIX 13 creates two unstressed syllables where the line speaks of ‘nothing’. To love me also in silence with thy soul (XXI, 14) After the click [...] (XXIV, 5) Their vanishing eyes. [...] (XXVI, 8) Be heir to those who are now exanimate. (XXXIII, 10) Nothing repels thee, [...] (XXXIX, 13) The sonnet sequence thus radicalises the expression of absence. While tropes such as the shadow may allude to this, their linguistic medium still follows a supplemental or oppositional structure: the shadow is the absence of light or an allusion to the absence of a person. The reader may only understand the absence as against the image of something specific that is potentially present. The metrically induced silence, on the other hand, is simply the absence of an emphasis; and, unlike a word that would automatically signify something, an emphasis does not, by itself, hold meaning. Therefore, the lack of emphasis represents unadulterated, purified semantic absence. Poetic form thus facilitates the expansion of meaning. 6. Meaning through poeticity (verses) Saussure posits that one fundamental attribute of language is its character as a chain of words. One syntactically organised element follows the other, hence text creates meaning along one dimension (the syntagmatic axis): ‘In contrast to visual signifiers (nautical signals, etc.) which can offer simultaneous groupings in several dimensions, auditory signifiers have at their command only the dimension of time. Their elements are presented in succession; they form a chain.’ (Saussure, p. 70) Barrett Browning’s sonnets show, however, that this linguistic axiom may be re-negotiated in the context of poetic form. More intricately than through amplified absence, dialectic compositions find shelter in juxtaposed dimensions of the sonnets’ words. Angela Leighton rightly determines that the speaker, for instance, consciously ‘plays at being both subject and object’ (Leighton, p. 102). Indeed, the sonnet sequence implements a dialectic love discourse through at least two features of its poeticity, as the poetic form and regular linguistic creation of meaning both unify as well as separate opposing notions. Firstly, opposing notions of line and syntactical meaning are implemented. The reader has two options: to delimitate units of meaning either within syntactical logics or within the boundaries of poetical form, namely line and stanza breaks. Depending on the structural container of meaning on which they base their reading, the conveyed discourse of love proves to be diametrically positioned against the other. Sonnet V, for instance, redirects the reader’s gaze depending on the line or the syntactical structure. The hierarchical order between the personae thereby switches between two opposing notions: line 4 (‘And, looking in thine eyes, I overturn’) suggests that the persona surrenders to the Belovëd. The sentence as a whole (‘And, looking in thine eyes, I overturn [t]he ashes at thy feet’), however, implies an invading action of manipulating his personal space literally, or his grief figuratively. Line 5 (‘[I overturn t]he ashes at thy feet. Behold and see’) then demands his attention to her agency, which would imply a self-asserting act, while the full sentence (‘Behold and see [w]hat a great heap of grief lay hid in me,’) signifies a request for him to look into her inner grief, rendering herself a weaker object of his gaze. The syntactical meaning shows an assertive male gaze, which is subverted by poetic form. Thus, rather than overturning the given discourse, the sonnet creates an alternative poetic subspace, wherein the speaker can assert her own romantic concept. The diegetic partnership is not saturated with a concept of an objectified gazed-at woman, but she also becomes subject and creative force within a dimension of poetic form. This is then repeated in sonnet VI: Go from me. Yet I feel that I shall stand Henceforward in thy shadow. Nevermore Alone upon the threshold of my door Of individual life I shall command (1-4) The syntactical logic suggests a doomed future in which the Belovëd asserts control and absorbs attention, as he casts a shadow upon her. The line breaks, on the other hand, delimitate units which assume independence (cf. 1, 3), liberation from his shadow (cf. 2), and finally command over her own life (cf. 4). The concept of sonnet V is thus expanded towards the future. Again, the envisioned partnership is not saturated within a singular concept of hierarchy or relation, but conserves a dialectic synchrony of opposing notions. In sonnet XXIV, oscillation between separation and mergence is evident between the couple and their environment rather than within the relationship. Lines 11 and 12 suggest an accessible pair, while the whole sentence limits the accessibility to a heavenly sphere after the line and stanza break. Later in the sequence, the couple acts as a unit and negotiates their relation to the diegetic world. The result is similar to the concept within the relationship: they are part of the world and they are not part of the world. Their relationship transcends the regular parameters of reality and attains a dialectically organised relation by poetic means. The lilies of our lives may reassure Their blossoms from their root, accessible Alone to heavenly dews that drop not fewer; (11-13) The dialectic reformation of the love discourses between syntactical and line units facilitates a fundamental re-creation rather than a reactive alternative. The examples show that the dimension of independence (as opposed to commitment) is positioned within the poetic form. Freedom is to be found in poetry, while a societal commitment has to be made otherwise. The syntagmatic axis is thus not simply one linear chain of words, but rather multiple overlain, intertwined word chains organised by more than just syntax. Meaning is created not only by the linguistic sign, but also by poetic form, empowering the reader to take their decision. By means of this semantic undercurrent, the *Sonnets from the Portuguese* create the dialectic of an asserted existence of both personae as poets within their respective poetic realm. Their togetherness is thus created as poeticity, while the syllogistic textual order struggles to express the simultaneous existence of conflicting states or events. 7. Meaning through poeticity (acrostics) Secondly, acrostics implement dialectic structures, juxtaposing the meaning within the explicit imagery or syntax with a counter motif at the beginning of the lines. The acrostics, without exception, comprise these specific oppositional concepts, and within a sonnet they are found aligned to its beginning, its end, or to one of its stanzas. Roughly a fifth of the sonnets contain acrostics, which suggests a deliberate construction. Sonnet XVI, for instance, portrays the persona as finally surrendering to the Belovëd’s courting. Just at this moment of surrender, the acrostic reads ‘I ate him’, subverting the established hierarchy: In lifting upward, as in crushing low! And as a vanquished soldier yields his sword To one who lifts him from the bloody earth, Even so, Belovëd, I at last record, Here ends my strife. If thou invite forth, I rise above abasement at the word. Make thy love larger to enlarge my worth! (8-14) While the face value meaning incorporates the persona into the Belovëd’s romantic fiefdom, this act of consumption encases him in the persona’s physicality. The superficial perpetuation of knightly sonnet imagery lets the male counterpart prevail, but the transcendence beyond the linguistic semantic means establishes space for the female persona to prevail alongside the male, thereby accomplishing a dialectic doubly asymmetrical relationship. Sonnet XIX, then, perpetuates the oscillation between female poetic subordination and its conceptual subversion. This time, the female persona receives her Belovëd’s lock of hair, (cf. 4), counteracting the theme introduced in XVIII. However, this inversion of romantic gender imagery is immediately overthrown by the allocation of a metaphorical crown to the male’s headspace (‘bay crown shade’, 8). Yet again, this subversion of the image finds its own subversion within the acrostic ‘tiara’: The soul’s Rialto hath its merchandize; I barter curl for curl upon that mart And from my poet’s forehead to my heart Receive this lock which outweighs argosies,— As purply black, as erst to Pindar’s eyes (1-5) The authority of the male crown is balanced out by the tiara, traditionally worn since the late 18th century by powerful women (cf. Munn). The gender hierarchies do not dissolve, but are maintained in a dialectic oscillation between two hierarchical concepts. Both lovers rule and surrender. Once again, the poetic transgression of form and imagery facilitates a female ‘counter-reign’. Simonsen posits that the speaker was ‘drowned in his [the Belovëd’s] being and selfhood’ (p. 59), but the more complex double structure challenges this assumption. The subsequent sonnet XXVI continues this double-edged pattern within the aquatic imagery of ‘river-water’ for the poetic sphere (cf. 11) and ‘dust’ for the sphere of societal reality (cf. 6), as well as the fonts as a merging ambiguous metaphor (‘As river-water hallowed into fonts’, 11). The prime persona inhabits her aquatic visions when the Belovëd comes into play in the second quartet. This stanza creates the acrostic ‘boat’. But soon their trailing purple was not free Of this world’s dust, their lutes did silent grow, And I myself grew faint and blind below Their vanishing eyes. Then thou didst come—to be, (5-8) Here, the boat represents a worldly device conquering the water. In similar fashion to the fonts, it is both an object of the world and a symbol of civilisation as well as part of the aquatic sphere (hence of her visions). In fact, none of the personae are swallowed by their respective other, but a synthesising concept is created in which they are both fused and separated; they are cohabitants of the same aquatic space, but also each within their own respective realm. Then, mirroring the transgression of the diegesis and its personae into the sonnets’ poeticity and materiality as shown above, the boundaries between letters and living beings are transgressed through an acrostic in XXVIII. The role of language and speech within the lovers’ relationship is negotiated. The sonnet’s mantra-like repetition of ‘said’ is especially striking. Considering this pattern, the homophone acrostic ‘sat’ seems to be a deliberate construction. Said, Dear I love thee; and I sank and quailed As if God’s future thundered on my past. This said, I am thine—and so its ink has paled (9-11) It indicates a physical counteract to the speech within the speech and resonates with the verbs of lowering action ('sank', 'thundered on', 'lying'; 9, 10, 12), which dominate the sestet. The acrostic thus functions as a hinge between the two trajectories of the sonnet: self-assertion via speech and then physically marked gestures of surrender. Rather than simply transferring the diegetic phenomena into the materiality of text, the acrostics further expand the semantic spectrum by holding up a dialectic tension and simultaneousness between two oppositional concepts. While the explicit syntactically narrated diegesis defies a synthetic love discourse comprising both personae’s contradictory expectations of self-assertion, the sonnets’ use of their poetic form creates dialectics which facilitate a relationship beyond syllogistic logic, and therefore beyond societal restraints. The destabilisation of significance by means of a defied or contradictory love discourse simultaneously affects a stabilisation within this structure. It simplifies the discourse to a meta-concept of a refusal to define. The transcendence of diegesis, selfhood, and relationship into textuality shifts the lovers’ relationship and world into text. The dialectic structures, on the other hand, show the necessity of this shift, as contradictory concepts may be synthesised within the potency of poetic language. The expanded authorial voice makes use of her power by creating a sphere of alternative logic, thereby facilitating the lovers’ togetherness. Here, voice as poeticity equals the dialectic love discourse, and the love discourse immerses and is saturated both in and as poetic form. 8. Conclusion The voice of the *Sonnets from the Portuguese* is an empowered one that refuses to be specific. It is a voice both within and as poetic form and textuality. While the framework of the diegetic world disassembles, the existence of its inhabitants as well as objects is implicitly questioned. Speech as a descriptor of the diegesis collapses. Moreover, the sonnets subvert the boundary between fictional content and the material medium of text by rendering its words indexical. The strategic utilisation of metrical disruptions creates a signification of purified absence, going beyond the scope of regular semiotics. Furthermore, dialectic simultaneousness emerges in the juxtapositions of line and sentence as well as sentence and acrostic. The sonnets go beyond simply representing a literary diffusion of significance. By utilising this destabilisation to transcend and stretch the capabilities of linguistic signification, the sequence also goes beyond foregrounding the linguistic medium. Its poeticity renders the syntactical chain a multidimensional network of signification: the word is not merely a signifier of the signified, but also a semiotic node facilitating adhesion of its material textual representation, framework of poetic form, and syntactical logic. The devices of *Sonnets from the Portuguese* thus negotiate the most central axiomata of structural linguistics: the arbitrariness of the sign in the context of poetry is obfuscated and the chain character of linguistic expression is challenged. Remarkably, by force of their indexical character, even punctuation marks and textual spatiality hold meaning in their own right. For the hermeneutics of poetry, structuralist linguistics may thus function as a referential system against which semiotics through poeticity can be defined; the interprets may use linguistic paradigms while re-negotiating their interrelation and inner logic. So, how does a poem mean? Naturally, this analysis can only provide an answer with regard to the *Sonnets from the Portuguese*. Many of the devices Barrett Browning utilises, however, are specifically poetic, and it may thus be argued that the specific poetic form (and the reader’s expectation thereof, including imagery, metrics, line breaks, and rhymes) activate an expanded semiotic potential. This is, then, how a poem can mean. --- **Faculty of English and Faculty of Philosophy** **Bibliography** Adelman, James S., et al. ‘Emotional Sound Symbolism: Languages Rapidly Signal Valence Via Phonemes’. *Cognition*, vol. 175, Elsevier BV, 2018, pp. 122–130. Barrett Browning, Elizabeth. *Poems*. 1850. Barton, David N., and Jamin Halberstadt. ‘A Social Bouba/Kiki Effect: A Bias For People Whose Match Their Faces’. *Psychonomic Bulletin & Review*, vol. 25, no. 3, 2018, pp. 1013–20. Bremner, Andrew J., et al. “‘Bouba’ and “Kiki” in Namibia? 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Maurer, Daphne, et al. ‘The Shape of Boubas: Sound–Shape Correspondences in Toddlers and Adults’. *Developmental Science*, vol. 9, no. 3, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2006, pp. 316–322. Munn, Geoffrey C. *Tiaras: Past and Present*. V&A, 2008. Ozturk, Ozge, et al. ‘Sound Symbolism in Infancy: Evidence For Sound-Shape Cross-Modal Correspondences in 4-Month-Olds’. *Journal of Experimental Child Psychology*, vol. 114, no. 2, Elsevier Inc, 2013, pp. 173–186. Ramachandran, V. S., and Hubbard, E. M. . ‘Synaesthesia — A Window Into Perception, Thought and Language’. *Journal of Consciousness Studies*, vol. 8, no. 12, 2001, pp. 3–34. Saussure, Ferdinand de. *Course in General Linguistics*. Edited by Perry Meisel, Translated by Wade Baskin Edited by Perry Meisel and Haun Saussy, Columbia University Press, 2011. Simonsen, Pauline Margaret. *Victorian Interrogations: Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s Sonnets from the Portuguese and Aurora Leigh*. Massey University, 1993. Stone, Marjorie, and Beverly Taylor. ‘Introduction: “Confirm My Voice”: “My Sisters,” Poetic Audiences, and the Published Voices of EBB’. *Victorian Poetry*, vol. 44, no. 4, Winter 2006, pp. 391–403. Styles, Suzy J., and Lauren Gawne. ‘When Does Maluma/Takete Fail? Two Key Failures and a Meta-Analysis Suggest That Phonology and Phonotactics Matter’. *I-Perception*, vol. 8, no. 4, SAGE Publications, 2017, pp. 1–17. Sučević, Jelena, et al. ‘Balloons and Bavoons Versus Spikes and Shikes: ERPs Reveal Shared Neural Processes For Shape–Sound-Meaning Congruence in Words, and Shape–Sound Congruence in Pseudowords’. *Brain and Language*, vol. 145–146, no. C, Elsevier Inc, 2015, pp. 11–22. Turquette, Atwell R. ‘Peirce’s Icons For Deductive Logic’. *Studies in the Philosophy of Charles Sanders Peirce*, University of Massachusetts Press, 1964, pp. 95–108. Protecting People from Climate Change Harm Lise Cazzoli Abstract. This paper outlines the key concepts and issues in approaching climate change through the lens of protection, focusing on the harm inflicted on coastal populations due to sea-level rise. I begin by explaining how and why climate change can be seen as a protection challenge through an examination of the impacts of sea-level rise in Guyana. I then summarize the main elements and developments of “protection” approaches in the study of humanitarianism and argue that they are rooted in changing ideas of suffering. I then consider, first, what are the key issues in defining what adequate protection from climate change harm means? Second, who should have the responsibility to provide such protection? Third, what factors can explain states’ failure to protect their citizens from climate change harm? In doing so, I propose that conceptualizing climate change through the lens of protection can offer a deeper understanding of the conditions under which vulnerability develops over time while asking pragmatic questions about who should be granted aid and how. *** Introduction In its Fifth Assessment Report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimated that sea-levels might rise by one meter by the end of this century, as a result of anthropogenic climate change. In low-lying coastal zones, this is expected to compound other development challenges and environmental risks, with negative implications for human health, access to basic services, food security, and the pursuit of traditional livelihoods. Because of the uneven distribution of risks, affecting primarily those living in poverty, a large body of interdisciplinary academic research has focused on the structural conditions that compound their vulnerability and how governments and international agencies can foster adaptation (e.g. Adger, 2000; Oliver-Smith, 2009; Pelling, 2003; Vaughn, 2012). While these studies acknowledge that these disruptions are rooted in an unequal provision of social protection, they have largely ignored the question of state responsibility and ability to protect their citizens from climate change harm. Furthermore, by focusing on physical suffering, these studies often fail to appreciate the biographical impact of climate change on affected people, and the conditions in which climate change adaptation policies are enacted or their rationale. This paper seeks to conceptualize climate change through the lens of protection, with a specific focus on the harm inflicted against coastal populations. Protection, here, will be understood as the mechanisms designed to mitigate or respond to levels of suffering that are deemed unacceptable in a given polity. In particular, the present approach conceptualizes suffering as deprivation, and posits that “climate change deprivation” should be seen as the product of both biological or physical factors, and broader gaps in accessing basic capabilities. From that perspective, a capabilities approach to protection asks how environmental change affects people’s freedom to live the way they choose, which is rooted in instrumental freedoms such as political freedom, access to social opportunities, economic facilities, transparency guarantees and protective security (Sen, 1999: 38-40). From a methodological perspective, the paper is based on an extensive review of the existing literature, both theoretical and empirical, and complemented by field observations. Because it intends to offer an overview of this theoretical approach to a non-specialist public, its scope will be restricted to offering an up-to-date understanding of some core issues in current climate change and development research. I will begin by explaining why climate change harms can be seen as rooted in broader gaps in (social) protection, which will be illustrated by a short account of the impact of sea-level rise in Guyana. I will then outline the specificities of this approach, before considering three questions: first, what are the key issues in defining what adequate protection from climate change harm means? Second, who should have the responsibility to provide such protection? Third, what factors can explain states’ failure to protect their citizens from climate change harm? In doing so, I propose that conceptualizing climate change through the lens of protection can offer a deeper understanding of the conditions under which vulnerability develops over time, while asking pragmatic questions about who should be granted aid and how. 1. Defining ‘protection’ Conway, de Haan and Norton defined social protection as “public actions taken in response to levels of vulnerability, risk and deprivation, which are deemed socially unacceptable within a given polity or society” (in Barrientos and Hulme, 2008: 3). In that perspective, social protection is rooted in both moral and legal arguments: to design protection policies is, fundamentally, to render a judgment on the levels of deprivation or suffering that are considered acceptable. In other terms, social protection mechanisms are rooted in a set of morals. These morals of suffering are often, though not always, stated in legal terms (natural law, constitutional and international law, human rights) (Barrientos and Hulme, 2008), which is why “protection” is generally understood as legal protection, and is associated with entitlements provided under law, and that individuals can claim through specific mechanisms. Therefore, “an inquiry into whether a population has ‘protection’ is an examination of the fashion in which the pertinent authorities comply with the entitlements of individuals under [...] law, and the manner in which these legal precepts are implemented and respected” (Helton, 2003). Providing “protection” can, therefore, mean two different but interrelated things: providing insurance (protecting citizens against contingencies) and assistance (providing support to those in poverty) (Barrientos and Hulme, 2008), or establishing legal mechanisms to provide redress and maintain physical security (Helton, 2003). According to Fassin (2012), both these legal and non-legal instruments have been developed in response to changing ideas about suffering in the early 1990s. While governmental action was previously motivated by a focus on public order and justice, the author argues, the end of the 20th century marked the rise of compassion as a valid precept of intervention. In particular, social problems started to be articulated in the vocabulary of mental health; policy was motivated by a universalist desire of protecting and assisting others on the basis of belonging to a single human community (see e.g. Rosanvallon and Harshav, 2000). In practice, these changing conceptions of suffering and the new emphasis on protection have given rise to what Fassin (2012: 1) calls the “humanitarian government”, which is defined as “the deployment of moral sentiments (the emotions that direct our attention to the suffering of others) in contemporary politics”. In particular, Fassin highlights that the study of any humanitarian government should entail exploring two overlapping fields of inquiry. First, humanitarianism encompasses the idea of humankind (sharing one human condition) and humanness (being drawn to other humans), from which follow the obligation of assistance. Second, it entails the study of government as a “set of procedures established and actions conducted in order to manage, regulate and support the existence of human beings” (Fassin, 2012: 1). In development studies, Amartya Sen’s capabilities approach has gained prominence in analyzing gaps in social protection and rectifying suffering. Suffering, in Sen’s perspective, is understood as (relative) deprivation, which entails that “being poor has clearly much to do with being deprived, and it is natural that, for a social animal, the concept of deprivation will be a relative one” (Sen, 1999: 15). Poverty, from that perspective, is seen as a deprivation of basic capabilities, that is “the substantive freedoms [one] enjoys to lead[ing] the kind of life he or she has reason to value […], rather than merely a lowness of income, which is the standard criterion of identification of poverty” (Sen, 1999: 87). In his earlier works on famines and starvation, Sen has developed an “entitlement approach” that concentrates on the ability of people to command food through the legal means available in the society (1981: 45), which he later labelled as “capabilities”. From that perspective, a multidimensional approach to poverty considers both legal and non-legal entitlements. In particular, deprivation is conceptualized as relative, which means that one can only be poor in relation to certain standards defined by society (hence, some deprivations can be considered absolute), and to other human beings. Social justice is at the core of this approach because it follows that inequality is a cause of suffering. One could argue, however, that deprivation (and suffering) is also relative in time. Suffering occurs in relation to events of the past (nostalgia), and to a sense of longing (for the future). For that reason, suffering is not only situated in relation to space (changes in the environment), but also as a reaction to interruptions in “normal times”: humans suffer in relation to something, and things are connected in ways that go beyond the physicality of things. This is very apparent in literature (e.g. Philip Pullman, *The Secret Commonwealth*) and has been explored in anthropology (e.g. Appadurai, 1989; McLean, 2009; Hastrup, 2009, 2014). Suffering is related to imagination and immaterial connections. The loss of the farmer faced by a great flood, for instance, goes beyond a loss of income. It is also the loss of meaning associated with the practice of his activity as a farmer, which might be vocational, or gifted to him by his father, or the activity that allows his children to go to school, or the practice that connects him to his ancestors, and the very way that time subjectively unfolds. Humans live this world in a way that reflects their understanding of their position in history. For that reason, any conceptualization of suffering should entail a historical (or biographical) dimension. Overall, “protection” has been conceptualized in different but complementary ways; on one hand, Fassin outlines the role of morals in allocating aid and designing humanitarian or social assistance programmes, and the procedures or rules under which they are enacted. Barrientos and Hulme, on the other hand, focus on these rules and mechanisms through which individuals gain access to entitlements, an issue that has been further investigated by Sen in his capabilities approach. In the perspective of this paper, analyzing climate change through the lens of protection thus entails considering the ways in which climate change impacts can be attributed to gaps in social protection mechanisms. In particular, the present approach focuses on mechanisms that ensure access to basic entitlements (or capabilities). Fundamentally, it dedicates special attention to conceptualizations of suffering, which is seen as both a historical (or biographical) and biological process. The next sections will aim at illustrating the need for such an approach (section 2) and exploring how the ideas developed in this section can be conceptualized in the study of climate change (section 3). 2. Sea-level rise as a protection challenge: the case of Guyana According to the IPCC (2014), sea-levels could rise by one meter globally by the end of this century, as a result of thermal expansion, glacial melt and changes in terrestrial water storage (Oliver-Smith, 2009). In Guyana, projections indicate a predicted rise in sea levels of one (1) meter by the end of this century (IPCC, 2014), with a related increase in storm surges of about five (5) meters, expected to affect more than 22,000 hectares of coastal zone through further inundation and erosion (GoG, 2018). The threat is considered imminent given the country’s low-lying coastline, at two (2) meters below sea levels in some areas, and is home to 90% of its population and their main livelihoods, economic activities and infrastructure. Moreover, existing sea defence structures are not considered adequate to tackle these risks (GoG, 2018), as the coastal landscape also faces other pressures - e.g. erosion, coastline transgression, beach and shell removal for economic profit, inadequate maintenance of drainage infrastructure, and unimpeded land use development alongside the sea defence structures (GoG, 2018). In addition, sea-level rise is suspected of causing flooding further inland, as “the combined effects of low wave energy and the inland tidal effects” reduce the capacity and rate of flow of the drainage systems, especially in periods of heavy rainfall (GoG, 2018). Indigenous people have occupied the northwest of Guyana for around 7,000 years. In particular, archeological evidence indicates the arrival of the Arawak (Lokono), Carib and Warao people around 3,000 years ago (Atkinson, Wilson, Silva et al., 2016). According to a study conducted by Williams and Kalamandeen (2013), recurring flooding has disrupted local indigenous livelihoods over the past few years, and in particular in Region 1 and 9, which are deemed the country’s poorest regions. According to the GBPI (2017), rural coastal areas host 60% of the country’s population, among which 4 in 10 people live in poverty. In addition, a report by Atkinson, Wilson, Silva et al. (2016) reveals that indigenous communities’ adaptive capability is further limited when they do not own title to their lands, restricting their autonomy in sustaining their livelihoods. This section aims to illustrate how and why climate change can be seen as a protection challenge, as conceptualized above. It is based on a field visit conducted in Guyana over the summer of 2019, which aimed to investigate how sea-level rise or coastal environmental change is experienced in indigenous communities living along the coast, and in particular in Region 1 (Barima-Waini). Informal interviews with governmental officials, international agencies and local leaders were conducted in order to explore what was their perception of these changes, and what the current policy landscape around sea-level rise looked like. Three communities were selected (Warapoka, Moruca, Almond Beach). The location of these communities was determined under the recommendation of local partners, who have worked in the field of marine conversation for many years in the region. The three communities exhibit different characteristics in terms of location (Warapoka and Moruca are not located directly on the coast but along rivers, while Almond Beach is directly adjacent to the sea; Warapoka and Moruca are titled communities while the Almond Beach community does not hold title to their land). Furthermore, all three communities are said to have experienced direct and indirect effects of sea-level rise and coastal erosion, and are located in or adjacent to the Shell Beach Protected Area (SBPA). In terms of methods, this field visit was most of all informal and had the initial aim of determining the suitability of the field sites. The following observations should thus be seen as reflections informed by the visit and informal interviews conducted with village councils, a number of governmental and non-governmental agencies, including Conservation International (CI), the UNICEF country office, the European Commission and the Guyana Marine Conservation Society (GMCS). 2.1 Preliminary observations All communities could be affected by sea-level rise in a similar fashion. The two main impacts of sea-level rise in these villages would be population displacement due to flooding and coastal erosion, and food and water security issues or a loss of traditional livelihoods, through a loss or alterations in marine biodiversity. The specific threat posed by these factors differs from a community to another. Warapoka, for instance, is less vulnerable to flooding due to its location further inland. Sea-level rise, however, could still have important implications for the community because sea-level rise provokes erosion, which affects the sedimentation process. Therefore, as the community is connected to the ocean through a network of rivers, it would affect the composition of the water, and thus could hypothetically affect both fauna and flora further inland. As the community is remote with limited access to markets, its inhabitants still rely on farming and fishing as subsistence activities, which could be disrupted by a change in local biodiversity. A similar argument could be made about Moruca, though with different implications. Moruca is the main town of the region, and that is where its inhabitants go to access all basic services (hospital, secondary school, supermarket, police station). Many Morucans are small business owners, whether they are boat services, guesthouses or catering services. All these businesses would be affected by a change in the environment of some sort. Boat services would be affected by a rise in sea levels by affecting river levels, and thus possibly river routes. Catering services often rely on local farmers, and both would be affected by sea-level rise in the same fashion as in Warapoka, through alterations in hydrology and potential loss of habitat for local species. Of the three communities under study, Almond Beach has possibly experienced the most direct effects of sea-level rise and climate change. The community has already been displaced by a storm surge in 2017 and had to move all its installations about a few hundred yards away. Its inhabitants depend on fishing and coconut harvesting, both of which could be affected by sea-level rise. Sometimes these activities are not directly aimed at subsistence; instead, fishermen and farmers sell their catch or products at the local market in Mabaruma. Their business could thus be affected in the same fashion. 2.2. Interpretation As shown in the previous section, the communities under study are mainly composed of indigenous peoples, some of which sustain their livelihoods through traditional practices and subsistence activities. For that reason, all these potential effects of sea-live rise are tainted by an extra dimension: the potential loss of traditional livelihoods and meaning. These losses should be apprehended in the light of a broader history of indigenous exclusion in Guyana and the historical loss of their lands (see e.g. Colchester, 1997). They could be said to be compounded by the establishment of the protected area, which limits their access to hunting grounds and other natural resources previously used for survival or religious purposes (see e.g. Atkinson, Wilson, Silva et al., 2016). Though the local leaders and villagers have expressed concern for the impacts of climate change, they usually associate them with unsustainable patterns of resource use that are not directly related to the state of the global climate (e.g. deforestation, over-harvesting of forest resources, logging, mining – see Whitaker, 2019). After spending time with the communities and observing their daily activities, I developed a very different perception of these impacts than what is usually reported in the news. The slow-onset nature of the threat makes it barely visible. Though it exists and should be taken into account in preparedness policies and planning, it seemed to me that most of the problems associated with climate change were, in fact, pre-existing the potential threats mentioned above. This is consistent with the discussions I had with the community and their emphasis on resource use or issues related to infrastructure. Indeed, these communities have less access to basic services such as healthcare or formal education, or to markets, in comparison to the rest of the Guyanese society. In the communities under study, I would argue that these are the determining factors of projected “vulnerability”. Indeed, one could argue that the environment has never been static and has changed continuously throughout history. The suffering that is expected “as a result of climate change”, seems instead to reflect broader issues in protecting these livelihoods in general, whether they are threatened by sea-level rise, climate change or something else. Before international attention turned to climate change, these communities perhaps were not even on the radar at all, while they were still suffering from similar problems. 3. Key issues This section sets out to highlight key issues in approaching climate change through existing literature on the protection of civilians. I will first highlight a few issues in defining what “adequate” protection means, and in particular in defining harm and identifying the victims. Second, I ask who should be responsible for providing such protection and whether states and the international community have a responsibility to protect people from “climate change harm”. Finally, I will apply the theoretical approach developed in section 1 to the specific case of climate change, in order to offer an understanding of why states and international agencies might fail to provide protection in the context of climate change. 3.1. What does “protection” mean in the context of climate change? The first challenge in developing a “protection approach” to climate change would be to define the nature of the harm, and describe whether this harm is specific to climate change, i.e. is “climate change harm” a distinct category. According to Humphreys (2010: 1), “[c]limate change will undermine the realization of a broad range of internationally protected human rights. Populations whose rights are poorly protected are likely to be less-equipped to understand or prepare for the effects of climate change”. The author highlights some issues in attributing and defining harm caused or compounded by climate change. From a rights-based perspective, the first issue lies in the difficulty to enforce the rights at stake (social and economic rights, the rights of migrants, rights protection during conflicts) due to the notion of indirect harm. Climate change impacts are often mediated by a variety of agents, which makes it difficult to establish causation (Quirico, 2018). This is problematic because if the source of the harm cannot be identified, it means that what one would label as “climate change harm” could well have nothing to do with climate change. This is why Betts (2013: 196), in his examination of the phenomenon of “survival migration”, argues that one “should not make the mistake of focusing on particular causes of displacement such as climate change or environmental migration because it would risk replicating the arbitrariness and exclusions of the status quo”. In other words, the author argues that it would be more desirable to focus on specific types of harm (for instance, forced migration or starvation), rather than attributing aid based on the causes of this harm. This is consistent with the overwhelming evidence pointing towards the need to look at the root causes of climate change vulnerability, rather than focusing solely on how environmental change impacts specific populations (e.g. Pelling, 2001, 2003; Adger et al., 2011; Wisner, 2001, 2012). Furthermore, and precisely because such a task requires a longer-term outlook, this statement would apply not only to aid attribution, but more generally, to the allocation of international and governmental funds for development or social assistance projects. Following that logic, it may be useful to explore how specific kinds of harm (or what we could qualify as ‘social problems’) are compounded (if not created) by changes in the environment. A capabilities approach to protection, for instance, would ask how environmental change affects people’s freedom to live the way they choose; this freedom, according to Sen, is based on the achievement of instrumental freedoms such as political freedom, access to social opportunities, economic facilities, transparency guarantees and protective security (Sen, 1999: 38-40). From that perspective, identifying and defining climate change harm means assessing how environmental change affects this set of freedoms. The second challenge in approaching climate change through the lens of protection lies in defining who are the subjects of this harm. One key issue here would be to assess whether the “victims” who would receive aid for climate change impacts are individuals or collectives. Indeed, and as suggested by Buxton (2019), there are two options in identifying the “victims”: the individuals affected by climate change at a time, or the continuous group affected by injustice. It is important to note that, from a policy perspective, identifying the victim is inherently political; by choosing aid recipients, one makes a judgment on whose suffering deserves alleviation. Following Fassin (2012), defining “legitimate” victims thus entails a historical element. It further illustrates that time and our perceptions of it are a cross-cutting theme in analyzing climate change as protection challenge, because one can only distinguish victims of harm when (1) causation is established between a specific group or individual experiencing harm of climate change, and (2) when the circumstances in which the harm occurs are clear to the observer. In other words, conceptualizing the victim as collective entails looking at patterns of historical injustice, for instance considering how racism, (neo)colonialism or inequality have prompted an unequal distribution of “adaptive capacity” or has created situations in which specific groups did not enjoy the same levels of protection as other groups. These historical patterns are transnational. Climate change, for instance, is considered to be anthropogenic, which means that it has been caused by human activity. It is, for example, widely acknowledged that Europe and North America are responsible for most of the greenhouse gases emissions that contribute to climate change (Buxton, 2019; Caney, 2009), which has allowed it to create wealth at a much greater pace. This is without considering colonial history and the responsibility of colonizers in degrading local environments in their colonies, which now compounds the vulnerability of these former colonies to climate change. By contrast, conceptualizing the victim as an individual raises questions about how one can determine the “vulnerability” of singular units (e.g. households), which entails looking at issues of measurement and thresholds. In particular, it means asking questions about vulnerability assessments, their methods, the indicators they use; in other words, it raises both ethical and epistemological questions. 3.2. Do States have a responsibility to protect their citizens against climate change impacts? Once we establish what adequate “climate change protection” means, the next logical question to ask would be to determine who should be responsible for providing such protection. One way in which protection is related to questions of justice is through the idea that the existence of harm and victims derive from the existence of a perpetrator. Though it could be argued that natural hazards such as earthquakes or floods may induce harm without the existence of a perpetrator, such view is not consistent with the existing literature on the structural causes of vulnerability which emphasize the co-creation of risk (see e.g. Pelling, 2003). For that reason, this section intends to both review classic conceptualizations of the responsibility to protect, and criticize their content in order to unveil how this question could be explored in the context of climate change, and potential issues in doing so. 3.2.1. State responsibility States have a primary duty to protect their citizens from harm. Since climate change is widely acknowledged to be a threat to human security, it logically follows that states should do everything in their power to protect their citizens from its impacts. Moreover, climate change is also considered to be anthropogenic, which means it has been caused by human activity including, presumably, that of the state itself. It logically follows that states have the responsibility to fulfil that duty to protect, both based on morals (states should protect citizens from harm) and justice (they should be held accountable since they can be considered as perpetrators of this harm). There are, however, a number of problems with enforcing state responsibility for climate change harm, which are both objective and subjective (Humphreys, 2010; Quirico, 2018). First, and as mentioned in the previous section relative to the definition of harm, “the plurality of agents contributing to GHG emissions and intervening factors aggravating environmental phenomena” makes it difficult to establish clear causation between local changes in the environment and the action of specific actors. In other words, it is extremely difficult to assess whether these changes are caused by human activity or by other phenomena (Quirico, 2018: 186). Second, and because of this same plurality of agents, it is difficult to single out specific actors and hold them accountable. In particular, Humphreys (2010) argues that there is a problem of extraterritorial responsibility (local changes in the environment can be caused by activity pursued elsewhere) and local accountability (how can we determine the impact of local actions on the state of the global climate, and link them to observed changes in the environment?). For that reason, the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) has stated that “the physical impacts of global warming cannot easily be classified as human rights violations, not least because climate change-related harm often cannot clearly be attributed to acts or omissions of specific States” (OHCHR, 2009, paras. 16 et seq.). Therefore, it is complicated to hold states accountable for situations they have not created. These issues illustrate fundamental hurdles in using existing literature on protection to conceptualize the responsibility to protect. An important issue with these conceptualizations lies in the multidimensionality of policy spaces. One implication of this multidimensionality is that not only is it extremely difficult to locate responsibility for climate change because it is diffuse, but because of the polycentric nature of environmental governance, it would not make much sense to require from states to fulfill such a responsibility. According to advocates of polycentricity as a model of environmental governance, it would not be desirable either (Oström, 1990, 2007). From that perspective, one major issue in conceptualizing climate change responsibility at state level involves defining the extent of such responsibility. This would, in practice, require a more comprehensive conceptualization of the state itself, exploring its duties and to whom these duties are due. This enterprise is highly contextual, because states have different structures, histories and political ethos. It is important to note, indeed, that the idea of the nation-state itself should be looked at with some scrutiny, as it is a central feature of modernity and coloniality (Escobar, 2004). Boaventura de Sousa Santos (2002), for instance, has argued that ideals of democracy and the human rights system have historically served the European imperialist project, which is why modernity should not be dissociated from coloniality. Following Nkrumah (1964), contemporary nation-states should thus be seen as “creolized” entities; they draw “on multiple strands of different spatiotemporal origins in the context of asymmetric power structures” (Uimonen, 2020: 93). Though these are serious obstacles to attributing and conceptualizing state responsibility to protect from climate change harm, this reasoning mostly revolves around legal considerations, which is to say that it relies on a responsibility to protect that stems from the existence of a perpetrator. One could argue, however, that redress from harm does not necessarily need to come from the perpetrator of harm. There are moral arguments behind this responsibility since the state is widely acknowledged to be an instrument at the service of people (Roff, 2013). Fassin (2012), for instance, highlighted that the existence of suffering has increasingly motivated policy choices, which is why he developed the idea of humanitarian government in the first place. In other terms, compassion has increasingly been seen as a valid precept guiding governmental action. For that reason, one could doubt the necessity to establish the existence of a perpetrator in order to enforce state responsibility. Moreover, these studies on state responsibility to protect people from climate change mostly focus on a responsibility that stems from historical co-production of greenhouse gases emissions and climate change. However, the theoretical lens outlined in this paper takes a quite different approach to this question, as it considers the interaction between environmental change and freedom. While states might not be held entirely responsible for climate change as a global phenomenon, they can certainly be held responsible for ensuring and protecting the freedoms at stake. An extensive literature has been developed to argue that “natural disasters should be seen as a failure to ensure the right to life, personal security and livelihood on the part of the sovereign state and other actors” (Mutter and Barnard, 2010: 274). The case of Hurricane Katrina, in particular, has received extensive scholarly attention, as it highlights that the disaster was rooted in patterns of inequality, including a history of racism in New Orleans, and the inability of the US healthcare system to provide appropriate standards of living to its entire population (e.g. Adeola and Picou, 2017; Cowen and Cowen, 2010; Shrum, 2014). Rodriguez and Aguirre (2017), for instance, have argued that “health resources and services were insufficient to cope with the needs of the current population” at the time of the disaster, “not to mention pre-Katrina’s”. For that reason, it could be argued that the state can be held responsible for “climate change harm”, as it can be said to have co-produced such harm. 3.2.2. International responsibility One major counterargument to enforcing state responsibility lies in the transnational nature of climate change. Europe and North America have a historical responsibility both in creating climate change and in establishing patterns of inequality in developing countries, through the process of colonization (Caney, 2009). Moreover, because of the transnational nature of the threat, individual states might be unable to fulfill their duty to protect due to a lack of resources. In these circumstances, one might ask whether the international community should be held responsible for helping these countries to fulfill their duties. This international responsibility has been conceptualized under the doctrine of the responsibility to protect (R2P), which purports that “[e]very state has a responsibility to protect its inhabitants from mass atrocities […] and this responsibility may fall to the broader international community ‘should peaceful means be inadequate and national authorities fail to protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity’” (UN, 2005 in Paris, 2014: 563). According to Roff (2013), the notion has been developed following a major turning point in the way state sovereignty is conceptualized, in the early 2000s. With the ICISS report and Kofi Annan’s declaration establishing the R2P principle, “[s]tate sovereignty, in its most basic sense, is being redefined” (Roff, 2013: 34), as states are now understood as instruments at the service of the people; sovereignty, in that perspective, is conditioned to the protection of human rights (Roff, 2013). At the same time, the same decade saw further developments in the humanitarian doctrine, which placed human security at the core of international intervention. What it means is that while states are traditionally conceived as self-interested, and thus little concerned about “saving strangers”, the humanitarian doctrine and its morals (see section 1) has prompted the emergence of new ideas of justice that is seen as universal. Universal justice, as conceptualized by Kant, entails three levels of juridical action: the individual, the state and the cosmopolitan (see Roff, 2013). This view is rooted in the belief that citizens are “right-bearing members of a larger community”, that is, humanity (Skillington, 2015: 291). It is important to note that there are a number of issues with the philosophical underpinnings of the R2P principle, and claims of universality should be looked at with some scrutiny. Kant’s cosmopolitanism, in particular, has been heavily criticized for its Eurocentricity, legitimizing European expansion and warfare, and conveying racist ontologies (e.g. Mignolo, 2000; Kleingeld, 2009). From that perspective, any inquiry into the nature and extent of international responsibility should thus investigate claims of universality upon which such responsibility is based, and consider alternative political philosophies. Uimonen (2020: 93), for instance, argues that Nkrumah’s consciencism, which draws from European philosophy and ideology and African tradition, “offered a blueprint for decolonization that embraced modernity, while denouncing colonial and neocolonial power structures”. The need for such work is not particular to the study of international responsibility for climate change impacts, but applies to the R2P principle in general. There is another problem with approaching climate change through the R2P principle as it is currently defined. The definition emphasizes that the state has a primary responsibility to protect their populations from the threats outlined, and should it fail, this responsibility would fall on the international community as a last resort. One could argue that this is incompatible with the problems outlined in section 3.2.1. relative to state responsibility – why should the international community act as a last resort when states cannot be seen as entirely responsible for creating climate change in the first place? In other terms, is there a justification for this ordering of action? Here, it would be necessary to emphasize that the R2P principle has been developed as a guiding principle for foreign military intervention. When considering whether this principle could extend to climate change impacts, or inspire another set of related principles, one should thus ask what kind of action such principle would prompt the international community to take. Following the R2P logic, this responsibility would take the form of military intervention in response to natural disasters as a visible symptom of failure of states to protect their populations. One crucial difference between classical foreign intervention prompted by R2P, and the kind of intervention that would be required in response to climate change, is that the enemy would not be located in the human realm. Therefore, the intervention such principle would prompt would be humanitarian in nature rather than military. The R2P principle is, indeed, inherently intended as a response mechanism; as such, it suffers from the same shortcomings as short-term solutions to climate change. For that reason, it is incompatible with the present approach to protection, which is meant to understand long-term patterns and what kind of responsibility of the international community to produce them. For that reason, one might ask whether the R2P principle would be a suitable instrument upon which a responsibility to protect from climate change impacts, in particular, would be enacted. I would argue that a reason why investigating the R2P principle in this context is beneficial is because more than an instrument, the R2P principle is also a moral precept, based on a claim of universality. This universality alone does justify the need for an international responsibility; in fact, the R2P principle does not rely on causation as justification for intervention. The reason why the international community has such responsibility does not lie in the fact that it has caused any of the afflictions outlined in its definition (though this view could be defended), but because it assumes that we form one same human community. Without passing judgment on either of these two models, the current emphasis on attribution and causation in determining international responsibility for climate change, from that perspective, is rather curious and would deserve some investigation. Assuming that such international responsibility would not stem from universalist claims but from causation, four justice claims can be made about how the international community could fulfill it (Humphreys, 2010): corrective justice (international funding for the adaptation needs of vulnerable countries), substantive justice (technology transfer), procedural and distributional justice (fidelity to the process of negotiation on matters relative to the environment) and formal justice (e.g. Kyoto protocol: entitlements derived from prior usage – for carbon polluters). Again, there are a number of problems with enforcing responsibility to fulfill these claims. These obstacles are similar to the ones that impede the enforcement of responsibility at state level; in other words, they have to do with the difficulties in identifying the wrong-doer and establishing causation. There is a possibility, however, to think about international responsibility based on claims of reorative justice. When conceptualizing justice for climate refugees, Buxton (2019), for instance, compares compensation (which aims to remedy accidental damage), with reparations (which aim to rectify injustice). The author argues that this second option is more closely aligned with the experience of climate refugees because it is historically oriented and takes stock of the complexities of their experience. From that perspective, one could argue that reparations take a more holistic view to suffering than one that focuses solely on biological suffering, by examining the impact of climate change on the refugees’ biographical lives (see Fassin, 2012). Souter (2013), for instance, conceptualizes asylum as a form of reorative justice because refugees sometimes flee conflicts that have historically been created or compounded by foreign intervention. From that perspective, providing aid for climate change impacts can be seen as an act of reorative justice. Of course, basing international responsibility for climate change on claims of reorative justice makes a lot of sense given the diffuse nature of responsibility for causing climate change in the first place; however, it also makes sense from the perspective of the present approach to protection, which outlines that harm should be seen as the relationship between environmental change and its impact on a set of freedoms. There is indeed a strong historical component to the analysis of such impact in the developing world, through a history of colonization and resource exploitation; for that reason, it can be argued that not only Europe and North America hold responsibility in creating environmental risk (through greenhouse gases emissions), they can also be seen as responsible for having co-created the conditions under which Sen’s instrumental freedoms are achieved. 3.3. How can we explain states’ failure to protect their citizens from climate change? Having outlined the basic elements of a protection-based approach to climate change, the next section considers the theories that can be used to understand failure to protect. It starts with Fassin’s argument that any study of humanitarian government should consider the interplay between morals and procedure; the present section thus aims at appraising how this interplay can be investigated in a study of climate change protection mechanisms. Doing so, I am building on previous literature on state failure, which shows that such failure cannot be solely explained by a lack of resources (e.g. Acemoglu and Robinson, 2012). 3.3.1. Morals: imagined geographies of suffering Morals are dictating which levels of suffering are deemed acceptable. One could argue that this moral judgment is rooted in specific representations of reality itself. Morals, therefore, emerge in relation to representations of the world that are socially constructed. In the case of climate change, this suffering is located in space, which is also socially constructed. In particular, according to Said (1978: 55): Space acquires emotional and even rational sense by a kind of poetic process, whereby the vacant or anonymous reaches of distance are converted into meaning for us here. The same process occurs when we deal with time. Much of what we associate with or even know about such periods as “long ago” or “the beginning” or “at the end of time” is poetic – made up. It does not necessarily mean that there is no such thing as “objective” history and geography, but rather that one cannot know all there is to know, which is why humans use their imaginations to enrich their understanding of reality. For that reason, Said (1978) developed the idea of “imagined geographies”, which has been defined by Gregory (2004) as representations of places, peoples and their environment, articulated to ideas and fantasies about their nature and their position in world power struggles. These representations create a distinction between us and the ‘others’. However, not only is reality continually constructed and reinterpreted, it could also be argued that it is plural. As such, ontology refers to the study of “reality” (Kohn, 2015), “being” (Heidegger), and “becoming” (Deleuze and Guattari, 1987). The “ontological turn” in anthropology examines the historical construction of nature, landscapes and forests (e.g. Balée, 1989; Raffles, 2002) and argues that there is meaning to be found beyond the physicality of things (e.g. Appadurai, 1989). While social constructivism posits that there is one reality that is constructed and perceived in different ways depending on the observer, ontology emphasizes that different observers can be immersed in different realities. From that last perspective, the world as an all-encompassing entity is made of multiple universes - of “pluriverses”. The reason why such theories are useful to the analysis of protection mechanisms is that, by contrast to humanitarian action as it is conceptualized by Fassin (2012), which is guided by a set of morals in response to social problems, the study of climate change has an important spatial component. Not only are these mechanisms designed and enacted in relation to morals, which are rooted in representations of what is happening in the world, but also in perceptions of past, present, and future environments. These perceptions can be seen as constructions, or as the product of the experience of different realities. In other words, climate change does not only alter the physical composition of the world but also its subjective composition; moreover, the way it affects reality is not uniform, because reality itself is not uniform. To understand this impact is to acknowledge that two people living on the same geographic coordinates, when being subjected to the same physical change in their environment, can see their reality being affected in different ways depending on their own ontologies. If one of these two people were to be a policy-maker who intends to protect other people from that physical change and from its impact on several aspects of their realities, but does not know that they live in different worlds than their own, the policy that would be produced would be likely to fail or would create different outcomes. The reason for that failure would be that this policy reflects one specific ontology. This account is not incompatible with previous conceptualizations of the social construction of space, which also have implications for policy-making. The reason why constructivism can also be used in analyzing protection mechanisms is because of the importance of uncertainty and the unknown associated with climate change. From that perspective, one could argue that policymakers, who do not have access to the full information they would need to define the nature of the harm, will inevitably rely on their own subjective experience and representation of climate change in order to design and implement climate change adaptation or protection policies. Climate change, from that perspective, can be seen as a highly abstract concept; not only can it be something different to different people, it can also be constructed in different ways through imagination, to fill information gaps. The way this construction is enacted in turn depends on specific ontologies. This is not only true of climate change as a phenomenon, but also of the idea of protection itself, as it is loosely defined (Scott-Smith, 2019). Taking stock of these theoretical considerations, I would argue that there are two main issues in the way suffering is conceptualized in the context of climate change. First, there is a tendency in climate change or disaster risk research to focus on biological, visible suffering, a tendency that was already outlined by Fassin (2012) when examining humanitarian programmes. According to Fassin (2012: 254), “humanitarian reason pays more attention to the biological life of the destitute and unfortunate, the life in the name of which they are given aid, than to their biographical life, the life through which they could, independently, give a meaning to their own existence”. For that reason, the author argues that humanitarian government “fails to recognize the Other as a ‘face’” – a subject beyond subjection (Fassin, 2012: 255). In climate change research, this emphasis on “biological” suffering stems from a long history of environmental research and in the idea of “biolegitimacy” that has permeated much of the environmental discourse and practice, for instance in the field of environmental conservation. The reason why an emphasis on biological suffering is detrimental to achieving climate change protection can be explained by our definition of climate change harm as based on both physical risks and the achievement of instrumental freedoms. This “face” mentioned by Fassin is the agency that these freedoms ensure – in other terms, a focus on biological suffering compounds loss of agency through subjectivization, which means that in the long run, protection mechanisms based on such conceptions make people more vulnerable. Second, and in a similar perspective, a focus on biological suffering can not only lead policy-makers to ignore or compound suffering, but also to misdiagnose the specific ways in which such suffering can be alleviated or remedied. The reasons underpinning this claim are to be found in the above discussion on social construction and ontology. Suffering is, indeed, socially constructed. A good example of such construction has been given by Narang (2015: 268), who investigated population displacements in Tuvalu, generally considered as one of the world’s most “endangered nation”, and argued that population displacement and migrations on the island “are likely to be caused by government policy response anchored in the imagined geographies of fear rather than by material transformations in the environment”. Migration has been used by Tuvaluans as a strategy of adaptation in the past, but as shown by Shen and Gemenne (2009), hardly any Tuvaluan respondent reported being affected by climate change. According to Farbotko (2010: 56), inhabitants of these islands, “long marginalized, are denied their own agency in the climate change crisis. They are fictionalized into victim populations”. Moreover, there is a tendency in the current discourse to label certain kinds of suffering as caused explicitly by climate change thereby creating “climate change suffering” as a distinct category. From the perspective adopted in this paper, this categorization is incorrect. Recalling previous literature on famines (e.g. de Waal, 1997; Sen, 1981), one might wonder how climate change is any different from other kinds of risks, and why it would require such a specific approach, as such suffering is not only compounded by pre-existed structures of inequality, but co-created by them. People face all kinds of risk every day, and framing climate change as “abstract acts of god” to be solved by changing the state of the global climate through mitigation policies misses the point that there are actually things governments could do now to fulfil their duty to protect. More specifically, and while it is true that climate change causes suffering by itself, it could be argued that most of this suffering pre-existed the “Anthropocene” (see Steffen et al., 2007; Rockström et al., 2014), rooted in an unequal provision of human rights. The real question that climate change poses, from this perspective, is that of the scale of human rights violations and their historical dimension. 3.3.2. Procedures: norms institutionalization and implementation Climate change is associated with specific representations of the world, that are then enacted through discourse and consequently institutionalized. In other terms, discourse is performative and can create new realities (see Foucault, 1972). In the context of climate change, this has two implications. First, these representations can be translated into norms that are then institutionalized. Sets of norms that are set to govern a similar issue can be institutionalized into frameworks; at the international level, these are called “regimes” (Betts, 2013: 30). These norms can change over time, which means that regimes can then adapt or be replaced by a new one. For instance, Betts (2013) asked under what conditions the old refugee regime could adapt to address the new challenge of “survival migration” and stretch to meet new circumstances. In this context, a refugee protection regime pre-existed the advent of “survival migration”. By contrast, the Paris Agreement, which could be seen as the embodiment of a potential “climate change regime”, is often described as new and emerging (e.g. Stern, 2018), not because it is the first international agreement taking climate change as its object, but because it is the first to be legally binding (Saveresi, 2015). This means that though language has been developed over the years, in particular with the International Decade for Disaster Risk Reduction (IDDRR) in 1990, the creation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992, and the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, these agreements had never acknowledged formal responsibility to take action (Saveresi, 2015; Zeiderman, 2012). Though the Paris Agreement was the first of its kind, it is important to recognize the process through which the norms underpinning this emerging regime has taken place, adopting a more historical perspective. In particular, one could argue that these norms started emerging prior to the IDDRR, as the idea of disaster risk reduction itself is rooted in broader concerns for human security (see Hannigan, 2012), which were already developed in other documents, perhaps even based on similar arguments as those underpinning the R2P doctrine. Second, these regimes rise and develop at multiple levels. According to Betts (2013), regime adaptation takes place at three levels: international bargaining, institutionalization and implementation. Implementation, he argues, has been historically neglected by international studies, which is why he investigates why the implementation of international norms varies between different national contexts. Doing so, he criticizes Finnemore and Sikkink’s (1998) norm life cycle model, which purports that norms are created and disseminated in five phases in which they emerge, cascade and then are internalized by states. The problem with this conceptualization, according to Betts, is that it assumes that norms are conceived as pre-defined and static, and then implemented by an ontologically coherent state. As a consequence, international institutions have national and local manifestations that potentially diverge and deviate from the global context, which means that “politics rather than principles determine the conditions under which millions of people get access to protection” (Betts, 2013: 195). In particular, one could argue that, through their programmes, agencies enact what Fassin called the “politics of life”, defined as “the evaluation of human beings and the meaning of their existence” (Fassin, 2007: 500-501). From that perspective, in designing and implementing aid programmes, humanitarians decide “which existences it is possible or legitimate to save” (Fassin, 2007: 501). There is, indeed, a tension in the vocabulary that is used in climate change and development research to talk about these policies and the recipients of aid or assistance in the context of climate change. Depending on the approach adopted by these studies, the authors would talk about “climate change adaptation”, “preparedness” or “disaster risk reduction” alternatively (Kelman, 2018). While there are some semantic differences between these terms, differences in the language used to talk about these issues can make it difficult for policymakers to assess what should be done and who should receive aid. There is no specific term to designate “people affected by climate change”, in the same fashion as there is an internationally agreed term to talk about “refugees”, however, flawed that definition is. This is a problem because, from a legal perspective, these groups need to be named to be entitled to a set of specific rights. In other words, we lack a conceptual language to clearly identify people who would be in need of “climate change protection”. Following that logic, the current government response is thus partly dictated by politics. In practice, this means that governments now decide who is entitled to aid, what are the rights that should be protected and for whom. It means that policies aimed at “reducing climate risks” might well reproduce historical patterns of inequality through the way government select “legitimate recipients” of their social protection or climate change adaptation programmes. For that reason, examining the interplay between morals and procedures not only entails scrutinizing specific policies or mechanisms and their rationale, but also replacing them into the broader institutional, historical and normative context in which they were developed. **Conclusion** This paper has outlined the main issues and challenges in conceptualizing climate change through the lens of protection. First, I have argued that “climate change harm” is rooted in broader gaps in social protection and that protecting people from such harm should entail protecting them from other kinds of harm that compound or co-create vulnerability. Second, I have outlined the main elements of protection approaches, and have explained that humanitarianism enacts a set of morals, that are themselves rooted in specific ontologies. Given that climate change is an abstract phenomenon, I have argued that climate change adaptation policies are based on “imagined geographies of suffering”, which are performative through discourse. In particular, I have proposed that any analysis of the way in which protection policies are designed and implemented should ask ontological questions about time and suffering in order to offer a more holistic understanding of suffering that is not only perceived as physical but also biographical. Doing so, I have proposed that suffering is relative in time and relational, which is why Sen’s conceptualization of suffering as deprivation can be seen as a more recent development in protection approaches. I have also proposed that the capabilities and entitlement approach could be used as a way to define climate change harm by focusing on its impact on a range of freedoms, and because it focuses on both legal and non-legal aspects of protection. Third, I have asked three questions to understand the main problems and issues that could arise from the application of protection approaches to climate change. I have first explained that any attempt at defining what “adequate” protection would mean should define the nature of climate change “harm” and “victims” and have argued that there are objective obstacles in achieving that goal, because of the transnational nature of climate change and the difficulty to establish causation. I have then explored whether the principle of the responsibility to protect could be enforced at state and international level, and have argued that, though they are subjective and objective obstacles in establishing responsibility, the state has a moral duty to protect because climate change harm is often co-created by other patterns of inequality. By contrast, the international community should have a moral duty to provide aid for climate change impacts as a form of repressive justice. Finally, I have asked what could explain states’ failure to protect their citizens from climate change harm, and have argued that because there are discrepancies in the way climate change and protection are defined, politics rather than principles currently dictate who receives aid for climate change impacts and what this aid should look like. Such decisions, I have argued, are rooted in a plurality of ontologies that make assumptions about people’s place in time and history, and about the state of past, present and future environments. These ontologies are then enacted through discourses, norms and procedures, to give rise to new realities that might not match people’s experiences. Overall, this paper has made the argument that approaching climate change through the lens of protection offers a deeper understanding of the mechanisms through which it creates suffering, in a way that goes beyond biological suffering. Further empirical research, from that perspective, should be dedicated to understanding what kind of ontologies are enacted by states and international agencies, and how they determine the “legitimate” recipients of aid for climate change impacts. Though it has not offered a straightway forward in building a “protection approach to climate change”, I hope this paper has outlined a preliminary account of what such an approach could look like and why it would be useful. There are, of course, many problems with the approach I have outlined, in particular because it bridges theories and concepts that have been developed in very different contexts. For instance, it is unclear whether climate change harm should be conceptualized as a distinct category. However, I hope I have been able to capture a few key issues and concepts to examine more pragmatic questions about who should be granted aid, and how. Bibliography Adeola, F. and Picou, J.S. (2017). Hurricane Katrina-linked environmental injustice: race, class, and place differentials in attitudes. *Disasters*, 41(2), 228-257. Adger, W. N. (2000). Social and ecological resilience: Are they related? *Progress in Human Geography*, 24(3), 347–364. 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There has been a rapid growth in articles exploring the potential of using complexity science in healthcare systems since the turn of the millennium. However, outside epidemiology, complexity theory has not yet been substantively used in NHS management strategies (Galea et al. 2010). Resultantly, this article explores the possible uses of complexity science in the management of the NHS. It outlines significant possible benefits, while also noting the need for further research to redress current theoretical issues in proposals for its use and to build a more extensive evidence base that would enable complexity science to be incorporated into the management of the NHS. * * * Introduction The NHS is a point of national pride in the UK, aptly demonstrated by the tribute paid towards it in the 2012 Olympics opening ceremony. Recently, the Covid-19 pandemic has placed huge pressure on the NHS. Yet, even prior to Covid-19, there was a narrative of the NHS in distress, with the Red Cross describing aspects of its care provision as a ‘humanitarian crisis’ (Wijesuriya et al. 2017). Additionally, the NHS is becoming increasingly politicised, featuring heavily in general election campaigns, the EU referendum and Brexit negotiations (Hervey and Peers 2016). This narrative of crisis and politicisation has intensified the scrutiny upon the management of the NHS. Whilst the frontline workers are revered, NHS managers have been critiqued and associated with waste and inefficiency (Rimmer 2017). In the face of a growing need to look for new management approaches for the NHS, approaches drawing on complexity science have been advocated as a possible solution. There has been a rapid growth in articles exploring the potential of using complexity science in healthcare systems since the turn of the millennium. However, outside epidemiology, complexity theory has not been substantively used in NHS management strategies (Galea et al. 2010). Indeed, critics state that there is no evidence that complexity science is either needed or would work in health care management (Martin 2018). This article explores the potential beneficial uses of complexity science in the management of the NHS. Building on this, it identifies the need for further research to redress current theoretical issues in proposals for its use and to build an evidence base that would enable it to be incorporated into the management of the NHS (The Health Foundation 2010). To present this narrative, this article firstly introduces the key features of the NHS as a complex system. It subsequently uses these features to explain current phenomena in the NHS, focusing upon the difficulty of implementing successful, long-term change in the system’s functioning. Following this, it critically analyses current proposals for using complexity science, outlining that whilst promising, they contain a number of theoretical and practical flaws. Finally, it discusses the potential for use of agent-based models in the NHS. 1. The NHS as a Complex System Complex systems have been identified in diverse domains, from the NHS to shoals of fish (Mitchell 2009). Complex systems are typically identified as those with dynamic interacting components that produce emergent, often self-organising, behaviour (Mitchell 2009). The interactions of complex systems often see them represented as networks, whose topology, type of connections, and node characteristics are crucial to the functioning of the system (Mitchell 2006). Though the NHS is undoubtedly a complex system, the use of complexity science in healthcare systems has been critiqued due to laxity in applying key terms that are defined below (Cairney and Geyer 2017). 2.1. Emergence Emergence is fundamentally difficult to define precisely (Damper 2000). As Damper (2000) identifies, a ‘neutral’ definition is that large-scale patterns, properties, structures or processes that emerge from interactions within a lower level and with the world that are counter-intuitive or behave in a manner that could not be predicted (Helbing et al. 2011; Krugman 1996; Steels 1991). Therefore, emergence fundamentally relates to new, qualitatively different behaviours at higher levels. Emergence can occur at multiple levels in a complex system such as the NHS, and emergent behaviour at one level can produce emergent behaviour at a higher level (Walloth 2016). For instance, the trends of use of a particular Accident & Emergency (A&E) department is an emergent property of many different individuals’ decisions to visit it whilst nation-wide trends of use for A&E departments is an emergent property of the trends of use of the 181 A&E departments in England (Dattee and Burnham 2010). 2.2. Self-Organisation Self-organisation refers to the tendency of complex systems to spontaneously order themselves through local interactions without external influence or top-down control, such as the murmuration of starlings in flight (Rickles et al. 2007). A&E departments’ waiting times often exhibit emergent self-organisation (Smethurst and Williams 2002). Self-organised criticality refers to a system that endogenously organises itself close to a critical point (Scheffer et al. 2009). A critical point refers to a point in one or more of the system’s variables beyond which the system’s properties rapidly change as positive feedback loops propel it into a new mode of functioning (Scheffer et al. 2012). Self-organised criticality sees outputs of the system exhibit a power-law distribution. Thus, an input to the system will usually produce a small-scale output; however, it can occasionally lead to a large change in output and change in the system’s functioning (D’Souza 2017). Self-organised criticality has been identified in a number of areas in the NHS system, for instance in waiting times at some hospital departments, and is a crucial factor to appreciate in attempting to change the functioning of the system (Tao and Liu 2015). 2.3. Non-Linearity and Feedback Loops Integral to both self-organisation and emergent behaviour are non-linear dynamics and feedback loops. Feedback loops refers to an output of an aspect of the system resulting in a new input to the system (Rickles et al. 2007). Feedback loops can act both within and between different scales in the system. Positive feedback loops accelerate change within the system, through a stimulus causing additional change in the same direction. Conversely, negative feedback loops dampen change within the system, where the system reacts to a stimulus by stabilising the system’s functioning. It is pertinent to note that both positive and negative feedback loops can be beneficial or detrimental to the system and neither are inherently desirable. Non-linear dynamics simplistically describe a system whose outputs are not proportional to the input, such as in systems that exhibit self-organised criticality (Liu 2007). 2. Complexity as an Explanatory Concept The dominant reductionist approach to NHS management overlooks the importance of its functioning as a complex system. Reductionist management approaches demarcate the system into ‘manageable’ sub-systems that are perceived to have limited interaction with each other (Plsek and Wilson 2001). For instance, separate budgets and performance targets are set for primary care, secondary care, and social services, with further divisions within these broad units. This division occurs at multiple levels in the NHS, from NHS England to Clinical Commissioning Groups in charge of local areas. Performance targets are set alongside top-down declarations which provide the ‘best’ way to achieve them, often being implemented uniformly despite differing local processes (Chrysanthaki et al. 2013). The logic for this is clear, as it produces ‘simpler’ problems to solve. This reductionist approach builds on the rational planning framework that uses principles of Newtonian science which has guided western management thinking and practice for over a century (Paarlberg and Bielfeld 2009). This approach fundamentally revolves around maintaining organisational stability through developing more rules and adopting more in-depth planning techniques (Paarlberg and Bielfeld 2009). However, this approach creates a bounded rationality and fails to account for the actual functioning of the system (Atun 2012). This inhibits the collaboration advocated for by the principles of the NHS (2017) and fails to consider the importance of emergence in complex systems. Recognising the possibility for emergent behaviour is crucial in the management of the NHS. Though emergent behaviour is by its nature difficult to predict, failing to consider its occurrence leads to significant issues. Emergent behaviours can be desirable; however, they often lead to policy interventions having significantly different impacts than their stated aims, for instance in hospital waiting times. Hospital waiting times in the NHS exhibit emergent self-organisation, with certain departments displaying self-organised criticality (Love and Burton 2005). Thus, though hospitals with long waiting times often receive focused investment, particularly in A&E departments, they rarely exhibit large scale reductions over the long-term (Smethurst and Williams 2002). Complexity theory is useful in explaining this phenomenon and suggesting more effective strategies to enact systemic change. It is key to note two aspects: firstly, that the trends of a hospitals use are an emergent phenomenon based on the decisions of many individuals; and secondly, that hospitals do not exist in isolation, but are part of a wider network of care provision (Dattee and Burnham 2010). Therefore, this emergent property is an outcome of both internal interactions in the care provision system and this system’s interaction with the world. Hospital waiting times can be affected by various factors and have complex feedback loops. There are multiple influences upon an individual’s hospital choice. For instance, the agent-based model developed by Tao and Liu (2015) found that a feedback loop exists between hospital performance and the individual’s selection. A high performing hospital is more likely to have individuals choose to visit it, based upon their own experience and the knowledge gained from the number of networks they interact with (Tao and Liu 2015). This finding has important implications as a hospital is part of a wider system. For instance, consider 3 hospitals, A, B, and C in Figure 1 that serve a spatially bounded area. These hospitals all have similar waiting times and performance measures, and thus individuals when deciding which hospital to visit usually make their decisions based on proximity. The reductionist management strategy considers hospitals as isolated, and concentrates resources on a single hospital, for instance hospital C. Hospital C receives increased investment, resulting in a reduction in its waiting times (Figure 2). This often results in the initial investment being seen as successful, causing investment to be decreased and the focus to shift to elsewhere in the system (Love and Burton 2005). A negative feedback loop emerges, whereby due to personal experience and the knowledge gained from a number of networks, individuals begin to change their decision-making process and are more likely to travel to hospital C than to hospitals A or B due to the reduction in its waiting time. Therefore, hospital C experiences a spike in visitors and can see its waiting times increase above the level they were at prior to the investment as displayed in Figure 3 (Smethurst and Williams 2002). This eventually leads to a further negative feedback loop whereby individuals begin to choose to travel to hospitals A and B again, thus restoring the distribution of patients to a similar level as prior to the investment (Figure 1). Thus, there is a limited reduction in waiting times as the effects of the investment are dissipated throughout the whole system as it self-organises. This is compounded through interactions with other levels in the NHS. For instance, general practitioners (GP) are more likely to refer individuals to hospital if the waiting times are lower (Love and Burton 2005). Thus, when a hospital’s waiting time decreases, there is an increase in the number of referrals from the GPs and creating another feedback loop. This example demonstrates micro and meso-level interactions producing self-organising emergent behaviour that negates the effect of the investment which is dissipated into the wider network (Smethurst and Williams 2001). This simple conceptual example demonstrates the necessity of considering the NHS as a complex system due to the effect of feedback loops, interactions and emergence on its functioning. Further, it is crucial to note the importance of temporal scale in the system’s functioning following the investment. The NHS is a complex adaptive system whose structure and behaviour changes over time (Anderson et al. 2003). The inherent inertia and intricate connections across the network inevitably lead to delays in changes in the functioning of the NHS following interventions (Dattee and Barlow 2010). The system’s adaptation over time can lead to policies being implemented, deemed successful after initial positive measures, and then ignored. This is evident in hospital waiting times that are temporarily reduced following investment, before eventually returning to a level similar to where they stood prior to the investment (Smethurst and Williams 2002). Moreover, overlooking temporal lags in the system’s behaviour following policy interjections can lead to corrective actions being taken that can undermine ongoing processes (Dattee and Barlow 2010). This is particularly problematic given the political pressure on governments to produce measurable, quantitative, and rapid success rather than considering the long-term evolution of the system (Sturmberg et al. 2014). Complexity science is a valuable tool to identify the existence of these issues and analyse their effects. Recognising the difficulty in attempting to control a complex system is key to complexity scientists’ proposals for changes in the NHS management structure. 4. Approaching the NHS as a Complex System The early proposals for the use of complexity sciences in the NHS directly challenge reductionist management strategies and were arguably designed to incite debate rather than to be implemented (e.g. Plsek et al. 2001). Recognising the issues with restrictive top-down control, propositions advocated for control to be reduced to ‘minimum specifications’, arguing that policymakers ‘must give up notions of control over processes of change’ (Best et al. 2012 pp. 423). Minimum specifications involve goals and resources being pooled for each level of the NHS rather than allocated to different subsections. This would facilitate local interactions which can produce innovative emergent behaviours that result in more efficient system functioning (Greenhalgh et al. 2010). The logic behind ‘minimum specifications’ is clear, as whole system targets could feasibly facilitate interactions that were previously constrained. Indeed, such approaches have dominated in small entrepreneurial organisations, though they have been critiqued for their unpredictability which raises considerable issues for large organisations such as the NHS that require stability (Paarlberg and Biefeld 2009). These radical proposals overlook important aspects of complex systems. Complexity science emphasises that the learnt behaviour of agents has developed over multiple iterations and is resistant to change (Chrysanthaki et al. 2013). Indeed, the competition over performance targets and funding over successive years has led to a ‘blame culture’ between different areas of the NHS (Dattee and Burnham 2010) but to propose that pooling budgets will quickly see the emergence of desirable system-wide behaviour ignores the learnt behaviour of individuals and institutions in the NHS. The proposals assume individuals and institutions in the NHS to be perfectly rational in their behaviour, which is contrary to intuitive understandings of human behaviour and has been robustly rejected by complexity scientists (Beinhocker 2010). The temporal lag in delivering positive behaviours makes proposals such as that of minimum specifications unsuitable for governments to implement. Furthermore, these proposals tend to conflate the levels of analysis in the NHS (Dattee and Burnham Desirable emergent behaviours at the scale being observed may be undermining processes at different levels due to interactions between levels that are ignored by focusing upon a particular level of analysis (Lanham et al. 2013). For instance, in minimum specifications, the flexibility may allow GPs to improve their functioning by streamlining the process of referring individuals to hospital. Thus, focusing upon the local level of the GPs indicates a more effective system. However, this fails to consider that this process can change the trends of hospital use, undermining the care provided by hospitals. The issues in such proposals illustrate that the potential of complexity science is not realised through radical approaches. However, complexity science has significant potential in shifting away from reductionist approaches to flexible forms of top-down control. Complexity science can aid top-down control through providing managers and policymakers at all levels of the NHS with an awareness of its behaviours as a complex system. Lack of appreciation of complex interconnections in the NHS leads to dysfunctional behaviours from policymakers regardless of their intentions (Rouse 2008). Managers with an understanding of complexity theory are more able to recognise and appreciate the interplay between different scales, non-linearity, feedback loops and emergence within the NHS (Rusoja et al. 2018). Further, they are more likely to embrace flexibility by not planning based on the assumptions of predictability and to accept that there is a range of possible outcomes to interventions that can change over time (Lanham et al. 2013). Education is crucial to enabling flexibility in NHS management without reverting to impractical and theoretically questionable minimum specifications. Though the use of this complexity science has been limited in healthcare systems, Brainard and Hunter (2016) found that the majority of interventions using it have achieved positive results. However, their sample size was limited to 29 interventions restricting the ability to draw generalisations. Thus, it is crucial for further research to identify the potential of complexity science in NHS management, similarly to Dattee and Barlow’s (2010) investigation into the 2004 Unscheduled Care Collaborative Program. The Unscheduled Care Collaborative Program (UCCP) deployed in 2004 exemplifies the benefits of taking an approach that uses complexity science at all levels (Dattee and Barlow 2010). The UCCP successfully reduced the waiting times for access to emergency care in Scotland. Managers worked alongside complexity scientists to identify that waiting times in hospitals across Scotland were in a state of self-organised criticality, with attempts to reduce waiting times resulting in changes that followed a power-law distribution (ibid). Therefore, small changes to key variables can lead to a critical transition in the system’s functioning. This approach led managers to focus on identifying leverage points throughout the system, rather than solely focusing upon individual ‘problem’ hospitals or departments within hospitals. For instance, they produced flow models of patients throughout the system to identify the key points of delay. This allowed them to effectuate change that can be enhanced through positive feedback as the system passes through a critical transition, rather than being dampened by negative feedback (Hawe 2015). However, managers at local levels found it difficult to identify key leverage points in the system and discern the individual causation of the changes in waiting times (Dattee and Barlow 2010). The success of UCCP demonstrates the value of incorporating complex systems thinking into all levels of management. It identifies the importance of having knowledge of the entire functioning of the system, rather than of a particular level or section. Local managers’ struggle to identify the system’s leverage points indicates the need for methods to establish different complex, non-linear interactions and feedback loops (Dattee and Barlow 2010). This issue is compounded by the linear models currently employed by NHS managers that rule out these factors. Thus, this indicates the need for models better suited to exploring the mechanisms of the NHS and considering how they may develop over time. In this role, the development of agent-based models could be integral for the use of complexity science in the NHS. 3. Modelling the NHS: Agent-Based Models The NHS has been extensively modelled throughout its existence, predominantly using linear approaches such as decision trees and Markov models (Marshall et al. 2015). Linear models are limited; they do not consider the possibility of emergence, non-linear dynamics, multiple feedback loops or multiple states of equilibrium that occur in the NHS (Sarriot and Koutletio 2015). Agent-base models (hereafter ABMs) provide the ability to model these attributes of the NHS. Though their use in healthcare systems has been limited, they have been used widely to model social systems, from academic collaboration networks to economic trends (Tomasello et al. 2017). ABMs consist of a number of agents, ranging from individuals to large institutions, that interact with each other. These agents are affected by and can affect the environment of the model. Each agent in these models acts based on a set of internalised rules which can be heterogeneously distributed to agents in the model. Agents can either have fixed rules, or they may be able to adapt their rules and their behaviour over time, thus resulting in adaptation in agents’ interactions, the environment of the model and its output (Bruch and Atwell 2013). The local interactions between heterogeneous agents in ABMs enable them to model emergent phenomena and the model’s dynamism also allows it to explore changes in the system’s functioning over time (Turrell 2016). The heterogeneity of the agents, alongside the potential for non-linearity and feedback loops, allows ABMs to model more realistic behaviour than traditional linear models (Bruch and Atwell 2013). This ability can allow ABMs to be used as ‘low-risk and low-cost laboratories’ in order to develop a greater understanding of the system and its mechanisms (Marshall et al. 2015). This is crucial, as knowledge of the system’s intrinsic structure is vital in attempting to direct its change (Dattee and Barlow 2010). Managers and policymakers can use ABMs to explore multiple possible outcomes of a prospective policy and develop an awareness of the potential emergent behaviours that can arise from interventions. The value of this has already been demonstrated in healthcare systems. For instance, Megiddo et al. (2016) developed an ABM to test three different initiatives to treat epilepsy in India. This ABM identified that emergent processes that developed over time in one initiative would entail a much higher ongoing financial investment. Thus, policymakers were able to dismiss one of the initiatives based upon the ABM’s results (Megiddo et al. 2016). Further, by running ABMs with a number of different combinations of rules and behaviours, key variables and leverage points for enacting systemic change can be determined (Peters 2014). Thus, an ABM could have proved valuable for managers in the aforementioned UCCP, who were struggling to identify the system’s leverage points. Despite the substantial potential of ABMs, there is resistance to their usage in the management of the NHS. ABMs are an advance upon existing linear approaches to modelling the NHS; however, they do not have the ability to reliably and accurately predict the outcome of management decisions on the system’s functioning. For instance, whilst the ABM developed by Megiddo et al. (2016) allowed the rejection of one initiative, it was unable to identify which of the other two initiatives would be most effective. The ability to model heterogeneous agents provides modellers with significant freedom in choice (Bruch and Atwell 2013). Though this allows them to model a wide array of phenomena, modellers face difficulty in selecting the correct variables to classify their agents and their behaviour. This can significantly affect the results of the model. For instance, two ABMs of a particular phenomenon can differ markedly based upon the modeller’s choices. Further, regardless of the assumptions made, the non-linearity in the model can lead to the same ABM producing different outcomes in concurrent runs (Turrell 2016). This causes issues in interpreting and using their outputs, which is compounded by the inaccessibility of the models’ underlying code for policymakers leading to criticisms of a lack of transparency (Marshall et al. 2015). These issues can be partially alleviated by engaging managers throughout the modelling process and educating managers in complexity science to make them more accepting of the multiple potential outputs in the models. The value of ABMs does not lie in their ability to accurately and precisely model all aspects of the system and predict its future functioning. Rather, ABMs’ value is their potential to allow policymakers and managers to experiment with management decisions, explore their potential results and acquire a greater knowledge of the system’s functions. In the context of the NHS, this has the potential to support more accurate, efficient and flexible management (Marshall et al. 2015). Conclusion The management of the NHS is being increasingly scrutinised with fears of a collapse and a shift towards a privatized healthcare system (Campbell 2016). It is vital that privatisation is not the solution to the management problems faced by the NHS. Though the NHS has substantive shortcomings, its provision of universal healthcare that is free at the point of access is invaluable. It is important to note that whilst complexity science has significant, compelling value, it is not a panacea for the issues in the NHS. However, it is clear that its potential should not be ignored. Though critics argue that there is little evidence of its benefits, it provides a valuable analytical lens that can be utilised to explain phenomena and structures in the NHS that defy conventional approaches (Martin 2018). Moreover, its use can be extended beyond that of an explanatory concept. Engaging with and educating managers at all levels of the NHS can produce individuals that are adept at grasping the inherent unpredictability of policies, as well as the non-linearity, feedback loops, and emergent phenomena that characterise the system. Thus, they are better equipped to attempt to enact change within the NHS. Moreover, the use of ABMs can provide managers with better knowledge of its underlying mechanisms (Marshall et al. 2015). 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(2016) ‘Agent-based models: understanding the economy from the bottom up’, Quarterly Bulletin of the Bank of England, Q4(1), pp. 173–188. Walloth, C. (2016) Emergent Nested Systems: A Theory of Understanding and Influencing Complex Systems as well as Case Studies in Urban Systems. Cham: Springer. Wijesuriya, J., White, B. and Modi, N. (2017) ‘Response to Offline: Is the NHS in crisis?’, The Lancet V390 p. 225. Statistical Illiteracy Among Clinicians: A review of the evidence and the ethical problems it generates Dr Adrian Soto-Mota Abstract. To become a medical doctor, it is necessary to acquire knowledge in many different subjects such as Biochemistry, Public Health and Clinical Examination. Statistical reasoning is a crucial skill for clinicians not only because it is necessary to critically analyse emerging evidence from biomedical sciences but also because it is essential for risk assessments at bedside and for advising patients. Despite this, evidence suggests that even experienced clinicians struggle with assimilating the differences and implications of fundamental statistical concepts such as odds ratio versus absolute risk and sensitivity versus positive post-test probability. On the other hand, useful concepts such as number needed to treat/screen, intention to treat analysis, and Bayesian probability are often overlooked or ignored when making clinical decisions. Even further, some studies report that there are discrepancies between the interventions or treatments which clinicians prescribe and the ones that they undergo when they are patients. This review intends to illustrate how statistical illiteracy generates ethical problems in the patient clinician relationship, summarise existing evidence about this problem and the concerns raised by experts on this matter, and analyse the potential solutions that have been put forward. Finally, a set of recommendations for patients is provided, to help them assess risk more efficiently and make informed decisions. * * * Breast cancer screening reduces mortality by 20%. Therefore, we will save 1 out of every 5 women we screen. Right? WRONG. Do not worry if you got that wrong, it is very likely your doctor got it wrong too (and that is something we should all worry about). Introduction The current COVID-19 pandemic increased the already high demand for evidence-based healthcare (Djulbegovic and Guyatt, 2020). Evidence-Based Medicine (making clinical decisions based on the best scientific evidence available and not on “common sense” or on your mentor’s opinion) has revolutionised and improved medical practice (Sackett et al., 2007). However, it brought a challenge we have not been able to conquer successfully. That challenge is: medical doctors need to learn how to interpret probabilities and statistics because, of course, it is not possible to practise Evidence-Based Medicine if clinicians cannot understand or at least interpret scientific evidence. To become a medical doctor, it is necessary to acquire knowledge and skills in many different subjects such as Physiology, Pharmacology, Public Health, and Clinical Examination. Among these skills, statistical reasoning is critical not only because it is essential to analyse emerging evidence from all other biomedical sciences, but also because it is required for risk assessments at bedside and for advising patients. Although most medical schools recognise the importance of these skills and include Statistics in their curricula, evidence shows that even top and experienced clinicians struggle with assimilating the differences and implications of fundamental statistical concepts such as odds ratio versus absolute risk and sensitivity versus positive post-test probability (Jenny, Keller and Gigerenzer, 2018). Moreover, useful concepts such as absolute risk changes, number needed to treat/screen, intention-to-treat analysis and Bayesian probability are often overlooked when making clinical decisions and when explaining the implications of tests and treatments to patients (Naylor, Chen and Strauss, 1992; Whiting et al., 2015). As a result, the ethical principles of autonomy and beneficence are threatened because patients are frequently exposed to unnecessary risks (which they frequently ignore), taxpayers’ money is wasted, and misinformation is widely spread. Even further, some studies report discrepancies between the interventions and treatments that clinicians prescribe and the ones that they undergo when they face the same diseases (Slevin et al., 1990; Smith et al., 1998; Gallo et al., 2003). This review intends to illustrate how statistical illiteracy generates ethical problems in the patient-clinician relationship or in public health decision-making, and to summarise existing evidence about this problem. Finally, a set of recommendations for patients is provided to help them assess risk more efficiently and make informed decisions. 1. The Origins and Size of the Problem First, we should highlight that most clinicians want to help their patients. This problem does not originate in them although they are, in many ways, victims of its consequences. Gigerenzer and Gray (2011) proposed “seven sins” in modern medical practice: biased funding; reporting in medical journals, patient pamphlets, and the media; conflicts of interest; defensive medicine; and medical curricula that fail to teach doctors how to interpret health statistics. Evidence-Based Medicine has evolved and become increasingly complex in the last two decades (Djulbegovic and Guyatt, 2017). The rules and conventions for carrying out and reporting different types of medical studies (The EQUATOR Network | Enhancing the QUAlity and Transparency Of Health Research) or for evaluating their quality (Higgins et al., 2011) have been updated many times in the last two decades. Nowadays, the critical assessment of a study requires sound methodological knowledge, practice, and time. Even when most clinicians can correctly identify different types of studies, different risk outcomes or different hypothesis tests, studies indicate that many do not understand key concepts and can be manipulated by misleading statistical formats (Jenny, Keller and Gigerenzer, 2018). Of course, Science faces its own crisis today (Ioannidis, 2005; Baker and Penny, 2016) and the lack of good quality evidence on many clinical questions has direct implications in medical practice. However, elaborating on these biomedical-research-specific problems is outside the scope of this review. Even if we naively assume that a certain research has been flawless, many problems arise when we report its results. Let’s say that a treatment reduces the probability of getting disease “A” from 10 to 5 in 1,000, while it increases the risk of disease “B” from 5 to 10 in 1,000. Very frequently, a journal article reports the benefit as a 50% risk reduction and the harm as an increase of 5 in 1,000, that is, 0.5%. According to Sedrakyan and Shih (2007), this kind of mismatch (reporting some things as relative risks while reporting others as absolute risks) is present in 33% of papers in top medical journals and influences the way clinicians assimilate these data. One may think that a smart clinician would not miss these differences. However, most final-year students from a top medical school failed an exam evaluating their competence when applying these concepts in practical scenarios (Jenny, Keller and Gigerenzer, 2018). Or, one may think that experience will eventually teach clinicians how to interpret data correctly. However, senior gynaecologists also fail to interpret the real risk meaning that a mammogram result implies (Anderson et al., 2014). Alternatively, one may think that these problems concern exclusively new or infrequent diseases and treatments. However, evidence of risk misunderstanding by clinicians has been found in scenarios as frequent in everyday medical practice as cancer screening (Wegwarth and Gigerenzer, 2018). Analogous to the difference between strict illiteracy and functional illiteracy (Tóth, 2001), the problem is not that clinicians lack statistical training or that they ignore the concepts required to read a scientific study. Most clinicians are familiar with the theory behind the statistical methods that the studies in their field use. The problem is that many clinicians struggle with efficiently incorporating the emerging evidence they read into their every-day practice. Clinicians need to learn not only the necessary statistical concepts and lexicon to read a study, but they also need to learn how to apply what they read when advising their patients. 2. Clinicians’ statistical illiteracy exposes patients to unnecessary risks (which they frequently ignore) Unarguably, it would be unethical to hide potential adverse effects when obtaining informed consent for a medical procedure (Braschi et al., 2020). The ethical principle of autonomy protects a patient’s right to make all decisions concerning their health. Clinicians are supposed to facilitate information about the potential risks and benefits of available interventions to their patients so they can make an informed decision (Entwistle et al., 2010). In practice, this is involuntarily hampered if clinicians ignore or do not understand the risks involved in the interventions they offer. Cancer screening is an illustrative scenario to continue developing the previous example about the interpretation of different risk markers. Now, let’s say – and this has already been argued in scientific publications – that performing breast cancer screening using mammograms has been reported to reduce breast cancer mortality by 20% (Elmore et al., 2005). Does this imply that we will save 1 out of every 5 women who undergo the test? Well, many clinicians think so (Anderson et al., 2014). However, this is another example where reporting relative and not absolute risk reduction is misleading. It is indeed true that 20% is the relative risk reduction that corresponds to an absolute risk reduction from 5 to 4 out of every 1,000 women. However, saying the former sounds more impactful than the latter. In reality, we need to test 1,000 women to save 1 and some studies have estimated this number to be as high as 2,000 tests for every woman saved (Gøtzsche and Jørgensen, 2013). Saving 1 woman in every 2,000 tests could still be considered a success because breast cancer is the most common cancer in women (Torre et al., 2017). However, mammograms also have risks, of which the most important is overdiagnosis (Nelson et al., 2016). Surprising as it may seem, it is almost 10 times more likely that a positive (abnormal) mammogram is a false positive than a true positive. How is this possible? For women in their 40s, the sensitivity of a mammogram is 75% and their false positive rate is 10% (Medical Advisory Secretariat, 2007). Does this mean that if the test is positive, the probability of having cancer is 75%? No. How likely you are to have a disease if you had a positive result in a test is known as the “positive predictive value”, which is not the same as how likely you are to test positive in a test if you have a disease. Positive predictive value is heavily influenced by how prevalent a disease is, in this case, 1.4% for women in their 40s, and is very often mistaken by clinicians as the sensitivity of a test (Whiting et al., 2015). In other words, in a group of 1,000,000 women, 14,000 have breast cancer. Therefore, 986,000 of them do not have breast cancer. Of the 14,000 women who have breast cancer, 75% (10,500) will be detected by the mammogram. However, of the 986,000 women without breast cancer, 10% (98,600) will be told that they have breast cancer when they do not. Thus, after performing 1,000,000 tests, there will be 10,500 true positive and 98,600 false positive tests. Therefore, a positive result is almost 10 times more likely to belong to the 98,600 group rather than to the 10,500 group. Apart from stress and anxiety, a false positive test also entails biopsies, potential surgery, and even more false positive results. According to Elmore et al. (2015), pathologists (medical doctors who are experts in analysing biopsies and the current gold standard for diagnosing breast cancer) disagree 25% of the time when they analyse the same breast biopsies. Prostate cancer screening is a similar scenario. The number needed to screen to save 1 man is 1,254 (Loeb et al., 2011), and 7-10 out of 100 men who undergo a biopsy will require to be hospitalised due to complications of the procedure (Brewster et al., 2017). Does this mean that breast and prostate cancer screenings are useless and that we should stop them? No, because if your mother and your aunts had breast cancer or if your father and your uncles had prostate cancer, getting screened could save your life. (Mitra et al., 2011; Bae et al., 2020). This just means that even seemingly harmless procedures need to be individually assessed in terms of benefit/risk ratio; which, of course, is impossible if clinicians do not understand them. Additionally, and as discussed in the next section, risk misunderstanding results in unnecessary risks and expenses at the population level as well. 3. Clinicians become (or are relied upon by) decision makers “I had prostate cancer five, six years ago. My chance of surviving prostate cancer — and, thank God, I was cured of it — in the United States? Eighty-two percent. My chance of surviving prostate cancer in England? Only 44 percent under socialized medicine.” (Bosman, 2007). The difference between a five-year survival rate, mortality, lethality, and overall survival is very frequently misunderstood by decision makers (as in the example above) and by primary care physicians (Wegwarth et al., 2012). Yes, all these concepts and indicators are related to death and cancer, but they are not equivalent or even correlated because you can be diagnosed with cancer but die of something else. Additionally, tumours have very different rates of prognosis. For example, you can falsely inflate five-year survival rates just by diagnosing earlier and without raising the number of people not dying of cancer. The problems that arise from confusions like these go beyond the misuse of technical language. These indicators have confused decision makers about the net benefits of screening, and there are well documented examples of taxpayers’ money being misspent (Iacobucci, 2018). Of course, this money could have been spent in more effective practices to prevent cancer-related deaths. 4. Statistical illiteracy makes clinicians break ‘the Golden Rule’: ‘Treat others as you would like to be treated’ Studies show that clinicians often choose to be treated differently to the way they treat patients with the same diseases or under the same circumstances (Smith et al., 1998; Gallo et al., 2003). Interestingly, clinicians who undergo the diseases that they typically treat change their practice significantly after they recover (Cen, 2015). As most medical doctors genuinely want to help their patients, it is unlikely that they willingly mislead them when explaining treatments. At the core of these discrepancies in the treatments that are chosen, we find a different form of statistical illiteracy. In this case, clinicians are not confused by statistical jargon, they simply cannot assess the risk/benefit ratio adequately due to the lack of patient-oriented evidence. When designing clinical trials, we usually choose hard clinical outcomes as the primary objective of our study. We opt to look at survival rate, hospitalisation rate, and years in clinical remission, while often ignoring softer outcomes such as patient satisfaction. Therefore, we tend to base our recommendations on evidence including clinically oriented outcomes and not patient-oriented outcomes. An example of this is the very high regret rate of patients undergoing dialysis (Davison, 2010). We tend to recommend it based on the real and well-documented clinical benefits without mentioning the also real and well-documented high proportion of patients who regret undergoing dialysis. In other words, healthcare workers are treated differently because, when choosing treatments for themselves, they can (at least subjectively) weigh in these patient-oriented outcomes based on what they see in their practice (Slevin et al., 1990). On the other hand, when advising their patients, clinicians cannot incorporate these factors in their risk assessments. They need to adhere to the available evidence, and patient-oriented outcomes are understudied or underreported. 5. Clinicians can learn when taught properly After documenting that most final-year students fail a “translating evidence into practice” test, researchers showed that the same students can ace a similar test after a short course (Jenny, Keller and Gigerenzer, 2018). Additionally, evidence suggests that graphic aids improve the way surgeons communicate procedures’ risks and benefits (Garcia-Retamero et al., 2016). Thus, since clinicians are usually meticulous students and well-intended people, there is fertile ground to improve this situation. Again, Gigerenzer and Gray (2011), when launching “The century of the patient”, proposed seven goals: funding for research relevant for patients; transparent and complete reporting in medical journals, health pamphlets, and the media; incentive structures that minimise conflicts of interest; promoting better practice instead of defensive medicine; and doctors who understand health statistics. Patients have little influence on the way research funds are allocated or on the way the media displays scientific news. However, they can overcome most of the problems mentioned above by improving communication with their clinicians and by seeking critical information that is often overlooked. Statistical illiteracy among clinicians is frequent and has widespread repercussions. It threatens the autonomy principle in shared decision-making and the beneficence principle when allocating tax expenditure for healthcare or when funding medical research that looks into the patients’ best interests with patient-oriented outcomes. Medical schools, medical journals, patients, and the clinicians themselves should acknowledge this problem and do their part in solving it. 6. Advice for patients 1. Be an active patient, do not be afraid to do your own research on whatever illness or health question you may have. Ask your clinician about reliable patient-education resources. If your doctor is not open to questions or cannot admit that they do not know something, get a different one. 2. Ask your clinician to disclose risks and benefits as “the number needed to” (i.e. number needed to treat, to help (or to harm) one person). When undergoing any diagnostic test, ask about positive and negative predictive values, not about sensitivity or specificity. 3. Ask if there is available evidence about regret rate or would-do-it-again rate and studies including patient-oriented outcomes. 4. Accept the fact that, even in Evidence-Based Medicine, uncertainty is very common and sometimes, the best we have is “an educated guess”. 5. Be patient with your doctor, they do not have every piece of evidence at the top of their head and they might struggle with counter-intuitive statistical concepts. 6. Be patient with scientists, you will find that many questions relevant to your specific case have not been answered yet. Volunteer for research whenever you can! 7. Be patient with yourself, being ill or being unsure about medical decisions is perfectly normal. Keeping a record of your questions and feelings can be very useful for you and your doctor when facing a difficult decision. Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics Bibliography Anderson, B. L. et al. 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BMJ Publishing Group. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-008155. Is that Authentic? Towards an Understanding of the Authenticity of Digital Replicas Daniel O’Callaghan Abstract. Digital technologies hold exciting prospects for heritage studies through changing the ways in which heritage is accessed, understood and experienced. However, digital technologies pose issues for conventional understandings of heritage. It is evident that an interaction with a digital object is fundamentally different from one with a physical object. Digital heritage objects are often experienced as ‘sanitised and alienating’ (Jeffrey 2015 pp. 145) and hold an uncertain place in understandings of authenticity that are underpinned by materialist perspectives. This is particularly the case for digital replicas, as they conflate the contested nature of physical replicas’ authenticity and the awkward position of digital objects in heritage studies. That an understanding of the authenticity of digital replicas is lacking is particularly concerning, as the importance of authenticity is intensifying in the contemporary era (Jones 2010). Thus, this essay explores an understanding of the authenticity of digital replicas in a manner appropriate for contemporary values-based approaches to the heritage, negotiating both materialist and constructivist perspectives. Though accepting the prevailing importance of materialist approaches to authenticity, this essay recognises that digital replicas can acquire a degree of the original object’s authenticity during their production (Latour and Lowe 2011). Further, this essay uses the examples of producing 3D replicas of Plaster Cast Statues in the Karl Franzen University, and the Mobile Museum project of New Ireland, Papua New Guinea to outline the need to recognise digital replicas as objects in their own right. This recognition allows a consideration of the creativity and energy involved in producing digital replicas, and the construction of authenticity through ‘networks of relationships between people, places and things’ (Jones et al. 2018 pp. 334). * * * Introduction: It is a ‘Weird’ Digital World It is indisputable that the rapid expansion of digital technologies has transformed our interactions with the world. Directly or indirectly, everyone has been affected by the advance of digital technologies, particularly in accessing and consuming information. The transformative effect of digital technologies is critical to heritage studies (Diaz-Andreu 2017), leading to an explosion of research on digital heritage over the past two decades. Its importance is exemplified by UNESCO’s (2003) production of a Charter on the Provision of Digital Heritage, which denotes digital heritage as digital material that has a value to be preserved, often consisting of ‘unique resources of human knowledge and expression’. This recognition of the importance of digital heritage is crucial due to the digital universe’s already incomprehensible size being predicted to grow by 40% per year into the next decade (Rogers 2015). Therefore, the necessity for heritage studies to engage with and adapt to digital technologies is becoming even more pressing. Digital heritage is an evocative field that has espoused wide-ranging debates. The production of digital replicas from physical objects creates a fundamentally different interactive experience as it involves the loss of a perceivable materiality (Jeffrey 2015). Digital replicas are celebrated for their ability to open up access to and democratise heritage by lessening its reliance upon traditional, elitist centres of knowledge (e.g. Bachi et al. 2014; Diaz-Andreu 2017). Yet, digital replicas are often depicted negatively by authors who decry digital technology’s reinforcement of non-democratic structures. This is particularly due to the technological divide between museums, source communities and heritage consumers in different areas in the world, which may produce new forms of exclusion from heritage (e.g. Taylor and Gibson 2017). Underpinning these debates is the issue of digital replicas’ authenticity. Though broadly understood as the quality of a thing being what it purports to be, authenticity has long been a source of contention in heritage studies (Rogers 2015; Smith 2003). Replicas have traditionally held a contested, uncertain place in understandings of authenticity. This is compounded for digital replicas due to the ‘weirdness’ of digital objects (Jeffrey 2015 pp. 1). Digital objects lack a perceivable materiality, substance, location and degradation that heritage consumers are used to in physical objects (Garstki 2017; Jeffrey 2015). Resultantly, digital objects are often ‘sanitised and alienating’ which heritage consumers can struggle to engage with (Jeffrey 2015 pp. 1). For instance, Maxwell et al. (2015) recently produced a 3D digital replica of a Pictish drinking horn. However, they decided that its lack of perceivable materiality caused it to be inauthentic, unable to transmit heritage values as ‘the digital, as yet, cannot satisfactorily replicate this necessary physical and idiosyncratic relationship with material’ (Maxwell et al. 2015 pp. 39). In 2003, Abby Smith prophetically identified that discussions of authenticity would be the hardest challenge to grapple within digital heritage. Though ‘hardest challenge’ may be contentious, 15 years later, the authenticity of digital objects is still a complex and unresolved issue (Manžuch 2017). Technological advances and changes in institutional practices are causing an exponential rise in the numbers of digital replicas (Bachi et al. 2014). Thus, it is troubling that the prevailing approaches to authenticity in heritage studies can obscure the wider effect of digital replicas in heritage. For instance, digital replicas are often involved in ‘cultural politics of ownership, attachment, place-making, and regeneration’ (Jones et al. 2018 pp. 252). Materialist perspectives that have traditionally dominated heritage discourses consider authenticity to result from the originality of tangible objects, landscapes, and monuments, which can be tested through scientific means (Smith 2013; Jones 2010). This perspective is inherently Euro-centric, emerging from the development of western modernity (Jones 2010). The critical turn in heritage studies holds that these materialist perceptions of authenticity are inadequate for contemporary dynamic approaches to heritage (Winter 2013), suggesting that we need a renewed understanding of authenticity. Indeed, ‘each generation views authenticity in a new guise, reflecting its new needs for truth, new standards of evidence, and new faiths in the uses of heritage’ (Lowenthal Therefore, this essay explores an understanding of authenticity that negotiates both materialist and constructivist perspectives. Constructivist approaches conceptualise authenticity as culturally constructed, rejecting the binary objectivist measurements of authenticity (Belhassen et al. 2008; Jones 2010). This essay recognises that completely abandoning the materialist approach to authenticity would impoverish understandings of authenticity in practice (Jones 2010). However, it challenges materialist perspectives that dismiss digital replicas as inauthentic. It recognises the migration of authenticity from the original object to the digital replica during its reproduction and the potential for replicas to diminish the authenticity of the original object (Baudrillard 1994; Latour and Lowe 2011); and discusses the generation of authenticity through networks of relationships and the subjective experiences of digital replicas (Jones et al. 2018; Cohen and Cohen 2012). To present this narrative, this essay firstly discusses the prevailing concern with authenticity, given its contested, ambivalent and confusing nature. It further traces debates of authenticity, with a particular focus on physical replicas, and builds upon these debates to discuss the authenticity of digital replicas. **Why Authenticity?** Authenticity broadly refers to an object’s quality of being real, truthful and genuine; essentially the quality of a thing being what it purports to be (Rogers 2015; Manžuch 2017). Despite this relatively simple broad definition, authenticity’s meaning, function, and criteria are ever-changing (Lowenthal 1999). Indeed, the use of the term varies over time, across disciplines, and even within the same article (e.g. Cohen and Cohen 2012). Further, there are contentions that the prevailing understandings of authenticity are obscuring the wider effect of digital objects in heritage (Jones et al. 2018). Considering these factors makes it logical to question its use as a concept. Indeed, some scholars have called for it to be abandoned (Reisinger and Steiner 2006). Yet, understandings of authenticity are still significant for heritage studies: for instance, they are pivotal in choosing conservation strategies for buildings, places and artefacts (Jones and Yarrow 2013). Additionally, authenticity is crucial for critical heritage scholars, who attempt to disentangle the underlying power relations that shape understandings of heritage and authenticity. Authenticity has long been associated with power dynamics, often being used by hegemonic groups to push political and economic agendas; from the European Middle Ages to demonstrate political authority to the contemporary era where materialist understandings of authenticity serve as an instrument to advance European ideologies across the world (Winter 2013). Authenticity has taken a heightened significance in the modern era, due in part to the changing relationships between individuals and society (Jones 2010). Trilling (1972) traces this back to the breakdown of feudalism and of a rigidly defined social order which left people in a state of ontological insecurity. Modernisation has destabilised and redefined relationships between the past and present (Winter 2013). This is being intensified as neoliberal forms of governance place an increased emphasis on the person as an individual unit that serves to erode senses of stability and identity (Butler 2011). Consequently, heritage objects are seen as increasingly important in providing both individual and collective identities (Apaydin 2018). Indeed, the Nara Document of Authenticity (1994) that formalised constructivist and relativist approaches to authenticity devotes three articles to authenticity’s importance. This includes stating in article 9 that ‘our ability to understand these values [referring to heritage values] depends...on the degree to which information sources about these values may be understood as credible or truthful’. Thus, authenticity is vital to heritage as a provider of both individual and collective identities, by allowing the values understood to be trusted. Further, due to fears of digital objects being adapted and manipulated, it is crucial for digital objects to establish their authenticity to ensure their preservation (Rogers 2015). Consequently, despite its complex, ambiguous nature, authenticity cannot be dismissed. However, it is crucial to challenge and adapt understandings of authenticity for contemporary approaches to heritage studies. **Materialist Perspectives of Authenticity.** Materialist perspectives of authenticity have traditionally dominated heritage discourses concerning the reproduction of heritage objects. The production of digital replicas is considered to be the second break in reproduction technologies, following mechanical reproduction (Müller 2017). Therefore, the authenticity of digital replicas can be cautiously compared to those of physical replicas. Discussions of physical replication invariably return to Walter Benjamin’s (1936) celebrated essay, ‘The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction’. Benjamin (1936) holds that the authenticity of an original object is an attribute which even ‘the most perfect reproduction…is lacking’ (pp. 220). For Benjamin (1936 pp. 222), the authenticity of an object is ‘the essence of all that is transmissible from its beginning, ranging from its substantive duration to its testimony to the history which it has experienced’, which is ‘outside….reproducibility’. This sees each object as having its own unique history that provides the original object with its authenticity, enabling it to transmit its ‘aura’ and values. Benjamin refers to aura as an object’s ability to provide an invigorating sensation of being close to the past and to all those involved in the object’s production or who have interacted with it over its history. Benjamin’s fundamental premise underpinned by Marxist and materialist perspectives is that authenticity is lost in reproduction. He holds that reproductions are inauthentic as they only entail a ‘time-slice’ of the original’s history, and therefore do not possess the ‘history which [the original] object has experienced’ (Barker 2014). Further, Benjamin holds that replication can diminish and destroy the authenticity and aura of the original (Cameron and Kenderdine 2007). Benjamin’s theorising has dominated authorised heritage discourses. However, the emergence of postmodernist thought has seen this perspective challenged. Though the challenges have predominantly been penned in relation to physical replicas, their underlying tenets can be applied to digital replicas. **The Migration of Authenticity through Reproduction** In contradiction to Benjamin’s materialist theorising, Latour and Lowe (2011) argue that aura is not destroyed in replication. They propose that with advanced technologies, replicas can acquire a degree of the aura and authenticity of an original object. For them, the issue is the quality of the replica, particularly the accuracy of the final object that allows it to be understood and respected. Indeed, they argue that replication can even enhance the aura of the original, challenging the concept of authenticity as being intrinsic to the original object. Baudrillard’s (1994) discussion, particularly the ‘orders’ of representation and reproduction, contradicts Latour and Lowe’s (2011) contention. Baudrillard contends that mass-reproduction and consumption, particularly in the postmodern era, can lead to the distinction between the original and replications being diminished thus resulting in the original object losing its value. Therefore, both physical and digital reproductions can result in the original objects losing their authenticity. Thus, taking an integrated materialist-constructivist perspective illuminates the processes that creates authenticity for digital replicas, but further how the process of replication can begin to change the authenticity of the objects being replicated. These perspectives both transcend binary static materialist assumptions of authenticity in positioning the replica as part of the original object’s ongoing ‘trajectory’. There has recently been an overwhelming focus on digital replicas’ authenticity in terms of their accuracy, resolution and aesthetics (Jones et al. 2018; Nwabueze 2017). It is important to produce accurate replicas, however the sole focus upon accurate reproduction can lead to technological fetishism, which situates the claim to authenticity in the technology used to produce and present the digital replica (Jones et al. 2018). This overlooks the construction of authenticity through interactions with heritage consumers and obscures the replicas’ wider role in heritage. The issues with appraising the authenticity of digital replicas solely in terms of their accuracy and realism can be illustrated by analysing Havemann’s (2012) Plaster Cast Museum project. The Plaster Cast Museum project involved producing 3D replicas of classical statues in the Karl Franzen University. The collaborators in this project focused solely on producing accurate, realistic digital replicas without much concern for the actual consumption and use of the replicas. This overarching focus saw workers identify that they should only store data that allows the user to assess the accuracy of the replica (Havemann 2012). For instance, the 3D replica of the head of Medusa allows the user to query different parts on its surface to see what source images were used in order to verify its accuracy. They considered accuracy of replication to be the sole factor in determining its authenticity. Indeed Havemann (2012 pp. 160) summarises the project by stating that ‘the aim here is to assess the authenticity of the data which we believe is the most valuable asset of IT in cultural heritage’. Ensuring the accuracy of digital replicas is crucial but to take it as the sole defining feature of their authenticity is a ‘misplaced venture’ (Jones et al. 2018 pp. 352). It represents a binary approach to authenticity that characterises materialist approaches. Havemann’s project exhibits the dangers of succumbing to a ‘technological fetishism’ (Jeffrey 2015 pp.144). Though accurate realistic 3D replicas have been produced, there is limited public engagement with them, suggesting that heritage consumers do not attribute values to them or consider them as authentic (Jeffrey 2015). However, the digital replication of the plaster cast museum can offer new insights into classical statues. Taking a constructivist approach, these new insights can create new understandings and networks of relations with heritage consumers, thus producing new forms of authenticity for the 3D replicas that were not present in the original physical statues. 3D digital replicas should focus on the creation of networks of relations through their design and consumption, so as to elicit the production and negotiation of authenticity (Jeffrey 2015). Constructing Authenticity The challenges to materialist and technocratic perspectives of authenticity are associated with the shift to postmodernity, which challenges modernity’s essentialist ideas of a singular truth (Berman 1983). Constructivists argue that authenticity is a construct of the present day, a ‘product of particular cultural contexts and specific regimes of meaning’ (Jones and Yarrow 2013 pp. 9). Constructivist accounts particularly contest the binary, static, approaches that consider authenticity to be a fixed property of tangible heritage (Su 2018). They emphasize pluralistic means by which authenticity can be produced and recognised, involving an inherently dynamic, relational approach to authenticity (Belhassen et al. 2008; Jones et al. 2018). Therefore, they consider replicas as being part of complex networks, formed as they are produced and used, in which authenticity is generated by the performance of a wide range of actors (Cohen and Cohen 2012; Foster and Curtis 2016). This destabilises the idea of authenticity being inherent in an object, instead positing authenticity to be a projection of beliefs and perceptions by heritage users (Zhu 2015). Taking a constructivist approach to the authenticity of a digital replica requires recognising it as a ‘creative work in its own right with a history and provenance’ (Cameron and Kenderdine 2007 pp. 67). This is crucial, as until we ‘acknowledge our own creativity as digital crafts-people, the digital will remain in the realm of the weird’ (Jeffrey 2015 pp. 150). As creative objects, replicas embed stories and past human endeavour; behind their creation lies a series of specific social networks and relationships that determine their values (Foster and Curtis 2016). Thus, rather than linking the authenticity of digital replicas solely to their accuracy and realism as Havemann (2012) suggests, these replicas ought to be understood as being bound up in complex dynamic networks within which authenticity is not fixed as inauthentic, or authentic, but rather is dynamically being made and remade (Rogers 2015; Jones et al. 2018). This aligns with critical perspectives that heritage is being dynamically produced, existing in a state of flux. The value in recognising the dynamism in authenticity can be demonstrated by the Mobile Museum Project, which aimed to produce digital replicas for the Nalik people, a 5000-person community residing in New Ireland, Papua New Guinea (Were 2014; 2015). As a collaborative project, it involved individuals from the Nalik community, the Queensland Museum, and the University of Queensland. The project aimed to produce digital replicas of Malangans currently held in the Queensland Museum: intricately carved wooden sculptures used in funeral rituals which are understood to arrest, contain, and release the souls of the deceased (Were 2015). They are traditionally carved for funerals by skilled sculptors, and then are either burnt or left to rot to symbolise their death (ibid). Yet, this aspect of the funeral rituals has been in decline in Nalik communities, and there are fears amongst Naliks that this part of their cultural identity could be lost. In this context, the interactions and use of the digital replicas of Malangans demonstrate the value of an integrated approach to authenticity that negotiates both materialist and constructivist perspectives. Nalik individuals describe the production of 3D replicas as akin to returning the physical originals, as interacting with them brought back stories, traditions, and values of the past (Were 2015). Further, individuals described 3D replicas as providing a ‘sense of completeness’ that had been lost due to the decline of traditional rituals (Were 2015). Thus, the digital replicas are transmitting similar heritage values as the original Malangans. Indeed, the digital replicas were providing authentic connections to the past, an emotive sensation of being close to their ancestors who created and interacted with the physical Malangans. This is markedly similar to Benjamin’s (1936) description of the aura and authenticity of physical objects, demonstrating a migration of some degree of the original’s authenticity to the digital replica (Latour and Lower 2011). The context of declining traditional rituals and a loss of cultural identity gives the production of 3D replicas of Malangans particular importance in transmitting authentic values. Thus, the 3D replicas acquire new forms of authenticity, additional to those acquired from the physical originals (Foster and Curtis 2016). The digital replicas of Malangans are objects in their own right, rather than just extensions of the physical original (Were 2015). They produce and embed themselves in complex relationships in which their authenticity is constantly made and remade (Jones et al. 2018). These relationships connect heritage consumers and original objects, but also involve novel interactions with the digital replicas. The community collaboration in their production is particularly important in creating networks through the communal ownership, participation and energy in their production (Jeffrey 2015). For instance, for Nalik individuals, their role in producing and interacting with 3D replicas is a sign of their development and engagement with processes of modernisation (Were 2015). Thus, alongside providing a connection to the past, these models are valued as signifiers of progress. In Walter Benjamin’s terms this sees them creating a ‘new historical testimony’. Furthermore, the 3D replicas have played a crucial role in both community and individual identity building for Nalik communities (Were 2015). By renewing and co-creating cultural identity, the 3D replicas produce their own authentic values for Nalik individuals as they construct their own meanings and knowledge (Bachi et al. 2014; Mazel 2017). The ability of digital replicas to provide ways of seeing, interacting with and experiencing Malangans is at the forefront of their role in co-constructing cultural identity. For instance, the models incorporate ‘hot spots’ which can be selected to launch detailed photographs of different parts of the replica (Were 2015). These were valued in their ability to educate modern sculptors, allowing them to reproduce replicas of the physical originals from the digital replicas (Were 2014). The authenticity of 3D replicas is constructed by Nalik individuals through values being attributed to the replicas during their production and use. Thus, their authenticity is not merely fixed in the technology due to a migration of a degree of the original object’s authenticity. Rather, new forms of authenticity are being dynamically generated as the 3D replicas are used and valued in different ways by Nalik individuals. In conjunction with being valued for providing an authentic connection to the past, they are valued for their role in (re)constructing cultural identity, their representation of technological advancement, the new experiences they provide and their ability to impart knowledge to sculptors. The dynamism of the 3D replicas’ authenticity exemplifies the limitations of materialist approaches to authenticity. The binary approach to authenticity that they entail overlooks the role of these 3D replicas as authentic heritage objects and bearers of significant value for their consumers. However, it is important to identify the prevailing influence of materiality and originality in the transmission of values and authenticity. The value of 3D replicas in enabling Nalik sculptors to relearn past patterns is accentuated as Naliks were unwilling to handle original Malangans due to the fear of the ancestral powers they possessed (Were 2015). Resultantly, although they were unable to replicate the designs of the originals, they were willing to replicate and interact with the 3D replicas (Were 2014). It is important to note that this varies across cultures. For instance, digital replicas of Maori artefacts are perceived by Maori communities to have the same ancestral spirits as their physical originals (Brown 2007). The loss of ancestral powers in the digital reproduction of Malangans indicates that part of the aura and authenticity of the original has not been reproduced. Indeed, that the 3D digital replicas did not transmit ancestral powers evidently represents that they have lost part of the original objects’ ‘essence of all that is transmissible’ (Benjamin 1936 pp. 222), which can be used to support Benjamin’s (1936 pp. 221) contention that ‘the whole sphere of authenticity is outside technical…reproducibility’. Further, it indicates that as Baudrillard (1994) suggests, replication may affect the aura and authenticity of the original physical Malangans. This indicates that materialist approaches to authenticity are still necessary. To take a fully constructivist approach would involve ignoring the importance of materiality, thereby failing to fully comprehend the experience of authenticity in practice (Belhassen et al. 2008). Materiality is undoubtedly still important, even research challenging materialist approaches to authenticity recognise its importance in experiencing and negotiating authenticity (Jones et al. 2018). Thus, it is necessary to negotiate both constructivist and materialist perspectives which involves conceptualising authenticity as a product of the interactions between people, places, and objects (Jones 2010; Jones et al. 2018). Such an approach identifies the role of digital replicas in wider heritage processes, for instance in identity building, education’ and providing novel experiences. Further, it provides a dynamic understanding of authenticity that recognises that heritage is not static, but rather is being constantly made and unmade. **Conclusion** Digital replicas are being produced at an increasing rate (Rogers 2015). This essay has demonstrated that taking a dichotomous materialist approach ignores the wider work of digital objects in heritage, for instance in identity building, repatriation, restoring traditional customs and transmitting heritage values (Jones et al. 2018). Thus, it is vital to move beyond the binary, materialist perceptions that classify digital objects as inauthentic. Indeed, the Mobile Museum Project illustrated that digital replicas can acquire a degree of authenticity and aura from the physical originals during their production as Latour and Lowe (2011) suggest. However, constructivist approaches go beyond this migration, demonstrating that digital replicas are a part of complex ‘dynamic networks of relationships between people, places, and things’ that generate new forms of authenticity (Jones et al. 2018 pp. 334). These networks are partially extensions of the original object’s networks; however, recognising digital replicas as creative objects demonstrates that they produce and embed themselves within new networks. The constructivist approach allows a recognition of the wider work of digital objects and is more appropriate for contemporary approaches to heritage studies. However, materiality remains significant as demonstrated by the differences between Naliks’ perceptions of interacting with the original Malangans and with their digital replicas. Thus, materialist perspectives cannot be completely dismissed (Jones and Yarrow 2013). An integrated approach that recognises the dynamic construction of digital replicas’ authenticity whilst appreciating the importance of materiality is required. However, in developing this understanding, it is important to continually question its appropriateness. With the digital world expanding, new approaches to heritage will undoubtedly emerge, and our interactions with digital replicas will continue to change. Accordingly, conventions of authenticity must be continually questioned to ascertain whether they reflect the contemporary approaches to heritage. Oxford University Centre for the Environment Bibliography Apaydin, V., 2018. The entanglement of the heritage paradigm: values, meanings and uses. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 24(5), pp.491-507. Bachi, V, Fressa, A, Pierotti, C and Prandoni, C (2014) ‘The Digitization Age: Mass Culture is Quality Culture. Challenges for Cultural Heritage and Society’, in Digital Heritage. 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Loneliness on Valentine’s Day My journey to the Lisbon Colloquium on Loneliness Dr Benjamin Schaper St Anne’s supported my trip to the International Colloquium on Loneliness at the Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa with an Early Career Research Grant. I set out for Portugal to get some inspiration for my post-doctoral research project on loneliness and human-machine interaction from Romanticism to the Digital Age. In line with recent historical approaches to loneliness such as Fay Bound Alberti’s *A Biography of Loneliness* (2019), the conference followed a cultural historical approach in order to comparatively grasp fictional representations of loneliness across various media and in various cultural contexts, providing a background to contemporary debates on loneliness as a potential modern pandemic (see e.g. George Monbiot: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/oct/14/age-of-loneliness-killing-us; or Manfred Spitzer’s 2018 monograph *Einsamkeit: Die Unerkannte Krankheit / Loneliness: The Undetected Disease*). I initially contacted Lisbon’s German Department and Research Centre for Comparative Literature in spring 2018, proposing my idea for what would eventually become the conference held on the 13th and 14th of February 2020. The Call for Papers that I drafted with Professor Gerd Hammer, Head of Lisbon’s German Department, attracted colleagues from institutions around the world, including Columbia University in New York, the University of Mpumalanga in South Africa, the Universidad de Granada, Warsaw University, and the Freie Universität in Berlin. (For the programme see: https://lisemotions.weebly.com) The conference traced loneliness as a literary motive across a range of periods and artistic forms. Presenters focused prominently on the German Romantic phenomenon of *Waldeinsamkeit*, a rather positive idea of loneliness as seeking refuge from the accelerated pace of life experienced by most people in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution, stemming from the tradition of Rousseau’s 1782 book *Reveries of a Solitary Walker*. The conference’s exploration of this particular notion culminated in Kathrin Wittler’s detailed analysis of Goethe’s famous poem “Über allen Gipfeln” and Professor Jochen Hörisch’s enlightening keynote speech on the influence of Romantic poetry on Karl Marx. In addition to presentations exploring the productive and beneficial solitude of German Romanticism, colleagues gave intriguing papers on gender politics in recent Sci-Fi literature, East German queer cinema, and the loneliness of the monarch in Shakespeare’s *Richard III*. Overall it became clear that earlier periods, particularly before the recognition of transcendental loneliness as established by Friedrich Nietzsche, had a much more positive view of loneliness, which was seen as a state of connection with the divine and nature and as a source for artistic inspiration. This differs quite significantly from the supposed contemporary desire for constant digital connection, which eventually more often than not rather aggravates than cures loneliness (see e.g. Sherry Turkle’s *Alone Together*) – an issue that is all the more pertinent during the global COVID-19 pandemic, in which lockdowns and border closures enforce loneliness by keeping families and friends apart, with potentially grave effects on mental health. Particularly social media are seen as a tool to replace to ensure social connection virtually when embodied meetings could prove fatal. In this context, nature becomes an important meeting space, resembling the Romantics’ desire for *Waldeinsamkeit* as a secure refuge. This basis in Romantic literature was the most valuable insight I gained for my post-doctoral project as besides the period of Modernism in the beginning of the 20th Century and the Digital Age, it is the one at which the question of technology’s influence on social bonds intersects with a striking artistic interest in human-machine interaction. I am currently preparing two articles on the topic: The first explores the potential of human-machine interaction as a cure for loneliness in Alex Garland’s *Ex Machina*, Spike Jonze’s *Her*, and Charlie Brooker’s and Annabel Jones’ *Black Mirror*, with reference to Romantic predecessors such as E.T.A. Hoffmann’s novella *Der Sandmann* or the Brothers Grimm’s version of the Bluebeard myth. The second article analyses Austrian author Marlen Haushofer’s influence on the novels of Robert Seethaler and Thomas von Steinaecker, drawing on the Romantic notion of *Waldeinsamkeit* and the escape into nature from an accelerating technical world. On the whole, my Lisbon conference experience has not only deepened my knowledge of the loneliness in the 19th Century but also expanded my international academic network. After the presentations, our discussions continued over bacalhau and vinho verde and future collaborations were initiated: I was invited to join the *Solitude – Die Einsamkeit der Literatur* (“Literature’s Loneliness”) early career research group supported by the *Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft* (“German Research Foundation”), which is currently being established at the Freie Universität, Berlin, which opens up the possibility of a further conference on loneliness as the source for artistic inspiration. A conference anthology will be published as a special issue of the academic journal *Dedalus - Revista Portuguesa de Literatura Comparada* in summer 2021. *Faculty of Medieval and Modern Languages* Early in Terrence Malick’s *A Hidden Life* (2019), Fani Jägerstätter (Valerie Pachner), looks up nervously from the Austrian mountain village of St. Radegund as she hears the low rumbling of a military aircraft. We do not see the plane; only her reaction to the noise. This moment signals the arrival of war to this remote location and the hardship it causes Fani, her husband Franz (August Diehl) and the rest of her family. Crucially, this moment is articulated through sound. *A Hidden Life* is centrally concerned with the sounds of war and how it might be recorded and remembered through sound, representing a more sensory, immediate experience of conflict. Robert Sinnerbrink cites Malick as a filmmaker whose films enlist spectators ‘to experiment with the aesthetic disclosure of alternative ways of thinking and feeling, acting and being, in our relations with nature and culture’ (Sinnerbrink, p. 43). I argue along similar lines that Malick uses diegetic and non-diegetic sound to enable an alternative, bodily evocation of war. Owen Gleiberman describes *A Hidden Life* as ‘a cathedral of the senses’, encapsulating its incorporation of the spiritual and the corporeal (Gleiberman). Sound and silence are the gateway to this corporeal, yet spiritual, experience. **Silence, Nostalgia, Intimacy** Critical response to the film has been mixed. Gleiberman lists *A Hidden Life* in his top ten films of 2019, and Sophie Monks Kaufman calls it ‘An exquisitely emotional and thorough account of an individual resisting state fascism’ (Kaufman, p. 13). Yet Sight and Sound and the Guardian critique it for distancing the horrors of the Holocaust through Malick’s rhapsodic, lyrical style (James, Bradshaw): Peter Bradshaw complains that ‘Malick has in a way marooned and islanded Jägerstatter, detaching him from much of the larger historical context’ (Bradshaw). Yet as Kaufman argues, this is precisely Malick’s intention, and by rooting the film in their relationship and its connection to the land, *A Hidden Life* avoids excessive abstraction (Kaufman, pp. 12-13). The film begins with Franz’s voice and a black screen. Franz speaks wistfully, in English, of his misguided belief that he and his family could live life ‘up in the trees’ like birds, away from earthly concerns. The opening scenes of the Jägerstatters’ everyday life in St. Radegund evokes this aerial existence. Franz and Fani are depicted working and playing with their children with a constant panoramic backdrop of mountain, cloud, and sky. These early scenes are notable for their silence and slowness. Narrative, personal or historical, does not seem to impinge on the languorous playing out of the quotidian. There are the noises of scythes being sharpened, grass being scythed, of bells ringing and cows mooing, as well as Fani and Franz’s playful whisperings and polite small talk with other villagers. However, these early scenes mostly transpire in contemplative silence, shifting the focus to the magnificent landscape and the labour that takes place on it. Fani and Franz finally begin talking significantly inside their cosy wooden cabin, reminiscing about their first meeting. As the film’s musical theme, ‘A Hidden Life’, (composed by James Newton Howard), begins, this conversation transmutes into voiceover. Fani remembers Franz’s motorbike, which we see threading through mountain roads, but do not hear. Again, this Edenic location is represented noiselessly. We see a village party and Franz approaching Fani but do not hear them speak. Only the sounds of nature, farm work, and the Jägerstätter’s voices transcend this: insignificant noises which do not overpower Fani’s voiceover. The voiceover evokes only quiet, repetitive daily life. The Noises of War The end of this voiceover leads directly to Fani’s worried response to the aircraft. Soon after, Franz is conscripted and sent to Enns Military Base. Franz marches in formation in soldiers’ uniform; the stomping of feet impose a rhythmic and loud presence. The voiceover’s aural prominence is highlighted once more, as it overpowers this stomping as Franz reads a letter to Fani explaining that he is enjoying his training, and silent shots depict him playing and laughing with another man. Homosociality has replaced intimate family life, but Franz muses that he would ‘love to hear her singing’. The rowdy play of the base is not the same as the quietude of St. Radegund. This is confirmed as his new friend’s song is replaced by Franz’s scream as he stabs a scarecrow with a bayonet, a symbolic piercing of their Edenic dream. Pastoral silence is replaced by sudden, violent noise. An opposition is thus established between the noise of war and the silence of a pre-war pastoral world. However, this aural evocation of war, and the calm before it, is connected to the other senses. St. Radegund’s initial silence allows for physical intimacy with other bodies and the earth itself. Walter Ong observes that hearing is the only sense which ‘can register interiority’ (Ong, p. 70). He asserts that ‘[s]ight isolates, sound incorporates. Whereas sight situates the viewer outside what he views, at a distance, sound pours into the hearer’ (Ong, p. 70). Ong evokes the way in which sound connects us to the physical world and other bodies in much the same way as *A Hidden Life*. In a literal sense, the privileging of Fani and Franz’s voiceover provides an interior narrative within the public, political story of war. Sound and physical intimacy are connected formally too. Early in the film, a quiet close-up of Franz and Fani’s hands brushing together and then holding each other as they pick potatoes shows them in contact with each other and the dirt, the tangible, physical material of their rural farm existence. The connection of quietness and intimacy is clearer when the family plays blind man’s buff. Shot in one long take, the scene contains no speech; just the occasional laugh and bell-ringing to indicate to the blindfolded Franz his family’s whereabouts. Catching one of the girls, they fall to the ground and laugh together. With the foggy mountains in the background, earth and sky come together as the silence of St. Radegund enables familial intimacy. Figure 2: Promotional image from *Variety*: https://variety.com/2019/film/columns/at-cannes-2019-cinema-came-roaring-back-1203226087/. Scholars on war and war memory have questioned the primacy of the visual in memorialising war, foregrounding the other senses, especially for marginalised people away from the frontline or without the clear vantage point to experience war visually. In her book on ‘postmemory’ and the Holocaust, Marianne Hersch observes that ‘[t]he bodily, psychic, and affective impact of trauma and its aftermath [...] exceeds the bounds of traditional historical archives and methodologies’ (Hersch p. 2). This could be extended to methods of narrating history on film too. The everyday experience of war, *A Hidden Life* suggests, can only be narrated by transcending the visual. Up in the Austrian mountains, Franz and his family initially have a clear view of life, articulated in the long shots which depict the beautiful, silent landscape with majestic clarity. However, these views are revealed to be obscuring the reality of war occurring outside their ‘nest’ in the clouds. As their idyll unravels, the film implies that a ‘truer’ or more comprehensive representation of war must address the other senses, especially the sounds and feelings of war. **Transcending the Noises of War** Franz returns from Enns as farmers are no longer required for the war effort. However, the atmosphere in the village shifts: its quietness creates claustrophobia as those who oppose the Nazi regime are forced into silence by Nazi soldiers and sympathetic villagers. Hushed conversations about the war occur on dirt roads outside the village, in narrow alleyways: liminal spaces where trees or walls loom to emphasise a new claustrophobia. Franz speaks with religious figures, other villagers, and his family about his choice to remain in St. Radegund rather than enlisting; in whispers to sympathetic ears and in shouted conflict with others. In both scenarios, the other villagers get too close to Franz, underlining this sense of claustrophobia engendered by the village’s silence. As in the early scenes, the film connects sound to tactile sensation. With the arrival of the military in St. Radegund, this is no longer pleasurable physical contact but a disconcerting, disorienting sense of the external world pressing in in the silence that renders expressing dissent impossible. Later, as another villager shouts Nazi propaganda, the soundtrack is silent apart from the slowly increasing noise of a train. The film then suddenly cuts to silence and blackness, a full stop that signals the end of intimacy and quietude. Franz is called up again and boards a train. As it pulls away, the sound of the train overwhelms all and Franz disappears from view. Shots of Fani talking to her children and her saddened sister, then Franz arriving at Enns are still soundtracked only by the train’s noise. Sounds of machinery and metal, of warfare, overwhelm the family. The sequence in which Franz begins again at Enns, refuses to pledge allegiance to Hitler, and is consequently arrested is underpinned by a darker choral score, as well as the sound of other soldiers pledging. Franz’s silence here marks him out. The violence Franz experiences for his silent resistance is associated with the mechanical sounds of war: the train and aircraft which overwhelm voices and the rest of the soundtrack. When Franz is sent to Tegel prison, where he spends most of the film, the clanking and slamming of metal doors and handcuffs is, after a series of shots on the train which similarly emphasise its clanking over tracks and hellish close-ups of the furnace and the noise of coal being shovelled. It is through this evocation of the noise of warfare, especially the noises of imprisonment and of trains which shuttled Jewish people and other minority groups to concentration camps, that the Holocaust is registered. On hearing the rumble of a vehicle outside, Franz uses the chair in his prison cell to climb up and look out of the high window. A furious guard enters his cell—we hear the door creaking before we see him—and his chair is taken away. Deprived of a view of the outside world, Franz’s war experience is reduced to sound once more, the discordant and jarring noises of the prison. Throughout his stay in Tegel, however, the Jägerstätters’ experiences are soundtracked by voiceovers of their letters, delivered in the same calm, quiet, even tone as other voiceovers in the film. As voiceover, delivered almost regardless of what is occurring on screen, they provide an aural escape for both Franz and Fani from prison life and a claustrophobic St. Radegund. In one of his few interviews, Malick asserts that voiceover ‘seems to work better’ when it ‘doesn’t have a direct relationship to what’s happening’ (quoted in Michaels, p. 108). Charlotte Crofts compares this disjunction between voiceover and image in Malick’s films to Soviet montage cinema, suggesting that the dialectic created between these is exploited to political effect in his works (Crofts, pp. 22-23). In *A Hidden Life*, the voiceover creates a personal, interior narrative which serves as an escape from war as well as a critique of it. At one point, a guard gleefully explains to Franz that he can do whatever he wants to him, and no one will know. Franz’s resistance renders him vulnerably unheard. Yet as this guard enacts this power, bashing bits of the cell with his truncheon and then beating Franz, the noises of this violence, the clanking, crashing, bashing and beating that has characterised his prison time, is silenced by Franz’s voice, talking of his ‘shepherd’, his ‘light’, who makes him ‘lie down in green pastures’. The ambiguity about whether this refers to Fani or God, whether he is writing a letter or speaking a prayer, gives his love for Fani a spiritual power. An internal quietude and calmness—and an internal connection with Fani and God—allows him to transcend the noisy violence of his imprisonment. ![Still from A Hidden Life trailer.](image) Figure 3: Still from *A Hidden Life* trailer. It is not just hearing these letters but the speaking of them which blocks out the violence of the imprisonment. The voiceovers give these characters, silenced by the Nazi regime, a voice. Another German officer, trying to convince him to relinquish his silence, asks Franz if he thinks anyone will ever ‘hear of you’. We do hear both Franz. It is sound which allows the Jägerstätters to rise above the noise of war, and as a result, to be remembered. This gets to the heart of the questions raised by the film. How might we remember war, and not just its frontline experiences? Is the primacy of the visual, which war cinema has been central in establishing, enough to represent its horrors, traumas, and even small moments of escape, intimacy, respite? *A Hidden Life* aims to offer a more comprehensive sensory representation of war. Sound is the vehicle that enables this. **Sound and the History of War Cinema** Malick’s film about the experience of war away from the front is also, implicitly, about the history of war film, about the ways in which World War 2, and war more generally, has been represented. At various moments, the film cuts to archival footage, drawing attention to its part in this wider tradition. After Franz’s voiceover about life in the trees, the film’s first images are black-and-white shots of the city of Nuremberg taken from a plane, footage of Hitler travelling through the streets by car, and the massive Nuremberg Nazi rally of 1934. This material is taken from Leni Riefenstahl’s Nazi propaganda film, *Triumph of the Will* (1935). A vision of a life lived in the trees, mountains, or as Fani later puts it, the clouds, is immediately undermined by the image of Hitler’s plane viewing the world from above, the totalising view of war strategy and aerial bombing. Later, with the news of the occupation of France at Enns, the trainee soldiers watch a silent newsreel of the invasion, in which we hear the clapping and cheering of soldiers, and see, intercut with the archival footage, Franz’s anxious face not sharing in their patriotic enthusiasm. Finally, shortly before he is called up for the second time, Franz tells Fani of a dream he has had about a train, in which he cannot see the landscape but can only feel the speed of its movement, the muscularity of its mechanical body. This train is depicted on screen in black and white in quickly cutting shots from various points of view. Strangely, however, this cuts suddenly to grainy colour footage of Hitler holding hands with a young girl, taken by Eva Braun herself at Hitler’s own mountain retreat in the Bavarian Alps, known in English as the ‘Eagle’s Nest’. Literally on the other side of the Alps to Franz and Fani, this strange moment in which dream and reality collide, reminds us of Hitler’s proximity to them, his ability to penetrate their clouds. Figure 4: Still from *A Hidden Life* trailer. Propaganda film, newsreel, home movie: three versions of war film, all of which merge with *A Hidden Life*’s own account of war. All of these films are silent, providing visual, but not aural archival traces of the war, other ways of representing it that impact on Franz and Fani’s own experience, while also only representing official narratives. In their lack of sound, they are unable to give the full embodied experience of war which *A Hidden Life* represents. Of course, for the spectator, a later, unspoken intertext is a different kind of war film. As the title of this article alludes, the story of a man taken from his family in the Austrian mountains because of the war, dealing with the religious and moral implications of fighting for the Nazis, and experiencing this through sound, invokes Robert Wise’s *The Sound of Music* (1965). Alongside the newsreel, ‘documentary’, and home movie accounts of the war, a popular musical film version of World War 2 is also silently present. *The Sound of Music* tells its story of war through song: the conflict that Georg Von Trapp feels between his patriotism and his opposition to Nazism is expressed through his singing of ‘Edelweiss’, a song which also makes evident to him that his family of singers is more important than his loyalty to Austria. The only singing in *A Hidden Life* is the quiet singing of Fani and her sister, shortly after Franz has told her in a letter that he misses hearing her sing. Song is not the narrative driver that it is in *The Sound of Music* but it forms part of a wider tapestry or landscape of sound and silence that evoke a previously unspoken, unheard experience of war. The film ends with Franz’s execution. As he and other political prisoners wait outside the execution chamber, a younger man also condemned to death sits next to him on a bench. The noise of a guillotine is the only sound as the two men sit in silence, hearing their fate without seeing it. The younger man kisses Franz’s neck and Franz returns this, brushing his lips against his cheek before he is pulled away to his death. This is another, final moment of silent resistance. Like the continuation of his marriage through voiceover, Franz achieves a final moment of intimacy in the face of the impersonal noisiness of the machinery of death, fascism, and war. In our current moment of loud, ascendant fascism, it might be questioned whether ‘quiet resistance’ is an act worth valorising, or whether shouting back might be more productive. Given the role that the British Empire and the Anglo-American eugenics movement played in the genesis of Nazism, and the genocidal war crimes like the atom bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 or the British response to the Bengal famine in 1943, issue might also be taken with the partitioning of the violent shouting of Nazis in un-subtitled German from the English spoken by Franz and Fani, and the moral superiority of English that this implies. Notwithstanding, the film offers a meditation on cinema’s ability to evoke war’s aurality. *A Hidden Life*’s sounds and the silences offer an alternative means of articulating war, of speaking of and for those who experienced it in all of its multisensory dimensions. **Humanities Division** **Filmography** Malick, T. (2019). *A Hidden Life*. Fox Searchlight Pictures. **Bibliography** Bradshaw, P. (2019). ‘A Hidden Life review - Terrence Malick’s rhapsody to a conscientious objector’, *Guardian*, 19 May, https://www.theguardian.com/film/2019/may/19/a-hidden-life-review-terrence-malicks-rhapsody-to-an-austrian-conscientious-objector. Crofts, C. (2001). ‘From the “hegemony of the eye” to the “hierarchy of perception”: The reconfiguration of sound and image in Terrence Malick’s *Days of Heaven*’, *Journal of Media Practice*, 2.1, pp. 19-29. Gleiberman, O. and Debruge, P. (2019). ‘The Best Films of 2019’, *Variety*, https://variety.com/feature/best-films-2019-joker-irishman-toy-story-4-1203423630/. Hersch, M. (2012). *The Generation of Postmemory: Writing and Visual Culture after the Holocaust* (New York and Chichester: Columbia University Press). James, N. (2019). ‘A Hidden Life first look: Terrence Malick floats over the storm clouds of war’, *Sight and Sound* Web Exclusive, 19 May, https://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/sight-sound-magazine/reviews-recommendations/hidden-life-terrence-malick-franz-jagerst%C3%A4tter-anschluss-story. Kaufman, S. M. (2020). ‘A Review of *A Hidden Life*’, *Little White Lies* 83, pp. 10-13. Michaels, L. (2008). *Terrence Malick* (Urbana and Chicago, University of Illinois Press). Ong, W. (2002). *Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word* (London and New York: Routledge). Riefenstahl, L. (1935). *Triumph of the Will* [DVD]. Leni Riefenstahl-Produktion. Rybin, S. (2012). *Terrence Malick and the Thought of Film* (Lanham: Lexington Books). Sinnerbrink, R. (2011). ‘Re-enfranchising Film: Towards a Romantic Film-Philosophy’, in *New Takes in Film Philosophy*, eds Havi Carel and Greg Tuck (New York: Palgrave Macmillan). Wise, R. (1965). *The Sound of Music* [DVD]. Robert Wise Production. Satire on Steroids in Autumn de Wilde’s *Emma* Elena Porter Review of: *Emma* (2020) Film Screenplay by Eleanor Catton Directed by Autumn de Wilde “Everybody has their level”, retorts an astonished Mr Elton, the local vicar, upon discovering that Emma Woodhouse – handsome, clever, and rich – intends to refuse his offer of marriage. Her encouragement of his suit has not been for herself, but for her new friend, Harriet Smith: a parlour border from an unidentified family, whose father Emma has both optimistically and cruelly assumed must be a gentleman. Upon discovery that her unfounded confidence in Harriet’s marital prospects has no place amid the village of Highbury’s rigid social hierarchy, Emma’s vision is shattered. Some men may overlook the misfortune of Harriet’s background, explains the vicar, but *he* could not be expected to. Misunderstanding follows Elton’s (Josh O’Connor) troubles to frame Emma’s portrait of Harriet. From IMBD: [https://www.imdb.com/title/tt9214832/mediaviewer/rm2614737665](https://www.imdb.com/title/tt9214832/mediaviewer/rm2614737665). It is here that Autumn de Wilde’s adaptation of Jane Austen’s most unusual novel starts to get interesting, as we see the social skirmishes at the story’s heart unfold. Set in Regency England, the narrative of *Emma* (1816) hinges on the social structure of a small country village. After crediting herself with the successful match between her governess, Miss Taylor, and prosperous widower Mr Weston, Emma sets her sights on securing a match for the pretty and agreeable Harriet Smith. Harriet’s position as a woman without any known family is precarious: she has few options, but the best is to secure a husband. As readers, we experience Emma’s slow realisation of her own folly. after she encourages Harriet to reject a man she loves who is also able to give her financial security: the tenant farmer, Robert Martin. When Emma’s intended match between Harriet and Mr Elton is a dramatic failure, she doubts her own wisdom, but not yet enough to revise her position on the level at which Harriet should aim to marry. Later, she believes that Harriet has fallen in love with Frank Churchill, a man set to inherit ‘one of the finest houses in Yorkshire’ – as continually, and comically, described by Josh O’Connor’s Mr Elton. Although she had originally hoped to marry Churchill herself, she has not yet come to her senses quite enough to discourage her friend. It is only when Harriet confesses that she is actually enamoured with Emma’s brother-in-law Knightley – master of the impressive Donwell Abbey, and object of Emma’s own affections – that the full consequences of her aggrandisement of Harriet strike our protagonist. The skill of the adapter lies in capturing the central dynamics of the text: Emma’s slow realisation of her own snobbery, and how it blinds her to reason; the treatment of Miss Bates, a respectable woman who has fallen on hard times, when she spouts ridiculous but endearing monologues; and the intrigue of Frank Churchill’s secret engagement to Jane Fairfax, Miss Bates’ mysterious niece. Occasionally, this version sacrifices some of the details of characters’ relationships to de Wilde’s larger ambition of depicting Highbury through a satirical lens. It’s worth the sacrifice: this adaptation captures Austen’s energy with a sincerity and subtlety that is both fresh and timely. **Style Meets Substance** Is this the twenty-first century adaptation of Austen that we have been waiting for? *Emma* is Autumn de Wilde’s first feature film (her lens is usually focused on rock stars, as a music video director) and is Booker-Prize-winner Eleanor Catton’s screenwriting debut. Catton manages a skilful adaptation of the text, retaining many of Austen’s key phrasings as written, and changing them where they might sound stilted to a modern audience. Unlike Joe Wright’s 2005 *Pride and Prejudice* (much mud, many pigs); Yorgos Lanthimos’s *The Favourite* (filthy finery); or Armando Iannucci’s *The Personal History of David Copperfield* (mud again), this *Emma* does not go in for dirt-spattering to remind us that the past was a bit grimy. In 2020, Emma’s world is almost entirely pastel-hued, and every outfit matches the wallpaper. Everything is just a little grander, and more expensive, than we might expect. It’s so easy on the eye that we might forgive the excess of it all. But in a world ruled by social mores, in which a single social misstep can provoke a small crisis, do these details not matter? The most obvious area of aggrandisement is in the houses that comprise Emma’s sheltered world. Firle Place in Sussex stands in for Emma’s family home, Hartfield. In Austen’s time, the house was owned by Henry, 4th Viscount Gage, who was one of the wealthiest men in England. Wilton House in Salisbury becomes Knightley’s seat, Donwell Abbey. This was also owned by a peer in Austen’s time – the Earl of Pembroke – and we might be forgiven for thinking that we are watching a film about the nobility rather than the gentry, as the Knightleys and the Woodhouses are. Even Harriet Smith, a fair few steps below Emma on the social ladder, is given the gilded treatment. Sure, her allowance is ‘very liberal’ (Austen, chapter VIII), but would she really be spending *quite* so much money on ribbons? Costume design has been taken up a notch from the 1996 (dir. Douglas McGrath) and 2009 (BBC TV series) adaptations; this level of colour coordination might have taken the residents of Highbury a great deal of correspondence to organise themselves. It has the potential to detract from the story. However, as Manhola Dargis notes, Austen’s text is ‘unsurprisingly durable and impervious to decorative tweaking’ (Dargis 2020). Costume designer Alexandra Byrne managed to provide the characters with a touch of modern elegance that nevertheless remains believable as Regency dress. Moreover, this attention to sartorial detail reflects Emma’s own preoccupation with appearances. She must be *seen* to behave impeccably, regardless of the true intentions behind her actions. The film’s first scene, in which Emma goes down to the greenhouse at dawn to create a bouquet for her governess, captures this side of Emma perfectly. Emma poses underneath the lanterns that the footmen have been charged with dangling above her head as she floats around the flowers and instructs her maid to cut a choice few blooms. This is just one example of how, in straying from a more realistic depiction of the characters’ appearances, the film elaborates character traits visually. Harriet and Emma, played by Mia Goth and Anya Taylor-Joy. From IMBD: https://www.imdb.com/title/tt9214832/mediaviewer/rm3889806081. The effect of this general glamorization is to shift everyone slightly up the social hierarchy. It mostly works, except when a few characters are left behind. Robert Martin, Harriet’s suitor, is still a tenant farmer. The even greater disparity between Emma’s social standing and his changes the nature of her rejection of him (on her friend’s behalf). It’s a small detail, but this is frustrating in a story in which plot points hinge on details of social disparity. Lest we get lost completely in a fairy tale, de Wilde sobers us with a sudden nosebleed at the film’s dramatic climax: Knightley’s declaration of love for Emma. This directorial decision is the highlight of the film. Emma is too focused on her concern that a match between herself and Knightley would upset Harriet (personal growth!) to indulge in a neat romantic moment, and the scene maintains the characters’ slightly awkward dynamic in a way that is both funny and moving. The dramatic intensity of these small but pivotal moments of village life is heightened by the operatic and string-filled score, from Isobel Waller-Bridge and David Schweitzer. It succeeds in enhancing the absurdist elements of the world that de Wilde has created, with overlays of melodramatic motifs, but overshoots the mark. The music quickly becomes repetitive, and is not as easy on the ear as the production design is on the eye. There is enough visual absurdism in the Handmaid’s Tale-esque troop of red capes when the parlour boarders traipse across the screen, and in the clever camerawork that draws our attention to the minute details of social interactions. The inclusion of folk music that was popular in the seventies, such as The Watertons’ *Country Life* and Maddy Prior’s and June Tabor’s *Game of Cards*, provides welcome contrast to the intensity of the main themes and further elevates some of the film’s happier moments. Johnny Flynn’s contribution to the soundtrack, *Queen Bee*, is a similarly refreshing addition. **Badly Done, Emma?** Greta Gerwig’s *Little Women* (2019) demonstrated that there is plenty of appetite for a refreshed version of a classic penned by a woman – especially when there is scope for beloved fictional women to find new empowerment under the female gaze. We get this from the 2020 *Emma*, too, but the feminism is all in the details. Famously, Austen described Emma as ‘a heroine whom no one but myself will much like’; and this is the central conceit of the novel. An adaptation of *Emma* must live or die by the protagonist’s characterisation. Emma is blatantly, and knowingly, selfish. Her attempts to remedy this are misplaced, and only serve to simultaneously mask and deepen her vanity. In the novel, Austen skilfully switches the authorial voice between her own assessment of Emma, and Emma’s own way of viewing the world. The reader is kept on their toes. Previous film and TV adaptations of *Emma* have sought to maintain this ambiguity with the inclusion of a narrator, to recount Austen’s carefully-worded characterisation. In the 2020 adaptation, we are given an abridged version of the novel’s first line – ‘Emma Woodhouse, handsome, clever, and rich, [...] had lived nearly twenty-one years in the world with very little to distress or vex her’ – and then left to fend for ourselves. The exclusion of the narrative voice creates a great feat for the actor. They must play ambiguity; we are not *supposed* to know whether we like Emma – whether we approve of her actions and the motivations behind them, or condemn her vanity outright. Anya Taylor-Joy’s Emma is the meanest yet, so it is no wonder that the director did not feel the need to include the complete, jarring irony of the opening sentence: ‘... with a comfortable home and happy disposition, [Emma] seemed to unite some of the best blessings of existence ...’. This Emma is almost completely unlikeable – where is that ‘happy disposition’? – at least until the final third of the film, when she finally realises the full extent of her errors and the pain that they have caused both others and (the clincher!) herself. Taylor-Joy pulls it off. Emma’s meanness is the great strength of this adaptation, although it is the element that has ruffled most feathers among those who prefer an Emma who has better intentions at heart – like Gwyneth Paltrow’s 1996 portrayal, or Alicia Silverstone’s Cher Horowitz in *Clueless* (1995), in which Emma is a spoilt teenager living in Beverly Hills. But why should a woman who has grown up pampered and wanting for nothing be fundamentally good and charitable? She has to learn these qualities, and de Wilde gives her greater scope to do so – even if the slow start to Emma’s education in humility is a little tiring in the film’s first thirty minutes. We have to wait for the penny to drop, but when it does it is all the more believable and all the more satisfying. George Knightley played by Johnny Flynn, from IMBD: https://www.imdb.com/title/tt9214832/mediaviewer/rm2430188289. The same is true of the central romance between Emma and George Knightley, played by Johnny Flynn. Knightley is sixteen years Emma’s senior, and her constant critic. Flynn provides a welcome fresh take on the character. Knightley’s eminent sense contrasts so starkly with Emma’s vanity that the match can seem an unlikely one. Flynn is able to make his character’s fondness for Emma clear from the beginning, while maintaining enough ambiguity to enable the realisation that the couple are in love (during a steamy turn about the dance floor) to transform him, briefly, into a lovestruck fool. This Knightley is vulnerable: he is the subject of the “natural nudity” of which cinema-goers are warned at the titles; we see him undress and dress after a long journey, demonstrating that it was not only women who suffered the rituals and constraints of status-appropriate clothing. (Some Janeites (i.e. dedicated Austen purists) have boycotted the film on the grounds that Austen does not need or want sullying with this apparent vulgarity.) He struggles with his very high, very starched, collars throughout the film – but his efforts are appreciated. Many of the other characters are expertly played, too – though Josh O’Connor’s Mr Elton and Callum Turner’s Frank Churchill cannot match the subtlety of Flynn’s performance. Both are played as caricatures: Elton entirely for laughs, and Churchill as a womanizer. Churchill is supposed to be Knightley’s main rival for Emma’s affections, but her flirtation with the long-awaited Frank is only superficial in this version. The story can withstand these weak characterisations, but the most substantial departure from Austen – in the depiction of the friendship between Emma and Harriet friendship – is a heavier blow. Taylor-Joy’s Emma is cold and often dismissive towards Mia Goth’s bouncy and juvenile Harriet. Goth’s performance is predominantly comic, which works as a happy contrast to Emma’s harshness. However, Emma’s interest in Harriet – beyond her potential as a match-making project – is not obvious for most of the film. When later scenes highlight their warmth and affection towards each other, it comes as a bit of a surprise. However, if this is the price of a meaner depiction of Emma, it is just about justified. The peripheral characters are played to great comic effect. Connor Swindells takes a brief but star turn as Harriet’s love interest, Robert Turner, and Miranda Hart’s signature comic style adapts well to the character of Miss Bates – although we miss the humorous dynamic between her and her silent mother. Her niece, Jane Fairfax, the object of Emma’s envy, is suitably and discreetly angst-ridden as played by Amber Anderson. Bill Nighy is in his element as the pernickety hypochondriac Mr Woodhouse, who performs elaborate choreography with fire screens to fend off cold chills about the house. Mrs Elton, a later addition to the narrative, is given a suitably haughty portrayal in Tanya Reynolds, who deftly ekes out every ounce of humour in her minimal screen time. Mr and Mrs Elton, Josh O’Connor and Tanya Reynolds, take tea with Miss Woodhouse, from IMBD: https://www.imdb.com/title/tt9214832/mediaviewer/rm2530851585. Indeed, this film’s specialism is moments of levity and humour. In interviews, Autumn de Wilde has spoken about the huge influence that screwball comedies of the 1930s have had on her work, and particularly on *Emma*. Critic Mark Kermode believes that the screwball element of this adaptation ‘reduces the complexities of the original text to a rather more caricatured screen romp’ (Kermode, 2020). However, the dynamics of these romantic comedies – often riffing off class tension, and brimming with physical humour – find excellent parallels in the comedy of misunderstandings and class-based awkwardness in *Emma*, and de Wilde succeeded in amplifying these elements. The scene in which Knightley dashes to Emma’s house as dawn breaks on the ball, after their mutual realisation of their attraction, is a perfect example of this. As Emma rushes out to meet him, Frank Churchill arrives with Harriet in his arms; she is dramatically deposited on a chaise longue, and the men run back and forth in a scramble to follow Emma’s orders. For some, it may seem overblown: this is the first time we have seen Knightley lose his composure, and he loses it completely. But the scene is convincing as the climax of slowly-escalated tensions between Emma, Knightley and Churchill. Harriet’s theatrics work as a display of how far Emma’s vanity has rubbed off on her friend. The slapstick provides another layer of subtlety to the characterisations, rather than reducing the original complexity. Ultimately, de Wilde contains a strong, fresh take on Emma – and, crucially, her relationship with Knightley – in a pretty, comical picture. Our protagonist is portrayed as written by Austen and without compromise that would render her more “likeable”, unlike other adaptations. The central dynamics emerge intact, and enhanced, from the screwball comedy treatment, and the high stylisation of the production works within this framework (despite the resultant misleading representation of the character’s social situations). If we can overlook the excess of glamour, and Janeites can overlook the nudity, *Emma* is the most incisive adaptation of this classic novel yet. **Faculty of History** **Filmography** De Wilde, A. (2020) *Emma*. Working Title Films, Blueprint Pictures, Perfect World Pictures. Lanthimos, Y. (2018). *The Favourite*. Fox Searchlight Pictures, Film 4, Waypoint Entertainment, Element Pictures, Scarlet Films, TSG Entertainment, BFI Film Fund. McGrath, D. (1996). *Emma*. Miramax, Matchmaker Films, Haft Entertainment. Welch, S. (2009). *Emma*. BBC Drama Productions. Wright, J. (2005). *Pride and Prejudice*. Focus Features, Universal Pictures, StudioCanal, Working Title Films, Scion Films. Dargis, M. (2020). ‘*Emma* Review: Back on the Manor, but Still Clueless’, *The New York Times*, 20 February, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/20/movies/emma-review.html. Gerwig, G. (2020). *Little Women*. Columbia Pictures, Regency Enterprises, Pascal Pictures, Sony Pictures Entertainment. Heckerling, A. (1995). *Clueless*. Paramount Pictures. Iannucci, A., (2019). *The Personal History of David Copperfield*. Film 4, FilmNation Entertainment, Searchlight Pictures. **Bibliography** Austen, J. (1815). *Emma*. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Harris, H. (2020). ‘*Harold and Maude*, Beck, and 7 Other Things That Influenced *Emma*’, *Vulture*, 3 March, [https://www.vulture.com/2020/03/autumn-de-wilde-emma-influences.html](https://www.vulture.com/2020/03/autumn-de-wilde-emma-influences.html). Kermode, M. (2020). ‘*Emma* review – Austen’s sweet satire gets a multiplex makeover’, The Guardian, 16 February, [https://www.theguardian.com/film/2020/feb/16/emma-review-autumn-de-wilde-anya-taylor-joy-bill-nighy-johnny-flynn](https://www.theguardian.com/film/2020/feb/16/emma-review-autumn-de-wilde-anya-taylor-joy-bill-nighy-johnny-flynn). Review of: *An Indifference of Birds* (2020) Written by Richard Smyth Birds have been concretised as familiar figures in literary tradition and the popular imagination: to name a few, they have been portents of death, icons of freedom, vestiges of idyllic times past. Yet these are appellations humans ascribe to birds, who carry these manmade ideas on delicate wings. Birds, however, harbour scant attachment to us other than as purveyors of food scraps or abandoned shelter. Wildlife writer Richard Smyth overturns this human tendency to romanticise birds in *An Indifference of Birds*, published February 2020 by Uniformbooks. This is not the first excursion to avian territory in Smyth’s non-fiction corpus: *An Indifference* follows *A Sweet, Wild Note: What We Hear When the Birds Sing* with Elliot & Thompson Limited in 2018. In *An Indifference*, he quells the impulse to project our human preconceptions onto avian wildlife, urging us to consider the gestalt of human activity on the lives of birds, and the planet at large. Smyth demystifies the bird species by recontextualising them as central figures in human affairs, a reactive force engaged in an eternal tug of war with us. He contends that “ecologies aren’t monolithic” (Smyth 2020, p. 44), exemplifying a holistic environmental history that elevates us from our human milieu to the bird’s eye view. Through decentring the human point of view, Smyth helps us relinquish our entrenched biases of birds and, in effect, ourselves. He illuminates recesses of our humanity we wilfully ignore: the underbelly of human progress towards which we ourselves have been indifferent. **A Revisionist Environmental History** Growing up in a city where green space is ever dwindling, the boundaries between human life and urban wildlife are seldom crossed. I derive an almost childlike joy from spotting a Northern cardinal perching on a backyard tree, a spectacle of now-estranged fauna infiltrating human domain, our urban homes each a microcosm of the city it occupies. The spheres of human life and wildlife rarely collide—and when they do, we recall just how arbitrary these margins are. What makes *An Indifference* a compelling read is the flavour of novelty in what is—to a layperson like me—a science lesson about... bird-human diplomacy. He urges us to unlearn and relearn our evolutionary course with renewed curiosity. Smyth does not alienate the reader with technicalities, either, as he outfits us with the repertoire of an ornithologist while maintaining accessibility. Reading the text, I am reacquainted with what have become inconsequential creatures camouflaged in the white noise of urbanity. An Indifference invites us to consider the lived experience of birds before recorded time. Smyth offers a counternarrative to anthropocentric history as we know it, focalised by our avian neighbours. In Exploring Environmental History (2005), T.C. Smout summarises the discipline as “the history of wolf hunting from the perspective of what happens to the wolf as much as what happens to the hunter” (pp. 1-2). Smyth not only includes the bird’s outlook but prioritises it. The paradox of his project is that his ostensibly avian-centric account still fixates on the lives and movements of humans, the centre of gravity around which birds orbit. Smyth calibrates our outlook to the acuity of a bird to see our full radius of impact. Smyth also individualises these birds by referring to their innumerable species names throughout the text. For once, we feel dwarfed and outnumbered. This only seems natural, as the species is composed of “more specialists than generalists” (Smyth 2020, p. 26) in their habitats (farmland birds, moorland birds, wetland birds), just as we are experts in our professions. “If phenomenological archaeology is the practice of understanding prehistoric sites through our physical and emotional experience of them”, Mathew Lyons writes in a New Humanist review, “this is something like phenomenological ornithology: trying to understand birds through their experiences and behaviours” (2020, para. 3). Beyond decoding avian behaviour, however, this phenomenological thrust that Lyon observes is the engine of Smyth’s text; it is how he cultivates the audience’s affinity with birds. To this end, Smyth refracts our sense of being by re-examining the history of our species through the aerial, detached vantage point of birds. Smyth narrates the spatial evolution of our planet with a telescopic eye, at times zooming into the English locales of his formative years and zooming out to survey the panorama of entire continents. An Indifference remarkably endows its readers with the same mobility as birds. Smyth encourages us to adopt their mode of being through how they navigate de facto human territory: the forests we raze, the land we cultivate, the horizons we obstruct with towers. As Smyth puts it, “Where we act, birds respond” (2020, p. 13). Humans demarcate physical space to our advantage and, in doing so, have encroached on the jurisdiction of birds. As architects of our habitat, we have customised our natural and built environment to satiate our appetite for expansion. **An Unflattering Self-Portrait** Smyth unpacks what we consider the immutable binary of civilisation and nature, which entirely dissolves in the lives of birds. “We construct human realities around the things we make, the things we built”, (2020, p. 77) Smyth writes, “Birds see a different reality: flatter, sharper edged, locked into the present moment: what is this is now, what is it good for now?” (Smith 2020, p. 77). They adapt to human vagaries, rescuing our detritus to fulfil their immediate survival requirements. Our relationship with nature, by contrast, is informed by the extent of profit we can derive. Our guiding ethos is always: how arable—how lucrative—is this land we occupy? Our relationship with birds begins and ends with our physicality. We made first impressions not with our persons but our “circles of consequences” (Smyth 2020, p. 17): the resources we select and where we discard the refuse. To amend a human platitude, one man’s trash is one bird’s treasure. Waste is “the currency of our bargain with birds” (Smyth 2020, p. 22) as they occupy the negative space of our physical presence and material consumption. Inarable land lacks use-value because it is unprofitable in our myopic human eyes. In this utilitarian appraisal of nature, humans are very much like the birds. The major caveat is that we can afford to be selective, while birds must be astute opportunists. We thoughtlessly squander our surpluses at great disservice to the planet and other lifeforms. With this unsavoury representation of humans, Smyth gives insight—albeit imaginary—into what birds think of us. It is unlikely we have redeemed ourselves from our debut: “They must see us, watch us, from the same calculating perspective as they did too many years ago. We're still galumphing heavy-footed through the edge lands, causing havoc, small life scattering wherever we tread” (Smyth 2020, p. 20). Although humans are the veritable protagonists in this ecological drama, Smyth does not imbue us with any heroism. Humans have mastered environmental exploitation. We have forced fellow organisms to reconstitute their lives just to make room for us. As Smyth clearly illustrates, “our many overlaps with the birds coupled with the breadth and strength of our grip, mean that the birds have had to rebuild themselves […] to move just a little further out of our reach” (2020, p. 38). We can’t help but cheer on the minor characters, the birds, for their resilience and resourcefulness; how they salvage places we desert to become subsequent custodians. Smyth evokes the infancy of western civilisation: “If we can watch the prehistoric creep of our species across North America […] we might see landscapes being scraped clean of large mammals large birds large anything; we might see habitats hollowed-out as we shoulder our way in” (2020, p. 36). Smyth reminds us that humans have been agents of destruction acting on a selfish survival imperative long before late-stage capitalism. Colonial and imperial enterprises of our history have wreaked irreparable damage on human lives, and this callous disregard for the livelihood of others has been the fulcrum of our species’ progress. We have made not just birds but members of our own species constant fugitives on this shared planet. **An Indifference of Humans** Although our lives are ostensibly disparate, we and the birds are entangled in an “unfathomable symbiosis” (Smyth 2020, p. 17). This ecological mystery permeates *An Indifference* and engulfs his audience. Smyth expertly manipulates time and space, catapulting us from the prehistoric migration and nascent experiments of our ancestors to the minutiae of bird life in modern London, all in one chapter. Smyth expresses most poignantly, “I think a bird’s being extends beyond its outstretched wingtips; its identity is knotted up in its habitat, in the world that has shaped it, and continues to shape it” (2020, p. 63). While he reminds us of the birds’ indifference at every turn, we are also driven to interrogate our perennial indifference towards the birds. This is the avian perspective of humanity on a macro scope: the indiscriminate course of human evolution and the acceleration of modernity that privileges human lives. Indeed, birds spare no concern for human welfare nor our sentiments. They have no consideration for us beyond the purview of survival, whether we aid or abate it. Smyth almost humanises the birds as he delineates their thought processes, which are perhaps even more logical and pragmatic than our own. As readers, we cannot help but applaud the birds for their shrewdness where we ourselves are careless. *An Indifference* ignites in readers a profound compassion for the birds: Smyth puts our relationship with birds at the forefront of our shared environment, our resource allocation, and the imperceptible call and response of our parallel lives. But as we close the book to peruse its title again, we are reminded one last time this feeling of camaraderie is unilateral and always will be. It is impossible to confirm what birds are thinking; we can only infer as ornithologists do but these interpretations are ultimately human abstractions. We can never reconcile the birds’ motivations with our human frameworks. We can, however, admire the clumsy harmony in which we live with them. In an essay published in *The Times Literary Supplement*, Smyth intimates how his perception of birds changed during the COVID-19 lockdown (he even gave a virtual reading of chapter three, “Movements”), namely how birds have offered him respite from his domestic captivity: “Often our little parishes of sky will seem too small. Mine seems small now. But then, at some point soon, a woodpigeon will leap up abruptly into a clap display above the opposite roof-ridge, or a goldfinch will pose fiercely on the vent pipe to clatter out its song, or the bandit-masked magpies will drop down to harry a cat somewhere below, and it will seem, all at once, a little bigger”. (2020, para. 18). An Indifference succeeds as an environmentalist manifesto that converts readers without vilifying them; it does not reprimand their ecological destruction nor insular habits of existence. Instead, An Indifference appeals to the kinship between humans and birds: both species circumscribed by bodily shortcomings, shouldering the same burden of surviving in insurmountable physical limitations. In this way, humans and birds are compatriots of the same existential and evolutionary plight. How we negotiate our parameters is much like the birds. As Lyons writes, “to the birds, it is us who are just another natural phenomenon” (2020, para. 4). They are apathetic to us the same way that we may be apathetic to, say, the changing of seasons—but this seasonal phenomenon directly affects our lived experiences. We do not question it, however, nor do we protest against it; we respond and adapt accordingly, just as birds do with humans. An Indifference of Birds is a coming of age story of the human race, a narrative in which birds are reluctant, always apathetic onlookers. Smyth does not offer a remedial solution to our collateral environmental damage but makes us confront the reverberations from our circles of consequences. After all, birds embody—in their movement, their shelter, their ontology—the legacy of human existence. Bibliography Smyth, R. (2020). *An Indifference of Birds*. Uniformbooks, Devon. - ‘Little parishes of sky: the joys of birdwatching in a lockdown’, *The Times Literary Supplement*, viewed 28 June 2020, www.the-tls.co.uk/articles/joy-of-birdwatching-lockdown-essay-richard-smyth. - (2020). ‘Richard Smyth reading from his latest book ‘An Indifference of Birds’ for #LockdownReadingGroup’. Full video available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=adzHDhaaNdA. Lyons, M. (2020). ‘Book review: An Indifference of Birds’, *New Humanist*, viewed 15 July 2020, newhumanist.org.uk/articles/5651/book-review-an-indifference-of-birds. Smout, T.C. (2005). *Exploring Environmental History: Selected Essays*, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. Available from: ProQuest Ebook Central. Because of This, Too, I Loved: Danez Smith’s *homie* Caroline King Review of: *homie* (2020) Written by Danez Smith Beginning with Jonathan, “eleven & already making roads out of water / young genius, blog writer, lil community activist, curls tight / as pinky swears, black as my nation…”, Danez Smith’s poem ‘my president’ kicks off their latest collection *homie* (2020) as a paean to their community. Other potential candidates for their campaign range from the boys selling candy outside Walgreens to single mothers to Beyoncé. A proven master of bathos, a poetic device which lifts things high to cut them with the ordinary—a balloon is inflated to be popped, effecting humor and some sadness—Smith starts their conceit with biblical resonance, *the least among you will become a thousand, the smallest a mighty nation*... (Isaiah 60:22). “Show me to our nation”, they write, connoting a president who personifies the everyday people they know and admire. Following the tradition of ecstatic poetry, described by Anne Carson as a spiritual event based off the Greek definition “standing outside oneself” (Carson p. 190) as is typical of mad persons, geniuses, lovers, and poets, Smith is generous with lofty diction and exclamation points. The poem ends: ``` o my presidents! my presidents! …… i sing your names sing your names your names my mighty anthem ``` But as their collection contours, this exaltation points to more painful realities. In an interview with Smith, Kaveh Akbar notes how “a line can be celebrating, exalting blackness but also lamenting the inherent tragedy of it”. (Akbar 2015). In *homie*, Smith, a black, queer, non-binary, HIV-positive writer and performer, expands on complex truths explored in their previous and award-winning collections, *[insert] boy* (2014), *Black Movie* (2015), and *don’t call us dead* (2017). Quoting Ilya Kaminsky and Lil Wayne for its epigraphs, their latest collection is rich with cultural allusions. They reimagine their nonwhite friends as traditionally white characters: “& i elect eve ewing, eve who i know would ms. frizzle the country into one big classroom...”. By transfiguring familiar personalities, Smith is calling out accepted tropes. But their remaking reaches further: the series is also about shaking off the shackles of white interpretation, a theme established in *Black Movie* whose poems such as ‘Sleeping Beauty in the Hood’, ‘Lion King in the Hood’, and ‘Boyz N the Hood 2’ parody well-known cinematic diegeses. However, as *homie* shows too, inherent in this reclamation is an uncomfortable duality. Introduced in Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel’s *Phenomenology of Spirit* (1807), the term “unhappy consciousness” (Hegel p.119) describes the experience of a divided self suspended between desire and reason. Identity, derived both from soul and situation, is therefore muddled; a concept that has tracked forward to W.B. Du Bois’ theory of “double consciousness”—a source of inward “twoness” experienced by African-Americans that was later expanded to reflect other oppressed groups (Du Bois p. 38). We imagine our souls transcending societal apperceptions to become the identity’s backbone but then kinesthesia creeps in to remind us what transcendence depends on: however gross or unjust, without the skewed society there would be nothing to transcend; the exalted state exists only because of the degradation it fights against. When Smith uplifts “the trans girl making songs in her closet, spinning the dark”, “my auntie, only a few months clean, but clean”, the cab drivers, swollen nurses, drag queens and addicts, the reader is reminded of a sadder, more familiar underbelly where they’ve been denied. **Truth is Everyone’s Stakes:** Beginning as a performance poet, Smith says that this experience has shaped their writing’s sense of *duende*. Described by Federico García Lorca as “the fertile silt that gives us the very substance of art” (Lorca p. 49), duende represents the keeper of the dark, mysterious space within each of us that poetry seeks to let loose. In Smith’s work, the duende tradition pushes this vulnerability to the edge of death. These stakes can be seen in ‘Self-Portrait as a 90s R&B Video’, a poem which was widely performed before appearing in *homie*. To start, Smith grounds the audience in a familiar narrative: a stereotypical female breakdown as portrayed in a R&B music video. “Lately, I’ve been opening doors in slow motion / & find myself often wearing loose white silks / in rooms packed with wind machines…” it begins, Smith tossing back their buzz cut head in affectation of the long, lush hair blowing behind. Their lover treats them wrong but they don’t leave, idling instead in a house of luxury—in a basement pool of gold “dip my head in, let even / my hair get wet & rise out the water hood Venus / Afrodite, bitch god with iced out ropes draped / from my head & arms & covering my nipples / & ill nana just so” (Smith shimmies their hands along their torso). When Smith performs their poetry, their meaning comes through additional channels: voice, pace, place, and body. It is not a matter of poetic diction or figuration alone, but rather results from intricate interactions between movement and the broader social contexts in which they are deployed. Certainly, as in Allen Ginsberg’s “Howl” (1956) or “America” (1956), the words sometimes work on the printed page, but their true power usually lies in the moment of public performance and depends upon the context of the audience. Similarly, Smith’s ‘Self-portrait’ comes to life onstage when they speed and stress lines like a flow, a nod to the rap-meets-poetry scene. This rhythmic style alludes to Smith’s blackness through musical performativity, echoing the black poets of the mid 1900s who helped revive poetry’s oral origins. Sonia Sanchez, for example, was a forefront spoken-word artist known for using wildly varied tonal semantics to authenticate her identity. Many of her poems, such as ‘We a BaddDDD People’ (1970), are scored on the page to inform their performance vocalizations. “We a Bad-Bad-BaD-BaDBaD People”, it begins, echoing a staccato stutter. She also transcribes scat, improvised jazz singing where voices imitate an instrument, through nonsense but specific syllables: “aaa-ee-ooo-wah / wah”, repeating. Throughout history, music and poetry have developed side by side, and Smith has continued in this tradition. By the end of ‘Self-Portrait’, the lover takes revenge and burns the miscreant house down, admiring their Bakunin’s urge come to life. However, this victory is unsettled when Smith’s register drops their fire-and-ice, foxy tone for fear in the last lines: “I’ll burn this motherfucker down…whatever survives the blaze will be / my kingdom. I hope I make it”. In line again with ecstatic poetics, Smith claims the wreckage as their kingdom, evoking religious and power systems from which black people have been excluded in America. By introducing us to the individuals affected by these injustices, the stakes Smith sets become more significant to the readers: at its core, *homie* is about black friendships and communities. Smith begins with a group of neighborhood kids, a microcosm that can seem like the world. ‘Jumped!’ describes the magnetic oscillation of inclusion and exclusion among peers. Love, violence, and beauty are not separate entities, Smith’s narrator describes as they’re beaten up by a group of boys. “The fists that broke my ribs also wanted me to live…each hand laid upon me like a rude & starving prayer”, they write. For the first half, the poem is written in couplets zig-zagging down the page like a group of boys traipsing together down the street: just as couplets might be considered a safe, familiar form, groups are a safe way to move through a community, allowing each boy to share in a larger identity while creating their own. Many of Smith’s poems use typology to reflect the narrative, for example ‘gay cancer’ which begins as a tight block then unravels with the death of a friend. Similarly, when the group turns on the narrator in ‘jumped!’ the couplets break down into smaller fragments and the poem ends with a familiar metaphor concretised as a bloody nose: ``` i didn’t know a thing about love until those boys walked away so happy. my heart pouring from my nose. ``` A metaphor we can touch. Through the violence, the sense of interconnection within their community becomes palpable. The other boys’ pleasure reads stronger than the narrator’s pain, which is also given a positive connotation. By reconstruing the metaphor “I poured my heart out”, Smith suggests that because of the attack, they were opened to more complicated truths about pleasure and love. But homie doesn’t substitute love for honesty: even hopeful words like solidarity are more nuanced. ‘i didn’t like you when i met you’, one poem is titled, “like dude, you were stank...”. Intergenerational, interracial, and transnational, the community Smith lets us see is also realistic. ‘What was said at the bus stop’ chronicles an exchange with a girl from Pakistan. “Lately has been a long time”, she begins and the narrator latches on to this shared sense, ready to connect then hesitates: shared is not sameness and, knowing what it’s like to be a forum for ignorant assumptions, the narrator fears ascribing his experience to others, saying, “what advice do the drowned have for the burned? / what gossip is there between the hanged & the buried?”. And though the narrator feels unable to speak about their lives as a common narrative, as they face discrimination and want the girl to know they stand beside her: ``` & i want to reach across our great distance that is sometimes an ocean & sometimes centimeters ``` & say, look, your people, my people, all that has happened to us & still make love under rusted moons, still pull children from the mothers & name them still trach them to dance & your pain is not mine & is no less & is mine & i pray to my god your god blesses you with mercy & i have tasted your food & understand how it is a good home & i don’t know your language but i understand your songs & i cried when they came for your uncles & when you buried your niece i wanted the world to burn in the child’s brief memory & still, still, still, still, still, still, still, still, still & i have stood by you in the soft shawl of morning waiting & breathing & waiting Here, the word “waiting” may have two meanings: waiting for the go-ahead to come together then waiting together for racism to end. Tensions are also heightened around questions of sexuality. In ‘on faggotness’, the narrator describes coming out to their grandparents and being neither understood nor embraced. “Grand. pa said. that boy gonna be a. faggot. i didn’t. know / what it meant. but it had to be. akin to king. or mighty. different. a good kind. / but then i looked it up in his eyes. saw my body upside down”, they write. However, Smith’s sketches are rarely clear-cut. They acknowledge both the good and the bad, reading like truth as we understand it, and truth is something we look for in poetry: *why should we want anything in particular in or out of a poem?* (Sutherland p. 10), scholar Keith Sutherland once asked. But, as the reader experiences in Smith’s work, when the good and bad are both allowed as true, cognitive dissonance eases. The grandparents are not flat characters, myopic and homophobic as might be stereotypical their generation. Instead, Smith describes them as the community’s roots into black history. Their imagery conjured wisdom and magic: granddaddy’s gold teeth are “crowns”, “country tiara”, “all those suns so near his tongue” that made “even his vomit expensive.” In ‘happy hour’, Grandma’s moles become “a night sky” across her face but the metaphor extends deeper than beauty: each mole represents a friend who has died. The grandparents’ wisdom isn’t shallow, ascribed by age alone, but rather is a product of the same painful experiences Smith seeks to navigate throughout the collection. “Grandma say she going to the funeral to see who all there / like i say i’m ‘bout to grab a drink”, Smith writes. That their wisdom is manifest physically is also significant. One can see reflections of Yusef Komunyakaa’s ‘The Body Remembers’ (2019) as Smith describes the inextricable connections between mind and body, between their own body and those around them, and the resonance of loss when those connections are broken. **First, Trees:** In Smith’s work statistics are people. Throughout *homie*, plant motifs represent individuals within a larger space: fragile, beautiful, and essential. Their poem ‘the flower who bloomed thru the fence in grandmama’s yard’ analogizes someone trapped in a hard place to a small flower that grew into a fence, choking through the pickets. “Locked in & strangled pretty / nosey-ass flower peeking his head / in search of greener grass now stuck / in a guillotine refusing to guillotine”, they write. This image is smart and powerful, compelling the reader to remember that people aren’t their circumstances. Personifying the land also recalls American traditions, marking Smith and their subjects’ place in that history. “Lilac blooming perennial and drooping star in the west, / And thought of him I love…” (Whitman 1865). Walt Whitman’s elegy for President Lincoln insinuates that the interconnection between human and land is biological, spiritual, and indivisible. Inverting the aphorism ‘can’t see the forest for the trees’, Smith’s poem ‘undetectable’ ends: i am the most important species in my body. but one dead boy makes the whole forest a grave. & he’s in there, in me, in the middle of all that green. you probably thought he was fruit. Even one death changes humanity, and one hears echoes of Billie Holiday’s ‘Strange Fruit’ (1939) at the end. Though poets often shy away from name dropping for fear it will alienate readers, homie challenges this reservation. Smith addresses their own reasoning in an interview with Rosemarie Ho: “What is a name but the most intimate piece of language that we can infuse within a poem?”, (Smith 2020) they say. “If poems are these little light things that seek to be the most exact and specific language to describe a feeling, to describe a situation, then a name is another tool to help us locate where that poem is supposed to go”. (Smith 2020). By these criteria, their poems are very intimate: throughout the collection, they name over fifty people ranging from fellow poets like Eve Ewing to cultural icons like Shonda Rhimes to friends including Melvin Dixon and Essex Hemphill who have died of H.I.V./AIDs. They call out first-names only they can know, as in ‘trees!’ where they envision a tree after each friend they would like to be planted alongside. “I would be the happiest tree”, they write. Reaching out in second person to those who know who you are, the postscript acknowledgements are like poems themselves, if one’s written through a high school yearbook: “you invite me out for drag queens on the nights i think of finally [ ]”; “i call your mama mama”; “God bless you who screens my nudes, drafts my break-up text”; “how often have i loved a thing because you loved it? (including me)”, “you & you & you & you go in on a dildo for my birthday…”. Smith lets us see into their life but not all the way, personal and true as they choose it to be. One name reappears throughout the collection and is reified in the poem ‘For Andrew’. There, Smith processes their friend’s death in what is both a eulogy and a prayer: i. swagged-out Jesus name yourself that mess when you wore the rainbow beaded crown à la Stevie in the ‘70s & let the great religion of your belly hang like some Southside Buddha with a boombox dangling from your neck old Radio Raheem looking ass dude walking around blasting Ye random folk following you like you were the Christ of the night or maybe just a mirage of bass & flesh stained with June’s turmeric— o if the gods would let me edit & loop o if i could stop here— Following this memory, the poem waterfalls into ruminations on the relationship between death, the soul, and the body the soul inhabits—but the memories are why we even care to get those abstracts figured out. Memories are what prove, too, that homie is not just a celebration but rather a call for humanity between communities. After a jokey qualifier that art can be interpreted in any which way, Smith tells us their hope for their collection: that when we finish reading, we’ll sit down and call a friend, honoring the ones we still have as we honor the lost. “I call for god”, they write. “I call for god but out comes your name.” Bibliography Smith, D. (2014). [insert] boy. Portland: Yesyes Books. - Black Movie. (2015). Minneapolis: Button Poetry / Exploding Pinecone Press. - Don’t Call Us Dead. (2017). Minneapolis: Graywolf Press. - ‘Danez Smith – “Self Portrait as a 90s R&B Video”’. YouTube. March 26 2017. Accessed June 20, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tOE7O9pkczY. - homie. (2020). Minneapolis: Graywolf Press. Carson, A. (2002). ‘Decreation: How Women Like Sappho, Marguerite Porete, and Simone Weil Tell God’, in Common Knowledge 8, no. 1: 188-203. https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/7554. “Danez Smith Makes Room for the Messiness of Language.” (2020). Interview by Rosemarie Ho. The Nation. March 5. https://www.thenation.com/article/culture/danez-smith-homie-poetry-interview/. Du Bois, W. B. (1903). The Souls of Black Folk. Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co. “Even the Dirtiest Things Deserve to Be Pretty.” (2015). Interview by Kaveh Akbar. Divedapper. August 10. https://www.divedapper.com/interview/danez-smith/. García Lorca, F. (1998). In Search of Duende. New York: New Directions. Ginsberg, A. (1956). ‘Howl’, in Allen Ginsberg (ed.) *Allen Ginsberg Collected Poems 1947-1997* (London: Penguin, 2013). - ‘America’ (London: Penguin, 2013). Gräbner, C., and Arturo Casas. (2011). *Performing Poetry: Body, Place and Rhythm in the Poetry Performance* (Amsterdam: Rodopi). Hegel, G. W. F. (1807). *Phenomenology of the Spirit* (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998). Holliday, B. (1939). *Strange Fruit*. New York: Commodore Records. Komunyakaa, Y. (2019). “The Body Remembers by Yusef Komunyakaa - Poems | Academy of American Poets.” Poets.org. Academy of American Poets, April 1, 2019. https://poets.org/poem/body-remembers. Pope, A (1728). ‘Peri Bathous: Or, Martinus Scriblerus, His Treatise of the Art of Sinking in Poetry’, in Pat Rogers (ed.) *Alexander Pope*. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). Prynne, J. H. (2005). “Keynote speech at the first Pearl River Poetry Conference, Guangzhou, China, 28th June 2005”. Sanchez, S. (1970). ‘We a baddDDD people’, in Sonia Sanchez and Dudley Randall (eds.) *We a baddDDD people* (Detroit: Broadside Press, 1970). Sutherland, K. (2012). ‘What Is Bathos?’, in Peter Nicholls (ed.) *On Bathos: Literature, Art, Music* (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2010). Whitman, Walt. (1865). ‘When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d’, in Francis Murphy (ed.) *Walt Whitman: The Complete Poems* (London: Penguin UK, 2004). A Socially-Distanced *Romeo and Juliet* at Sadler’s Wells Andreea Scridon Review of: *Romeo and Juliet* Directed and Choreographed by Rudolf Nureyev (1977) Adapted by Sadler’s Wells Theatre and the English National Ballet Philharmonic (2015) Winner of the 2020 Firework Competition Rudolf Nureyev is perhaps a name more familiar to an older generation (due to his untimely death from AIDS in 1992) or to ballet connoisseurs exclusively. But the dancer and choreographer, who has recently come back into the spotlight with Ralph Fiennes’ 2018 biopic *The White Crow*, was one of the world’s most famous ballet dancers a few decades ago. A legend of magnetism and vision, Nureyev repeatedly sparked outrage for always insisting on dancing and interpreting in his own way, often making radical, modernizing changes to classical ballet. In 1977, after a history of playing Romeo himself, Nureyev turned out his own production of *Romeo and Juliet*, set to Sergei Prokofiev’s 1935 score, which premiered at the London Coliseum and has remained in the repertoire of the English National Ballet to this day. Now, the successful dancer, choreographer, and director Johann Kobborg has re-adapted this production. In light of the current Covid-19 pandemic, the full show was available from May 6th to May 8th, 2020, on the YouTube channel of the English National Ballet. This consideration of the show’s online premiere seeks to document the unprecedented experience of watching a ballet performance online, and how the future of ballet might look in a post-pandemic world. **The Show Itself** Nureyev may be one of a kind, but his version proves quite contested: critics in recent years have suggested that Rudolf Nureyev’s direction of *Romeo and Juliet* is ‘unconvincing’ (Crisp, 2017) and ‘neurotic’ (Jennings, 2011). Though it may be less daring than Alexander Ekman’s famously innovative *Eskapist* (2020), I for one, as a long-time lover of all that pertains to ballet but by no means an expert in the field, found it an intriguing interpretation the original text, highlighting certain aspects in a way that has not previously explored. In many ways Nureyev’s *Romeo and Juliet* is experimental, or rather more representational than originally expected: bawdy, foamy, and intense. It might seem unorthodox at first glance to mute Shakespeare entirely: there is absolutely no audible speech in this ballet. But Nureyev may have struck gold. Radical silence only serves to emphasize the profoundly communicative and initiative nature of dance. The phenomenal evidence of hard work in the dancers’ movements, in their very bodies, evokes a downright biological, genetic connotation of creativity in which the human being becomes a work of art. These human spectacles convey dream states in a way that words are rarely able. What stayed with me long after the show was Shakespeare’s understanding of how much Renaissance dancing, life and costumes mirror the spirit of cabaret. Unlike Baz Luhrmann’s 1996 film *Romeo + Juliet*, Nureyev’s ballet does not attempt to contemporize or provide a version of the original play, but instead presents it as a fusion of elements that highlight its modernity, emphasizing that it is a truly timeless tale. The famous Queen Mab scene, approached differently by every director and every Mercutio, is downright burlesque and rambunctious here, while the Capulet party seems to evoke the avant-garde, hyper self-aware dance scene in Yorgos Lanthimos’ 2018 film, *The Favourite*. The ‘versatile’ (Pritchard, 2020) Alina Cojocaru, Kobborg’s off-stage partner, is appropriately lithe and energetic to play a girl of Juliet’s age (the director resists the traditionally nubile casting choice - think Olivia Hussey in Franco Zeffirelli’s 1968 film adaptation), seeming to fly, flitting across the stage like a dragonfly. She is ethereal and innocent, yes, kissing Romeo *en pointe* (and later dies *en pointe* - a graceful touch), but I have never seen her have so much direct and raw agency before. Juliet’s fraught drama at Tybalt’s death is the stuff of Greek tragedy; she claws at herself, her hands fan rapidly and chaotic, she races across the stage and back again, showing the adolescent’s irrational, internal struggle between her family and the object of her infatuation. We witness fully and intensely the true drama of her short life. Isaac Hernández plays a Romeo of Classical serenity, delivering difficult steps smoothly; Pritchard is right to call his ‘lines pure and lean’ (2020). He is the ideal apollonian lover in physique and in attitude, if less absorbed in character than Cojocaru – although it becomes clear that in this version, she is the truly active agent. If he is the conventional lover, then Juliet is the spunk and dynamite, the clear focus of the production, the one character who feels horrified by the bloodshed around her. That said, Hernández is an exceptionally skilled collaborator, gaining momentum in choreographic dialogue. Hernández’s dance with the Montague men is particularly enthralling: he bullfights Tybalt, played by James Streeter, to death. One such example of on-stage collaboration is the scene of Mercutio’s death: what is a grotesque joke becomes a gripping act of horrible revelation, as everyone realizes that Mercutio, played by Cesar Corrales, is not playing any joke this time but is drawing his last breath. This foreshadows Juliet’s convincing agony upon finding that Romeo has drunk the poison at the end of the ballet. Like a swan, she throws her head back, releasing a shuddering cry, before making the decision to plunge the dagger into her heart. When it comes to secondary characters, Paris, played by Max Westwell, stands out in particular. Though arguably insipid in the original play, Paris’s domineering masculinity is expressed here by Maxwell’s physical movements. Westwell’s duck-toed walk is imperious and he almost manhandles the tiny Juliet when dancing with her at the Capulet ball; a great contrast to her tender harmony with Romeo. Photo by Bill Cooper. Of the arts, it is dance that naturally makes for the best expression of sensuality. The wedding night scene takes its time in unfolding but is the very opposite of lewd or pornographic: the symmetry of the dance emphasizes a natural, almost tantric order to the unfolding of the consummation. The religious imagery of the wedding scene is also beautiful. Romeo and Juliet go around in a circle, on their knees. Secondary dances provided comic relief (physical humor fitting the Renaissance context well), but also brought to mind the Greek chorus in moments of tragedy. For example, when Tybalt and Mercutio die, the secondary dancers freeze cinematically, hovering above the corpses, adding great drama to the scene. Set design, by Canadian-based sculptor David Umemoto, was beautiful, harmonious and unobtrusive: the contours of Verona’s buildings and stairwells are blurred in a distant, pastel-coloured sky, giving an impression of the painterly *Sfumato* technique. Costumes seem faithful to the time-period; indeed, it becomes apparent that Renaissance clothes, consisting of tights, puffed sleeves, and rich, jewel-toned colours, simply looked like ballet costumes. The atmosphere is naturally theatrical. For the first half hour or so, my immediate reaction was to find the introduction slightly tedious. The slowness before the action begins, along with the fact that Prokofiev’s music here is less explosive and more of a background soundtrack, gave the production a slightly peripheral quality. Ultimately, Nureyev’s production builds tension slowly and steadily towards climax, as foreshadowed by the early figures of fate rolling dice and the funeral procession for plague victims at the beginning of the ballet. ![Photo by Bill Cooper.](image) **Ballet Streaming: Technology and Cinematography** Yet I was surprised to notice several choreographic slips and wrong moves, confirming the belief that the physical presence of the audience is conducive to the quality of a performance. It is only natural for this to be the case, considering the effect of adrenaline on the body. Ballet is a tight-rope-walk between sport and art, exacerbated by Nureyev’s notoriously difficult, flurried choreography. Alternatively, perhaps this only became apparent because many spectators would have been sitting too far away to notice such – perhaps inevitable – mistakes in a live performance. The camerawork could have been better: the shots were often too wide and there weren’t enough close-ups for online viewers to fully enjoy the unique experience of supposedly having the best seat in the house. At other moments, we were shown the orchestra – understandable, but distracting when the action is already taking place, which occurred once or twice in the streaming. Nureyev’s *Romeo and Juliet* is a ballet, but it is also a film, and there should be equal respect for both mediums. In addition to wishing that I could have seen individual movements better by getting a closer view, I also would have appreciated an informative, brief documentary following the show introducing its historical context and role in dance and theatre aesthetics. In the pandemic context that has prompted these unprecedented streamed productions, opera seems to have had a better fate, particularly those productions uploaded online by the Metropolitan Opera in New York (such as the Richard Strauss opera *Capriccio* (1941), streamed at the same time as Nureyev’s *Romeo and Juliet*). One example of a very well-filmed ballet is Christopher Wheeldon’s adaptation of *The Winter’s Tale* (2014) at The Royal Ballet, which premiered online on May 1st, 2020. **The Future of Ballet in a Post-Pandemic World** Needless to say, this pandemic has been a terrible experience. However, the opportunity for anyone anywhere to watch ballet from the comfort of their own home represents undeniable progress for humanity. It is heartening to see that, with the global paradigmatic shift caused by covid-19, culture has become more available to people who may otherwise not have the means, time, money or interest pre-covid. This democratic sentiment of accessible educational advancement is one positive response to the fact that many performance venues in the UK are in a seriously dire financial situation. I hope that this will be an opportunity for virtual communication of the arts to become the norm along with traditional live performances, and that the English National Ballet will continue streaming a program on their excellent YouTube channel in a post-pandemic context. As for the debated production itself, my verdict is favourable: the arts have intersected beautifully. Shakespeare has been understood and clearly relished by ballet masters and dancers alike. --- **Department of Continuing Education** **Bibliography** Ekman, A. (2020). *Eskapist*. [Videos for online streaming]. Royal Swedish Ballet in association with Marquee TV. [Kungliga Operan]. Fiennes, R. (2018). *The White Crow*. BBC Films, Magnolia Mae Films, Metalwork Pictures, Montebello Productions, Work in Progress. Lanthimos, Y. (2018). *The Favourite*. Fox Searchlight Pictures, Film4, Waypoint Luhrmann, B. (1996). *Romeo + Juliet*. Bazmark Films, Estudios Churubusco Azteca S.A., Twentieth Century Fox. Nureyev, R. (2015). *Romeo and Juliet*. [Video for online streaming]. Sadler’s Wells Theatre in association with English National Ballet Philharmonic. [Bristol Hippodrome]. Strauss, R. (2011). *Capriccio*. [Video for online streaming]. The Metropolitan Opera. Wheeldon, C. (2014). *The Winter’s Tale*. [Video for online streaming]. The Royal Ballet. [Royal Opera House]. Zeffirelli, F. (1968). *Romeo and Juliet*. BHE Films, Verona Produzione, Dino de Laurentiis Cinematografica. Crisp, C. (2017). “Romeo and Juliet, Royal Festival Hall”. *Financial Times*, 2 August. https://www.ft.com/content/7f826cd4-776b-11e7-90c0-90a9d1bc9691. Jennings, L. (2011). “Romeo and Juliet – review”. *The Guardian*, 9 January. https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2011/jan/09/romeo-and-juliet-nureyev-review#maincontent. Pritchard, J. (2020). “Alina Cojocaru’s Sadler’s Wells potpourri redeemed by her stellar dancing”. *Seen and Heard International*, 22 February. https://seenandheard-international.com/2020/02/alina-cojocarus-sadlers-wells-potpourri-redeemed-by-her-stellar-dancing/. Pritchard, J. (2020). “Nureyev’s remarkable vision: ENB at Home’s Romeo & Juliet proved an unmissable treat”. *Seen and Heard International*, 7 May. https://seenandheard-international.com/2020/05/nureyevs-remarkable-vision-enb-at-homes-romeo-juliet-proved-an-unmissable-treat/. Suleman, B.M. (2019). “It is fun to be Queen sometimes”. 27 February. http://st-annes-mcr.org.uk/staar/publications/spark-reviews/suleman-2019-it-is-fun-to-be-queen-sometimes/. Winship, L. (2020). “Alexander Ekman: Eskapist; Midsummer Night’s Dream review - audacious and unpredictable”. *The Guardian*, 27 April. https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2020/apr/27/alexander-ekman-eskapist-midsummer-nights-dream-review-audacious#maincontent. Photos Cooper, B. (2020). https://www.ballet.org.uk/onscreen/watch-party-romeo-juliet/. AMALGAM: Theaster Gates, Liverpool, and Monumentality Siân Round Review of: AMALGAM (2020) Curated by Theaster Gates at Tate Liverpool On the fourth floor of a building on the Royal Albert Dock, visitors to the Tate Liverpool are invited to look out of the window at the now famous view across the River Mersey. Looking inland, they can see Liverpool’s famous Three Graces: The Royal Liver Building, The Cunard Building and the Port of Liverpool Building. The environs of the Tate Liverpool tell a story of the city’s wealth as a port, the second city of the British Empire. Across from the gallery, however, there is a different story to be told. The International Slavery Museum, opened on the Albert Dock in 2007, focuses on the history and legacy of the transatlantic slave trade in Liverpool. Between 1695 and 1807, over five thousand voyages to Africa were made from Liverpool with the purpose of transporting African people to the Americas. As the ‘Liverpool and Slavery’ Twitter project states, ‘Beyond a doubt it was the slave trade that raised Liverpool from a struggling seaport to be one of the richest and most prosperous trading centres of the world’ (2020). The story of the Albert Dock is that of a city whose wealth came from the trading of black lives, a story which is told in the names of the streets. A Farmhouse on Malaga. Image from Maine State Museum. Inside the Tate Liverpool, a further story is being told. In 1912, the residents of the small island of Malaga, off the coast of Maine, were all evicted with no offer of support. The school was closed, and all the buildings were left derelict. Many of the citizens were placed in mental institutions. There was no illness on Malaga Island. Rather, it was a utopian integrated community, in a segregated United States. Governor Frederick W. Plaisted felt the island was damaging his state’s reputation and forcibly removed all the island’s residents, even digging up graves and moving the bodies to the mainland The shocking, and forgotten, history of Malaga Island provides the inspiration for Chicago artist Theaster Gate’s exhibition *AMALGAM* which is showing at Tate Liverpool until 3rd May. In this review, I examine how the physicality of Gates’ exhibition interacts with the city in which it is being shown, and how *AMALGAM* makes its viewer consider how space is occupied and passed down. **Signs and Materials** Theaster Gates, born in 1973, is a social practice installation artist based in Chicago. He works across many media and is particularly interested in the redevelopment and occupation of space, as shown by his founding of the Rebuild Foundation, which revitalises communities and buildings in neglected areas of Chicago. *AMALGAM*, Gates’ first UK solo exhibition, makes use of the same mixture of media for which he has become known: each installation in the exhibition is made of a different material and takes on a different form. This is reflected in the multiple meanings of the exhibition’s title. *AMALGAM* is a near anagram of Malaga, but it also provides a second meaning of the mixed, interracial community, and perhaps a third meaning referring to the exhibition’s mix of materials and forms. When first entering the exhibition, you are faced with a large black slope made of slate, resembling a rooftop, as if the rest of the house is buried. Behind that is a rotating neon sign with the word MALAGA written on it. The sign is literally advertising the place, forcing it to be recognised, while the slope highlights what isn’t there, the missing pieces of Malaga. The sign is placed on top of more pieces of slate. The reference is to plans to build a resort on Malaga, as referenced later in another neon sign for ‘Malaga Dept. of Tourism’. The opening room of the exhibition introduces you to what Gates cites as one of his most important themes: monumentality (Perchuk 2019). That is, both the physicality and scale of the exhibition’s pieces and the significance of their history. Gates’ interpretation of Malaga Island constantly draws attention to what stories we tell. The monumentality of the exhibition forces the history of Malaga upon the viewer, often in a way which seems heavy-handed. It is easy to go through this exhibition with a cynical view. The great injustice of the island’s evacuation, and of racial segregation itself, surely hardly needs to be told in 2020. However, it is through Gates’ uses of different media and materials that he builds a more pertinent message of what is allowed to be passed on, and, indeed, what is regarded as valuable. **‘Black Space’** A later part of the exhibition features Gates’ approximation of an island, with scattered rocks as well as a blackboard, a chair, and a large cabinet, employing his frequent method of placing natural and manufactured materials side-by-side. The impression is of the schoolroom at Malaga, in which both black and white children were taught as equals. On this invented island, another neon sign tells the viewer that ‘In the end nothing is pure.’ This can be read as a complaint that the purity of the interracial classroom has been destroyed but, particularly within the context of the gallery, the sign tells us something else. The very exhibition in which this story is being told is in a building built from the profits of slavery. Many of its visitors have profited indirectly from slavery. Everything which is passed down is part of a complex history so that even the idealism of Malaga Island and the injustice of its destruction cannot be told as a story without being interwoven with the traumas of the past. If the theme of the exhibition is a question of what is passed on, and who profits from history, the exhibition’s answer is that white people still profit. These ideas are an important part of Gates’ other work. The Dorchester Art and Housing Collaborative is a project initiated by Gates which provides thirty-two units for creative space for those with low income in Chicago. His work demands space while asking who occupies and controls it. Gates’ website states that ‘In all aspects of his work, he contends with the notion of Black space as a formal exercise.’ (Gates, 2019). With this in mind, this exhibition is one which investigates how the creation of ‘Black space’ interacts with history. Another installation in *AMALGAM* is a large blackboard on which Gates has written a history of slavery. The piece is a sprawling mind-map, linking together events from the seventeenth to twentieth centuries. In the top right corner, Gates proudly tells us ‘1973: Theaster Gates is born a free man.’ Other writings state that ‘WE ARE ALL MIXED.’ This installation, more than any other in the exhibition, hints that this is an American story. It is only as we go throughout the exhibition, with an eye out of the window at the world around the gallery, that we realise that the history of slavery is not simply an American story. The history of the transatlantic slave trade is a story of movement and impermanence, just like the story of Malaga. The exhibition, then, attempts to reclaim space for African Americans, while revealing that such space is held by those with power. **Monumentality and Impermanence** The final room of the exhibition houses the largest installation and the most successful attempt by Gates to create a piece so monumental that it demands space. Titled ‘So Bitter This Curse of Darkness’, it features a series of masks on pillars made from dying ash trees. Gates states in the exhibition: ‘These trees were dying. A miller said they were not fit for timber. Useless. Somewhere in the death of a tree is the truth of its strength.’ (Tate, 2020). Gates has taken something that has lost its intended value and has fit it to his purpose; he is literally reclaiming space. This final room is large and echoing, and the wood creates an uneven floor. The visitor is taken out of the exhibition space and placed into a kind of manufactured forest. Gates’ exhibition always teeters between the natural and the manufactured, eliding the differences between the two, highlighting the significance of mixedness to his work. The final room takes the viewer outside the gallery space, into a separate space in which you are permitted to touch the wooden pillars. In this sense, the viewer is taken to Malaga; they are occupying its space by bearing witness to it. The repurposed pieces of wood, replicating the trees they used to be, hints at the impermanence of the space we occupy, and the reality of environmental catastrophe. As you walk through the exhibition, the juxtaposition between this destroyed island community and the city outside provokes many questions. Who determines what is valuable and what is worth keeping? Gates’ exhibition tells a story of what is passed on, and what history is maintained in the process. While the exhibition had previously been shown at the Palais de Tokyo in Paris, it takes on a new significance in Liverpool. Ten years ago, Tate Liverpool hosted *Afro Modern: Journeys Through the Black Atlantic*, an exhibition inspired by Paul Gilroy’s seminal book, *The Black Atlantic*. (Gilroy, 1993). The exhibition highlighted the hybridity of modernity which emerged from transatlantic black culture. As a city which was at the heart of the transatlantic slave trade, this city-wide celebration of black culture was an important step to reclaiming the importance of black people in Liverpool. Theaster Gates’ exhibition, in contrast, is far from a celebration. It is a cry to force people to recognise the spaces that black people occupy, and the spaces which have been taken away from them. **Inheritance and Afterlives** The synthesis of Gates’ themes of how space is occupied, owned, and passed down, and their importance beyond America, is made clearest in the 30-minute video, *Dance of Malaga*, the exhibition’s centrepiece. Once again combining different forms, the video features choreographed performance of dancers on the island in a collaboration with Kyle Abraham, interspersed with clips from documentaries, and a shocking scene from Douglas Sirk’s *Imitation of Life* (1959) in which a woman is beaten for having African American heritage. The film is scored by Gates’ band *The Black Monks* who take inspiration from the blues and gospel traditions of African American communities in the southern United States. Perhaps one of the most pertinent clips comes from an advert for Patek Philippe watches, in which a young child comes downstairs interrupting her mother’s dinner party. The advert then tells us that you don’t really buy a watch for yourself, but to pass down to the next generation. Within this video installation, Gates tells the viewer that the history of Malaga is not just a history of segregation. The residents of Malaga were not able to pass their wealth down to the next generation; the story of Malaga is as much a story about property and ownership as it is about segregation. Still from ‘Dance of Malaga’. Copyright: Theaster Gates. Photo by Chris Strong. *AMALGAM* is not an exhibition about the slave trade, but about its afterlives, and it is exactly this which makes its appearance so important in Liverpool today. Gates’ use of multiple forms intersects with his questions of ownership and value. By working across media, Gates not only suggests that the worth of art is not restricted to a form but also, by participating across forms, he is reclaiming a space for black voices, a space which operates across the natural and the manufactured. *AMALGAM* holds onto a history that is asking to be forgotten, just as Liverpool is built on a history its residents often ignore. Gates creates a monument to Malaga while questioning the history of monumentality and how space is occupied. --- **Bibliography** Gates, T. (2019). *AMALGAM* [Exhibition]. Tate Liverpool, Liverpool. 13 December 2019 – 3 May 2020. - ‘About’. (2019). Available at: [https://www.theastergates.com/about](https://www.theastergates.com/about). - ‘Dance of Malaga’. (2019) [Video]. Lunder Institute for American Art, Colby College, University of Chicago Harris School of Public Policy, Maine Coast Heritage Trust. Siân Round *Afro Modern: Journeys Through The Black Atlantic* (2010). [Exhibition]. Tate Liverpool, Liverpool. 29 January – 25 April 2010. Gilroy, P. (1993). *The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness* (London: Verso). Liverpool and Slavery, Twitter. Available at: [https://twitter.com/AndSlavery?s=20](https://twitter.com/AndSlavery?s=20). (Accessed 04/03/2020). Maine State Museum (2018), ‘Malaga Island: The History’. Available at: [https://mainestatemuseum.org/learn/malaga-island-fragmented-lives-educational-materials/the-history/](https://mainestatemuseum.org/learn/malaga-island-fragmented-lives-educational-materials/the-history/). Perchuk, A. and Theaster Gates (2019). ‘Dance of Malaga: A Conversation with Theaster Gates’, The Getty Centre. Available at: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cammz0BMWKU](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cammz0BMWKU). Sirk, D. (1959). *Imitation of Life*. Universal International Pictures. Tate (2020), ‘Five Things to Know About Theaster Gates’. Available at: [https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artists/theaster-gates-17216/five-things-know-about-theaster-gates](https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artists/theaster-gates-17216/five-things-know-about-theaster-gates). Enjoyed reading STAAR? Help its continuing success by submitting your work or helping out as an editor. Email your interest to email@example.com. consulto et audacter
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The village is located close to the municipality of Tresana, in the province of Massa Carrara, 350m above sea level. The castle stands on a buttress on Mount Alpicella, which nowadays is located in the forest but once overlooked the wonderful Penolo valley, lying on the ridge of the watershed Vara-Magra. Shepherds used to pass through this area. **Type of castle:** Castle with tower and marquis residence. **Construction period:** 13th century thanks to Manfredi and Morello Malaspina. **First appearance in historical sources:** The Pelavicino code includes several documents from the Middle Ages about Giovagallo. These documents state that the place name already existed in 1188, while the castle was mentioned in 1206 in a document about the power of the Bishop Gualtiero and the Malaspina over this area. **Strategic role:** The strategic function of the castle of Giovagallo is probably linked to its central position in comparison to that of the fief of Manfredi, and to the proximity of the road linking the Apennines and the plain of Luni, which is nowadays known as Alta Via dei Monti Liguri. It also controlled the road that led to the Penolo valley towards Liguria. The village of Kibber, with its distinctive white buildings and central temple, is nestled in the heart of the Spiti Valley. The Castle of Giovagallo Further in use: Beginning of the 17th century. Current condition: Remains of the tower and of the defensive walls. Viewing: The remains are abandoned. History: In 1266, the fief of Giovagallo was assigned to Manfredi Malaspina – one of the sons of Corrado l’Antico – together with Lusuolo, Madrignano, Virgoletta and the fourth part of Arcola. The castle and built-up area were constructed between the 13th and the 14th centuries and became the residence of Morello Malaspina and his court. The brave captain of several victorious battles in Tuscany for Black Guelphs who was mentioned by Dante in the Divine Comedy, was the husband of Alagia Fieschi, niece of Pope Adrian V. After the extinction of the Malaspina di Giovagallo in the middle of the 14th century, the fief was included in the Malaspina di Villafranca marquisate and then in Lusuolo. In the 15th century, the power passed to the Duchy of Milan until it became part of the Florentine Republic. Giovagallo again became an independent fief under the rule of Prince Corsini. Structure: The tower is located on top of the hill and is the most important remains of this site. It was linked to another impressive structure, the only remains of which are the ground. Both ruins date back to the Middle Ages, which we can tell from the construction technique, and they were certainly residences. The perimetral defensive walls surrounding the top of the hill enclosed a built-up area, which developed until the beginning of the 17th century.
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Short Story Assignment 14 • If you have not yet sent your short story to me, please send it via email as soon as possible. • This week we will start preparing for our speech night speeches. You will be using the essays that we read for the class as your models for imitation. Notice the rhetorical devices, such as repetition, irony, special word choice, and figures of speech used in the essays and be prepared to use these devices in your own speech. • To prepare for the holidays, read Read C. S. Lewis’s “X-Mas and Christmas” (below). • Read E. B. White’s narrative essay “Once More to the Lake” and answer the multiple choice questions. Many of you have read this essay before, but read it again and appreciate it more fully. • Over the next weeks you will be composing an essay for speech night in which you give an account of an experience. Thus, the format of your speech will be *narrative* (“Once More to the Lake”) and will be modeled after E. B. White’s essay. Notice that White uses metaphors and other figures of speech and literary devices to support his theme. What figurative language and literary devices will you use? Please refer to the notes that you took in class. You will read your “rough draft” in class. Long Range Assignments • You will be submitting your book report and giving an oral presentation in class on the second week in January. I will be going over the format of the oral report in more detail in class. • Your story of realism will be due on the first week of January. • Critical paper is due the third week of January. Once More to the Lake By E. B. White One summer, along about 1904, my father rented a camp on a lake in Maine and took us all there for the month of August. We all got ringworm from some kittens and had to rub Pond’s Extract on our arms and legs night and morning, and my father rolled over in a canoe with all his clothes on; but outside of that the vacation was a success and from then on none of us ever thought there was any place in the world like that lake in Maine. We returned summer after summer—always on August 1st for one month. I have since become a salt-water man, but sometimes in summer there are days when the restlessness of the tides and the fearful cold of the sea water and the incessant wind which blows across the afternoon and into the evening make me wish for the placidity of a lake in the woods. A few weeks ago this feeling got so strong I bought myself a couple of bass hooks and a spinner and returned to the lake where we used to go, for a week’s fishing and to revisit old haunts. I took along my son, who had never had any fresh water up his nose and who had seen lily pads only from train windows. On the journey over to the lake I began to wonder what it would be like. I wondered how time would have marred this unique, this holy spot—the coves and streams, the hills that the sun set behind, the camps and the paths behind the camps. I was sure the tarred road would have found it out and I wondered in what other ways it would be desolated. It is strange how much you can remember about places like that once you allow your mind to return into the grooves which lead back. You remember one thing, and that suddenly reminds you of another thing. I guess I remembered clearest of all the early mornings, when the lake was cool and motionless, remembered how the bedroom smelled of the lumber it was made of and of the wet woods whose scent entered through the screen. The partitions in the camp were thin and did not extend clear to the top of the rooms, and as I was always the first up I would dress softly so as not to wake the others, and sneak out into the sweet outdoors and start out in the canoe, keeping close along the shore in the long shadows of the pines. I remembered being very careful never to rub my paddle against the gunwale for fear of disturbing the stillness of the cathedral. The lake had never been what you would call a wild lake. There were cottages sprinkled around the shores, and it was in farming country although the shores of the lake were quite heavily wooded. Some of the cottages were owned by nearby farmers, and you would live at the shore and eat your meals at the farmhouse. That’s what our family did. But although it wasn’t wild, it was a fairly large and undisturbed lake and there were places in it which, to a child at least, seemed infinitely remote and primeval. I was right about the tar: it led to within half a mile of the shore. But when I got back there, with my boy, and we settled into a camp near a farmhouse and into the kind of summertime I had known, I could tell that it was going to be pretty much the same as it had been before—I knew it, lying in bed the first morning, smelling the bedroom, and hearing the boy sneak quietly out and go off along the shore in a boat. I began to sustain the illusion that he was I and therefore, by simple transposition, that I was my father. This sensation persisted, kept cropping up all the time we were there. It was not an entirely new feeling, but in this setting it grew much stronger. I seemed to be living a dual existence. I would be in the middle of some simple act, I would be picking up a bait box or laying down a table fork, or I would be saying something, and suddenly it would be not I but my father who was saying the words or making the gesture. It gave me a creepy sensation. We went fishing the first morning. I felt the same damp moss covering the worms in the bait can, and saw the dragonfly alight on the tip of my rod as it hovered a few inches from the surface of the water. It was the arrival of this fly that convinced me beyond any doubt that everything was as it always had been, that the years were a mirage and there had been no years. The small waves were the same, chucking the rowboat under the chin as we fished at anchor, and the boat was the same boat, the same color green and the ribs broken in the same places, and under the floorboards the same fresh-water leavings and debris—the dead helgramite, the wisps of moss, the rusty discarded fishhook, the dried blood from yesterday’s catch. We stared silently at the tips of our rods, at the dragonflies that came and went. I lowered the tip of mine into the water, tentatively, pensively dislodging the fly, which darted two feet away, poised, darted two feet back, and came to rest again a little farther up the rod. There had been no years between the ducking of this dragonfly and the other one—the one that was part of memory. I looked at the boy, who was silently watching his fly, and it was my hands that held his rod, my eyes watching. I felt dizzy and didn’t know which rod I was at the end of. We caught two bass, hauling them in briskly as though they were mackerel, pulling them over the side of the boat in a businesslike manner without any landing net, and stunning them with a blow on the back of the head. When we got back for a swim before lunch, the lake was exactly where we had left it, the same number of inches from the dock, and there was only the merest suggestion of a breeze. This seemed an utterly enchanted sea, this lake you could leave to its own devices for a few hours and come back to, and find that it had not stirred, this constant and trustworthy body of water. In the shallows, the dark, water-soaked sticks and twigs, smooth and old, were undulating in clusters on the bottom against the clean ribbed sand, and the track of the mussel was plain. A school of minnows swam by, each minnow with its small individual shadow, doubling the attendance, so clear and sharp in the sunlight. Some of the other campers were in swimming, along the shore, one of them with a cake of soap, and the water felt thin and clear and insubstantial. Over the years there had been this person with the cake of soap, this cultist, and here he was. There had been no years. Up to the farmhouse to dinner through the teeming, dusty field, the road under our sneakers was only a two-track road. The middle track was missing, the one with the marks of the hooves and the splotches of dried, flaky manure. There had always been three tracks to choose from in choosing which track to walk in; now the choice was narrowed down to two. For a moment I missed terribly the middle alternative. But the way led past the tennis court, and something about the way it lay there in the sun reassured me; the tape had loosened along the backline, the alleys were green with plantains and other weeds, and the net (installed in June and removed in September) sagged in the dry noon, and the whole place steamed with midday heat and hunger and emptiness. There was a choice of pie for dessert, and one was blueberry and one was apple, and the waitresses were the same country girls, there having been no passage of time, only the illusion of it as in a dropped curtain—the waitresses were still fifteen; their hair had been washed, that was the only difference—they had been to the movies and seen the pretty girls with the clean hair. Summertime, oh summertime, pattern of life indelible, the fade-proof lake, the woods unshatterable, the pasture with the sweetfern and the juniper forever and ever, summer without end—this was the background, and the life along the shore was the design, the cottagers with their innocent and tranquil design, their tiny docks with the flagpole and the American flag floating against the white clouds in the blue sky, the little paths over the roots of the trees leading from camp to camp and the paths leading back to the outhouses and the can of lime for sprinkling, and at the souvenir counters at the store the miniature birch-bark canoes and the post cards that showed things looking a little better than they looked. This was the American family at play, escaping the city heat, wondering whether the newcomers in the camp at the head of the cove were “common” or “nice,” wondering whether it was true that the people who drove up for Sunday dinner at the farmhouse were turned away because there wasn’t enough chicken. It seemed to me, as I kept remembering all this, that those times and those summers had been infinitely precious and worth saving. There had been jollity and peace and goodness. The arriving (at the beginning of August) had been so big a business in itself, at the railway station the farm wagon drawn up, the first smell of the pine-laden air, the first glimpse of the smiling farmer, and the great importance of the trunks and your father’s enormous authority in such matters, and the feel of the wagon under you for the long ten-mile haul, and at the top of the last long hill catching the first view of the lake after eleven months of not seeing this cherished body of water. The shouts and cries of the other campers when they saw you, and the trunks to be unpacked, to give up their rich burden. (Arriving was less exciting nowadays, when you sneaked up in your car and parked it under a tree near the camp and took out the bags and in five minutes it was all over, no fuss, no loud wonderful fuss about trunks.) Peace and goodness and jollity. The only thing that was wrong now, really, was the sound of the place, an unfamiliar nervous sound of the outboard motors. This was the note that jarred, the one thing that would sometimes break the illusion and set the years moving. In those other summertimes all motors were inboard; and when they were at a little distance, the noise they made was a sedative, an ingredient of summer sleep. They were one cylinder and two-cylinder engines, and some were make-and-break and some were jump-spark, but they all made a sleepy sound across the lake. The one-lungers throbbed and fluttered, and the twin-cylinder ones purred and purred, and that was a quiet sound too. But now the campers all had outboards. In the daytime, in the hot mornings, these motors made a petulant, irritable sound; at night, in the still evening when the afterglow lit the water, they whined about one’s ears like mosquitoes. My boy loved our rented outboard, and his great desire was to achieve single-handed mastery over it, and authority, and he soon learned the trick of choking it a little (but not too much), and the adjustment of the needle valve. Watching him I would remember the things you could do with the old one-cylinder engine with the heavy flywheel, how you could have it eating out of your hand if you got really close to it spiritually. Motor boats in those days didn’t have clutches, and you would make a landing by shutting off the motor at the proper time and coasting in with a dead rudder. But there was a way of reversing them, if you learned the trick, by cutting the switch and putting it on again exactly on the final dying revolution of the flywheel, so that it would kick back against compression and begin reversing. Approaching a dock in a strong following breeze, it was difficult to slow up sufficiently by the ordinary coasting method, and if a boy felt he had complete mastery over his motor, he was tempted to keep it running beyond its time and then reverse it a few feet from the dock. It took a cool nerve, because if you threw the switch a twentieth of a second too soon you would catch the flywheel when it still had speed enough to go up past center, and the boat would leap ahead charging bull-fashion at the dock. We had a good week at the camp. The bass were biting well and the sun shone endlessly, day after day. We would be tired at night and lie down in the accumulated heat of the little bedrooms after the long hot day and the breeze would stir almost imperceptibly outside and the smell of the swamp drift in through the rusty screens. Sleep would come easily and in the morning the red squirrel would be on the roof, tapping out his gay routine. I kept remembering everything, lying in bed in the mornings—the small steamboat that had a long rounded stern like the lip of a Ubangi, and how quietly she ran on the moonlight sails, when the older boys played their mandolins and the girls sang and we ate doughnuts dipped in sugar, and how sweet the music was on the water in the shining night, and what it had felt like to think about girls then. After breakfast we would go up to the store and the things were in the same place—the minnows in a bottle, the plugs and spinners disarranged and pawed over by the youngsters from the boys’ camp, the fig newtons and the Beeman’s gum. Outside, the road was tarred and cars stood in front of the store. Inside, all was just as it had always been, except there was more Coca-Cola and not so much Moxie and root beer and birch beer and sarsaparilla. We would walk out with a bottle of pop apiece and sometimes the pop would backfire up our noses and hurt. We explored the streams, quietly, where the turtles slid off the sunny logs and dug their way into the soft bottom; and we lay on the town wharf and fed worms to the tame bass. Everywhere we went I had trouble making out which was I, the one walking at my side, the one walking in my pants. One afternoon while we were there at that lake a thunderstorm came up. It was like the revival of an old melodrama that I had seen long ago with childish awe. The second-act climax of the drama of the electrical disturbance over a lake in America had not changed in any important respect. This was the big scene, still the big scene. The whole thing was so familiar, the first feeling of oppression and heat and a general air around camp of not wanting to go very far away. In mid-afternoon (it was all the same) a curious darkening of the sky, and a lull in everything that had made life tick; and then the way the boats suddenly swung the other way at their moorings with the coming of a breeze out of the new quarter, and the premonitory rumble. Then the kettle drum, then the snare, then the bass drum and cymbals, then crackling light against the dark, and the gods grinning and licking their chops in the hills. Afterward the calm, the rain steadily rustling in the calm lake, the return of light and hope and spirits, and the campers running out in joy and relief to go swimming in the rain, their bright cries perpetuating the deathless joke about how they were getting simply drenched, and the children screaming with delight at the new sensation of bathing in the rain, and the joke about getting drenched linking the generations in a strong indestructible chain. And the comedian who waded in carrying an umbrella. When the others went swimming my son said he was going in too. He pulled his dripping trunks from the line where they had hung all through the shower, and wrung them out. Languidly, and with no thought of going in, I watched him, his hard little body, skinny and bare, saw him wince slightly as he pulled up around his vitals the small, soggy, icy garment. As he buckled the swollen belt suddenly my groin felt the chill of death. 1941 Once More to the Lake By E. B. White 1. According to the author, what things change and what things do not change? This presents a conflict in the author’s mind that is echoed in the “identity crisis.” Explain the identity crisis and how it relates to the conflict of change. How is the identity crisis solved in the conclusion of the essay? (about 7 sentences) 2. What does summertime represent to the author? How does this relate to the conflict? (about 1 sentence) 3. Write down at least two figures of speech White uses in his essay and explain their effectiveness. (about 2 sentences) 4. What sensory detail is included in the essay? How does it support White’s purpose in the narrative? 5. White repeats phrases throughout the essay. Write down one example. What effect does the repetition have? What does the phrase have to do with the theme of the essay? (about 3 sentences) AND BEYOND THIS there lies in the ocean, turned towards the west and north, the island of Niatirb which Hecataeus indeed declares to be the same size and shape as Sicily, but it is larger, though in calling it triangular a man would not miss the mark. It is densely inhabited by men who wear clothes not very different from the other barbarians who occupy the north-western parts of Europe though they do not agree with them in language. These islanders, surpassing all the men of whom we know in patience and endurance, use the following customs. In the middle of winter when fogs and rains most abound they have a great festival which they call Exmas, and for fifty days they prepare for it in the fashion I shall describe. First of all, every citizen is obliged to send to each of his friends and relations a square piece of hard paper stamped with a picture, which in their speech is called an Exmas-card. But the pictures represent birds sitting on branches, or trees with a dark green prickly leaf, or else men in such garments as the Niatirbians believe that their ancestors wore two hundred years ago riding in coaches such as their ancestors used, or houses with snow on their roofs. And the Niatirbians are unwilling to say what these pictures have to do with the festival, guarding (as I suppose) some sacred mystery. And because all men must send these cards the market-place is filled with the crowd of those buying them, so that there is great labour and weariness. But having bought as many as they suppose to be sufficient, they return to their houses and find there the like cards which others have sent to them. And when they find cards from any to whom they also have sent cards, they throw them away and give thanks to the gods that this labour at least is over for another year. But when they find cards from any to whom they have not sent, then they beat their breasts and wail and utter curses against the sender; and, having sufficiently lamented their misfortune, they put on their boots again and go out into the fog and rain and buy a card for him also. And let this account suffice about Exmas-cards. They also send gifts to one another, suffering the same things about the gifts as about the cards, or even worse. For every citizen has to guess the value of the gift which every friend will send to him so that he may send one of equal value, whether he can afford it or not. And they buy as gifts for one another such things as no man ever bought for himself. For the sellers, understanding the custom, put forth all kinds of trumpery, and whatever, being useless and ridiculous, they have been unable to sell throughout the year they now sell as an Exmas gift. And though the Niatirbians profess themselves to lack sufficient necessary things, such as metal, leather, wood and paper, yet an incredible quantity of these things is wasted every year, being made into the gifts. But during these fifty days the oldest, poorest and most miserable of the citizens put on false beards and red robes and walk about the market-place; being disguised (in my opinion) as Cronos. And the sellers of gifts no less than the purchasers become pale and weary, because of the crowds and the fog, so that any man who came into a Niatirbian city at this season would think some great public calamity had fallen on Niatirb. This fifty days of preparation is called in their barbarian speech the Exmas Rush. But when the day of the festival comes, then most of the citizens, being exhausted with the Rush, lie in bed till noon. But in the evening they eat five times as much supper as on other days and, crowning themselves with crowns of paper, they become intoxicated. And on the day after Exmas they are very grave, being internally disordered by the supper and the drinking and reckoning how much they have spent on gifts and on the wine. For wine is so dear among the Niatirbians that a man must swallow the worth of a talent before he is well intoxicated. Such, then, are their customs about the Exmas. But the few among the Niatirbians have also a festival, separate and to themselves, called Crissmas, which is on the same day as Exmas. And those who keep Crissmas, doing the opposite to the majority of the Niatirbians, rise early on that day with shining faces and go before sunrise to certain temples where they partake of a sacred feast. And in most of the temples they set out images of a fair woman with a new-born Child on her knees and certain animals and shepherds adoring the Child. (The reason of these images is given in a certain sacred story which I know but do not repeat.) But I myself conversed with a priest in one of these temples and asked him why they kept Crissmas on the same day as Exmas; for it appeared to me inconvenient. But the priest replied, It is not lawful, O Stranger, for us to change the date of Crissmas, but would that Zeus would put it into the minds of the Niatirbians to keep Exmas at some other time or not to keep it at all. For Exmas and the Rush distract the minds even of the few from sacred things. And we indeed are glad that men should make merry at Crissmas; but in Exmas there is no merriment left. And when I asked him why they endured the Rush, he replied, It is, O Stranger, a racket; using (as I suppose) the words of some oracle and speaking unintelligibly to me (for a racket is an instrument which the barbarians use in a game called tennis). But what Hecataeus says, that Exmas and Crissmas are the same, is not credible. For first, the pictures which are stamped on the Exmas-cards have nothing to do with the sacred story which the priests tell about Crissmas. And secondly, the most part of the Niatirbians, not believing the religion of the few, nevertheless send the gifts and cards and participate in the Rush and drink, wearing paper cars. But it is not likely that men, even being barbarians, should suffer so many and great things in honour of a god they do not believe in. And now, enough about Niatirb.
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Exploring, Understanding, Protecting the Ocean The Invisible Inhabitants of the Ocean Discovering the Marine Microbiome The research schooner Tara is one of a kind. The vessel sails across the world’s oceans with a crew of sailors and scientists. Her mission: studying the Ocean to better understand and protect it. **TARA, THE EXPLORER** **A sailboat for the Ocean planet** Over the past 20 years, Tara has conducted 12 scientific expeditions and traveled 450,000 km across the oceans to study and preserve the Earth’s largest ecosystem. Tara Arctic, Tara Oceans, Tara Mediterranean, Tara Pacific, Tara Microplastics and Tara Microbiomes, expedition after expedition, the schooner brings together pieces of this giant puzzle. “The more we learn about the Ocean, the better we protect it” is her motto. **A committed crew** There are 14 cabins aboard Tara. Every spot counts and the distribution changes at each departure. Throughout the mission, sailors, scientists, journalists and artists-in-residence take turns on board without distinction, everyone participates in the sailing maneuvers, the vessel’s maintenance and scientific operations. “On our own, we go faster. Together, we go further.” A sentence Tara’s team members often repeat. Both on board and ashore. --- **The captain** He’s the vessel’s conductor. From the wheelhouse, he determines the best route, manages navigation, checks weather reports and organizes sampling with Tara’s scientists. Above all, he’s responsible for order and safety of the crew. Day and night, everyone must obey the captain. **The first mate** The first mate ensures the proper functioning of the sailboat, communication and navigation devices. He manages safety on board and, if necessary, he has the required training and skills to command the vessel. **The chief engineer** Responsible for maintaining the schooner, the chief engineer is Tara’s key man. He always has a headlamp and a Leatherman multitool marine knife in his pocket since he has to deal with any kind of repair to solve breakdowns. Sails, engines, desalinator, etc., he always gets his hands dirty! **The deck officer** His role is to maintain the deck equipment. He maneuvers the sails and is responsible for the smooth running of the ship at sea. **The cook** He/she has the heavy responsibility to supply the kitchen and fill the bellies of the entire crew. The good health and morale of all are at stake. The cook also benefits from the crew members’ talent for fishing to vary meals. This way, Tara’s team enjoyed delicious yellowfin tuna sushi off the Patagonian coasts. **The scientific lead** He/she coordinates all research on board, from analysis protocols to sampling stations. Fishing for microbes For this 5th major mission, Tara’s goal is to study the invisible inhabitants of the Ocean: marine micro-organisms. The purpose is to reveal their organization by understanding their individual role and interactions. A true floating laboratory Tara has all the required equipment to perform research: a manta net, plankton nets (bongo), a sampling rosette, air-measuring instruments, microscopes, two dry laboratories for real-time analysis, a wet laboratory on the rear deck dedicated to water filtration and used to separate viruses and bacteria, and even a large freezer in the forward hold to store samples at very low temperatures. Sails 400 square meters Masts 27 meters Length 36 meters Width 10 meters Weight 120 tons SUPER #1 Turning on the light Discover in the following pages the superpowers of the invisible inhabitants of the Ocean. Noctiluca scintillans, the dinoflagellate species that enlightens us This unicellular alga, measuring 1 mm in diameter, is capable of sparkling at night like a firefly. It produces its own light by transforming chemical energy into light energy during mechanical stress. This superpower is called bioluminescence. An entire world to be explored Below the ocean surface live invisible but fascinating organisms: the marine microbiome 4 MAJOR GROUPS Every liter of seawater contains between 10 and 100 billion microorganisms. Their size varies from 0.01 micrometer to 1 centimeter. It’s the same difference in scale as between an ant and a brontosaurus! Viruses (Size: 0.01 to 1 micrometer) These are the most numerous and varied. They need an organism’s cell to reproduce. In most cases, they penetrate their hosts without killing them, bring them new genes and participate in the proper balance of the microbiome. Phytoplankton (Size: 0.1 to 10 micrometers) Whether bacterium or protist, phytoplankton is a group of microorganisms capable of photosynthesis. These micro-organisms, through chlorophyll pigments, use dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) to make organic matter and generate oxygen. They are the equivalent of plants on land. Bacteria (Size: 0.1 to 2 micrometers) These are simple organisms without a nucleus. Some recycle dead plankton into nutrients, and thus participate in the Ocean breathing mechanism. Protists (Size: 0.8 to 10 millimeters) They are complex organisms, even though they are always composed of a single cell with a nucleus. Sometimes, they have a skeleton made of glass, stone or organic matter. Multiple and invisible From the Greek “micro” and “bios” respectively meaning small and life, the ocean microbiome is a microscopic world of incredible diversity: hairy, small, round and tubular organisms interact. An extremely rich, organized, moving, wide world. Compared to them, we’re tiny! This microscopic marine world is a key element of life on Earth. It provides enormous services to our planet, but also to human beings. Zoom on the microbiome Your body is made up of a multitude of microscopic cells. But do you know that it also hosts billions of bacteria, microbes and viruses? All this invisible life allows you to digest properly, feel good and fight diseases. It’s the same for the Ocean. It is populated by a multitude of life forms less than 1 millimeter wide: marine microorganisms. They are mainly unicellular beings that ensure the proper functioning of the Ocean and keep it healthy through oxygen production, climate and food chain regulation. 1 liter of seawater contains*: - 10 billion viruses - 1 billion bacteria - 1 million protists - 1 million phytoplankton **Our friends the microbes** Microbes often have a bad reputation. Wrongfully, because they help keep us healthy. In our body, they are more numerous than our cells and weigh more than our brain (up to 2.5 kilos). As an order of magnitude, in the Ocean, they represent 4 times the biomass of insects on land. **All connected** Of course, it's not enough to name and classify these microbes to understand them! We must also decipher the immense social network that connects them to each other to know who is doing what and how in a constantly changing environment as a result of increasing climate change and pollution. **Ernst Haeckel** These colorful drawing boards that one would think were born of the imagination of an artist derived from a careful observation of nature by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel... in the 19th century! Fascinated by their variety and symmetry, he drew micro-organisms with incredible precision thanks to the microscope that had just been invented! **When blooms can be seen from the sky** The climate phenomenon called "phytoplankton bloom" is so wide it can be observed from space. As we approach this large underwater cloud, we discover a huge forest of phytoplankton generating oxygen, like plants on land. These blooms appear all over the planet when conditions are favorable: light, adequate temperature and high concentrations of nutrients in the water. **Bacillariophyta, the diatoms specialized in photosynthesis** *Bacillariophyta* is a unicellular alga belonging to the diatom family. Thanks to photosynthesis, it absorbs carbon dioxide and releases oxygen in its environment. The 100,000 species of marine diatoms generate as much oxygen on Earth as forests! To discover the incredible marine microbiome in video, scan this QR code: Marine microbes are the hidden face of the Ocean. Silent, moving and invisible, they provide us with immense services. Focus on these little-known and very useful microscopic organisms. **In the kingdom of the marine microbiome** **Micro-organisms are mysterious** Scientists have found bacterial fossils dating back 3.5 billion years. Evidence that micro-organisms have been and are still involved in shaping the face of the Earth. It has also long been known that they are capable of changing the climate. Cyanobacteria, 2.8 billion years ago, were the first organisms capable of photosynthesis and producing energy. Even though they have evolved with us and vice versa, their movements and interactions remain very mysterious. **Micro-organisms are essential** They provide a significant part of the oxygen available on Earth, the remaining being produced by forests. They are also at the base of the food web. They feed fish and therefore, billions of human beings. They shape landscapes, regulate ecosystems and participate in major biological processes such as currents, the climate and species migration. They are the heart and lung of the Ocean. **Micro-organisms are everywhere** Whether it’s along the coasts or in the high seas, micro-organisms are everywhere. They can be found in coral reefs, polar ice, whales’ bellies, fish scales, mussel flesh, etc. They inhabit every drop of water, crack and crevice in the Ocean. They’re always moving, coming and going with seasons, currents, nutrients, salinity, temperature, depth, etc. Micro-organisms are complex They are characterized by their very complex genes and highly developed skills. Some settle in other living organisms and live in symbiosis with their hosts. They nourish, protect and connect live species with each other. Others, like viruses, have a very bad reputation. Yet, most of them have a beneficial effect. Passing from one cell to another, they take away pieces of DNA that they redeposit elsewhere. In doing so, they forage and shape the living world! Micro-organisms are life-builders In 1977, scientists discovered at the base of hydrothermal vents, in abyssal depths, a multitude of micro-organisms flourishing and allowing for an incredible biodiversity. 2,400 meters under the surface, in complete darkness, clams, mussels and giant worms live thanks to microbes that transform the sulfides generated in the chimneys into energy. Micro-organisms are therefore an incredible source of life! Micro-organisms are our future They constitute the vast majority of living organisms. Imagine: there are more species of micro-organisms on Earth than stars in our galaxy. By studying them, scientists have developed vaccines and antibiotics that have greatly improved human life. And it’s just the beginning! There are still thousands of secrets hidden in the vast ocean and the microbiome. Super Power #3 Consuming CO₂ Prochlorococcus, an atmospheric chemist About 2.8 billion years ago, a phylum of bacteria called cyanobacteria enabled the development of all the life forms we know on Earth today! These superbacteria contain chlorophyll, draw energy from sunlight, and are capable of absorbing carbon dioxide (CO₂). They are the oldest living beings known on Earth and the most abundant photosynthetic organisms on the planet! A mission aiming at shining a light on poorly known organisms essential to our life: the marine microbiome. 24 H WITH THE SCIENTISTS ON BOARD Conquering the hidden face of the Ocean "The goal of this expedition isn't to determine who is who, but who does what," explains Chris Bowler, co-director of the scientific mission. "To this end, we study micro-organisms to observe and understand how they interact with each other and their environment, and react to global warming and pollution." A DAY ABOARD TARA Scientists prepare the rosette, which will go down to a depth of 300 meters to sample elements of marine chemistry (inorganic and organic carbon, nutrients, trace elements, etc.). The seawater collected is bottled according to the depth at which the sample was taken. In the wet laboratory, scientists filter the content of the vials to concentrate micro-organisms. After filtration, each sample is placed in liquid nitrogen at -196 °C or refrigerated at 4-5 °C. 1st rosette 7 am 2nd rosette 7:30 am 1st bongo nets 8 am 9:30 am 3rd rosette 11 am tara mag ~ explore the Ocean **Super Power #4** *Living at 85 °C* **Thermus aquaticus, the bacterium that is not afraid of the heat** Discovered amidst the boiling springs of Yellowstone (USA) in the 1960s, this bacterium is able to survive at temperatures where little else can. Its "Taq polymerase" enzyme has enabled the development of PCR tests to detect the COVID-19 virus. **11 countries visited** **80 researchers** **14 sailors take turns on board** **70,000 kilometers of navigation** **More than 200 scientists involved onshore** **45 international scientific institutions** **19 stopovers** --- **Late morning, immersion of the manta net to collect microplastics on which many micro-organisms live.** **Then they prepare the bongo nets to collect tiny plankton. They filter up to 40,000 liters of seawater in 10 minutes.** **Scientists fill an information sheet and assign a bar code to each sample.** **In the dry laboratory, a microscope is used to take black-and-white photos and determine the amount of plankton in each sample.** **The 150 samples of the day are safely stored. They will be sent to the various partner laboratories in 6 weeks.** --- **Manta net** 11:30 am **4th rosette** 1 pm **2nd bongo** 2:30 pm **3rd bongo** 4 pm **5th rosette** 5 pm **7 pm** A marine game LOOK FOR THE INVISIBLE Open your eyes wide and find the 20 following elements in the image. Be careful, they must be strictly identical in shape and colors. Fauna and flora Phytoplankton from 0.1 to 10 µm Protists from 0.8 to 10 mm Bacteria from 0.1 to 2 µm Viruses from 0.01 to 1 µm ©Anaïs Chevret Symbiodinium, never without my microalga In exchange for a robust and bright shelter with an ocean view, this microalga, more commonly known as zooxanthellae, nourishes, protects and strengthens the coral with which it lives in symbiosis. One cannot do without the other! AtlantECO is a European program bringing together international scientific laboratories. During this second phase of the Microbiome mission, several areas of the Atlantic Ocean will be studied because they play a key role for the planet and are concrete examples of the strong links between biodiversity and the environment. 6 vessels with different itineraries and fields of research The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest ocean basin in the world. Surprisingly, it is still largely unexplored, even though important oceanographic phenomena take place there. These mechanisms must be studied to understand the role played by the Atlantic and the services it provides. 3 RESEARCH ORIENTATIONS MARINE MICROBIOME Better understanding will help us understand regarding both the marine and the marine microbial ecosystems. PLASTIC AND PLASTISPHERE Mapping and characterizing sources of plastic pollution, understanding interactions with the ecosystem and quantifying transfers in the water column will make it possible to assess the Atlantic’s state of health, and remove part of the mystery concerning the movement of plastics in the Ocean. discover new bio-resources study the impact of oil and gas extraction platforms detect risks of pollution for aquaculture THE ATLANTIC OCEAN, IT'S CHALLENGES Microbiome Mission 2020 / 2022 Work specifically on biodiversity, health and the economy. MICROBIOME Understanding microscopic life and its role on a global scale, climate regulation and marine food chain. OCEAN DYNAMICS Characterize the interactions in the Ocean between physics, chemistry and biology. The Ocean is in constant motion. Many small-scale features play a crucial role in the transport of heat, nutrients, organisms and microplastics between different regions. GOALS 36 scientific partners 13 different countries Work hand in hand to provide new data with partners in various fields -- biology, physics, bio-geochemistry, social sciences, economics, politics. Develop innovative tools based on new data to refine forecasting models and better anticipate climate change and the effects of pollution. Move towards a more rational management of resources in the Atlantic Ocean basin, while preserving its key role for climate equilibrium. Promote sharing of knowledge world-wide with scientists, citizens and decision-makers via free-access databases ("open-data") understand the impact of raw material extraction adapt food production to the effects of climate change evaluate the distribution of the microbiome in ocean currents This project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 869232. This output reflects only the author's view and the European Union cannot be held responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein. This young South African woman is actively campaigning in South Africa to fight climate change and its impacts on the Ocean. Scientist, involved in NGOs, and also Ocean ambassador for the European Union, she dedicates her life to the Ocean. THANDO MAZOMBA, A YOUNG OCEAN AMBASSADOR “I would like to remind young people of the power of their voice and actions. Globally, the youth is not only passionate and more vocal than past generations, but they are capable and highly qualified.” How long have you been involved with the Ocean? I’ve been studying and working in the marine space for the past 9 years. My tertiary studies were at the University of Cape Town and my workspaces vary between corporate, NGOs and government sectors. This currently includes being a marine manager at marine company, co-directing an NGO called The Beach Co-op and I am an All-Atlantic Ocean Youth Ambassador for AANCHOR. I also partake in various field work – my most exciting being my voyage to our South African Base SANAE IV, in Antarctica. What fascinates you most about the Ocean? I love the ocean because it is ever-changing and forever the same – a great life lesson to hold close! The ocean has taught me a few things about nurture, compassion, resilience, authenticity and community. Also, because of its vastness, very little of our ocean has been documented and even less understood. I like this as it reminds me that somethings can be felt rather than picked apart to the last “T”. In concrete terms, what does your role as an ambassador for the Ocean involve? I, along with 25 of my fellow AAOYA, work towards engaging the Atlantic Ocean community – whether it be governmental officials, various scientists, storytellers, civil society, NGOs, first nations, academic institutes, filmmakers, artists, anyone! Our oceans are in trouble because of our human activities, so we are working to not only create awareness but activate global and local initiatives that work towards finding and implementing solutions for a healthy, resilient and inclusive ocean. “Ocean Decade”: the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021-2030) Organized by the United Nations, the Ocean Decade began on January 1, 2021. This global initiative aims at deepening scientific knowledge about the Ocean and protecting its health. The Tara Ocean Foundation participates in the Ocean Decade through its present and future scientific missions and by sharing its knowledge with the largest audience possible. What do you think needs to be done urgently to protect the Ocean? We need our global leaders, both in the public and private sector, to clamp down on the overexploitation of our marine resources. This largely needs to be directed towards those who have had the resources to exploit the ocean in a very inequitable world. Of course, everyone has a role to play in working towards healthier oceans, but the few who have the platform, agency and resources need to be called to action the more than those who have so little but suffer the consequences the most. What advice would you give other children? I would like to remind young people of the power of their voice and actions. Globally, the current youth is not only passionate and more vocal, but they are capable and highly qualified. We need youth to continue to step into their power! The second thing I want to speak to is that it is important to start building strong community from a young age so as to grow and learn together. Community holds you in difficult spaces and is always there to remind you of your capabilities. The practice of community has always kept us sustainable, and we need to lean into that practice again. As young as you are. You are never too young to start. Daniele Iudicone Scientist and coordinator of AtlantECO The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest ocean basin in the world. It hosts a huge amount of marine life, rich coral reefs and organisms living in deep, dark and icy waters. The ocean is important to us because it produces oxygen and absorbs CO₂, provides delicious food, regulates the climate and is a source of employment for many people, such as fishermen and fisherwomen or ship captains. So far, we do not know much about the Atlantic, especially the southern region. This is why we created the AtlantECO programme, to investigate the diversity of life in the Ocean, in order to better understand it, learn more about its health and how to protect it. Brazil Andrea Green, AtlantECO scientist We do not know the level of microplastic pollution on the Brazilian coast, nor the effects of these pollutants on the local microbiome. AtlantECO's research will bring unique information on these issues so that we can take the necessary measures to protect our marine environment. Amazon The Amazon is the largest river in the world. It discharges on average 200,000 m³ of fresh water per second into the Atlantic Ocean. This Amazonian water changes the salinity, temperature and composition of the Atlantic Ocean, dispersing nutrients, sediments and a considerable amount of organic matter over hundreds of kilometres into the sea. The study of its composition and diffusion will reveal the impact that the river has on the entire region. Africa Benguela current The Benguela Current flows up from South Africa towards the coasts of Namibia and Angola. In the south, the Atlantic waters mix with those of the Indian Ocean, causing multiple eddies that reach as far as Brazil. Along these coasts, cold waters rising from the depths, also known as upwellings, bring nutrients to the surface. The Benguela Current is very productive in fish because it is rich in nutrients and has a rich and varied ecosystem. It has a considerable influence on the South Atlantic Ocean. Antarctic The Southern Ocean and the Weddell Sea are the two southernmost stages of the AtlantECO programme. The crew will head south, crossing the 40th parallel called the "snorers" and the 50th parallel, the "howlers", winds with suggestive names. The passage through the southern latitudes aims to study two mysterious mechanisms of the climate machine: the drift of icebergs and the oceanic circulation of the microbiome in the Weddell Sea. Super Power #6 Building cliffs Coccolithophore, an architect for centuries The giant cliffs of Normandy owe their origin to an organism called Coccolithophore, invisible to the naked eye. Tiny disk-shaped calcareous plates (coccoliths) secreted by these microalgae join together to form a protective armor called "cocosphere". The accumulation of these fossilized exoskeletons over centuries resulted in these immense chalk cliffs! BY STUDYING AND PROTECTING THE OCEAN WE TAKE CARE OF OUR PLANET. ©François Aurat_Fondation Tara Océan Printed with the support of the French Embassy in South Africa Join us quickly on the social networks! www.fondationtaraocean.org
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Tutor Learning Initiative Students in Year 4 involved in the Tutor Learning Initiative program have been working on improving their writing this term. Our writers have been working on the craft of writing which can link to any genre of writing they wish to choose... This includes: - Who is my audience and what is my purpose for writing? - What does my audience want to know? - How do I as a writer engage the audience? - Have I used precise and lovely verbs that gives a clear message to the reader? - Have I used figurative language such as similes, metaphors, alliteration, and personification? As part of the Lions Public speaking competition, these students will present their written speeches to a Lions Club representative panel of two judges and a timekeeper. This has now been rescheduled to next Thursday the 23rd of June with a starting time of 12pm. It will be held in our school Library. Writing is a journey and a process and needs to be practiced and practiced. Dear families, I hope your long weekend was a lovely one where you were able to enjoy some family time or a weekend away with others or just enjoyed the time on your own. However your weekend was spent, I hope it was a special time. I am fortunate to have an open fire as my source of heating and this is one aspect of the colder months that I enjoy. The fire is a central hub of my home, where I find that it is a welcoming and comfortable space to talk to my daughter and laugh as a family. This is our special time together. Self-Care Report writing time, the winter season settling in, and the general busy-ness of daily life means that we often take a step back when looking after ourselves. We are privileged to have Shoni Reinmert from the Alanah and Madeline Foundation work with us and our students over the past year and a half and largely as an advocate for self-care. Self-care means taking care of yourself so that you can be healthy, you can be well, you can do your job, you can help and care for others, and you can do all the things you need to and want to accomplish in a day. There are many forms self-care can take. It could be ensuring you get enough sleep every night or stepping outside for a few minutes for some fresh air. Self-care is vital for building resilience toward those stressors in life that you can't eliminate. When you've taken steps to care for your mind and body, you'll be better equipped to live your best life. Reporting Reports will be distributed on Friday 24th June, the final day of Term Two. Conversations are important to us, with parent teacher interviews scheduled for early Term Three. However, if you have any concerns about your child’s progress, please contact our office staff to arrange to talk to your child’s teachers. We are always happy to speak with you to discuss your child’s progress at a mutually convenient time. School Council Meeting A reminder that our June School Council meeting will be held on Monday 20th June at 7pm in the library. School Council members have received an email with meeting details and agenda items. It’s Not Okay to be away In our current climate where the pandemic has significantly altered and impacted schooling and attendance over the past two years, we are grateful that in 2022 we have been able to keep our school open for two whole terms. Getting back on track to the normalities of school life is important to us and this is a little reminder of the importance of student attendance. Attending school on a regular basis is vital for all students in Prep to Grade 6 so that they can access all they need to learn throughout their 7 years of primary schooling. Attendance is significant for students accessing the curriculum, in that if the students have a high absence rate their immersion in the curriculum is severely reduced. Please read the information below with regards to absence rates and consider the number of days your child has been absent from school. In the ‘good old days’ it used to be hard to get a day off school. Now it seems to be easy, maybe too easy? Parents and students need to fully understand the impact of missing too many school days. If a student has a day off, once a fortnight, this would add up to 20 days in a school year (there are approximately 40 weeks in a school year). 20 days is the same as missing a tenth of a school year. This would be equal to missing a year of schooling up to Year 10. When you consider the above; schools, parents and the wider community need to work in partnership with each other to ensure students enjoy school success and, as a consequence, more enriching life choices. We appreciate that there are times when students are ill or when family holidays need to be taken during the school term, but we are outlining the importance of those other times that absences occur. **Be Yourself for A Big Life** Our Junior School Council are already planning their next fundraising item. We are quite fortunate to have A Big Life team working with staff and students at WWPS. All staff have access to resources and ideas to support students to navigate their experiences, emotions and wellbeing. Teachers model and teach to the Big Life boost each fortnight and this is the common language across the school. Each term, WWPS has an umbrella theme that our school identifies as a key area of learning for our students and explicitly teach the fundamental elements of living a life full of potential and promise. Our partnership with the A Big Life team is significant for our wellbeing culture at West, so our students would like to give back and support our wellbeing partners. **On Friday 24th June**, your children can come dressed in anything that makes them happy and unique to themselves. Whether it is your favourite beanie, your best party shirt or even a superhero costume. Come dress to be yourself. A gold coin donation is required and **we do ask that pyjamas are NOT worn on this day.** The Importance of Reading “The more that you read, the more things you will know. The more that your learn, the more places you’ll go.” Dr Seuss Emphasising the importance of reading is probably the single greatest thing that we as parents can do for our children, whether we are reading to our children or supporting them to practice reading themselves. Reading stimulates a child’s imagination and expands their understanding of the world. It also helps them to extend their vocabulary as well as improving their memory and concentration. Hot tips to help encourage your child to read: • Start with what interests your child – visit libraries to see what types of books and which authors your child likes to read. They even have audio books. If a book is difficult, perhaps you could take turns to read a sentence, a paragraph or a chapter. • Support your child to read independently by having a reading light, somewhere to store their books and a comfortable space to read. • Enjoy reading together and vary what you read – don’t make reading together a test. Read signs, magazines, catalogues etc. Sit back and relax together, focusing on the positives. Talk about the book beforehand. Check the pictures and predict what might happen. Clarify any unusual words. Ask questions like; • What do you think the author meant by . . .? • Tell me why you think X did Y . . .? • What do you think will happen next . . .? • Why do you think the author did . . .? • How are these characters the same or different? • Why do you think the author used this word? Most of all, enjoy spending time together and making happy memories. Building our Toolboxes with Big Life During Term 2, students continued learning about the Zones of Regulation, recording their zones (emotions) across a day and identifying ways they can care for each zone, individually and as a class. Students started thinking about ways that work for them and started developing their own individual tool boxes that they can draw from. Students also explored the size of problems and size of reaction. Spending time working out if a problem was something they could solve on their own or something that needed an adult to support. They also explored if their reactions matched the size of the problem. An expected response would be: - **Green zone** reactions for small problems (eg. dropped a pencil, working with a different partner) - **Yellow zone** reactions for medium problems (eg. fell over and hurt themselves, learning pit) - **Red zone** reactions for big problems (eg. emergency evacuation, stranger danger) We also explored self-talk and how we can use our inner coach to help us care for our emotions. For example - we might be feeling nervous (yellow) about speaking in front of others or trying something new. We can choose to listen to our inner coach and tell ourselves something like "with practice I will get better" or "I will do my best". This linked nicely to exploring growth and fixed mindset, practicing to use a growth mindset when something is difficult or challenging; and understanding that mistakes are an opportunity for us to grow and learn. Practicing to catch ourselves saying those negative things to ourselves and adding 'yet'. For example "I can't do that....YET". A Snapshot of learning in the classroom **Grade 4,5,6** students practicing our active listening & teamwork skills **Active Listening Checklist** - Focus on the person speaking. - Use a friendly face and look interested. - Don’t interrupt. - Accept the person’s feelings. - Repeat in your own words what the person has said to be sure you understand. **Helpful ways to calm** **Grade 1 & 2** students working on checking in with themselves and understanding what zone and thinking about ways we can care for our yellow zone emotion - worry. Welcome to our Hands on Learning program! We have been busy with a term full of projects and excursions, and when life gets busy it is so important to remain CALM & CLEAR to help us maintain our best energy levels and positively cope with and care for our zones. Here are some of the ways we have expanded our toolkit to help us with our Zones of Regulation in Hands on Learning. **Phone it in** Each morning we check in with how we are feeling. We rate ourselves from 1-10 on this phone. We don’t always need to explain why we feel like this, but it helps us support each other in times of need. **Food, Food, Food!** I mean, who doesn’t love food! We enjoy a cooked lunch each week where we check in with each other around a table. It is hard to regulate our emotions on an empty stomach! **Making Connections** We have made some fabulous friendships both in our own HoL program and in the community. A few weeks ago we visited Koroit and District Primary school and saw how they use the ZoR in HoL just like us! **Recognising our Goals** An example of this; Jaawan focusses on the one task at a time in HoL. He recognises that this helps him with his frustration and energy levels. “It helps me stay calm and stay with the group.” Each HoL student is individual and their needs are individual too. The Junior School learning about ‘Old Warrnambool’ On Wednesday afternoon the Junior School spent time with Janet Macdonald, a volunteer from the Warrnambool and District Historical Society. This incursion enhanced the Junior School’s Inquiry topic, ‘How is life different now compared to the olden days?’ Along with her extensive knowledge of Warrnambool’s history, Janet shared many old photos of the area and its well-known landmarks. The students enjoyed looking through old school reading texts and playing with olden day cameras and toys. Important Dates: Term 2, 2022 | WEEK | MONDAY | TUESDAY | WEDNESDAY | THURSDAY | FRIDAY | |------|--------------|-------------|-------------------------|-------------------|---------------------------------------------| | Week 8 | 13th Queens Birthday Public Holiday | 14th | 15th Warmmambool Historical Society to visit F-2 students. | 16th Beamish St Kinder visit | 17th Whole School Assembly | | Week 9 | 20th | 21st Public Speaking District Level Lions 5:30pm | 22nd | 23rd School Level Lions Public Speaking Mahogany Kinder visit | 24th Dress in anything that makes you feel happy and unique. GOLD COIN DONATION Assembly LAST DAY OF TERM 2 2:20PM finish June reports sent home | School Holidays 25th of April—10th of July Term 3 Week 1 11th July—15th July Warrnambool West Koorie Leadership group The Koorie leadership students at Warrnambool West Primary School became the face and voice for Sorry Day around Warrnambool city last month. With WWPS Art teacher Dayle Smithwick, the students met with Uncle Lochy and acknowledged the significant impact on our first peoples and did so in displaying creative designs across Warrnambool’s CBD. Our Indigenous voice continues to grow at Warrnambool West. Student learning, in and out of the classrooms is rich and authentic so that our future leaders continue to advocate for reconciliation and make the change. The Year’s 3-6 students were privileged to visit Worn Gundidj at Tower Hill as part of their Science lessons this term. They learnt more on one of Victoria’s oldest dormant volcanoes and discovered the space through an indigenous lens by an interactive boomerang throwing session, discovering Aboriginal artefacts and connected to the 65,000 year old culture through the beautiful nature and bush surroundings. West Is Best On Friday afternoons this term we have taken 3-4 boys to West Warrnambool Primary School to help out with their afternoon sport. Ranging from Years 7-9, our boys have helped out with all different kinds of sports including cross country, ga ga ga, T-ball, soccer, AFL and an AFL game in which Durrell, Jackota and Kaenru coached. The highlight of all the sessions has been watching the young fellas grow with confidence. They have practiced talking in front of small groups and teaching skills and techniques in each sport. Where appropriate our boys have joined in on the activities. The primary school kids quickly gang up on the “big kids”, adding to the fun and excitement of it all. We look forward to continuing this relationship with West Warrnambool PS into Term 3 and beyond. DEADLY!! “Making” an Ocean There can be water without life, but nowhere there is life without water, and 97% of Earth’s water is in the ocean. Learning about this mysterious and essential to life subject is a must. If it can be done in a collaborative and fun project, even better. This week, TheirCare crew is diving in the deep sea to discover the underwater wonders. Building an ocean diorama is being an ongoing project that everyone is getting involved. It’s been an opportunity to improve a range of skills: reading, fine motor, hand-eye coordination, creative thinking, arts, and lots more. Holiday Program Holiday is just one week away!! Get ready to explore new worlds, put your drama and storytelling skills to the test, see the latest hit film Minions: The Rise of Dru, take part in a massive sporting spectacular or even join us on one of our off-site adventures – there is something to entertain everyone these holidays! Remember to book early as places are limited. Early bookings help our team plan to ensure that your child has an amazing experience when at the service. Bookings @ www.theircare.com.au Contact Claudia if you have any questions. CONTACT SERVICE PHONE: 0458 100 401 – CLAUDIA ZANETTE EMAIL: email@example.com CONTACT HEAD OFFICE PHONE: 1300 072 410 EMAIL: firstname.lastname@example.org TIMES BEFORE SCHOOL: 7:00AM – 9:00AM AFTER SCHOOL: 3:20PM – 6:00PM About the program TheirCare provides a stimulating and safe environment for all children and an environment where children come and enjoy their time in their program. During sessions children develop life skills, friendships, confidence and creativity through play. Warrnambool West Primary School has partnered with TheirCare to provide quality care, flexibility and commitment to deliver on our promise to your school community. | Operation Times | Fees* | Out of Pocket | Average^ | |----------------------------------|-------------|------------------------|----------| | Before School Care | $19.00 | $3.13 - $19.00 | $3.13 | | After School Care | $26.00 | $3.90 - $26.00 | $3.90 | | Cancellation / Late Booking | $5.00 | $5.00 | | | Cancellation Fee | Full Fee | See BSC/ASC | | Service Phone Number: 0458 100 401 Your service coordinator will be available during session times. TheirCare support is available during office hours if required on 1300 072 410. How to Enrol Visit TheirCare website: www.theircare.com.au and click on ‘Book Now’ in the top right-hand corner to register your child’s details. *Standard fees excluding incursion / excursion costs ^Based on ABS published average family income for the suburb the school is located The non-contactless orders from Chitticks Bakery will continue each Friday throughout the term. Orders will need to be placed in a brown paper bag with the correct money into your classrooms lunch order basket by 9:05am. Siblings will require their own individual orders and bags. **This Week’s Special** - Hedgehog - $2.50 - Iced Donut (choc/pink) - $2.00 --- **Warrnambool West Primary School** **LUNCH ORDER LIST** | Item | Price | |-----------------------------|-------| | Meat Pies | $3.50 | | Pastie | $3.50 | | Potato Pie | $3.50 | | Sausage Roll | $2.50 | | Nibble Pie | $1.50 | | Plain Salad Roll | $4.20 | | Chicken/Ham Salad Roll | $4.50 | --- **PLEASE NOTE:** *Lunch orders are ONLY available on a FRIDAY* *LUNCH ORDERS MUST BE WRITTEN ON A CLEAN PAPER BAG THAT IS BIG ENOUGH TO FIT THE STUDENTS ORDER IN IT.* *THE CORRECT MONEY MUST BE INCLUDED. NO CHANGE WILL BE GIVEN.* *PLEASE DO NOT SEND LUNCH ORDERS IN AN ENVELOPE.* Be Yourself for A Big Life Friday 24th June - Be you and wear what brings out the best in you! Gold coin donation Community News WEST WARRNAMBOOL NEIGHBOURHOOD HOUSE HOLIDAY PROGRAM Bookings are essential – our program will be running from various locations! COST: $2.00 per child/ children under 8 years must be accompanied by an adult Morning and Afternoon Tea Provided: Contact 0418 944 276/ email@example.com | Monday July 4 | Tuesday July 5 | Wednesday July 6 | Thursday July 7 | Friday July 8 | |---------------|----------------|------------------|-----------------|--------------| | EXCURSION BOXERCISE & KARATE (5+YRS) | PLAYGROUP (0-5YRS) 9.30am -11.00am | CREATIVE COOKING (7+YRS) 10am – 11.30am | PLAY GROUP (0 - 5 YRS) 9.30am - 11.00am | PORTRAIT PAINTING With Jane Curtis (7+YRS) 10am - 12noon | | Body Blitzer | EXCURSION WHEELCHAIR BASKETBALL (7+YRS) 1.30-3.00pm | RESIN ART with Kaz (8+ YRS) 1.30-3.00pm | QUIRKY SCIENCE EXPERIMENTS (5+YRS) 1.30 - 3.00pm | | SAILING TOWARDS SUCCESS
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A GUIDANCE DOCUMENT FOR FAMILIES WITH STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SAVANNAH-CHATHAM COUNTY PUBLIC SCHOOLS SCCPSS Parent Guidance Document (SY 2020-21) Savannah-Chatham County Public School System A School Reopening Guide to Virtual Learning: SCCPSS will make decisions based on the most up to date and reliable information available. The determination for certain operational approaches will be made with safety in mind and will be driven by information received by the Chatham County Health Department, Georgia Department of Health, Georgia Department of Education, and the Centers for Disease Control. M. Ann Levett, Ed.D. Superintendent of Schools www.sccpss.com # TABLE OF CONTENTS | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | Letter from the Superintendent | 2 | | SCCPSS SY 2020-21 Academic Calendar | 3 | | Our Commitment to You | 4 | | The Learning Management System (LMS) | 7 | | Virtual Learning Tools and Know-How | 8 | | Technology Descriptions and Support | 9 | | Daily Schedule | 10 | | Sample Student Schedule | 11 | | Student Attendance and Instructional Approaches | 11-12| | Creating a Learning Space at Home | 13 | | Printed Packets and Refueling Stations | 14 | | Services for Students with Disabilities | 16 | | Gifted Education | 19 | | College and Career Readiness (CTAE & Work Based Learning) | 20 | | Student Well Being and Resources | 22 | | Video Resources | 25 | | SCCPSS Nutrition Services | 26 | | Athletics and Extra Curricular Activities | 27 | | Staff Health & Safety Requirements | 28 | | Planning Checklist | 29 | | Who to Contact | 33 | | Terms to Know | 34 | UPDATED: 8/11/2020 10:05 AM A Message from the Superintendent Welcome to the new school year! Are you ready to LOG ON and RETURN TO LEARN? I know these past few months have been unusual, to say the least, for our families and staff. Like the rest of the world, being thrown into distance learning in the last 9 weeks of the school year proved to be quite a challenge. However, we learned a lot and what you will see this year is a significant improvement over our Spring 2020 experience! For new families and staff, we are excited to welcome you to the SCCPSS family…we’re all lifetime learners here! Everyone is navigating a “new normal.” Since we are starting virtually, each staff member and student may have a classroom that doubles as a kitchen table at other times of the day! To start the year, we are introducing several new distance learning tools, allowing students, families, and staff to teach, learn, and communicate at enhanced levels. This guide provides critical information on these new tools and processes and you will learn even more as teachers provide messages, materials and lessons using these tools. This guide, along with our new distance learning tools, will be accessible on your desktop, laptop, or phone, making it easy to RETURN TO LEARNING from almost anywhere! When it is safe to do so, we will return to face-to-face time in the classroom and special events. Even that will look very different as we implement smaller classes with changes in how we observe safety protocols. You’ll also see distance guidelines at mealtimes, play time, and during extracurricular activities. When we return, you will notice these changes and more in every school, to include health screening checkpoints for everyone’s safety. I’m excited to welcome you to this new school year. It will be different, and it may be challenging at times, but we are here to help you every step of the way. If you have questions, ask your child’s teacher or principal. Please also visit our website, www.sccpss.com, as it holds a wealth of current and useful information. The answers can usually be found there! Our very active social media channels are another great source of information. Thank you for bringing your best self to school this year. We love our families, scholars, and staff. We have GREAT EXPECTATIONS for everyone! Wishing you an abundance of patience, compassion, and flexibility. Let’s get ready to LOG ON and RETURN TO LEARN. Warm Regards, M. Ann Levett M. Ann Levett, Ed.D. Superintendent #UNPACKYOURPATIENCE #DATADETERMINEDATES UPDATED: 8/11/2020 10:05 AM The administrative e-learning model is subject to change based on the existing conditions of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Should health conditions dictate, a Virtual Learning Model (E-Learning Days) could extend beyond the Labor Day Break and throughout the first nine weeks of the school year. **INSTRUCTIONAL PERIODS - Total (170) Days** **FIRST SEMESTER** First Nine-Week Period ........................................ 8/19/2020 – 10/30/2020 Second Nine-Week Period .................................. 10/13/2020 – 12/18/2020 **SECOND SEMESTER** Third Nine-Week Period .................................... 01/05/2021 – 03/12/2021 Fourth Nine-Week Period ................................. 03/15/2021 – 05/21/2021 **LEGEND** - Holiday for All - Nine Week Period Begins - Holiday (School Staff/Student) - Nine Week Period Ends - District Planning Day - Staff Planning Day - E-Learning Day - Report Cards Issued - Progress Reports Issued **PROGRESS & REPORT CARDS** - Progress Report ........................................... 08/04/2020 - Report Card Issued ..................................... 10/13/2020 - Progress Report ........................................... 11/13/2020 - Report Card Issued ..................................... 01/08/2021 - Progress Report ........................................... 02/08/2021 - Report Card Issued ..................................... 03/19/2021 - Progress Report ........................................... 04/02/2021 - Report Card Issued ..................................... 05/28/2021 **INDEPENDENCE DAY HOLIDAY (HOLIDAY FOR ALL)** ................................ July 3 **TEACHERS RETURN / PRE-PLANNING** ................................ Aug. 3-18 **STUDENTS RETURN (BEGINNING FIRST 9-WEEKS PERIOD)** .................. Aug. 19 **E-LEARNING DAY** ........................................ Aug. 19 - Sept. 4 **LABOR DAY HOLIDAY (HOLIDAY FOR ALL)** ................................ Sept. 7 **FALL BREAK (SCHOOL STAFF/STUDENTS)** .......................... Oct. 9 **STAFF PLANNING / STUDENT HOLIDAY** .......................... Oct. 12 **E-LEARNING DAY** ........................................ Nov. 3 **VETERANS DAY HOLIDAY (HOLIDAY FOR ALL)** ........................ Nov. 11 **THANKSGIVING BREAK (SCHOOL STAFF/STUDENTS)*** ........ Nov. 23-25 **THANKSGIVING HOLIDAY (HOLIDAY FOR ALL)** ........................ Nov. 26-27 **WINTER BREAK (SCHOOL STAFF/STUDENTS)** ................ Dec. 17-31 **WINTER HOLIDAY (HOLIDAY FOR ALL)** .............................. Dec. 24-25 **NEW YEAR’S DAY (HOLIDAY FOR ALL)** .......................... Jan. 1 **STAFF PLANNING / STUDENT HOLIDAY** .......................... Jan. 4 **BEGINNING OF THIRD 9-WEEK PERIOD / SECOND SEMESTER** ....... Jan. 5 **E-LEARNING DAY** ........................................ Jan. 5-8 **MLK, JR DAY (HOLIDAY FOR ALL)** ............................... Jan. 18 **ST. PATRICK’S DAY (SCHOOL STAFF/STUDENTS)** ................ Mar. 17 **E-LEARNING DAY** ........................................ Mar. 19-20 **EASTER HOLIDAY (HOLIDAY FOR ALL)** .......................... Mar. 29-Apr 1 **SPRING BREAK (SCHOOL STAFF/STUDENTS)*** ................ Apr. 2 **SPRING HOLIDAY (HOLIDAY FOR ALL)** .............................. Apr. 2 **LAST DAY OF SCHOOL (END OF FOURTH 9-WEEK PERIOD)** .......... May 21 **STAFF PLANNING** ........................................ May 24-28 **MEMORIAL DAY (HOLIDAY FOR ALL)** ............................. May 31 Our Commitment to You While navigating a situation that remains fluid and uncertain, education can be an important stabilizing force for society. We are proud of the community we have built together. The road ahead may have bumps, but we will continue to make significant advances in our shared goals. A key ingredient of our culture is our commitment to the community around us and to future generations of learners. We look for unique ways to collaborate with students and teachers in our schools to share the educational experience and to bring new ideas and new technologies to our students. The Savannah-Chatham County Public School System is transitioning to a remote learning mode from now through at least the first scheduled break – maybe longer. Classes, assignments, projects, and assessments will be conducted and administered in new ways. The depth of resources assembled in such a short period of time is nothing short of phenomenal. We owe our instructional and technology teams a debt of gratitude for the ability to pivot in such a short time. As we make this shift, we promise that students will receive the same high-quality instruction they would receive under normal circumstances. Research shows that students may not be equally predisposed to engage in online learning. To that end, our goal is to provide a One-to-One learning environment. We also commit to working with providers to give families access to low-cost internet and we will provide whatever resources we can to families and students with personal hotspots and SmartBus© technology. ALL students will receive the very best our staff can offer, whether they are in a special need or any other category. We will deliver the services to all children as effectively and efficiently as possible. Our educators care about the development of their students and they recognize and strive to fulfill their responsibilities every day. They cultivate students’ curiosity and interest in learning. Our teaching staff is committed to bringing students the educational resources and support they need in this new environment. Savannah-Chatham County Public Schools are here to serve our community with best practices for teachers, students, and families. We pledge to be as responsive as possible so that your child will perform at the highest level! AN IMPROVED LEARNING EXPERIENCE: The new virtual learning environment will be much different than what was offered in the spring of 2020. The District has established standard processes to be used that will promote teaching and learning across three instructional delivery models: - Virtual Online Learning - Paper Learning Packets - Offline Chromebook (USB) Method ✓ Students’ work will be graded. Attendance will be taken to track participation. ✓ Schools will provide information about specific student schedules. ✓ The first few days of school will be devoted to easing everyone into the virtual learning environment. STAFF COMMITMENT: Teachers and staff will have clearly defined roles and expectations and will hold classes and office hours to support students on a daily basis. REMEMBER – SAFETY FIRST! When it’s safe to provide an in-person learning option and reopen our schools, we will. SCCPSS will consider the delivery of virtual learning options for families if they remain uncomfortable with returning to classrooms. SCHOOL COMMITMENTS: THE LEARNING EXPERIENCE During virtual learning, families can expect that schools and teachers will: - Make sure students have a Chromebook/laptop or other device. - Provide a daily blend of live, interactive classes – which will be recorded and posted in itslearning – and self-paced learning activities. - Give students regular feedback on their work. - Have daily office hours so students who need help from their teachers can get it. - Be accessible by email and phone. - Teach all of the scheduled content for the semester in each course. - Provide social-emotional learning supports to all students. - Meet the needs of diverse learners and ensure we provide accommodations, modifications, access, and equity for all students. WHAT FAMILIES CAN DO This school year will present unique challenges for students, parents, and teachers. SCCPSS does not expect parents to become educators, but there are some things parents can do to maximize productivity while students are learning virtually at home: - Create a daily routine and ensure children have a quiet, dedicated space to do their work. - Provide a responsible adult to monitor/check in on students on a regular basis. - Ask questions about what your children are learning. - Make sure they are getting breaks and getting outside when they can. - Make sure they’re getting adequate sleep and are well-rested when they start learning each day. - Keep computer and device screens within your view as much as possible. - Encourage them. Be patient and flexible. Also, stay up to date on the latest from the CDC and Georgia Department of Health and monitor the SCCPSS Communication channels regularly. Make sure your contact information is up to date at your school so we can ensure our messages reach you. Stop the Spread of Germs Teach your children healthy habits. Remember, per the CDC, COVID-19 is mostly spread by respiratory droplets released when people talk, cough, or sneeze. It is thought that the virus may spread to hands from a contaminated surface and then to the nose or mouth, causing infection. Therefore, personal prevention practices (such as handwashing, staying home when sick) and environmental cleaning and disinfection are important principles. Fortunately, there are a number of actions WE ALL can take to help lower the risk of COVID-19 exposure and spread during school sessions and activities. We hope that this guide will serve as a helpful resource to you. Please check our website and social media regularly for updates! The Learning Management System (LMS) A House of Learning! Open the door to a world of wonder! The Savannah Chatham County Public School System (SCCPSS) has purchased a Learning Management System (LMS)! The LMS, also known as itsLearning is an online cloud-based solution that will provide parents, students, and staff a “one stop shop” for all things relating to curriculum and content management, instruction, tools for assessment and communication, and reporting and analytics. The system will integrate content to provide a seamless process for remote learning and will be accessible via the District website. Students will access the LMS via their device anywhere they wish that has an internet connection. Simply visit sccpss.com for the log in portal. Teachers will populate the system with lessons, classroom assignments and will communicate with parents and students via messages. *Students will be immersed in group work and on solo assignments! And just like in face-to-face learning, you can “raise your hand” and ask for help on a project!* THE HOUSE THAT SAVANNAH-CHATHAM BUILT An easy way to understand the LMS is to picture a house that comes with standard appliances and everything you need to move right in! Once your settled, special furnishings and a custom setup can be arranged. School will have the ability to customize learning tools to fit the needs of students! Just like your house – all is in order and arranged just right! Open the door to learning with the SCCPSS online learning solution! *itsLearning was a winner in the 2019 EDTECH Awards! This instructional delivery model will help us REIMAGINE LEARNING in this brand-new world of education.* Tools and Know-How for Virtual Learning! Parent tools and resources! We want you and your child to have all the tools needed for success! In a world of virtual learning, you need all the support you can get so we’ve created some excellent resources that will help you understand the exciting world of learning that your child will be engaged in every day! THE POWER OF POWER SCHOOL! Log into the Parent PowerSchool Portal Many of our parents already know how PowerSchool can help them be a part of their child’s education Every Step of the Way!  Find out what’s going on at your child’s school anytime, anywhere! With PowerSchool’s Parent Access you can read announcements, catch up on your students’ class assignments, checkout grades, attendance and discipline. More information: https://spwww.sccpss.com/dad/sis/Pages/Parent-Access.aspx  Request a Parent Access Account: https://savannahchatham.az1.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_9Sme3EiH8cNFJqt  Parent Access Login: https://sccpss.powerschool.com/public/home.html VIDEO RESOURCES: POWERSCHOOL INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO: Parent Access How to Videos https://spwww.sccpss.com/dad/sis/Pages/Training-Videos.aspx itsLearning (LMS) THE LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM: LOG ON TO LEARN! Students will log on through the itsLearning landing page that will be prominently displayed on the district’s website at www.sccpss.com or through their school’s website! These videos will give you an idea of the tremendous power of this very robust system: ITSLEARNING VIDEO CHANNEL ONBOARDING ITSLEARNING OVERVIEW STUDENT PERSPECTIVE TUTORIALS USING A CHROMEBOOK INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO – Setup: How to setup your Google Chrome Book Video INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO – Operate: SCCPSS – How to Operate the Chromebook Technology Descriptions and Support **itslearning** Online teaching and learning platform for teachers and students. Provides portal services and smartphone app for teachers, students, and parents. Available to all K-12 teachers and students. **Edgenuity** Online standards-aligned, courses and curriculum in ELA, Math, Science, and Social Studies. Available to grades 6 – 12 (Available to grades 3 – 12 through the E-Learning Academy). **NWEA MAP** Online formative assessment tool to measure COVID-19 student learning loss. This information will assist schools on student support and instructional recovery. The District will provide buses equipped with SmartBus technology that will provide WiFi to community areas with little to no Internet access. Personal hotspot devices may be checked out from your school’s media center! **Technology Support Path:** If a parent or student has a technology problem, the first step is to contact your teacher. If the teacher is unable to assist, he/she will escalate the issue to Library Media Technology Specialist (LMTS). The LMTS will contact the parent/student. If the LMTS is unable to resolve the issue, he/she will place a work order to have the device repaired OR will set an appointment to swap the device. --- **Parent/Student Tech Support Flowchart** 1. Parent or Student contacts teacher and provides detailed information regarding the issue. - Teacher will attempt to assist parent/student - Is the teacher able to assist? - YES → Issue Resolved - NO → Teacher will escalate to the LMTS & provide contact information for parent/student - LMTS will contact parent/student - Is the LMTS able to assist? - YES → Issue Resolved - NO → LMTS will set an appointment for a swap - LMTS will place a work order with device info and issue - Tech will assess issue - Customer Care will route to the appropriate category for service and placed in proper queue - Device under warranty will be sent back by Technology - Tech will communicate back with LMTS and close work order - Device not under warranty will be either fixed or condemned for parts Daily Schedule: TEACHING & LEARNING Independent learning days will provide students with high quality instruction that is engaging and encompasses lessons that are reflective and in alignment with the Georgia Standards of Excellence. The overarching goal is to stay connected with students and ensure teaching and learning is still occurring (i.e. online discussions, two-way communication, real-time assignments vs. work packets, feedback and formative assessments, group work, and independent work). Guidance for students’ schedules is provided in this document as well as sample teacher schedules. Keep in mind, times for virtual schedules may vary from those utilized in a brick and mortar setting. Best practices for instructional hours for students: | Grade Level | Pre-K | K-3rd | 4th-5th | 6th-12th | |-------------|-------|-------|---------|----------| | | 4 hours | 4.5 hours | 5 hours | 5.5 hours | Learning Day Overview at a Glance: | Grade Level | Teacher-Facilitated Learning* (Direct Instruction, Office Hours, Small Group, and Individual) | Independent Learning Activities/Task | Nutrition and Wellness (snack, lunch, rest, connect, time management) Does not count for Instructional Time | |-------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Pre-K | 2 hours per day 10 hours per week (Required Minimum) | Daily/weekly No Required Minimum | Daily 2 hours recommended | | K-3 | 2 hours, 20 minutes per day 11 hours, 40 minutes per week (Required Minimum) | Daily/weekly No Required Minimum | Daily 2 hours recommended | | 4th – 8th | 2 hours, 30 minutes per day 12 hours, 30 minutes per week (Required Minimum) | Daily/weekly No Required Minimum | Daily 2 hours recommended | | 9th – 11th | 2 hours, 50 minutes per day 14 hours, 10 minutes per week (Required Minimum) | Daily/weekly No Required Minimum | Daily 2 hours recommended | | 12th | 2 hours, 45 minutes per day 13 hours, 45 minutes per week (Required Minimum) | Daily/weekly No Required Minimum | Daily 2 hours recommended | *Based on the school year and a 5-day week (50% calculation based on dedicated instructional hours; recess and/or breaks, professional development, and parent/teacher conference allowance was subtracted prior to the calculation). **Twelfth graders typically follow established daily high school schedules but end their school year earlier than students in Grade 9th – 11th. SAMPLE SCHEDULE: | Time | Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | |------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 7:30 – 8:00| Login, Attendance, Advisement, Mindfulness/Social Emotional Learning Lessons, Individual/Group Counseling Sessions, Announcements | | | | | | 8:00 – 8:45| 1st Period | 1st Period | Finish assignments and submit as needed, instructional focus for remediation and enrichment; participate in personalized support to attain mastery of the content and skills of the course, SCCPSS lunch distribution, etc. | 1st Period | 1st Period | | 8:45 – 8:55| Brain Break | | | | | | 8:55 – 9:40| 2nd Period | 2nd Period | Finish assignments and submit as needed, instructional focus for remediation and enrichment; participate in personalized support to attain mastery of the content and skills of the course, SCCPSS lunch distribution, etc. | 2nd period | 2nd Period | | 9:40-10:10 | Movement Break | | | | | | 10:10 -10:55| Instructional Focus/Additional Period if Needed | | | | | | 11:05– 11:50| 3rd Period | 3rd Period | Finish assignments and submit as needed, instructional focus for remediation and enrichment; participate in personalized support to attain mastery of the content and skills of the course, SCCPSS lunch distribution, etc. | 3rd period | 3rd Period | | 11:50 -12:30| Lunch | | | | | | 12:30 – 1:15| 4th Period | 4th Period | Finish assignments and submit as needed, instructional focus for remediation and enrichment, participate in personalized support to attain mastery of the content and skills of the course, SCCPSS lunch distribution, etc. | 4th period | 4th Period | | 1:15 – 1:30 | Brain Break | | | | | | 1:30 – 2:15| 5th Period | 5th Period | Finish assignments and submit as needed, instructional focus for remediation had enrichment, participate in personalized support to attain mastery of the content and skills of the course, SCCPSS lunch distribution, etc. | 5th period | 5th Period | | 2:30 – 3:30 | *Tutorial/Students continue independent work as needed with teacher support *Twilight classes *Email support | *Tutorial/Students continue independent work as needed with support *Twilight classes *Email support | *Tutorial/Students continue independent work as needed with support *Twilight classes *Email support | *Tutorial/Students continue independent work as needed with support *Twilight classes *Email support | *Tutorial/Students continue independent work as needed with support *Twilight classes *Email support | Student Attendance: Participation Attendance will be defined by a student’s participation. Students will be considered in attendance when they are participating in active instruction and/or educational services. This will apply to in-person, virtual, remote, or hybrid models. Examples include time spent working in the online platform, log-in activity, attendance during live instruction, submission of student assignments, and student/teacher interactions. UPDATED: 8/11/2020 10:05 AM Definition of Participation: Actively participating includes any of the following: - Login and work in class/courses every day - Participate in online class every day - Complete and submit assignments or tasks by due dates - Participate in group activities - Communicate with teacher or staff as needed (online, email, or phone) - Check email daily and activities within the ITSL-LMS platform Attendance Tracking When there is No Internet Connection: When working from a printed packet or refueling station, students must engage in the learning activities assigned through this method. Teachers will be in contact with students to monitor activity, provide assistance, and offer instructional support. Students will be considered in attendance based on participation through teacher engagement and submission of assignments. Absence: If a student is going to be absent, a parent or guardian must alert the student’s teacher by email or phone. After a student is enrolled and he/she has not successfully been in contact with his/her teacher for more than 48 hours without an approved absence notification, the teacher will contact the student’s parent/guardian and document the attempt(s) as well as the outcome (i.e. made contact or unable to reach the parent/guardian). Teachers should make reasonable attempts to make contact after 24 hours and no later than 48 hours. Attempts to contact the student and parent/guardian should include email as well as a phone call. After the 3rd unsuccessful attempt, a referral will be made to the School Social Worker. The School Social Worker will then follow the district process for making contact with the student and family. TYPES OF INSTRUCTION: Direct instruction occurs when teachers utilize explicit teaching techniques to teach a specific skill to students. The following 5 steps comprise direct instruction: Introduce material to activate prior knowledge, present new material, provide guided practice, give feedback, provide independent practice, and evaluate/review learning. Two-way instruction is interactive between the teacher and student. This interaction occurs through shared documents, email, video, text, or audio discussions, etc. Resources for two-way instruction include the following: Google Meet, PearDeck, Pre-Recorded Videos and Screencasts, FlipGrid, Shared Documents, Live Discussion Boards, etc. Guidelines for direct/two-way instruction and availability are as follows: Teachers will use the following daily guidelines as they design at home learning activities that are engaging, aligned to the standards and provide rigorous instruction. Activities will vary and allow for flexibility in times, access to technology/resources, and learning styles. Below are sample schedules for teaching and learning. In order to ensure all students are able to utilize the resources and receive a clear understanding of how to access the appropriate tools for instruction, each instructional site should design a comprehensive advisement plan that details the “How to” for the first days of Independent Learning. At a minimum, the plan should include the following: - Communication Protocol (each teacher should provide direction and post to the school website) - Instruction/review on the use of the Learning Management System - How to contact teachers, counselors, school administrators, and other critical staff - Expectations for attendance and participation in classes - Appropriate behavior/communication in online classes - Other critical information for a successful virtual learning experience **The Home Learning Space** **Tips to Help Families Create Effective Virtual Learning Environments** The rapid closure of schools due to the outbreak of COVID-19 took many families by surprise. Suddenly, kids all over the country were being asked to learn from home. Parents became teachers overnight! Online learning is a new experience for most families, and in the new virtual learning environment for the 2020-2021 school year, everything old will be new again. We know it is not easy to convert living rooms into classrooms so here are some tips to prepare your child for online learning at home. 1. **Create a learning space for your student.** Reducing clutter helps kids focus and your scholar needs a quiet space that allows them to listen to material to lectures, videos, or classroom discussions – and this means turning off the TV. Stock the learning space with all the supplies your student needs, keeping in mind that if the space is a “family space,” you’ll need a place to pack away all materials after learning time is over. 2. **Make a schedule and stick to it.** Following a schedule keeps everyone on track and minimizes the risk of kids missing out on schoolwork. Make sure to be aware of your child’s virtual school schedule and ensure they stay focused and on track for learning. Students must be present and logged on for learning throughout the virtual model. Don’t know the schedule? Reach out to your child’s teacher for additional information. 3. **Reduce distractions.** Our homes have lots of distractions – video games, computer games, social media, TV, toys, pets. Make a list of the things that distract your child, then find ways to limit them during learning time. 4. **Create a classroom calendar to keep track of assignments.** Setting up a system to keep on top of deadlines will help your child stay organized. Post a calendar and mark it with due dates. Use visual markers to break an assignment down into smaller steps and the specific strategies needed to complete it. 5. Get plenty of exercise. Research has shown that exercise helps us think better. When we move our bodies, our problem-solving, memory, and attention improve. Physical activity is a natural way to reduce stress and prevent anxiety. Experts say that when we get our heart rate up, it has a positive impact on how we think. The best time to exercise might be right before tackling schoolwork. It's also good to take exercise breaks throughout the day. 6. Contact your child’s teacher. Online education or learning at home requires family support. To support your child, set up a direct line of communication with your child’s teachers. Use email, text, phone calls, or maybe even video conferencing to connect. The SCCPSS Learning Management System, Its Learning, provides built in tools to help parents stay in touch. If you’re not sure how to do an assignment, don’t guess - reach out for help. Printed Packets and Refueling Stations When technology is not available, we are here to help! For Households without Internet Access: If a student in grades PreK - 12 does not have access to a computer or device (tablet, Smartphone, etc.) the school system will make every effort to loan that student a Chromebook/device. CONNECTIVITY RESOURCES: WE WANT TO STAY CONNECTED WITH YOU! - SCCPSS Hotspot Device - SCCPSS WiFi Smartbus - Chatham County Public Libraries - Comcast Internet Essentials Program - SCCPSS School Sites: Parents and/or students can park in any school parking lot and have access to the district network and email assignments or upload assignments to the student portal. If a student does not have internet access through home service, a hotspot device, proximity to a Smart Bus, Public Libraries or other WiFi service options, then the student may utilize the “Refueling Station.” The Refueling Station is an SCCPSS alternative that provides students a paperless method for receiving assignments and returning completed work to their school. Teachers are expected to communicate with students on a regular basis (at a minimum 3 to 4 times per week)! HERE’S HOW THE REFUELING STATION WORKS: Students will be provided meaningful work that can be completed by utilizing pre-loaded folders on the Chromebook/device each student has been provided. - Students receive a Chromebook or will use a home device. - Students will be given a flash drive with preloaded grade and course specific assignments to be completed. - When students complete the assignment for the allotted time, they will report to the location provided (Refueling Station) with the flash drive. - The flash drive will be submitted to the person(s) operating the stations and the information downloaded and sent via email to the teacher. - The student will be given another flash drive to download completed lessons for submission at the next refueling. PAPER PACKETS: In the event students require a paper packet for completion of assignments, packets will be available at designated sites throughout the district. - Teachers will reach out to parents within the first two to three days of school to determine if students are not able to participate in virtual instruction. - If a student is unable to participate, the Refueling Station process will be recommended to the parent. - If the parent declines to participate in the Refueling Station Process, the offer for paper learning packets will be provided, and the packet reservation process will be discussed with the parent. Teachers will ensure parents are aware of the process. - The packets will be placed in bins outside the front entry of each site and will be available by reservation – phone or online. Teachers will contact students and have them pick up the packets from the front of the school site. QUESTIONS? Here are some common questions we have received regarding our virtual school model: On e-Learning Days, does my child have to log in every day? Yes! Students should check in daily for advisement. Students must log in to the system each day to check for assignments, participate in classroom discussions, seek individual assistance, and receive assessments. Schedules will be provided. How will attendance be taken? Attendance will be defined by a student’s participation. Students will be considered in attendance when they are participating in active instruction and/or educational services. This will apply to in-person, virtual, remote, or hybrid model. Will there be assessments? For SY 2020-2021, the existing formative assessment will be used to measure COVID-19 student learning loss. This information will assist schools on student support and instructional recovery. An Assessment Calendar has been posted. to sccpss.com. GMAS testing may be waived based on the waiver request the Georgia Department of Education submitted to the United States Department of Education. If the waiver is approved, there will be no administration of the Georgia Milestones EOGs, Georgia Milestones EOCs, or Georgia Alternate Assessment (GAA) 2.0 during the 2020-21 school year. Should this occur, the Assessment Calendar will be updated. **Will the district provide devices to students?** Yes, the district is moving to 1:1 as quickly as possible. Chromebooks have been ordered for student use. Plans for distributing devices will be announced on our website, sccpss.com and over our social media channels. ### Services for Students with Disabilities The Savannah-Chatham County Public School System is dedicated to providing a quality educational experience for all students! #### Priorities for Specialized Instruction: - Focus on the health, safety, and welfare of our students and staff members - Provide a Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) - Collaborate with parents/guardians throughout the remote learning model to provide students with disabilities a Distance Learning Plan of prioritized supports and accommodations in light of current circumstances. **What are we doing to ensure that individual student needs and their IEPs or 504 Plans are being considered during this time of distance learning?** Distance Learning Plans will be created for each student with a disability. The Distance Learning Plan will assess the student’s needs and identify action items as part of the plan. Parents will be contacted during school preplanning to schedule a Distance Learning Plan meeting. **What are we doing to engage, consider, and incorporate parent feedback regarding their child’s education during the period of virtual learning?** The Distance Learning Plan will be developed in collaboration with parents in order to seek input regarding the individualized needs of their child. The Associate Superintendent, Senior Director for Specialized Instruction, and the District Specialized Leadership Team will conduct monthly focus groups with parents and other stakeholders to seek feedback and suggestions for improving virtual supports and services throughout the distance learning period. Additional Supports Behavior-based consultation may be scheduled by completing the Behavior Request form. Parents will be contacted for consultation. Specialized instruction behavioral staff will be available by request for consultation or coaching via audio/video conferencing. Click here to schedule: Behavior-based consultation. Academic assistance may be scheduled by completing the Academic Support request form. Academic supports will be provided as needed. Click here to schedule: Academic assistance. For URGENT CONCERNS regarding specialized instruction parents may call the Hotline for immediate assistance at 912-395-5509. The phone hotline will be available Monday through Friday from 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. Parents can also email email@example.com. DISTANCE LEARNING PLANS FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES (504 PLANS AND IEPs) WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE DISTANCE LEARNING PLAN? IEPs and 504 Plans were developed to be implemented in a traditional brick and mortar, face-to-face learning environment. The Distance Learning Plan (DLP) outlines how the IEP or 504 supports and services will be provided in a virtual learning environment. Your child’s IEP or 504 Team will collaborate with you in order to individualize supports to best meet the needs of your child during distance learning. PROCESS Parents of students with disabilities will be contacted by their child’s special education case manager or 504 Coordinator during pre-planning to set up a virtual meeting to develop a Distance Learning Plan. Based on the most current IEP or 504 Plan, the DLP will address the following: - An assessment of your child’s ability to access distance learning including preferred types of activities and mode of access. - Distance infrastructure available at home. - How your child’s special education services, accommodations, and related services identified in their IEP or 504 Plan can be effectively implemented in virtual learning settings necessitated by the District’s response to COVID-19. - How your child’s special education teacher and other service providers will collect data related to IEP goals and objectives. - Specialized instruction virtual classes may include a combination of the following: - Direct, real time instruction - Individual instruction via audio or video conference - Group instruction via audio or video conference - Student-directed assignments and activities - Accommodations, instructional methods, frequency and communication for each content area will be outlined in the DLP. - If your child is eligible for Speech-Language Therapy, Occupational Therapy, and/or Physical Therapy, these services will be addressed within the Distance Learning Plan and will be provided via an audio/video platform. **CONTACT LIST** **DEPARTMENT FOR SPECIALIZED INSTRUCTION** | PROGRAM MANAGER | EMAIL ADDRESS | PROGRAMS | ASSIGNED SITES | |-----------------|---------------------|-----------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Lashawna Alderman | firstname.lastname@example.org | VI and Related Services Hospital/Homebound | Beach, Brock, DeRenne, Garrison, Savannah Classical, Shuman, White Bluff, Garden City, Southwest MS | | Sally Courson | email@example.com | Speech-Language & Deaf/HOH Services | Gadsden, Marshpoint, Tybee, IOH, Coastal MS, Islands, Hesse, SAA, Hodge | | Shelly Foster | firstname.lastname@example.org | Pre-School Intervention Services, Babies Can’t Wait Transition, Child Find | Formey, Howard, Heard, PWES, Oglethorpe, SHS, Southwest ES, PK Assessment Center | | Aaron Jackson | email@example.com | RTI/MTSS | CEMCS, Godley, Myers, Pooler, Williams, Woodville, Early College, WFHS, Johnson, SCELA | | Vanessa Keener | firstname.lastname@example.org | Behavioral Services & Section 504 | Rice Creek, Hubert, Groves, Largo, Pulaski, Smith, Wings, WREP/ACES, Coastal Harbor | | Brad Speer | email@example.com | Autism Services | WFES, Low, Gould, Georgetown, LEAP, STEM, Jenkins, Haven, Ellis | | Renee Williams | firstname.lastname@example.org | Adaptive Services | Butler, WCES, WCMS, NHHS, Susie King-Taylor, Bloomingdale, Mercer, Lakeside | UPDATED: 8/11/2020 10:05 AM Parent Mentors: Parent Mentors help facilitate communication & collaboration between the parent and the school team. Parent Mentors are a great resource for families and provide workshops throughout the school year to address various concerns for parents of students with disabilities! **Parent Mentor Contacts:** Julie Hardeman: [email@example.com](mailto:firstname.lastname@example.org) Lastanya Dillard: [email@example.com](mailto:firstname.lastname@example.org) --- **Gifted Education** We’re dedicated to providing a quality educational experience for all students! **Priorities for Gifted Education:** - Continue to screen and identify potential students for gifted education. - Provide gifted education services for all students and offer a differentiated virtual learning experience. - Collaborate with parents/guardians to provide gifted students with a quality virtual learning experience that meets or exceeds their needs. **What are we doing to ensure that individual student needs and their gifted services are being considered during this time of distance learning?** Gifted student contracts will be completed by each teacher to document differentiation provided for gifted identified students receiving services. Differentiation will be documented in the form of a teacher contract and in lesson plans. **Observation of gifted virtual courses will be completed by principals, assistant principals, academic coaches, and the gifted program specialist.** **What are we doing to engage, consider, and incorporate parent feedback regarding their child’s education during the period of virtual learning?** Each school has a designated lead gifted specialist on staff. The lead gifted specialist is available to answer parent concerns and make necessary adjustments in response to parental feedback. Virtual meetings and phone conferences will be held upon request. In addition, weekly virtual meetings will be conducted with lead gifted teachers by the district gifted program specialist to collaborate for student success. --- **WE’RE HERE FOR YOU!** *Each school has a designated lead gifted specialist on staff. If you need assistance – contact your school today!* Pre-K Students Students will receive monthly learning boxes to complement virtual learning. Parents can retrieve the learning boxes from their child’s home school site monthly through curbside pickup events at designed times that will be communicated to parents. All items are consumable so there is no need to return them! **THE LEARNING BOX!** - Traditional materials - Award winning reading books - Videos and hands-on materials Career and College Readiness CTAE and Work Based Learning Career, Technical, and Agricultural Education (CTAE) is preparing Georgia's students for their next step after high school - college, beginning a career, registered apprenticeships, or the military. Georgia CTAE pathway course offerings, and the new Educating Georgia's Future Workforce initiative, leverage partnerships with industry and higher education to ensure students have the skills they need to thrive in the future workforce. CTAE offers students more than 130 career pathways within the 17 Georgia Career Clusters. WBL: Work-Based Learning Programs are structured experiences that connect the student’s career goal and classroom learning with a productive work environment. Work-Based Learning includes student placement that may be paid or unpaid positions. Work-Based Learning provides students with opportunities for instruction not only in academics but also in occupational skills, career exploration, and guidance in identifying employment and educational goals. Students have the opportunity to connect what they learn in school with work-site application, enabling a smooth transition into the work force and/or education beyond high school. The Three Interlocking Components of Work-Based Learning: - Student Career Goal - Related Coursework - Structured Work Experience Work Based Learning programs will continue during the Virtual Learning Model. Interested students should apply using the online or printed paper process detailed below. In addition, all students must work with their Work Based Learning school-based instructor or the District Work Based Learning Coordinator to secure employment. **Eligibility:** All 11th and 12th grade students who are on track for graduation, are a minimum of 16 years of age, and meet the program requirements may enroll in the Work-Based Learning Program. **Work Permits:** A work permit data sheet must be initiated either online or via paper by the minor prior to being completed by the employer. **Online Process:** The online work permit data sheet has three sections. - Section A (Completed by the Minor) - Section B (Completed by the Employer) - Section C (Completed by the Issuing Officer) The issuing officer may be the: - County Superintendent of School or designee - Designated Issuing Officer of a public school - Principal Administrative Officer of a licensed private school or designee The instructions for obtaining an online Employment Certificate (commonly called work permit) are listed in the link below. [https://dol.georgia.gov/child-labor-employment-certificate-instructions](https://dol.georgia.gov/child-labor-employment-certificate-instructions) **Manual Process** The attached link contains a copy of the work permit data sheet for those individuals that prefer the process by paper. Click the link for a printable document. [Work Permit Pdf](#) The form has two sections: - Section A (Completed by the Minor) - Section B (Completed by the Employer) After sections A and B are completed the student will deliver the form to the Issuing Officer. The issuing officer may be the: - County Superintendent of School or designee - Designated Issuing Officer of a public school - Principal Administrative Officer of a licensed private school or designee We look forward to working with you! Student Well Being and Helpful Resources Will we stay home forever? What’s a protest? When will I be able to go back to school? The events currently impacting our nation and world may be difficult to process and/or understand. A global pandemic, civil unrest in response to ongoing injustice, a struggling economy and more, are all shaping our lives. Naturally, our children may be curious and have a lot of questions that need and deserve to be answered. It is essential to provide your child with the opportunity to discuss these important issues rather than allowing television, social media, or their friends to entirely shape their world view. If you need assistance in explaining or discussing these difficult topics, the resources below may be helpful. If you are seeking area counseling resources, please check with your insurance provider or primary care physician, as counseling services are included with most plans. Local community agencies are also listed below. *Please note, the resources provided are for informational purposes only. The Savannah-Chatham County Public School System does not endorse a particular resource or entity for counseling services. We strongly encourage you to utilize the resource that best meets your personal needs. - Savannah Counseling, (912) 790-6500: Provides a variety of counseling services to individuals of all ages. - Heads Up Guidance Services, (912) 417-4320: Provides a variety of counseling services to individuals of all ages. - Hospice Savannah, (912) 303-9442: Provides grief counseling for individuals and groups ages 6 and up. - Georgia Collaborative Administrative Services Organization: The GA Collaborative ASO provides a searchable database to connect citizens with area providers. H.E.R.O Database: In need of local resources for community services? The H.E.R.O (Health Effective Resource Organization) Database is here for you! H.E.R.O is a searchable database for local community resources and agencies. The database includes several categories including COVID-19, Government Services, Hotlines, Food, Utilities, Housing, Legal/Tax, Volunteering, Clothing/Household Items, Healthcare, Transportation, Youth Services, Mental Health, Substance Abuse, Jobs and Public Benefits, Healthy Babies, Senior Services and more. The H.E.R.O Database is a collaborative effort between St. Joseph's/Candler Health System African American Health Information and Resource Center and Healthy Savannah. Counseling Services: School counseling services are an integral part of the educational experience by providing instruction and support in the academic, career, and social/emotional domains. Counselors will be available during the regular school day to provide synchronous counseling instruction in coordination with academic and elective/connections teachers. Counselors will also provide individual and group counseling support as appropriate using ItsLearning, Teams, Zoom, and phone calls. School counselors will provide referral resources to parents/guardians of students in need of intensive therapeutic support. In coordination with the School Social Workers, and District Homeless Liaison, School Counselors can also provide parents with information on community resources to assist with resolving needs such as food insecurity, housing, internet access, and more. Parents are encouraged to visit the school counseling website for their child’s school as well as the district counseling website for up to date information and resources. Parents may also find resources such as Parent Toolkit and Child Mind Institute helpful for resources to support students in returning/adjusting to school, building appropriate social and peer relationships, navigating safely online, dealing with anxiety, and much more. SOCIAL WORKERS: As SCCPSS begins remote learning for the SY20-21, School Social Workers will continue their role to serve as student advocates and to help remove barriers to students’ academic success. School Social Workers will continue to serve as a liaison between students/families and the community resources needed to support them. The role and responsibilities of social workers during remote learning will involve a collaboration of resources. Our team of social workers will develop and identify resources for students and parents to support active engagement during E-learning days and make these resources available and assist parents in knowing where to find them. Moreover, if needed, social workers will be available to provide step-by-step support to guide them through that task. School Social Workers will fully utilize online communication platforms such as Google Voice, Remind, Teams and/or Zoom meetings to remain connected with students and families on their caseloads and to collaborate with community resources (Front Porch, Juvenile Court, DFCS, etc.). School Social Workers will be available by phone 8am – 5pm daily and by email. There is a social worker assigned to each school that will be available to assist students and families as needed. | School Social Worker | Schools | Contact Numbers | |----------------------|---------|----------------| | Debra Cone | Oatland Island Pre-K, Howard ES, Marshpoint ES, Coastal MS, Islands HS* & Tybee Maritime Academy | Cell: 438-9356 Office: 395-2000, x. 797226 | | Tabatha Crawford | Groves HS*, Port Wentworth ES & Rice Creek | Cell: 655-5353 Office: 395-2520 | | NaTussha Futch | AB Williams ES, STEM Academy*, Johnson HS & GED | Cell: 665-0732 Office: 395-3500 | | Kimberly Harvey | Early Learning Center @ Henderson Formey* & WINGS | Cell: 547-7397 Office: 395-5500 | | Laurel Anne Jacobs | Juliet Low, Myers MS & Student Success Center* | Cell: 704-6836 Office: 395-5584 | | Ashunti Lyons | Southwest ES, Pooler ES & Southwest MS* | Cell: 665-8920 Office: 395-3543 | | Penny Maggioni | Suzie King Taylor, Oglethorpe Charter & Student Success Center* | Cell: 547-8734 Office: 395-5584 | | Jessy McMullan | Coastal Empire Montessori, Savannah Classical Academy & Student Success Center* | Cell: 429-5450 Office: 395-5584 | | Melinda Miller | Hodge ES, Pulaski ES & Beach HS* | Cell: 661-0695 Office: 395-5330 | | Jamal Piankhi | Largo-Tibet, Windsor Forest ES, Windsor Forest HS* & GED | Cell: 346-8294 Office: 395-3400 | | Stacey Reid | Hesse K8, White Bluff & Garden City ES* | Cell: 659-4080 Office: 395-3325 | | Chequeta Riles | The Front Porch* | Cell: 663-2020 Office: 652-6571 | | Heather Rudolph | Brock ES* | Cell: 547-6042 Office: 395-5300 | | Raessha Stanley | Garrison K8, Mercer MS* & Hubert | Cell: 244-0421 Office: 395-6700 | | Keiwonda Tennerson | West Chatham ES, West Chatham MS, New Hampstead HS & GED | Cell: 429-0093 Office: 395-5584 | | Tara Tolbert | Student Affairs, DeRenne MS & Isle of Hope K8 | Cell: 665-0187 Office: 395-1126 | | Julie Vaughn | Early College, Shuman & Savannah HS* | Cell: 328-9318 Office: 395-5966 | | Leslie Walker | Gould ES, * Haven, Woodville-Tompkins & LIPT | Cell: 656-5718 Office: 395-5400 | | Marsha Williams | Bloomingdale*, Godley Station K8, Georgetown | Cell: 239-7547 Office: 395-3680, x. 70739 | VIDEO RESOURCES FOR FAMILIES (Links provided) How to wash your hands for elementary students: Wash Your Hands Video (Elementary) and Cartoon: How to Wash Your Hands How to wash your hands in Spanish/Acabe con los microbios. ¡Lávese las manos! Acabe con los microbios. ¡Lávese las manos! Clean hands matters for adults/parents: Clean Hands Matter Video Clean hands - Clean Hands Video Clean Hands for Pre-K-2nd Students - Baby Shark (Wash Your Hands) Video Stop the spread video: Prevent the Spread Video Talking to children about COVID: Helping Children Cope Pandemic Electronic Benefit Transfer (P-EBT) Provides Extra Help for Students The Families First Coronavirus Response Act includes a benefit called Pandemic-EBT (P-EBT) for children who received free or reduced-price school meals in the 2019-2020 school year, but their school was closed. The Georgia Division of Family & Children Services (DFCS) in partnership with the Georgia Department of Education (DOE) has been approved to operate the new Pandemic Electronic Benefit Transfer (P-EBT) program. This program will provide extra help to children who normally would receive free or reduced school lunch. Families will receive a one-time allotment of $256.50 in total P-EBT benefits per child. Visit our website to learn more! CLICK HERE: (P-EBT) SCCPSS Meal Service Plan Point of Sale Service to be offered. Monitor sccpss.com for schedule updates! THE MEALS ON THE BUS GO ROUND AND ROUND! Throughout the virtual learning model, school lunch will be available to SCCPSS students and will be provided at designated bus stops at designated times. The District is planning a point of sale process that will allow students to purchase lunch just as if they were in school! - A student ID will be required. - There will be no cash accepted at bus stops (payment must be completed in advance online). - School breakfast will continue to be offered at no cost. - Meal Service schedules will be posted/updated at sccpss.com Prior year meal status will remain through September 30, 2020, so make sure to fill out your free/reduced meal application today! Parents and guardians will have until September 30 to complete the application process for free and reduced meals. Remember, SCCPSS families who receive free/reduced lunch must reapply each year to maintain their recipient status. MEAL APPLICATIONS: Paper applications are available at the Application Center located at 3609 Hopkins Street, Savannah, GA, 31404. Please make an appointment by calling 912-395-1066. Both online and paper applications are available in English and Spanish. There is also a meal application drop box located at the site for afterhours delivery. The district strongly encourages parents to apply online by going to myschoolapps.com. The link is available on the district’s School Nutrition page at sccpss.com or by clicking the following link - simply visit: https://www.myschoolapps.com 2020-2021 MEAL PRICES: There will be no change to meal prices this year. Meal prices are as follows: - Breakfast at no cost to all students - Full Price Lunch in Grades K-12 - $3.00 - Reduced Price - $.40 Athletics and Extra Curriculars To the Parents of SCCPSS Student/Athletes. As you are fully aware, the public health crisis caused by COVID-19 (coronavirus) led to the unprecedented closure of schools in Georgia and across the nation for last quarter of the 2019-2020 school year. The District is closely monitoring all guidance for the reopening of schools and will follow best practices for the safety of all students and staff. While we are hopeful that we will soon see a return to normal, we also recognize there are many factors to consider in this ever-changing environment. To that end the Savannah-Chatham County Public School System has been following the recommendations of the Georgia Department of Health, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), and the Georgia High School Association (GHSA). On Monday, June 15, 2020, we were excited to take the first step in our return to athletics and offered a summer conditioning program subject to a number of requirements. As always, safety will be our guiding principle in working with our student athletes. We have developed a Guidance Document that will ensure the safety of all participants and will build on our commitment to strong hygiene and preventative measures. ATHLETIC SAFETY MEASURES The following will be implemented: - No visitors will be allowed at our workouts. Only students, coaches, and other pertinent staff. - Staff will be tested for COVID-19 prior to working with students. - Staff and Students will be screened each day before entering the building. Anyone with COVID-19 symptoms or a fever over 100.4 will not be allowed in the building. - A maximum of 20 people will be allowed during a workout session. This includes coaches and other staff. - Protective face coverings are mandatory inside the building. - Weight Room equipment will be cleaned after use by each athlete. - Each student will spray and wipe all surfaces after using equipment and will be supervised by the coaching staff and custodian on duty. - Custodial staff will disinfect all rooms and equipment each day between all workout sessions and again at the end of the day. Students must arrive at their designated workout time and leave immediately after their session is complete. Students are not allowed to linger in the building or on campus. Students must bring their own water as we will not have water available. We believe the guidelines and protocols that we have developed will allow for a safe environment for your child to participate in conditioning and practice in preparation for the upcoming fall sports season. **FALL SCHEDULE:** SCCPSS has reviewed GHSA guidance, researched other districts across the state, and conferred with area health officials. Currently, SCCPSS intends to follow the fall sports/extra-curricular schedules utilizing existing safety protocols for the following: - Softball - Cheerleading - Cross Country - Volleyball - Football - Band **GHSA has announced the Delay of the Start of Football by two weeks:** Region start date currently scheduled: September 4, 2020 **Extra-Curricular Activities:** School administrators and extra-curricular advisors will work together to develop plans regarding the provision of possible opportunities for club participation. **Staff Health and Safety Requirements** Currently, all SCCPSS buildings remain closed to the public. A core group of staff members may be working in a limited capacity to ensure the delivery of virtual learning and other services. In advance of an eventual return to in-person learning and for the safety of our staff, SCCPSS has implemented safety protocols to ensure the health and wellness of anyone who may enter our facilities. The District stays in close communication with the Department of Health for Coastal Georgia. Our schools will continue to coordinate with and follow the recommendations of the Georgia Department of Public Health (GDPH), Centers for Disease Control (CDC), Georgia Department of Education (GaDOE), and Governor Kemp’s executive orders. When in person teaching resumes, schools will adhere to the following health and safety protocols: - Increased hygiene and sanitation protocols - Enforcing social distancing where practical • Utilizing directional hallways where possible • Keeping students with their cohort groups, to include recess and lunch • Providing meal service in classrooms • Limiting parent and visitor access to the office area only • Avoiding large gatherings, such as assemblies Entry to buildings will be regulated and monitored, and SCCPSS staff are required to wear face coverings (face mask or face shield). Entry into any SCCPSS building requires a temperature check, as well as a series of screening questions. Anyone presenting symptoms of illness while at school will be sent to a designated quarantine room. Workplace etiquette and hygiene reminders will be offered in the form of signage and verbal instruction. **DEEP CLEANING DAYS!** Currently, all SCCPSS buildings remain closed to the public. Schools Closed Wednesdays for Deep Cleaning - No Staff on site. Currently, all Savannah Chatham County Public School buildings are closed to the public; however, staff are working to support the delivery of virtual instruction. In support of safety, health, and wellness, SCCPSS has built in a deep cleaning day each week that will require the buildings to be empty. Staff will work remotely each week on Wednesdays. This practice will remain until further notice. While no staff will be in the building each Wednesday, they will still be available to assist with your needs by telephone and email. Make sure to check your school's website for contact information. No employees are to enter schools on Wednesdays except those who are performing the deep cleaning or authorized to enter. This includes all athletic fields and free-standing buildings on the school site. **WHEN IN-PERSON TEACHING AND LEARNING RESUMES:** Our facilities and buses have been studied for capacity with physical distancing requirements. Some spaces may be modified to achieve appropriate distancing and manage reduced classroom sizes; meal delivery may be shifted to classrooms to further prevent exposure. Other typical classroom and movement practices may change when we use this model to keep the environment safe. For example, when taking breaks, students will socially distance from their classmates. Each classroom will be equipped with hand sanitizer, paper towels, disposable gloves, tissues, bleach-free disinfectant wipes, and disinfectant cleanser for use during the school day. **MANAGING COVID CASES:** If an SCCPSS teacher or student tests positive for COVID-19, we will notify the local health department and contact tracing procedures will begin. If the tracing impacts our school family, we will notify the appropriate parents in accordance with privacy requirements. The District has a communication plan in the event an employee or student becomes ill at school, tests positive for the virus or is exposed to someone who has tested positive. Parents must keep children who are ill at home. The District will follow established protocols for staff and student illness. Students who get sick at school will be referred to the school nurse and parents will be contacted. Water fountains will be disabled. All students will be issued a refillable water bottle donated by community partners. If they choose, parents may also send bottled water with their child. --- **Checklist: Planning for Virtual or At-Home Learning** The following information has been pulled from CDC Guidance and pertains to the SCCPSS Virtual Opening. For a full list of CDC Guidance, visit: [https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/schools-childcare/parent-checklist.html#planning-at-home-learning](https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/schools-childcare/parent-checklist.html#planning-at-home-learning) **Guidance for Setting-up for Virtual or At-Home Learning** | Actions to take and points to consider | Notes | |---------------------------------------|-------| | Try to attend school activities and meetings that may be offered. Schools may offer more of these virtually. These meetings can be a way to express any concerns you may have about the school's plans. | | | Create a schedule with your child and make a commitment to stick with it. Structure and routine can greatly help your child from falling behind with assignments. Discuss your family’s schedule and identify the best times for learning and instruction, as well as family-oriented physical activity, such as walks outside. A family calendar or other visuals could be useful for keeping track of deadlines and assignments. | | | Try to find a space where you live that’s free of distractions, noise, and clutter for learning and doing homework. This could be a quiet, well-lit place in your dining room or living room or a corner of your home that could fit a small table, if available. | | | Identify opportunities for your child to connect with peers and be social — either virtually or in person, while maintaining physical distance. | | ## Guidance for Setting-up for Virtual or At-Home Learning | Actions to take and points to consider | Notes | |---------------------------------------|-------| | Find out if there will be regular and consistent opportunities during each day for staff and student check-ins and peer-to-peer learning. | | | Ask if the school will offer virtual or socially distanced physical activity. If not, identify ways to add physical activity to your child’s daily routine. | | | Ask your school what steps they are taking to help students adjust to being back in school and to the ways that COVID-19 may have disrupted their daily life. Supports may include school counseling and psychological services, social-emotional learning (SEL)-focused programs, and peer/social support groups. | | | If your child participates in school meal programs, identify how your school district plans to make meals available to students who are learning virtually at home. | | | If your child has an Individualized Education Program (IEP) or 504 Plan or receives other learning support (e.g., tutoring), ask your school how these services will continue during virtual at-home learning. | | | If your child receives speech, occupational or physical therapy or other related services from the school, ask your school how these services will continue during virtual at-home learning. | | | If your child receives mental health or behavioral services (e.g., social skills training, counseling), ask your school how these services will continue during virtual at-home learning. | | | If you anticipate having technological barriers to learning from home, ask if your school or community can provide support or assistance for students without appropriate electronic devices for schoolwork (like a computer/laptop or tablet). | | ## Mental Health & Social Emotional Wellbeing Considerations | Actions to take and points to consider | Notes | |---------------------------------------|-------| | Watch for and anticipate behavior changes in your child (e.g., excessive crying or irritation, excessive worry or sadness, unhealthy eating or sleeping habits, difficulty concentrating), which may be signs of your child struggling with stress and coping supports. | | | Talk with your child about how school is going and about interactions with classmates and teachers. Find out how your child is feeling and communicate that what they may be feeling is normal. | | | Ask your school about any plans to reduce potential stigma related to having or being suspected of having COVID-19. | | | Ask your school about any plans to support school connectedness to ensure that students do not become socially isolated during extended periods of virtual/at-home learning. | | | Check if your school has any systems in place to identify and provide mental health services to students in need support. If so, identify the point of contact for these services at your school. **Name of school point person:** **Contact information:** | | | Check if school has a plan to help students adjust to virtual/at-home learning and more broadly, to the ways COVID-19 may have disrupted their daily life. Supports may include school counseling and psychological services, social-emotional learning (SEL)-focused programs and curricula, and peer/social support groups. | | | Identify opportunities for your child to be physically active during virtual/at-home learning. | | | You can be a role model for your child by practicing self-care: - Take breaks - Get plenty of sleep - Exercise - Eat well - Stay socially connected | | [cdc.gov/coronavirus](http://cdc.gov/coronavirus) Need Help? Here’s Who to Contact: **Academics Affairs Division:** - Kaye Aikens, Associate Superintendent of Elementary/K-8 Schools email@example.com .................................................................912-395-5582 - Bernadette Ball-Oliver, Associate Superintendent of Secondary Schools firstname.lastname@example.org ..................................................912-395-5637 - Dr. Vallerie Cave, Associate Superintendent of K-12 School Transformation and Innovation email@example.com .................................................................912-395-5530 - Dr. Kimberly Hancock, Associate Superintendent of Learning Support Services firstname.lastname@example.org .........................................................912-395-5582 **Services for Students with Disabilities** ..............................................912-395-5877 - Michelle Finch, Senior Director, Specialized Instruction email@example.com **Gifted Education** ..................................................................................912-395-1112 - Joy Key-Smith, Gifted & Advanced Learning firstname.lastname@example.org **Pre-K Students** ....................................................................................912-395-5877 - Amanda Drought, Program Manager-Early Childhood email@example.com **Student Affairs (School Social Workers)** .............................................912-395-5584 - Dr. Quentina Miller-Fields, Director of Student Affairs firstname.lastname@example.org **School Counseling Services** ...............................................................912-395-6771 - Kimberly McGuire, School Counseling Coordinator email@example.com **School Meals** .....................................................................................912-395-5548 - Onetha Bonaparte, School Nutrition Director firstname.lastname@example.org **Athletics** ..............................................................................................912-395-5531 - John Sanders, Director of Health, Physical Education and Athletics email@example.com **CTAE & Work Based Learning & Work Permits** .............................912-395-6765 - Dr. Angie Lewis, Senior Director of College & Career Readiness firstname.lastname@example.org - Ronald Aikens, Work Based Learning Coordinator email@example.com **Technology**: Students in need of technology support should contact his/her teacher by email or phone. If the teacher is not able to resolve the issue, please contact your child’s Library Media Technology Specialist. UPDATED: 8/11/2020 10:05 AM IMPORTANT TERMS TO KNOW: **Applied learning**: Experiences that allow for students to apply knowledge and skills that extend from the teacher-facilitated learning. Students have access to instruction support during applied learning activities, provided by educational assistants, teachers, and/or related service providers. These learning experiences are intentionally designed by the teacher to meaningfully deepen student engagement, allow for peer interaction, and to support family and community involvement. Applied learning experiences likely require scaffolding and supports so that students are able to engage with them independent of teacher or adult support. Applied learning experiences must be designed to support independent learning routines, independent practice, and independent application of skills or learning. As with a typical school year, homework assignments are not considered as instructional minutes. **Asynchronous Learning**: Learning that occurs in elapsed time between two or more people. Examples include email, online discussion forum, message boards, blogs, podcasts, etc. **Campus**: For the purposes of this document, a school campus is considered to include all locations in which both district personnel and students are physically present for the purpose of delivering and receiving instruction. **Contact Tracing**: Identification of persons who may have come into contact with an infected person and collection of further information about these contacts. Contact tracing helps stop chains of disease transmission. **Community-Based Organizations (CBO)**: CBOs are driven by and representative of a community or a significant segment of a community and work to meet community needs and amplify strengths. **Exposure**: When an individual has close contact (less than 6 feet) for 15 minutes or longer with a contagious person with COVID-19. **Face Covering**: A cloth, paper, or disposable face covering that covers the nose and the mouth; may or may not be medical-grade. **Face Masks**: Medical-grade face masks. **Face Shield**: A clear plastic shield that covers the forehead, extends below the chin, and wraps around the sides of the face. **Hand Hygiene**: Washing with soap and water for 20 seconds or using an alcohol-based hand sanitizer with 60-95% alcohol. **High-Risk Categories**: The CDC has identified age ranges and underlying factors that may leave a population at higher risk for severe illness from COVID-19. **Immunocompromised**: Having an impaired or weakened immune system. **Isolation**: Separates sick people with a contagious disease from people who are not sick. Nursing Dependent: Students who have an unstable or life-threatening health condition and who require daily, direct, and continuous professional nursing services. Medically Complex: Students who may have an unstable health condition and who may require daily professional nursing services. Medically Fragile: Students who may have a life-threatening health condition and who may require immediate professional nursing services. Outbreak: An unusual number of cases in a given context. Physical/Social Distancing: Maintenance of at least six feet of space between persons to the maximum extent possible. Also known as social distancing. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): The personal protective equipment required for medical personnel. Project-Based Learning: A teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging, and complex question, problem, or challenge. Social Emotional Learning (SEL): The process through which children and adults learn to understand and manage emotions, set, and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions. Stable Cohort: A group of students who are consistently in contact with each other. Also known as a stable cohort group. Synchronous Learning: Learning in which participants interact at the same time and in the same place. Teacher-facilitated learning: A synchronous (either on-site or off-site) or an asynchronous learning experience planned and guided by a licensed teacher (or, possibly, a registered teacher in a charter school). The experience is structured to develop, deepen, and assess new knowledge and understanding relative to state content standards. Teacher-facilitated learning is often used when the teacher is planning for all students to have a common experience related to specific learning targets. Teacher-facilitated learning may be accomplished asynchronously through learning management systems, teacher-produced videos, or learning packets, each being structured to create strong learning progression. Synchronous opportunities, either on-site or off-site, must be provided daily and may include full group instruction, peer interaction, two-way communication, small group breakouts, or individual office hours. - Teacher-facilitated learning may include time that supports students beyond the core instruction, including specially designed instruction, language instruction, or specific services under ESSA or IDEA. Quarantine: Separates and restricts the movement of people who were exposed to a contagious disease to see if they become sick.
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TITLE: HOW I TEACH PATTERNS IN A GRADE ONE CLASS Nomathamsanga Mahlobo and Rosemond Ntombela Centre for Advancement of Science and Mathematics Education Fundakahle Primary School INTRODUCTION Patterns are things, numbers, shapes, images that repeat in a logical way. Patterns help children learn to make predictions, to understand what comes next, to make logical connections, and to use reasoning skills. The elements of a pattern repeat in a predictable manner. Patterns can be based on a template or model which generates pattern elements, especially if the elements have enough in common for the underlying pattern to be inferred, in which case the things are said to exhibit the unique pattern www.wikipedia.org. Finding and understanding patterns gives us great power. With pattern we can learn to predict the future, discover new things and better understanding of the world around us www.mathisfun.com. Numbers can be arranged into a pattern, you can make your own patterns with numbers. Number patterns such as 1; 2; 3; ……… are familiar to Foundation Phase learners, these are first patterns they learn. As learners advance they learn number patterns with different sequences. Patterns can also be formed with shapes, pictures, colours and words. PRESENTATION In the first demonstration lesson learners were given square grid papers to write numbers 1; 2; 3 in the first three squares. They were to repeat these numbers until they filled in the whole grid. As they were sitting in groups of three in a desk, they were expected to turn in writing these numbers on the grid. After completing the writing of numbers they were asked to choose a colour for each number and then colour each square with the selected number, for example if they choose green for number 1, red for 2 and pink for 3 like in the example on the picture below. The competent groups were later given a smaller grid to complete as an individual activity. In the second demonstration lesson they were given different shapes to colour using their own design. They were also asked to take turns in colouring the design. Others managed to repeat a specific pattern some just colour the shapes to make beautiful decoration but failing to produce a repeating pattern out of the chosen colours. The third lesson was on application where learners were expected to first make a design of the colours of unifix cubes they will use to make a necklace. A demonstration on how to make a design on the grid was first conducted together with the class. One group was asked to do an activity for the class by first selecting the colour of the unifix required for the design. A demonstration on how to thread the unifix following the pattern on the grid was shown to the learners. The groups were then asked to make their own designs with not more than three different colours. After finishing the design they collected the colours of the unifix they need for their necklace. The majority managed to create good patterns but others were still struggling in identifying the pattern they have followed in their design. The picture below shows the products of different groups as I have stated that others did not managed to follow specific pattern in their design. What I have observed in these lessons is that learners enjoyed working with concrete objects in making their patterns. The last demonstration lesson was a class activity which combines colour and shapes. We were designing a T-shirt changing it from a plain white to a colourful garment. A plain white T-shirt was pasted on the board, learners were asked to select the shape they will use to design the shirt. They first selected a triangle and a row of triangles with alternating colours was pasted by learners taking turns on the shirt. Different shapes and colours were used and the picture below was a complete product of learners’ design with shapes and colours. Conclusion In our discussion with the teachers who observed the lesson; they highlighted high learner participation in the lessons. The majority of learners were able to finish their individual activity after completing the group activity. The teachers were able to see that the group activity provided learners with opportunity of peer support, learners learn more from others while doing an activity in a group. When asking learners to explain how they created their patterns assisted the teachers with ideas of engaging learners not only with the “what” questions but also the “how”. Learners were also able to predict if you give them an idea of the pattern and also count the number of unifix they needed to complete their necklace. REFERENCES 1. www.wikipedia.org 2. www.mathisfun.com
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The right of persons with disabilities to take part in elections PACE Resolution 2155 (2017) on the political rights of persons with disabilities: a democratic issue COUNCIL OF EUROPE Parliamentary Assembly Assemblée parlementaire This text is an easy read version of Resolution 2155 (2017) of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe on the political rights of persons with disabilities: a democratic issue, adopted on 10 March 2017. This easy read version was prepared at the request of the secretariat of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe by Inclusion Europe in accordance with the European standards for making information easy to read and understand. ©European Easy-to-Read Logo: Inclusion Europe Inclusion Europe Transgender identity illustration by Frank Duffy ©Diversity Trust ©Council of Europe, September 2017 Contents WHO ARE WE? 4 WHAT IS THIS BOOKLET ABOUT? 6 THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 8 LEGAL CAPACITY 9 WAYS TO END DISCRIMINATION 10 MAKING ELECTIONS ACCESSIBLE 12 MAKING VOTING EASIER 14 HARD WORDS 15 Who are we? We are the Committee on Equality and Non-Discrimination of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe. The Council of Europe is made up of 47 countries in Europe. We want to make things better for everyone who lives in Europe. We are different from the European Union. We cannot make laws but can make sure that countries do what they agree to. The Committee on Equality and Non-Discrimination checks if people are being treated fairly and equally. People cannot be discriminated against because of: 1. how old they are; 2. a disability; 3. their transgender identity – people who are born as one sex and want to live as the other sex. For example, a person who looks like a man may feel inside like a woman; 4. a marriage or civil partnership; 5. having a child; 6. their skin colour; 7. their religion or beliefs; 8. being a man or woman; 9. being gay, lesbian or bisexual. What is this booklet about? Taking part in elections is a human right. You have a right to say how you think your country should be run. This includes standing in elections and voting. An election is when each person who is 18 or older gets to vote. Elections decide who should speak for us and make choices for us. It can still be hard for disabled people in Europe to vote because: - information about the election is not easy to understand; - the polling station is not easy to enter or vote in; A polling station is the place where you vote; - there is no support for the different sorts of disabilities; • people who do not have **legal capacity** are not allowed to vote. **Legal capacity** – being able to make a particular decision or choice at a particular time. There are laws about how to decide if someone has legal capacity. • **political parties** do not seem to want to change things. A **political party** is a group of people who think the country should be run in a certain way. Countries in the Council of Europe must make it easier for disabled people to participate in elections. This booklet says what can be done. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities A convention is an agreement between countries. This convention says what the rights of disabled people are. The convention says countries cannot treat people differently or unfairly because of their disability. It shows how countries can make sure disabled people have the same rights as everyone else. Countries that have agreed to the convention must make sure disabled people have access to their rights. Not all the countries in the Council of Europe have signed this convention. They need to agree to the convention and make it work. Legal capacity People who do not have legal capacity still need to be able to vote. In some countries other people can make decisions for you when you do not have legal capacity. This is sometimes called guardianship. The court decides on a guardian for you. This needs to change. With help, you can make your own decisions, such as who to vote for. A person you trust can help you to understand what the political parties want to do. This person can also go into the polling station to help you vote for the party you choose. This means all disabled people can take part in voting in elections. Ways to end discrimination Discrimination is being treated unfairly or not getting what you need because you are disabled, or for another reason. Disabled people are discriminated against when elections are not made easy for them. We need to: • talk about the political rights of disabled people. Political rights are the rights to stand for election and to vote; • have activities and events that show disabled people can vote and stand for election. These events should be on TV and social media like Facebook; • see disabled people on TV programmes about elections. TV programmes about elections must be made so that everyone can understand them. Sign language and easy-to-understand language can help. We need information that everyone can understand about: - how to vote; - what the different political parties say they will do. Making elections accessible Accessible describes something that is easy to use for people with disabilities. What helps to make things accessible? • ramps to get into a building; • information in easy read versions or braille; • sign language interpreters. We need to make sure that: • all buildings are accessible. This includes all government buildings and at least one polling station in every area; • everything about voting is available in: – easy read versions, – videos with sign language and sub-titles, – braille, • the paper you vote on is easy to use and in braille; • political parties only get government money when they make everything accessible. Disabled people who stand for election need extra money to get the support they need. Governments need to give them this money. Making voting easier You must be given help with voting, when you ask for it. This may help you to decide who to vote for. Your vote must be for who you choose, not the choice of the person helping you. To do this, we need organisations of disabled people to help with: - training for anyone who may be involved in helping you to vote. This includes people at polling stations; - rules on how to help people vote; - different ways of voting, such as voting on the internet for people who cannot go to a polling station. Any changes need to be made with the help of organisations of disabled people. Sign language needs to be accepted as a language in every country. Hard words Accessible describes something that is easy to use for people with disabilities, for example: - ramps to get into a building, - information in easy read versions or braille, - sign language interpreters. Legal capacity is being able to make a particular decision or choice at a particular time. There are laws about how to decide if someone has legal capacity. Discrimination is being treated unfairly or not getting what you need because you are disabled, or for other reasons. An election is when each person who is 18 or older gets to vote. Elections decide who should speak for us and make choices for us. A political party is a group of people who think the country should be run in a certain way. Political rights are the right to stand for election and to vote. A polling station is the place where you vote. The Parliamentary Assembly is one of two statutory organs of the Council of Europe. It was the first European parliamentary body after 1945 and today is Europe’s biggest political forum. With its 324 Representatives (and the same number of Substitutes) from national parliaments, the Assembly represents the main political currents of the member states of “greater Europe”. Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Secretariat of the Committee on Equality and Non-Discrimination assembly.coe.int/ @PACE_Equality www.coe.int The Council of Europe is the continent’s leading human rights organisation. It comprises 47 member states, 28 of which are members of the European Union. The Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly, consisting of representatives from the 47 national parliaments, provides a forum for debate and for submitting proposals on Europe’s social and political issues. Many Council of Europe conventions originate from the Assembly, including the European Convention on Human Rights.
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Air-drying Hardwood Lumber Hardwood lumber may be dried for many reasons. First, drying increases dimensional stability. Wood shrinks considerably more across the grain than along the grain when it dries. Because wood shrinks during drying, if it is cut to size before properly dried, it will be undersized in its final form. Second, drying can reduce, or even eliminate, decay or stain. Wood dried below 20 percent moisture content is not susceptible to decay or sap staining. Third, drying reduces weight. Removal of most of the water in the wood reduces lumber weight by 35 percent or more. Finally, drying increases the stiffness, hardness and strength of wood. Most species of wood increase their strength characteristics by at least 50 percent during the process of drying to 15 percent moisture content. Air-drying and solar kiln drying are the most economical ways to remove much of the water from green lumber. Correct exposure of lumber to the outside air can reduce moisture content to 14–19 percent; lumber at this moisture content is suitable for many construction uses and exterior applications. Solar kiln drying can reduce the moisture content of lumber to 7–8 percent so it can be used in furniture and other applications within a heated building. Further drying beyond air and solar drying is usually accomplished in a dry kiln where temperature, humidity and air circulation can be carefully controlled. Proper stacking of lumber Lumber is stacked in a special way to maximize the surface of each piece of lumber exposed to the air and to support each piece so it will dry straight and without unnecessary warping. Proper stacking of lumber for air-drying involves building a strong foundation, careful placing and spacing of the boards in the stack, and providing roof protection (Figure 1). Locate the lumber stack on a level site with good drainage and exposure to prevailing winds. Orient the stack so that the prevailing winds blow across the boards. Covering the ground beneath and around the stack with black polyethylene can help prevent moisture from moving from the soil to the wood, and weeds and grass from growing and restricting air movement. Foundation Start with a good foundation. Various materials such as railroad crossties, treated wood beams or concrete blocks can be used to build the foundation and support the stack. The supports should be tall enough so the first layer of boards to be dried is at least 12 inches above the ground. They should be spaced no more than 24 inches apart to provide adequate support for the lumber stack. The cross-supports should be aligned because any low or high spot or twist from opposite corners of the stack will result in lumber with the same amount of warp. Stack Ideally, the lumber should be sorted by length and thickness. Lumber of the same length should be put in one stack. If this is not possible, you can “box pile” the lumber (Figure 2): For each layer, place the long boards on the edges of... the stack. These outside boards help tie the stack together, making it less subject to tilting or falling over. Place shorter boards on the inside, flush with alternating ends of the stack. Do not let loose ends overhang without support. Do not mix lumber of varying thickness within the same layer. Put thicker lumber on the bottom of the stack. This positioning prevents some handling of the heavier stock, and the weight from the top of the stack will restrain the thicker material as it dries, preventing excessive warping. Furthermore, the thick stock will take longer to dry. If you plan to use certain boards first, place them near the top of the stack for easier access. Stack the lumber in neat layers as soon after sawing as possible. Leave a 1- or 2-inch space between boards within a layer. Wood strips, called “stickers,” provide the space between layers to allow air movement. Place stickers perpendicular to the length of the lumber and directly over the foundation crossbeams to space each layer. Stickers should be straight, uniformly thick, free of bark decay and stain, and thoroughly dry. Stickers are commonly 1 inch thick by $1\frac{1}{2}$ inches wide. The length of the stickers should be the width of the lumber stack. Building lathe doubled in thickness can be used if nothing else is available. The stack should be only as high as you can comfortably and safely stack the boards; usually no more than head-high. If properly stacked, the weight of the lumber helps prevent excessive warping in all but the top layers. Therefore, low-grade boards should be placed on the top of the stack. Weights such as concrete blocks can be used to restrain the top layers. **Roof** The lumber stack should be covered. Practically any device that sheds water can be used as a roof. The roof should extend 24 inches beyond the front, back and each side of the stack. Leave an air space of 6 inches between the top of the stack and the roof. **Minimizing degrade during drying** Stresses develop in lumber as moisture is lost during drying. Shrinkage in width and thickness will occur; warp, checks or other defects may develop. The potential for drying defects such as checking and warping also increases with greater lumber thickness. Warping can be minimized through proper stacking technique and adding weight to the top of the stack (about 40 pounds per square foot). Lumber dries several times faster from the ends of a board than from the surface or edges. As a result, wide boards often crack severely. This defect is called “checking.” Checking can be reduced by coating the ends of the boards. --- **Figure 3. Example wood drying-time graphs.** *(Source: Simpson, W.T., and C.A. Hart. 2000. Estimates of air drying times for several hardwoods and softwoods. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL–GTR–121. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory.)* with a commercial wax emulsion sealer, such as Anchorseal, or aluminum paint in a spar varnish base. However, end-coating the lumber will slow drying rates and is only appropriate for higher-quality lumber. **Drying time** The rate at which properly stacked green lumber dries depends on the wood characteristics, the lumber thickness and the climatic conditions. Heavier hardwoods require longer drying times than lighter woods. Some species of wood have higher green moisture content than others; sapwood and heartwood may have quite different drying characteristics. Drying time required increases rapidly with increase in lumber thickness. For example, 2-inch thick lumber may take from two to four times longer than 1-inch lumber. Do not saw lumber any thicker than is necessary for the intended use (after allowing for shrinkage and surfacing) if drying speed is important. The climate and the season in which green lumber is exposed have a major influence on the time required to air-dry lumber. Temperature perhaps is the most influential factor, but rainfall and humidity are also important. Green lumber stacked during the warm months will typically dry much faster than lumber exposed during the late fall and winter. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Products Laboratory has estimated the air-drying times for several hardwood species at selected locations across the United States ([http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fpfgtr/fpfgtr121.pdf](http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fpfgtr/fpfgtr121.pdf)); the graphs in Figure 3 are for 4/4 (1-inch thick) and 8/4 (2-inch thick) boards of northern red oak drying in Columbia, Missouri. Figure 3 clearly shows the effect on drying times of time of year when the lumber is stacked and board thickness. Lumber at 15–20 percent moisture content is adequate for building unheated structures such as garages or barns. If the wood is to be used inside a heated structure, further drying in a commercial kiln to reduce moisture content to 6–8 percent is required. Original author: James Pastoret --- **ALSO FROM MU EXTENSION PUBLICATIONS** G5507 Considerations in Drying Hardwood Lumber extension.missouri.edu | 800-292-0969
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January's precipitation in our area equalled that of about three-fourths of 1986 -- the year of the celebrated drought that may have been Virginia's worst. First, the rains came pouring on New Year's Day, then the sleet came three weeks later, and finally the snow. Most of Virginia received up to a foot and a half of snow on January 22nd, but southeastern Virginia was spared. Then, a second northeast storm dumped 6-8 inches on Williamsburg and another foot on many other parts of the state. By January 27th, Charlottesville had had 30 inches, Richmond about 24. The snow and the very cold temperatures have finally brought some birds in to feeders. The February Bird Club Program will be held on the 18th at 7:30 in Millington Hall, as usual. Our speaker is Thom Blair's brother, Mr. Carvel H. Blair. The speaker is a scientist, a Senior Coastal Engineer, who will tell us about "Chesapeake Bay: Problems and Solutions." Besides being an expert on the Bay, an issue very dear to many Virginians, Mr. Blair has even published an article "Birds through the Periscope" about his days on a submarine. Other accomplishments include his many studies on sedimentation. He is an associate professor of Math and Computer Sciences at Old Dominion University and has also worked with the Department of Oceanography there. He is a retired Captain of the U.S. Navy. The following is a brief abstract about his talk: CHESAPEAKE BAY: PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS Chesapeake Bay is an estuary -- a semi-enclosed water body where ocean water mixes with river water -- and estuaries have special problems. Because of differences in density, salt and fresh water set up a two-layered two-directional circulation that tends to trap pollutants in the estuary. A multimillion-dollar EPA study of the Bay identified three main problems: damage to plants and animals from toxic substances; overenrichment by nutrients; and loss of submerged aquatic vegetation. A fortuitous groundswell of public interest has not only kept federal funding of Bay work but also kindled interest and support from state governments (Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania) and the District of Columbia. Monitoring and research have begun to show the answers to these and other problems. Permanent solutions, however, require continuing government funding which in turn requires continued public support. Concerned citizens must know the facts, be willing to pay necessary taxes, and most of all keep pressure on legislators and administrators if we are to Save the Bay for ourselves and our children. Last month's program was a real treat as Ruth Beck brought us up to date on Virginia's Piping Plover population predicament. We learned that the Nature Conservancy and the Virginia Game Commission, together with help from Ruth and Dr. Jerry Via of Virginia Tech, are trying hard to assess the condition of these birds. The study included looking at relative abundance and the effect of human disturbance. Ruth and Jerry walked many miles of barrier island beaches to find and mark nests and record the number of adult and young birds. We are very fortunate, too, that Ruth personally demonstrated the "start-stop" technique of the Piping Plover as it moves across the dunes. Club member Bob Cross will be continuing the study next year as a William and Mary graduate student. The February Field Trip will be held on the 21st. The trip will feature the south side of the James River, including Sunken Meadow Pond, Hog Island and Flowerdew Plantation. Please be on hand for an interesting day of waterfowl and raptors. Departure time will be 7:30 a.m. from the Williamsburg Information Center. The trip should continue until early afternoon. Fred Blystone reminds us that he still has some 10 pound bags of sunflower hearts and a few feeders for sale. He will be including membership renewal forms with the newsletter of those who have not paid 1987 dues. Please welcome Jamie Doyle as a new Club member! Club members Adrienne Frank and Gary Driscoll have been keeping a close eye on the very active feeder station in their yard off of Olde Towne Road. On January 31st, they chalked up an impressive 25 different species including Purple Finch, Rufous-Sided Towhee, Brown Thrasher, Goldfinch, Pine Warbler and Eastern Meadowlark. The Meadowlark was a real surprise and was also reported by Betty Williams of Skipwith. Betty also has had Purple Finches and Fox Sparrow. On January 24th, Julie Hotchkiss saw about 40 Water Pipits at St. George's field near Jamestown. She has also been having a lot of Goldfinches and Purple Finches at her feeder, especially since the snow of January 22nd. Julie also saw the Rough-legged Hawk that has been a regular at Craney Island this winter. Also at Craney, she saw 2 Short-eared Owls. The January 22nd snow brought the first Pine Siskins to my feeder which has been very slow this season. The weather did finally send a Fox Sparrow, Rusty Blackbirds and a Brown Thrasher, but no Purple Finches. Eastern Bluebirds had been checking out my nesting boxes as of January 31st. On January 4th, the crack birding team of Bill and Cecilia Williams, Rich Goll and Cindy Carlson was out making the rounds to local hotspots. They found the Snowy Owl, the Eurasian Widgeon, two Barred Owls, Tree Sparrows, Merlin, Common Mergansers, Loggerhead Shrike and Black-crowned Night-Heron to name only a few! Rich and Cindy had been to the Eastern Shore several days before that and seen four Harlequin Ducks on the Bridge-Tunnel and a Razorbill in the surf at Chincoteague. Bill has been to Craney to see Lapland Longspurs, Rough-leg and Short-eared Owl. The Hopewell Snowy Owl was still being seen as of January 20th. It has the appearance of a healthy bird and it may actually be able to return to the north following winter -- many Snowy Owls that come south never return. BIRD OF THE SEASON: Golden-crowned Kinglet *Regulus satrapa* During the winter, Golden-crowned Kinglets are often quite common in our area. They are seldom seen well, however, because they are tiny, inconspicuous birds. At under four inches, they are among the smallest of all birds. They move quickly through shrubs and trees, and are often seen quite high. They flick their wings very rapidly and even hover while searching for their food which consists of insects, larvae and insect eggs. Golden-crowned kinglets are short-tailed, olive-grey birds with very tiny beaks. They have a white eye-stripe and there are black borders to the crown patch. The female's crown patch is yellow, the male's orange. The call is a quick, high-pitched, usually three part series of hissing notes, similar to that of the Brown Creeper. The range in summer is Canada, parts of the eastern mountain ranges and the Rocky Mountains. It prefers spruces and other evergreens. In winter, Golden-crowned kinglets cover much of the United States and Mexico. The almost globular nest is made of lichen, bark, feathers and spiderwebs, and has a small opening at the top. On February 3rd, Ruth Beck hosted a planning meeting at her house for the upcoming Virginia Society of Ornithology Annual Conference which our Club will be hosting. Details from that meeting will appear in the next newsletter. Fenton Day and Dara Bradshaw found three adult Greater White-fronted Geese at Curles Neck Farm off of Route 5 past Charles City Courthouse. In addition, there were about 8,000 Canada Geese. Fenton also reports that up to three Bald Eagles are being regularly seen in the College Creek area and that Water Pipits are near the farm on the Colonial Parkway to Jamestown. Resources For You Alice Spring sent me a list of books that our Club has bought and placed in the Williamsburg Regional Library. It is an impressive list, compiled since 1978 and is as follows: - Birds of California by Small - Guide to North America Bird Clubs by Rickert - A Guide to Field Identification: Birds of North America by C. S. Robbins - Welcome The Birds to Your Home by J. Curtis - Life Histories of North American Birds, 26 volumes - Great Blue, the Odyssey of a Great Blue Heron by M. Crowell - Stories About Birds & Birdwatchers by M. Bowers - Virginia Society of Ornithology: Virginia's Birdlife, 2 copies - Audubon Society Handbook for Birders by S. Kress - The Wading Birds of North America by A. Landis - Country Journal Book of Birding and Bird Attracting by A. Pastorius - Waterfowl of the Chesapeake Bay Country by B. Meanley - The Birdwatchers Companion by C. Leahy - A Celebration of Birds by R. Peck - The Birdwatchers Activity Book by D. Heintzelman - How Birds Work by R. Freethy - Sea Birds by P. Harrison - Guide to Bird Behavior, v. 2 by D. Stokes - America's Favorite Backyard Birds by K. Harrison - The American Robin by L. Eiserer - Field Guide to Bird Songs, East-Audio cassette - Watching Birds - video cassette - The Herons Handbook by J. Hancock - National Geographic FGT Birds of North America - Feeding the Birds by M. Paid - For the Love of an Eagle by J. Cowden - Random Ramblings by Y. Larner - Birdwatching with American Women by D. Strom - Catesbys Birds of Colonial America by A. Feduccia - Audubon Society Guide to Attracting Birds by S. Kress - Bird Behavior by R. Burton - America's Bald Eagle by H. Ryden - Getting Started in Bird Watching by Cronin - Garden Birds by Proctor - Birds Worth Watching by Sutton - The Birds Around Us - The Pleasure of Watching Birds by L. Oberman DATES TO REMEMBER Feb. 18 February Bird Club Program -- 7:30 in Millington Hall. Our speaker is Mr. Carvel H. Blair. "Chesapeake Bay: Problems and Solutions." Feb. 21 February Field Trip Departure time -- 7:30 a.m. from the Williamsburg Information Center. The trip should continue until early afternoon. To submit information for the newsletter, contact Brian Taber at 253-1181 or write to 104 Druid Court, Williamsburg.
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A properly conducted State fair is an educational institution. It is for the direct material benefit of all of the people and it pays its own way. At the same time it is the great annual reunion of the citizens and is of social value. We formerly talked a great deal about raising cattle in Kansas and we tried to farm in this new, untamed country like our fathers "back east" had farmed. Long ago we learned that if we would succeed we must farm in the best way and success has seemed ours. But we are only beginning. We have spent years in learning what not to do and during this time we have been doing many things which we should do, but not all. We have been conducting our state too much by old methods and have adopted new ones but hesitatingly. We hamper ourselves by not adopting every means for our improvement. Older States saw the need for universities, agricultural colleges, and normal schools, and our new State was quick to do the same. Other States saw the need of State fairs where their material resources could be shown to the world; while each man in the West and in the heart belt could compare the results of his labors with those of his fellows to the advantage of both. Now the time has come to see and understand the methods and processes by which his neighbor has prospered, except that for his use, but Kansas has not. Why is this? Certainly not because we lack intelligence. Kansas has more than a million children in her grade schools and 25,000 in her higher institutions of learning. But the States in the entire Union show a smaller percentage of illiterates and they do not have our immigration. It is not because we cannot afford it. With $165,000,000 in our land farm produce producing over one hundred million dollars against $476,244,831 and our factories producing as much more, we are not poor. It is because of some of these but simply because in our business of attending to our own business we have heretofore not appreciated to the full the advantages which the establishment of a State fair would bring us. Now we do, and public sentiment demands that something be done at the hands of the present Legislature. Nebraska located her State fair on its present site in 1879, spent $10,000 in building and has netted more than $189,000 the greater part of which has been put into the permanent fund. Indiana started its present State fair in 1881 and has netted an average of $20,000 per year. Iowa started up nearly $46,000 in 1908 after all expenses were paid and now has buildings worth nearly one million dollars. Minnesota has made a net earning of $75,000 per year since 1887. Missouri, has a fair property worth a million and her fair is recognized as one of the three best in the world. The State of Texas, the others being the American Royal at Kansas City and the International at St. Louis, Missouri, started her fair but six years ago with a moderate appropriation and now has one of the best equipped grounds in the West with buildings of brick and steel. Oklahoma has had a State fair two years and her success has been most pronounced. State fairs do not cost money, they make money. Not only do they make money directly during the fair, but they make money indirectly for every citizen. Men who attend these great schools where the teaching is free by admission, learn the new knowledge they have gained and through it they propagate the seeds of their beneficent teacher, both by word of mouth and by improved methods, and through them their neighbors prosper. And lately the State has come into possession of a fund of nearly $100,000 which it received from the Federal Government for the use of which no provision has yet been made. What better use could be made of it than to invest it in a State fair and thus erect a monument which would be of distinct benefit to all the people and would place Kansas on an equality with her sister States, which would cost the State approximately nothing, and which would be lasting as time? KANSAS EDITORS IN SESSION. The Kansas State Editorial Association held its annual meeting for 1909, at Topeka, February 1st and 2. The meeting was well attended, a fact which proves that the editors are able to travel. Though editorial work on the railroads are not more indeed, the attendance of a goodly number of editor's wives might be construed as a tradition rather than the dispensers of enlightenment rather enjoy paying fare "the same as white folks." The subjects discussed covered a wide range of a novel fact however, that the problem of the county printing was relatively less important than many former questions. But the price of news paper assumes a prominence which indicated increasing conditions. So also the question of newspaper illustrations which was discussed by Albert T. Reid of the New York "Press." Mr. Reid being one of the most prolific illustrators and the highest priced cartoonist in the West, gave the brethren valuable practical views on the subject of illustrations which is considered to have a growing importance in the world of journalism. The schools of journalism at the University of Kansas and elsewhere contributed to the instruction and entertainment of the newspaper folks by sending their students there to tell about them. Doubtless the time is near at hand when the young who would become journalists, like the youth who would become a lawyer or a doctor, will find it profitable to prepare themselves for entering the course at a school of journalism. The street cars of the Capital city and county came under the notice of the State or the Nation notified the association that their membership badge entitled the wearer to ride as much as and often as he pleased without money and without fare. Plenty of cars were furnished to convey the members to Washburn College, two miles from the business center. Arriving at the college at 6 o'clock the visitors were taken in charge by reception committees and shown about among the abundant gardens and the fine buildings. They were landed at the library where dinner was served, after which they were treated to a musical program of high order at the college Chapel. Here the president of the college, President Saunders of the college and by Governor Stubbs on behalf of the State. Later an address worth going half across the State to hear was delivered by Dean W. W. Whiting, of the Washburn School of Journalism. The forenoon of the second day was given to visiting the Legislature. The midday meal in the city is called lunch. Dinner comes on after the day's work is done. Lunch was given by the Topeka Ad Club at the Elk's Club rooms. The afternoon session was devoted to discussion of matters of importance to the State and the nation, such as the standardization of School Books by T. A. McNeal, State Printer; "Newspapers and the Railroads," by H. R. Leeman, Assistant Solicitor of the Union Pacific railroad. In the evening a complimentary dinner was given by Arthur Capron, the newly elected president of the association at his magnificent new building, the home of the Daily Capital and other publications. The repast was followed by toasts by prominent people. The order of business from the usual order of after dinner speeches and became the order of current events. Only the address of Senator Elect J. L. Bristow and the reply by C. S. Gled. The annual meeting of the association will be held at Wichita at a date to be fixed by the association's executive committee. Secretary F. D. Cohen has appointed E. L. Hougham of Kansas Farmers as a delegate to represent the State Board of Agriculture at the Trans-Missouri Dry Farming Congress, which will hold its third annual convention at Cheyenne, Wyo., on February 23 to 25 inclusive. However often we publish the reminder the inquirer should sign his name and give then postal card addresses, an occasional inquiry comes that is deficient in one or both of these particulars. How erroneous it may be, the editor's impression of the writer who fails to sign his name is that he is either a coward or a chump. The Kansas Farmer does not insist on publishing a correspondent's name but it does insist that it be given to the editor as an evidence of good faith. When we have an unsigned inquiry which would be answered by postal card if the inquirer's name were known, Let us speak a word to him on this subject. It is this: The unsigned missives are never from one of the fair sex. Brace up and be as brave as the women, oh ye timid men. ONE LITTLE BOY WOULD LIKE TO GET IN THE A CLASS. A Great Holstein Dairy Record The Holstein cow, Colantha 4th's Johanna, the property of Mr. W. J. Gillett, of Rochester, Wis., holds the world's record as a butter producer. Ten cows of Mr. Gillett's herd have the following record: | Name of Cow | Months Lbs | Lbs. Milk | Lbs. Butter | |-------------|------------|-----------|-------------| | Colantha 4th's Johanna | 12 | 30,866.5 | 928.5 | | Johanna Rue | 12 | 28,846.8 | 955.0 | | Johanna Ind. | 12 | 28,746.4 | 950.0 | | Johanna Rue | 12 | 28,452.4 | 716.6 | | Johanna Rue | 12 | 28,452.4 | 716.6 | | Johanna Colantha | 12 | 28,452.4 | 716.6 | | Johanna Colantha | 12 | 28,452.4 | 716.6 | | Johanna Aggie | 12 | 28,452.4 | 716.6 | | Johanna Aggie | 12 | 28,452.4 | 716.6 | This shows what can be accomplished by intelligent breeding and feeding. Every one who dairies to any great extent must necessarily at times go out and buy cows to take the place of those that are worn out. The question arises, "What are the essential points required in a good dairy cow?" It is true, at times, we find very good producers that do not have a good form. The cow originally gave milk for a short time only or was intended to give enough milk to feed her calf. By selecting and breeding so as to prolong the milking period, she has been developed into a cow that not only furnishes milk for her calf, but is one of the cheapest and most profitable producers. We have many breeds of dairy cattle, each has its distinguishing traits, but none excel in dairy form. It is just as essential for the dairy cow to have a dairy form as it is for the beef animal to have meatiness to have their essential characteristics, which differ very much from those of draft use. Judges and experts have realized the importance of certain points and have given them credit for merit. Since the flow of milk depends primarily upon the number, activities and efficiency of the milk glands and secondly, upon the flow of blood to the udder, and the nutrients contained in the blood, it is clear that the stomach and udder deserve the importance attached to them; and since the nervous system is the controlling power to the digestive system and directly controls to a considerable degree the flow of blood to the udder, it also deserves attention. Since the stomach and udder are the chief manufacturing points, it is but natural that extreme development in these organs would be desirable, for, inasmuch as meat carrying capacity and incubations are not considered essential in a beef animal, the milking dairy cows, these have been neglected. This has resulted in a general type that has been detrimental in milk production; and this is considered, and the importance of the different points indicated, in the following scale of points: | Perfect Score | General Appearance | 6 | |---------------|-------------------|---| | | 1. Weight | 6 | | | 2. Form | 6 | | | 3. Condition | 6 | | | 4. Coat | 6 | | | 5. Color | 6 | | | 6. Markings | 6 | | | 7. Ears | 6 | | | 8. Eyes | 6 | | | 9. Head | 6 | | | 10. Neck | 6 | | | 11. Shoulders | 6 | | | 12. Forequarters | 6 | | | 13. Hindquarters | 6 | | | 14. Legs | 6 | | | 15. Chest | 6 | | | 16. Barrel | 6 | | | 17. Back | 6 | | | 18. Ribs | 6 | | | 19. Hips | 6 | | | 20. Pin bones | 6 | | | 21. Tail | 6 | | | 22. Udder | 6 | | | 23. Teats | 6 | | | 24. Milk | 6 | | | 25. Total | 6 | This scale of points, as given above, is based on the fact that the various parts of the body structure and indicated their relative importance. They are chosen because they now may be narrow in front or wedge shaped; but because of the extreme development of the shoulders of the cow, and the neglect of the other portions, such a wedge-shaped type has resulted, and is considered desirable by dairymen. The refinement about the head and neck, and the lightness of these forms indicates that the animal is not disposed to lay on flesh, but rather devotes her food to milk making. A large head and neck, with a short neck, is secured in the dairy cow by a deep chest with good width, particularly in the floor of the chest, rather than by great spring of rib. Thus, in this beef animal the depth of chest, instead of being a deep, wide channel of cylindrical form; in the dairy cow, by a broad chest, egg-shaped with large end down. As the supply of nutrients furnished the blood to the mammary glands, and the digestive organs, a large barrel is very desirable, and is insured by a well developed rib cage and spine. The slight jointedness of the back is merely an indication of the general openness of the skeleton, and as it permits a roomy body, large for weight, is considered desirable. The broad loin accompanies width of hindquarters and roomy barrel. Viewing the cow from behind and on the inside of the thighs, it will be noted that the hair includes the groin and extends nothing from the rear other parts of the body. The portion so called known as the scrotum, and its importance is due to the fact that it is to some extent indicative of the amount of milk produced. It is believed that a well developed scrotum is only found in connection with large arteries. Knowing the structures of the milk secretion, it is clear that a long udder, containing a great number of similar vessels, which makes up the milk glands, is favorable to a large production of milk, and the length of udder should be by a high attachment behind and by an extension well forward on belly, of the udder. Insufficient milk may be due to either only glandular structures, connection tissue, blood vessels, nerves and subcutaneous tissue. It is necessary to sustain the udder, no fleshiness should be apparent; if present, it indicates the presence of too much fat, or amount of tissue and which can be of no use, which may interfere with proper working of the milk-secreting glands. The teats merely serve to draw the milk from the udder, and the only necessary requirements are that they shall permit of the passage of a good stream of milk, and that they can be easily seized by the hand. The milk veins discharge most of the blood which passes through the udder, and hence are useful in determining the blood flow. Large, long, tortuous milk veins, branching and entering the body by large milk wells are invariably characteristic of good milkers. In conclusion, it should be clearly borne in mind that a high-class dairy cow by her form is one of the best indication to accurate results, and while it is possible to distinguish between good milk cows and those of inferior milking capacity, the only absolutely accurate test must be secured by means of the scrotum and Babcock test used frequently throughout the year, as many cows are sometimes milked in a cow that is a large flow for a short period and they think of her only when she is at her peak. In judging young bulls, the same form (modified only by sexual differences) and quality of bone looks for as in cows. A bull's merit from a dairy standpoint depends upon his ability to produce a large milk capacity, and this is very largely determined by the milking capacity of his dam and sire. The size of the bull, course, is not considered in show-ring judging, but it should be. Unquestionably it is not necessary to judge bulls by their general appearance to the dairy type; due attention should also be paid to the scrotum. The writer is indebted to Iowa State College for some of the material presented above. Distributing Improved Seed Wheat BY A. M. TEN EYCK When the writer took charge of the agronomy work at Manhattan, December 1, 1902, he found no work in progress testing seed-wheat or cereal varieties. However, a large number of varieties of wheat and other cereals had been tested at the U. S. Government Station at Halstead (now at McPherson), and a single trial of some fifty varieties of wheat for seed-wheat had been made at the Fort Hays Branch Station in Ellis county. Most of the varieties of wheat received from the U. S. Department of Agriculture were and were collected by M. A. Carleton, who spent for several months collecting choice samples of wheat in Russia, Romania, and other European countries. In the fall of 1903 some forty samples of the best-producing varieties of winter wheat were tested by the tests at Fort Hays and McPherson, and a few samples from other sources were secured and planted in trial plots at Manhattan. Among these was the now famous Kharkof introduced by M. A. Carleton from the province of Kharkof, Russia, in 1901, a hard, red, winter wheat of the Turkish type which had proven to be one of the best-producing varieties at all three seed-wheat distributed by agricultural department. In 1904 samples of Kharkof and seed of several other varieties which had produced well were planted in separate fields. In 1905 1,152 bushels of selected and graded seed-wheat was distributed among 192 farmers in the vicinity of the station. In 1907 the agronomy department produced and distributed 1,529 bushels of seed of Kharkof and other improved varieties and 1,162 bushels were distributed in 1908, making a total distribution of 2,691 bushels in three years, by the department, of 5,996 bushels, among 638 farmers, in 99 counties, surrounding the State of Kansas. The name and address of each purchaser has been recorded and circulars have been sent out from time to time asking for a report and urging farmers to save their crop of seed and thus hasten the extent of the distribution. In this way several thousand bushels of this improved wheat was distributed and planted over the State in 1907. In 1908 a special effort was made to have a large part of the crop used for seed. Special harvest circulars were sent to all those who had purchased seed-wheat from this station, asking for reports of their crop and again urging them to save the wheat for seed and also requesting them to report to the agronomy department the amount of seed, its purity and quality. More than 100 replies were received to these letters and some 50 were listed as having from 50 to 3,000 bushels of seed-wheat, with an average of about 500 bushels, for sale at prices ranging from $1.00 to $1.50 per bushel. (The higher price was for ungraded seed.) This list was sent to a large number of buyers of good seed-wheat, including many millers, and reports from several of the parties listed indicate that the larger part of this wheat was used for seed and planted last fall. A number replying to our first request for reports stated that their wheat had all been spoiled by their neighbors. Others who had a large acreage stated that they would need all the seed which they had produced for their own use. Only two out of the large number received were unfavorable to the wheat, and some of the replies were very complimentary, a quote from some of these as follows: EXTRACTS FROM REPORTS OF GROWERS OF WHEAT SEED WHEAT "The Kharkof wheat is more vigorous than other varieties—will yield about 25 bushels per acre this season on wet land." J. A. Akin, Hanotol, Franklin county, Kansas. "The Kharkof wheat will yield twice to five times more than other varieties grown here." John Antene, Ada, Ottawa county, Kansas. "The Kharkof wheat is one-third to one-half better than wheat from my own seed." John Balderson, Day, Washington county, Kansas. "The Kharkof wheat yielded 32.5 bushels per acre—more than any bushel produce since the White Russian grown beside it." W. H. Benton, Kiowa, Barber county, Kansas. "Your improved Turkey Red wheat yielded 29.8 bushels per acre and is much vigorous than other varieties. It will yield one-third more than other wheat in the neighborhood." O. B. Vining, Alden, Rice county, Kansas. "Sowed three varieties of your unseeded bread wheat: Bearded Fife, Kharkof, and Improved Turkey Red. The Kharkof is superior to the varieties to common wheat here." R. Mooty, Harper, Harper county. "Kharkof wheat will yield three to four bushels more than other wheats." D. B. Ransome, Lindsborg, Stafford county, Kansas. "Kharkof wheat is better than other grains and has a great deal ahead of the average." Cam Searus, Pomona, Franklin county, Kansas. "Kharkof wheat, when sown in surrounding fields—matured several days earlier—will yield 5 to 10 bushels more than other wheats." C. T. Turner, Nickerson, Reno county, Kansas. "My Kharkof wheat is the best wheat in this neighborhood." M. A. Spillman, Bluenound, Linn county, Kansas. "Kharkof wheat is far superior in yield to other wheats—well pleased with the variety." H. B. Mahon, Ellin county, Kansas. "Malkof wheat sown on my farm may not have been as thick as other varieties—seemed harder—straw was long enough to bind while other varieties seemed to be cut with a scythe. Yield 24 bushels per acre, making four to eight bushels more than other varieties which have been grown on upland." C. L. Hexemore, Glen Elder, Mitchell county, Kansas. The Kharkof wheat has been an excellent producer, as shown by comparisons of yields at the station and at the Ft. Hays Branch Experiment Station, and in some 50 cooperative tests carried on by this department. NAMES STRONG FLOUR The Kharkof wheat is also a very excellent flour making variety. Professor J. T. Willard, station chemist, recently made a comparison of samples of Kharkof wheat and five samples of Turkey wheat as follows: | Name | Grain per bushel | Specific gravity | Per cent flour | Per cent gluten | |----------|------------------|------------------|----------------|----------------| | Kharkof | 54.2 | 1.272 | 75.88 | 12.18 | | Turkey | 54.2 | 1.272 | 75.88 | 12.18 | *Three samples from wheat recently milled.* Tests of high grade flour at other experiment stations have shown a higher percentage of gluten than, but the same percentage of protein as, all of Professor Willard's tests are explained by the fact that the processes of milling and testing at the State station have not been perfected. However, the trials are comparative and among a large number of samples tested the Kharkof ranks among the best. In the baking tests carried on at this station the Kharkof flour has been equal to or superior to other samples tested. Its absorption ranged from 55 to 77 per cent; its rising capacity from 19 to 83 per cent; and Professor Willard pronounced it a strong flour. 4,000 bushels distributed also by Fort Hays station. On account of its general adaptability, hardness, and good producing qualities as well as its flour-making qualities, the Kharkof has been chosen as the best variety for general distribution in small quantities of it have been distributed among the farmers of the State than of other seed-wheat produced. Nearly 4,000 bushels of improved seed-wheat, largely Kharkof, have been distributed by the Fort Hays Branch Station and a limited quantity by the U. S. Cooperative Experiment Station at McPherson, making 160,000 acres of improved wheat now being grown in the State. Considering these facts I believe it to be a conservative estimate to assume that nearly 100,000 acres of the Kharkof and other improved varieties, is now growing in this State. At the rate of 100 acres per crop acre this wheat will yield four million bushels of improved seed-wheat which may be distributed as seed-wheat or as flour seed, if it is carefully distributed, to equal one-half the total wheat acreage of the State. Little of this improved wheat has, as yet, come into the mills, since it has been used largely for home purposes. It will begin to come into the mills next fall and the fall of 1910 will see some 200,000 bushels in quantity and the problem of seed-wheat improvement in Kansas will have been solved. We have a wheat and only better adapted for growing in this State than any other wheat which is likely to be imported in any quantity, but we have better wheat in preparation for distribution. THE STATE HAS BETTER WHEAT THAN KHARKOF FOR DISTRIBUTION A NEW YEAR Professor H. W. Ward of the experiment station has recently written regarding the wheat breeding work of the botany department during the five years that department, by breeding and selection which is now being carried on, has been engaged in distributing seed-wheat which is much superior to the now justly prized Kharkof. The agronomy department now has the largest crop growing from choice seed selected from which the head row breeding plot proved to be much superior to the average Kharkof wheat and we hope and expect that in three years from last fall this department will have a thousand bushels of more highly improved strains of Kharkof wheat which will be superior both in yield and in the producing qualities of the average Kharkof wheat which we are now growing and distributing. THE PROBLEM OF IMPROVED SEED-WHEAT SOLVED I may state also that of the hundreds of varieties of wheat tested at the several experiment stations of this State, completely tested, have proven to be superior, and it would practically impossible to secure pure importations in large quantities of the best average wheat. The average wheat which comes to us from Russia is usually inferior in quality, mixed in breeds, often full of non-kernel seeds. The Kharkof wheat which we are growing in the State today is better than the ordinary wheat being both purer and of better quality and of greater yielding capacity. To those who have been in touch with this work, the above may seem like a fairy tale, but yet it is true and I am ready to furnish the names and addresses of 600 or more farmers who have had the wheat from this station and who can testify to the facts stated. Moreover, each of these 600 farmers can furnish a fair and score of names of others who have purchased seed-wheat of them during the past three years. Similar data can be secured also from the Ft. Hays Branch Station. SEED-WHEAT DISTRIBUTION Just a word regarding the Seed Wheat Investigation Bill, passed by our State Legislature two years ago. Following the passage of the bill the board of regents sent Professor Burkett and Professor Roberts to European countries to study the college," plainly indicates that two or more would not be necessary to the State. In Massachusetts they have one agricultural college, at Amherst, the other at Boston. They have also divided their functions among several colleges in some branch of this dual college, some in the other. Kansas has one agricultural college, and Massachusetts to divide between her three colleges such preparation for the several pursuits as she can afford. It is as she seems wise. The time has come for the Legislature of the State, if it so desires, to put an end to this national confusion and financial loss, by making formal announcement that the State Agricultural College under the land grant act, it recognizes that the State Institution at Lawrence, in giving the "practical education" in life required of the young men of the several pursuits and professions in life, requires no change whatever, except the reclassifying, en masse, which is established at Amherst, and which is based on vested interests, which is fully taken care of at Manhattan, along with "agriculture and the mechanic arts." Previous to about twenty years ago the remarking on the existence of "mechanic arts" appears to have been made by the management of the Agricultural College at Manhattan, as equivalent to the obvious intent of the same words in revised positions, viz., "the sciences and mechanics," the same rendering being now obtains and has been along obtained at the Agricultural Colleges of New York (Cornell), Illinois, Ohio, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. A course in "mechanics" was first mentioned in the catalogue of the Agricultural College at Manhattan in its issue of 1897-8. One hundred and eleven students were graduated in 1905. Civil engineering was put into the fall term. The reason for engineering as taught at the State University consists of seven different departments taught, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ("one of the colleges" operated by the land grant act) having only four. In the land grant act of 1862 it contains of thirteen departments. If we are to believe the State to surmise that the regents of the Agricultural College will at once duplicate the work of the State University. Your petitioner holds that it is the province and the duty of the Legislature to assume the meaning of the words "mechanic arts" as they shall be construed, the regents of the Agricultural College having no ground that such action is within the clause of the act which leaves the matter of executing out the provisions to be as "the legislatures of the several States." The present legislation, that abolition, by the Legislature, the whole future of the institution will depend. From the beginning, for the part of the "mechanic," with which every farmer should have some acquaintance, there will be steps in the growth of professionalism, as in every college. In agriculture and professionalism are two sides of the same coin, the effect of blowing "away from the farms" large numbers of farm boys who go to college, to become farmers and stay to become engineers. If you decide in favor of the profession of engineering, then you may change the name from "Agricultural College" to some other name indicative of the dominant feature of science. The history of all State colleges, so far as known to your petitioner, makes it apparent that when agriculture and the profession of engineering are combined together, that agriculture becomes a secondary feature as compared with engineering, a fact which shows that the regents of the regents who, exclusive of the preparatory and short course students, pursue the regular course of study in the leading States which teach "mechanic arts" in their land grant colleges as equivalent to the "mechanic arts" profession of engineering, besides the State of Kansas, are Michigan, Iowa, and Colorado. Your petitioner has been unable to secure a copy of the last catalogue of the Michigan Agricultural College, but that which precedes, presumably not far different in its organization, shows that that year the Michigan Agricultural College had in its four college classes (Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, and Senior) 392 male students in agriculture, and 662 in engineering,—122 more than two to one. Colorado Agricultural College catalogue 1908-09 shows in the four college years 29 agriculture students and 108 engineering students, three to one. The catalogue of the Kansas State Agricultural College doesn't disclose the proportion of its students, but the Legislature is able to state that the graduates at the last commencement were 47 students in various kinds of agriculture, including agronomy, animal husbandry, dairy-farming, and horticulture, and 100 were in the two kinds of engineering so far established; and four in agriculture, 51 in all, and two in two to one. There are at this time in the four college years which are open to the public, 142 students, sophomore, junior, senior and graduate, 154 male students in all branches of agriculture, and 243 in the two kinds of engineering, printing and architecture. In view of this showing the regents, instead of turning from agriculture to engineering, your petitioner respectfully suggests, in case the Legislature does decide to reverse and approve the same, as an appropriate new name, "The Kansas State College of Technology and Agriculture." He begs leave to add to what the regents of the Kansas State Agricultural College has been slowly drifting over into the mechanical, that it is nevertheless now erecting its first engineering building and equipment. The regents are now asking $25,000.00 with which to do this, and they are then asking $50,000.00 for an extension to the building to accommodate electrical engineering. In two years' time he will be requesting the electrical engineering. That when coming to engineer, chemical engineering, municipal works, etc., etc.—it is a program that will cost the State $500,000.00 to install, and corresponding sums to maintain. Your petitioner further prays that, in case you should approve the contemplated change of the profession of engineering at the State Agricultural College, you will provide for the construction thereof, and authorize the construction thereof, on Manhattan, on the following buildings: A gymnasium for boys, a gymnasium for girls, and girls dormitories, where the daughters of our citizens, in view of the youth and experience, and the opportunities of attendance, can, if they so desire, find within the college grounds rooms and board under the supervision and care of the competent authorities. Further, your petitioner begs leave to represent that while he has no credentials entitling him to speak for the faculty of the college, he has the statement that he voices a majority sentiment among them when he points out that the regents have an honorable body for giving the leading industry of the State a forward impulse, and for providing the means whereby there may be established at Manhattan, a condition with and for the part of the State Agricultural College, a constant exhibit, on a commercial scale, of the most effective and profitable methods of procedure and management in the production of animals, the production of butter-fat into different dairy products, in poultry production, in crop production, in orchard culture, distribution, and in horticultural production, such exhibits being both for the instruction of students, and attendance at the college, and for the information of the people of the State. For the one item of seed wheat the press of the State is demanding and receiving, the State is paying $100,000.00 for imported seed wheat—for a tenth part of that, for the stimulus of pedigreed wheats of local production, and out-classing the average of the State by more than four to one already, in limited stock, at the State Agricultural College, but not produced largely for dissemination, but for want of money and authority, could within the space of a few years, be multiplied to the point of furnishing seed for every county of the state south of the State, with the reasonable assurance that there would be a crop of the best seed wheat be at least doubled. For the above purposes your petitioner respectfully asks $25,000.00 per year, in addition to the request of the regents, for the next biennium be appropriated. When the country boy turns for his schooling to the state, his instruction should be toward the college where should be one college in the State where the educational incentive is backward toward the east, and where the boy will not be breasting, as a tide, a majority of his fellows bearing him away to the west. There is only one way to that end, and that is by eliminating the interest of the State in the central function, whatever it may be—just as the government eliminates when it teaches war by land in one quarter, and the other, war at sea. The educational desire to bespeak at Manhattan, on its industrial and professional side, an agricultural "Wheat Field," where the strictures and tactics of the great life-sustainer, agriculture, may be taught, as the Hudson, and the Hudson, on the Hudson, are taught the strategy and tactics of the great life-destroyer, war. People do not raise turkeys in the barn unless from a neighboring roost, but this is a good time to do some planning for the next hatching and growing season. The demand for turkeys is greatly supplied in the country, and many more of them could be raised without unfavorably affecting the price. There is certainly no more attractive domestic fowl on the farm, nor one that is more interesting during every stage of its development. It may require more care than some others in its earlier days, but it very soon outgrows such needs and then it is more independent than any other bird. It should be more or less, and near home, during its entire existence, but it soon becomes an accomplished hunter of its own best feed, and that feed is of material it is worth money to the farmer to have consumed. Imported Percheron Stallion Farceur 65248 (66345) to be sold in the Whitewater Falls Stock Farm. Sale to be held at Wichita, Kansas, on Tuesday, February 14, by J. C. Robinson, Towanda, Kansas. of their friends as regards feed and handling. Yet, officers of the Experiment Station keep a complete record of the milk produced, amount of feed consumed, and weighed, tested, and handled every quart of the milk. In this way the whole operation is under the strictest official supervision. For the economical production of Jersey cows the Jerseys averaged 13% pounds more fat per cow than the Holsteins, 20% pounds more than the Brown Swiss, and 29% pounds more than the Shorthorns, at an average net profit per pound of milk of $0.04, or 16 cents Holsteins 11¢ cents, Brown Swiss, 10½ cents. For the economical production of milk for all purposes relating to dairying the Jerseys made an average net profit per cow of six cents more than the Holsteins, 12½ cents more than the Brown Swiss, and 20 cents more than the Shorthorns. The net profit was: cows, Jerseys, $0.56; Guernseys $0.91; Shorthorns $0.57. Milk required for a pound of butter: Jersey cows, 18½ pounds; Guernseys 18¾; Shorthorns 23 pounds. Cost of the making of butter in feet was Holsteins 14 cents; Guernseys 15 cents; Shorthorns 18 cents. Jersey cows deliver more milk at every stage of life than are of prime age at 6 to 10 years old. Many cows many older have produced phenomenal records. Their color they are various shades of fawn, from gold to silver, and black, with white markings. Black cows not being objectionable except in instances of inordinate lusty. The Jersey characterizes them by their quietness, gracefulness, neat hooves, large pincers eyes, small head, bright, tractable disposition, yellow skins, long tails, full rounded udders, straight backs, great depth of body, capacious udders. Jerseys have the ability to adapt themselves to almost any environment. They are very successfully raised from Quebec to Texas, from Maine to California. They require no unreasonable care, feed ration, and gentle treatment. There is an old saying, "You cannot eat your cake and have it." This is true concerning the beef breeds but the opposite is true regarding the Jersey. J. B. Herrington, of Silver Lake, Kan., has a colt, 330 days old, which is 60 inches high and weighs 1,000 pounds—more than larger one for his age, in Kansas. Engineering at the Kansas State Agricultural College FROM STUDENTS HERALD, K. S. A. C. Regarding the complaint made by some of the friends of agriculture that the engineering courses at this institution draw students away from agriculture; I may answer that this is not so. The fact is the reverse is true, at least during my connection with the college. In several classes where I taught you will then have come here intending to take the engineering course and have left with our agricultural course. We now have a number of such men in the courses in agriculture. One of the reasons we have never known one of our agriculture students to give up his work in agriculture for engineering is this: It is true however, that many young men have been attracted to the college with the thought of taking engineering; anything with wheels in it attracts the boys. Many of these young men have been from the farm and have had "enough of agriculture" in their own estimation. It is only after they have become acquainted with the agriculture work and learn that the education of a competent agriculturist offers splendid openings for the right kind of man, or that a competent agriculturist will be much more beneficial to them if they return to the farm, that they are finally led to enroll in our engineering courses. If our engineering work were taught here many students who come here to receive an education, might never go to college. This is little question also that the agricultural student occupies a place in the educational forces of this State while the State university cannot fill. A student who is educated here who would never go to the State University; first because he has the higher grade requirements and second, the university would not attract him. This is the college of the plain common people. Kansas needs such an institution as the State Agricultural College, and we should teach engineering here because the boys are attracted by it and agriculture is finally benefited by association with the engineering work. For the reasons given above it is not unwise to duplicate, in part at least, the engineering at both of our state institutions. The expense of teaching all of these engineers at one school, probably the number of students could doubled, would be no less than may be required for teaching the same number of students in two schools since the number of students determine very largely the equipment and other facilities necessary to carry on this work. I have not favored the dispensing of the engineering work in connection with the agriculture courses; for instance, the dairy course. There has been much discussion, but little or no provision made for such work. All of the farm mechanics taught here is practical work which does not give the agronomy course, and we have no equipment for such teaching. With the rapid development of the irrigation projects in the Rocky Mountain States, the need of irrigation engineers will be required with salaries during the next decade. If the water project proposed by Governor Stubbs becomes a law, we will need a hundred road engineers in this State and not a single man is at the present time being trained for such work. Of course by special preparation after graduation, professional civil and mechanical engineers may become irrigation engineers, road engineers, or whatever they may be, but in my judgment it is necessary to point a man in the direction in which he shall go and prepare him for his particular occupation. There is a great demand at high salaries for men well trained in farm mechanics. I have a letter from a Chicago firm making a standing offer of $1,000 per month as a starting salary for the right kind of farm men, well trained in farm machinery. There can be great developments in the new lines of engineering referred to, and these may also be made professionals and degrees granted. When these complete courses these new lines of engineering will really be very popular in the near future. A. M. TenEyck, Professor of Agronomy. Kansas State Agricultural College and Experiment Station. EVERYTHING for the GARDEN is the title of Our 1909 Catalogue—the most beautiful and instructive horticultural publication of the day—a book of 300 pages—200 Photo engravings and illustrations—1500 descriptions of seeds containing all the latest varieties of seeds containing one packet each of Mixed Sweet Peas, Gladiolus, Lilies, Tulips, Roses, Dahlias, and many other varieties. Freedom Tomato and Henderson's Blood Orange Beet are recommended by the author as the best varieties. The catalogue is issued at $1.00 cash payment on any order amounting to $1.00 or over. Henderson's Seeds are Tested Seeds. Peter Henderson & Co., 34-37 Cortlandt St., New York City. Every Empty Envelope Counts as Cash To every one who sends in an empty envelope we send a free catalogue. If you have not received a catalogue and also send us your name and address, we will mail the catalogue and also send you one packet each of Mixed Sweet Peas, Gladiolus, Lilies, Tulips, Roses, Dahlias, and many other varieties. Freedom Tomato and Henderson's Blood Orange Beet are recommended by the author as the best varieties. The catalogue is issued at $1.00 cash payment on any order amounting to $1.00 or over. Henderson's Seeds are Tested Seeds. Peter Henderson & Co., 34-37 Cortlandt St., New York City. SEED CORN Plant Kansas Alfalfa Longest Live, Hardiest, Most Productive and Valuable Forage plant known. HARRISON'S BRAND. 15% KANSAS ALFALFA SEED. The best brand of alfalfa seed, easiest, and purest sowing. Thirty-four years' experience in growing alfalfa. We guarantee our seed to be the best. We will pay for any failure. Send up alfalfa. Write now for them. Request our free catalogues. We will ship by express. BARTELDES SEED CO., Lawrence, Kans. Branches at Denver, Colo., and Oklahoma City, Okla. Diamond Joe's Big White—A strictly new variety. None like it. It is the Earliest and Best. The foliage is very large and handsome. It was bred for most big Bushels, not fancy show points; it grows from thorough seed, thoroughly cured and properly cured and had the most rigid examination. Big Seed Catalog, Free. It sells above all best farm grades. Write for our free catalogues. Address BARTELDES'S SEED HOUSE, Shenandoah, Iowa. J.G. PEPPARD BUYS AND SELLS MILLET, CANE, KAFFIR, POPOCORN, SEED CORN, ALFALFA, TIMOTHY, CLOVER AND ALL KINDS OF FIELD AND GRASS SEEDS HOT to 1117 West 8th, Near Santa Fe St., KANSAS CITY, MO. ACORN BRAND Contains the essential quality necessary to produce profitable crops. Ross Brothers Seed House RATEKIN'S 100BU. OATS Ratekin's Big Banner 100 Bushel White Oats.—The largest, prettiest, whitest oat ever experienced. Grow by side with common sorts they yield 100 bushels per acre where others only yield 60. Samples Mailed Free. Also our Big Illustrated Catalog of farm, stock, and garden seeds. Write today and we will send you our free catalogues. Address RATEKIN'S SEED HOUSE, Shenandoah, Iowa. FIELD, GARDEN AND FLOWER SEEDS Fresh and reliable, they do not disappoint. Have you tried them? If not, send for our free catalogues. We will send you a sample of each kind. Ask for it. High grade Alfalfa, Clover, Timothy, Cane, Millet, Seed Corn, etc. T. LEE ADAMS, 417 Walnut St., Kansas City, Mo. BURPEE'S Seeds Grow! And the Burpee Business Grows! send THE SILVER SALAMANDER of the World's Largest Mail-order Seed Trade! If you ask for it, we shall send you a free copy of our new 1909 Catalogue. We have a lot of well bred selected seed. Write for our free catalogues. J. G. Haney, Mgr., Oswego, Kansas. SEED CORN Hundred Yellow Dust of our growing won and the "Giant" of our seed trade. It is the best corn that has ever been grown and sweeps the year in Kansas corn. We have a lot of well bred selected seed. Write for our free catalogues. J. G. Haney, Mgr., Oswego, Kansas. More Water Then delivered by an electric pump and sold at 25c per bushel, which is more than is raised by any other pump of the same size in a given season. The "American" Centrifugal Pump It's a simple machine, easily attached to the carting, there is no waste of time or labor in the water in pass. The "American" Centrifugal Pump and the entire machinery is so arranged that it is easy to raise the water to the top of the dam. There's nothing in potato machines up to ASPINWALL EQUIPMENT Write for our free book telling how to make money growing potatoes. ASPINWALL MFG. CO. 4448 Baldwin St., Jackson, Mich., U.S.A. Pioneer Makers of Potato Machinery Neglected Roadsides, Lawn, and Orchard I have lately purchased a farm with a mile of neglected roadside on the front and a yard that was once plowed but has gone to weed. You will kindly advise me as to the columns of your paper, as to the best methods of obtaining an attractive lawn and orchard. I would like to know the proper treatment of the old orchard, if possible, and anything to redeem ground of a yellowish clay color, and sticky substance, for which I have no remedy? Also best method of treating a neglected orchard of four hundred apple trees, that was "burned off" a few years ago—not born since? A Subscribers. Crawford County. The proper prescription for a neglected roadside is equal parts of landscape gardening and the practical application of the gospel of good roads. From your description I should say that you have a lot of brush, sumac, briars, buck brush, and big weeds on both sides of the road and a broken wagon track. If not too rough to plow the first way to get that road into good condition is to use enough teams to a good plow to break that road from fence to fence. After that the road is well worn down, the road should be laid out as wide as needed directly to the center and given the ordinary grading. When the grading is done, the spaces between the ditch banks and the fences made up, sow a crop of good grass. This treatment will allow you to use the mower and rollers thus may come up, and the road may thus be kept in sightly condition at a minimum expense. If it is a heavy, loose soil and for more purposes than any other vegetable or fruit that grows. Were it not for the fact that tomato's natural home is the tropics and the long summer's better quality than those grown in the north, it would be a good idea to sow and use under various conditions. It can be used for many things and for more purposes than any other vegetable or fruit that grows. Were it not for the fact that tomato's natural home is the tropics and the long summer's better quality than those grown in the north, it would be a good idea to sow and use under various conditions. There are several distinct types of tomatoes with different qualities being grown some one of the other. We are more interested in the general commercial type of tomato, but think what makes one variety satisfactory in one locality would not be so profitable for one us for another, less desirable. The reason has much to do with the productiveness of various varieties. That being true we must study our local conditions and plant that which is best suited. When you go to buy tomato seed you have an almost endless list of varieties to select from. They vary in length of season, shape, color, size, and flavor. We must also remember that local conditions are very particular regarding some of these points, and demand certain characteristics which the grower must consider. In some sections find it very profitable to grow Earlianns with me it would be a waste of time and money. They are productive on my land but its color and quality does not suit our market, and therefore I cannot not buy it if anything better is offered. We grow for Champion Tomatoes early, but not for long, as its season is short and after a few pickings the balance of the crop it too small to be worth while. We have found for us as early season as plum ripe tomatoes are far better. We have tried many varieties and have never find any that give the satisfaction of Beauty and Acme for general market purposes. The color seems to be right; they are very productive and have a long fruit season. However, if we were growing for canning factory, we would cut out Acme and grow Stone. Some growers find Matchless a favorite, a very satisfactory tomato. We have not tried it. Matchless is productive but immature and not a good color until ripe dead. The Globe is not worth growing in our section unless we have tried it for two seasons and find it of poor color, it rots badly, has a hard core, is a poor seller and as the picker's hands are likely to be injured it is not highly named for shape. The early market is when counts for factory uses. We have a great production in December by plowing. About the first of March, we have our first planting of tomato in the greenhouse and keep the temperature so they will not grow too fast. When the plants are about four to six inches high we transplant to the cold frame, plant them deep, and water just enough to keep them growing nicely until ready to WHO! WAIT A MINUTE while we call your attention to the thesles of stallions that we are offering for sale. They consist of fifty-five head of PERCHERONS, SHIRES, BELGIANS, AND GERMAN COACHERS. Stallions second to none in the WEST and at prices that cannot be duplicated. breeding and raising of horses considered. They are the low down, blocky type of stallions without plenty of bone, style and action. All the fashionable colors. Our COACH stallions cannot be duplicated by any importing firm in the West. In fact every one is showing signs and is to be put in the head at any stud. During the past week we have sold over fifteen head of stallions. This should be proof to any prospective buyer that we have the goods as advertised as we sold stallions to many parties who have had a reputation of other importing firms. Call and inspect our horses before buying. We give a 60 per cent guarantee, also furnish life insurance if desired. Write for our catalog. Watson, Woods Bros. & Kelly Co., Lincoln, Neb. FOR QUICK SALE Two black Percheron Stallions, 4 years old. Sound every way. Priced to sell quick. Come or write today. LEE BROS., Harveyville, Kansas FULL SIZE BLADE One Man Machine The blade is 1/2 in. long, of best steel. Has no side draft. In order to demonstrate its ability, the blade is SHINING ON TRIAL For building and care of roads, ditches, levees, etc. The Simplex Russell is a wonder in the handling of earth. SIMPLEX RUSSELL Reversible Road Machine Built on same standard lines necessary road machine; simple in construction, easy to handle, and economical. Will work in one team with one team thus saving time and labor. It will work in one team with one team thus saving time and labor. It will work in one team with one team thus saving time and labor. It will work in one team with one team thus saving time and labor. RUSSELL GRADER MFG. CO. 2442 University Ave. S.E. Minneapolis, Minn. OTTO WEISS CHICK FEED The best Feed for Baby Chicks. It's cheap, because it saves the Chicks. Thousands have tried it, why don't you? We have the largest and finest Alfalfa Stock and Nursery Feed Plants in the world. Wholesale Poultry Supplies, Cotton-Oil and Linseed Oil meal. Send for Circular and Prices. The Otto Weiss Alfalfa Stock Food Company WICHITA, KANSAS Jack and Jennet Sale Wednesday, March 3, 1909 21 head of jacks, from colts up and from 14 to 16 hands high. 12 jennets, all ages. An extra well bred of all black jacks and jennets. Jacks weighing up to 1,100 pounds and jennets as good as the best. Come to this sale. We can please you. Mention Kansas Farmer and address PETTY BROS., Sedalia, Mo. Banner Stud Farm, Cawker City, Ks. Home of registered imported and American Standard Percherons. Four mares from 5 to 7 years old. Two imported mares two years old. Bred and weigh 335. Four mares from 5 to 7 and two American bred fillies. The above offer is exceptionally good and will be priced worth the money. Farm John town, 8 miles west of Cawker here in the market. Write for full details. E. N. WOODBURY. Public sale Poland-Chinae, February 18, 1909, on farm, 4 miles southwest Tonganoxie. Fourteen brood sows, every one a good breeder. Twenty-six head fall gilts and boars. This young stuff is good but in plain flesh and will be useful to grow out. My catalogs are now ready. G. W. ALLEN, Tonganoxie, Kan. PURE-BRED Duroc Jersey Sale 40 Bred Sows and Gilts Sale to be held at farm near Danville, Kan., Monday, February 15, 1909 20 Spring Gilts and 20 Tried Breed Sows, the Large Roomy Kind, regular breeders and not cots individuals. Everything sold under a guarantee and from breeding as Buddy KTV—Sharon Wonder by Missouri Wonder—Gold Standard by Gold Cloud—Martha's Pride by McPride—Silk Wonder III by old Silk Wonder Top Notch by Top Notch. All are well grown out, with plenty of size and length, some of them very fancy. Send for catalog and come to sale—if you can not come send bid to O. W. Devine, field man for Kansas Farmer. AUCTIONEERS—Laf's Burger, Wellington, Kan.; J. W. Rothford, Wellington, Kan. Farm 3 miles from Argonia, Kan. H. E. FISHER, DANVILLE, KANSAS The Banner Riding Attachment Will fit on any right or left hand steel beam plow or linter. No need to remove middle break or harrow. ALL OF THE TIME SAME ATTACHMENT. A wrench all the way around the beam operated by levers, same as regular adjustable plow. Can be adjusted to draft from 10 to 12 inches wide, or 12 to 18 inches width. Ultra point out of the ground for cutting grass. No castings and steel; no wood or hard castings. All steel. 10 inch front tire, 1½ inch oval tire, 1¼ inch solid steel wheel. All parts made of the best material used throughout. Weight 100 lbs. Will pull any team to stay in as hard ground and do as good work as any other plow. WE GUARANTEE to HURT ONE. WE WANT AGENTS, and prefer men who use plows. Write for the agency and get our SPECIAL PRICE LIST. THE IMPLEMENT & MANUFACTURING CO., Coffeyville, Kansas CLOVER Iowa Grown, Tested, Guaranteed Pure Now is the time to plant clover large for the year. Our prices extremely low, quality the choice. Large stock Alfalfa and all grass seed. Send for our catalog today. We are selling free. K. A. BERRY SEED CO., Box 306, Clarinda, Iowa WE GROW TREES OF QUALITY | Genuine Speciosa Catalpa Regarding Speciosa Catalpa refer you to Albert Dickens of State Agricultural College, Manhattan 150,000 to 12 in. specimens $1.00 each. $10.00 per M 50,000 to 12 in. specimens $1.00 each. $5.00 per M 375,000 No. 1 Clump Hedger, $1.00 each. $10.00 per M 100,000 No. 2 Clump Hedger, $1.00 each. $5.00 per M Plant Osage Hedge and Speciosa Catalpa in Groves for Post and Fence Protection. J. Moncrief, Pres. & Sec'y. E. B. Moncrief, Vice Pres. W. H. Simon, Sec'y-Treas. Weight paid on orders of $10 and larger cash with order. Write for catalog and special one year apple prices. SEEDS THIS IS FREE Write today for our list of all kinds of Garden Seeds. We give you this Beautifully Printed Color Pamphlet and Seed Catalog. Get our prices on Seed Peasants, Peas, Beans, Peppers and other Vegetable Seeds. Lowest prices. Best stock. Write for our Seed Potatoes, Onion Sets, Seed Corn and all. Lowest prices. Best stock. Write for our catalog. GATES PRODUCE CO., 54-452 N. 10th St. At Ave., Topeka, Kansas. Mention this paper.
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An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact among themselves and also with the surrounding physical environment. Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a large forest or a sea. Many ecologists regard the entire biosphere as a global ecosystem, as a composite of all local ecosystems on Earth. Since this system is too much big and complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient to divide it into two basic categories, namely terrestrial and aquatic. Forest, grassland and desert are some examples of terrestrial ecosystems; pond, lake, wetland, river and estuary are some examples of aquatic ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium may also be considered as man-made ecosystems. We will first look at the structure of the ecosystem, in order to appreciate the input (productivity), transfer of energy (food chain/web, nutrient cycling) and the output (degradation and energy loss). We will also look at the relationships – cycles, chains, webs – that are created as a result of these energy flows within the system and their inter-relationship. 12.1 Ecosystem – Structure and Function In earlier classes, you have looked at the various components of the environment—abiotic and biotic. You studied how the individual biotic and abiotic factors affected each other and their surroundings. Let us look at these components in a more integrated manner and see how the flow of energy takes place within these components of the ecosystem. Interaction of biotic and abiotic components results in a physical structure that is characteristic for each type of ecosystem. Identification and enumeration of plant and animal species of an ecosystem gives its species composition. Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels is called stratification. For example, trees occupy top vertical strata or layer of a forest, shrubs the second and herbs and grasses occupy the bottom layers. The components of the ecosystem are seen to function as a unit when you consider the following aspects: (i) Productivity; (ii) Decomposition; (iii) Energy flow; and (iv) Nutrient cycling. To understand the ethos of an aquatic ecosystem let us take a small pond as an example. This is fairly a self-sustainable unit and rather simple example that explains even the complex interactions that exist in an aquatic ecosystem. A pond is a shallow water body in which all the above mentioned four basic components of an ecosystem are well exhibited. The abiotic component is the water with all the dissolved inorganic and organic substances and the rich soil deposit at the bottom of the pond. The solar input, the cycle of temperature, day-length and other climatic conditions regulate the rate of function of the entire pond. The autotrophic components include the phytoplankton, some algae and the floating, submerged and marginal plants found at the edges. The consumers are represented by the zooplankton, the free swimming and bottom dwelling forms. The decomposers are the fungi, bacteria and flagellates especially abundant in the bottom of the pond. This system performs all the functions of any ecosystem and of the biosphere as a whole, i.e., conversion of inorganic into organic material with the help of the radiant energy of the sun by the autotrophs; consumption of the autotrophs by heterotrophs; decomposition and mineralisation of the dead matter to release them back for reuse by the autotrophs, these events are repeated over and over again. There is unidirectional movement of energy towards the higher trophic levels and its dissipation and loss as heat to the environment. 12.2 Productivity A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement for any ecosystem to function and sustain. Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by plants during photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (gm$^{-2}$) or energy (kcal m$^{-2}$). The rate of biomass production is called **productivity**. It is expressed in terms of gm$^{-2}$ yr$^{-1}$ or (kcal m$^{-2}$) yr$^{-1}$ to compare the productivity of different ecosystems. It can be divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). **Gross primary productivity** of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is utilised by plants in respiration. Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R), is the **net primary productivity** (NPP). \[ \text{GPP} - \text{R} = \text{NPP} \] Net primary productivity is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs (herbivores and decomposers). **Secondary productivity** is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers. Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a particular area. It also depends on a variety of environmental factors, availability of nutrients and photosynthetic capacity of plants. Therefore, it varies in different types of ecosystems. The annual net primary productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic matter. Of this, despite occupying about 70 per cent of the surface, the productivity of the oceans are only 55 billion tons. Rest of course, is on land. *Discuss the main reason for the low productivity of ocean with your teacher.* ### 12.3 Decomposition You may have heard of the earthworm being referred to as the farmer’s ‘friend’. This is so because they help in the breakdown of complex organic matter as well as in loosening of the soil. Similarly, decomposers break down complex organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients and the process is called **decomposition**. Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of animals, including fecal matter, constitute **detritus**, which is the raw material for decomposition. The important steps in the process of decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and mineralisation. **Detritivores** (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles. This process is called **fragmentation**. By the process of **leaching**, water-soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get precipitated as unavailable salts. Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances. This process is called as **catabolism**. It is important to note that all the above steps in decomposition operate simultaneously on the detritus (Figure 12.1). Humification and mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil. **Humification** leads to accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance called **humus** that is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate. Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients. The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients occur by the process known as **mineralisation**. Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process. The rate of decomposition is controlled by chemical composition of detritus and climatic factors. In a particular climatic condition, decomposition rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin, and quicker, if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars. Temperature and soil moisture are the most important climatic factors that regulate decomposition through their effects on the activities of soil microbes. Warm and moist environment favour decomposition whereas low temperature and anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition resulting in build up of organic materials. 12.4 ENERGY FLOW Except for the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem, sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on Earth. Of the incident solar radiation less than 50 per cent of it is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). We know that plants and photosynthetic bacteria (autotrophs), fix Sun’s radiant energy to make food from simple inorganic materials. Plants capture only 2–10 per cent of the PAR and this small amount of energy sustains the entire living world. So, it is very important to know how the solar energy captured by plants flows through different organisms of an ecosystem. All organisms are dependent for their food on producers, either directly or indirectly. So you find unidirectional flow of energy from the sun to producers and then to consumers. *Is this in keeping with the first law of thermodynamics?* Further, ecosystems are not exempt from the Second Law of thermodynamics. They need a constant supply of energy to synthesise the molecules they require, to counteract the universal tendency toward increasing disorderliness. The green plant in the ecosystem are called **producers**. In a terrestrial ecosystem, major producers are herbaceous and woody plants. Likewise, producers in an aquatic ecosystem are various species like phytoplankton, algae and higher plants. You have read about the food chains and webs that exist in nature. Starting from the plants (or producers) food chains or rather webs are formed such that an animal feeds on a plant or on another animal and in turn is food for another. The chain or web is formed because of this interdependency. No energy that is trapped into an organism remains in it for ever. The energy trapped by the producer, hence, is either passed on to a consumer or the organism dies. Death of organism is the beginning of the detritus food chain/web. All animals depend on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food needs. They are hence called **consumers** and also heterotrophs. If they feed on the producers, the plants, they are called primary consumers, and if the animals eat other animals which in turn eat the plants (or their produce) they are called secondary consumers. Likewise, you could have tertiary consumers too. Obviously the primary consumers will be **herbivores**. Some common herbivores are insects, birds and mammals in terrestrial ecosystem and molluscs in aquatic ecosystem. The consumers that feed on these herbivores are carnivores, or more correctly **primary carnivores** (though secondary consumers). Those animals that depend on the primary carnivores for food are labelled **secondary carnivores**. A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted below: Grass → Goat → Man (Producer) (Primary Consumer) (Secondary consumer) The **detritus food chain** (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is made up of **decomposers**, which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria. They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are also known as **saprotrophs** (*sapro*: to decompose). Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown dead and waste materials into simple, inorganic materials, which are subsequently absorbed by them. In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow. As against this, in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows through the detritus food chain than through the GFC. Detritus food chain may be connected with the grazing food chain at some levels: some of the organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC animals, and in a natural ecosystem, some animals like cockroaches, crows, etc., are omnivores. These natural interconnection of food chains make it a **food web**. *How would you classify human beings!* Organisms occupy a place in the natural surroundings or in a community according to their feeding relationship with other organisms. Based on the source of their nutrition or food, organisms occupy a specific place in the food chain that is known as their **trophic level**. Producers belong to the first trophic level, herbivores (primary consumer) to the second and carnivores (secondary consumer) to the third (Figure 12.2). ![Diagrammatic representation of trophic levels in an ecosystem](image) *Figure 12.2 Diagrammatic representation of trophic levels in an ecosystem* The important point to note is that the amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. When any organism dies it is converted to detritus or dead biomass that serves as an energy source for decomposers. Organisms at each trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level for their energy demands. Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called as the standing crop. The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area. The biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight. Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is more accurate. Why? The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as the transfer of energy follows 10 per cent law – only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level. In nature, it is possible to have so many levels – producer, herbivore, primary carnivore, secondary carnivore in the grazing food chain (Figure 12.3). Do you think there is any such limitation in a detritus food chain? ![Figure 12.3 Energy flow through different trophic levels](image) ### 12.5 Ecological Pyramids You must be familiar with the shape of a pyramid. The base of a pyramid is broad and it narrows towards the apex. One gets a similar shape, whether you express the food or energy relationship between organisms. at different trophic levels. This relationship is expressed in terms of number, biomass or energy. The base of each pyramid represents the producers or the first trophic level while the apex represents tertiary or top level consumer. The three types of ecological pyramids that are usually studied are (a) pyramid of number; (b) pyramid of biomass and (c) pyramid of energy. For detail (see Figure 12.4 a, b, c and d). **Trophic level** - **TC (Tertiary consumer)**: 3 - **SC (Secondary consumer)**: 3,54,000 - **PC (Primary consumer)**: 708,000 - **P (Producer)**: 5,842,000 **Figure 12.4 (a)** Pyramid of numbers in a grassland ecosystem. Only three top-carnivores are supported in an ecosystem based on production of nearly 6 millions plants. **Trophic level** - **TC**: 1.5 - **SC**: 11 - **PC**: 37 - **P**: 809 **Figure 12.4 (b)** Pyramid of biomass shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels. **Figure 12.4 (c)** Inverted pyramid of biomass—small standing crop of phytoplankton supports large standing crop of zooplankton. Any calculations of energy content, biomass or numbers, has to include all organisms at that trophic level. No generalisations we make will be true if we take only a few individuals at any trophic level into account. Also a given organism may occupy more than one trophic level simultaneously. One must remember that the trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such. A given species may occupy more than one trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time; for example, a sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats seeds, fruits, peas, and a secondary consumer when it eats insects and worms. *Can you work out how many trophic levels human beings function at in a food chain?* In most ecosystems, all the pyramids, of number, of energy and biomass are upright, i.e., producers are more in number and biomass than the herbivores, and herbivores are more in number and biomass than the carnivores. Also energy at a lower trophic level is always more than at a higher level. There are exceptions to this generalisation: If you were to count the number of insects feeding on a big tree what kind of pyramid would you get? Now add an estimate of the number of small birds depending on the insects, as also the number of larger birds eating the smaller. Draw the shape you would get. The pyramid of biomass in sea is generally inverted because the biomass of fishes far exceeds that of phytoplankton. *Isn’t that a paradox? How would you explain this?* Pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be inverted, because when energy flows from a particular trophic level to the next trophic level, some energy is always lost as heat at each step. Each bar in the energy pyramid indicates the amount of energy present at each trophic level in a given time or annually per unit area. However, there are certain limitations of ecological pyramids such as it does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels. It assumes a simple food chain, something that almost never exists in nature; it does not accommodate a food web. Moreover, saprophytes are not given any place in ecological pyramids even though they play a vital role in the ecosystem. **SUMMARY** An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of nature and it comprises abiotic and biotic components. Abiotic components are inorganic materials—air, water and soil, whereas biotic components are producers, consumers and decomposers. Each ecosystem has characteristic physical structure resulting from interaction amongst abiotic and biotic components. Species composition and stratification are the two main structural features of an ecosystem. Based on source of nutrition every organism occupies a place in an ecosystem. Productivity, decomposition, energy flow, and nutrient cycling are the four important components of an ecosystem. Primary productivity is the rate of capture of solar energy or biomass production of the producers. It is divided into two types: gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). Rate of capture of solar energy or total production of organic matter is called as GPP. NPP is the remaining biomass or the energy left after utilisation of producers. Secondary productivity is the rate of assimilation of food energy by the consumers. In decomposition, complex organic compounds of detritus are converted to carbon dioxide, water and inorganic nutrients by the decomposers. Decomposition involves three processes, namely fragmentation of detritus, leaching and catabolism. Energy flow is unidirectional. First, plants capture solar energy and then, food is transferred from the producers to decomposers. Organisms of different trophic levels in nature are connected to each other for food or energy relationship forming a food chain. The storage and movement of nutrient elements through the various components of the ecosystem is called nutrient cycling; nutrients are repeatedly used through this process. Nutrient cycling is of two types—gaseous and sedimentary. Atmosphere or hydrosphere is the reservoir for the gaseous type of cycle (carbon), whereas Earth’s crust is the reservoir for sedimentary type (phosphorus). Products of ecosystem processes are named as ecosystem services, e.g., purification of air and water by forests. **EXERCISES** 1. Fill in the blanks. (a) Plants are called as _______ because they fix carbon dioxide. (b) In an ecosystem dominated by trees, the pyramid (of numbers) is________ type. (c) In aquatic ecosystems, the limiting factor for the productivity is_________. (d) Common detritivores in our ecosystem are_______. (e) The major reservoir of carbon on earth is________. 2. Which one of the following has the largest population in a food chain? (a) Producers (b) Primary consumers (c) Secondary consumers (d) Decomposers 3. The second trophic level in a lake is (a) Phytoplankton (b) Zooplankton (c) Benthos (d) Fishes 4. Secondary producers are (a) Herbivores (b) Producers (c) Carnivores (d) None of the above 5. What is the percentage of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) in the incident solar radiation? (a) 100% (b) 50 % (c) 1-5% (d) 2-10% 6. Distinguish between (a) Grazing food chain and detritus food chain (b) Production and decomposition (c) Upright and inverted pyramid (d) Food chain and Food web (e) Litter and detritus (f) Primary and secondary productivity 7. Describe the components of an ecosystem. 8. Define ecological pyramids and describe with examples, pyramids of number and biomass. 9. What is primary productivity? Give brief description of factors that affect primary productivity. 10. Define decomposition and describe the processes and products of decomposition. 11. Give an account of energy flow in an ecosystem.
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Contents Chair’s Message ..........................3 Brief History of the Espanola Pulp and Paper Mill ........................................4 A Thin Green Line: The Evolution of Natural Resources Law Enforcement in Ontario ........................................6 Ontario’s Most Famous Ghost Town Might Disappear Soon ...................11 The Impact of the Forest Products and Tourism Industries on the Development of the Bruce Peninsula, 1850-2019: Intro to MA Thesis .......................13 The Trail of White Pine Across the Ocean From Germany to Ontario ......16 Black Walnut: Symbol of Ecological Recovery in Southern Ontario ........19 Sylva Recap......................................24 Renewing Nature’s Wealth ........................................................................28 In Memoriam .................................30 Black Walnut History, White Pine History, Espanola Pulp and Paper Mill History ...and lots more history inside Black walnut furniture, carved by James Beaver, a Mohawk craftsman, in the bedroom of George and Emily Johnson at Chiefswood. Photo by Mary Lou Jorgensen-Bacher. Board of Directors Chair Jim Farrell Vice-Chair Fraser Dunn Past Chair Rob Galloway, R.P.F. (Ret.) Members Faye Johnson, R.P.F. Paul Kallioinen, R.P.F. Bill Thornton Mike Willick, R.P.F. Dolf Wynia Secretary-Treasurer Ruth Hall, Forests Ontario Journal Editor Caroline Mach, R.P.F. Webmaster Sherry Hambly Contact Information Forest History Society of Ontario 144 Front Street West, Suite 700 Toronto, ON M5J 2L7 416-493-4565 or 800-387-0790 Fax: 416-493-4608 Web Site: www.ontarioforesthistory.ca Facebook Site: www.facebook.com/forest.history.society.of.ontario General Email Address: firstname.lastname@example.org Journal Editor Caroline Mach, R.P.F.; email@example.com Webmaster Sherry Hambly; firstname.lastname@example.org Request for Content Do you have an interesting story to tell about some aspect of forest history in Ontario? Or are you prepared to write an article for the newsletter on some aspect of forest history? Do you know of interesting photographs, documents, web sites or other items that would be suitable for inclusion in the newsletter? If so, please contact the editor to discuss the possibility of publishing your information in the newsletter. Please provide your comments to the editor on items or themes you would like to see in the newsletter. Copyright and Use Permissions It is the author’s responsibility to ensure that copyright ownership is acknowledged and appropriate use permissions have been obtained and are acknowledged for all materials published in this document. Reprint Permission Requests to use material published in Forestry should be directed to the Editor at email@example.com. Welcome to *Forestory* Volume 12, Issue 1, our Spring 2021 edition. I think we are all hoping for a much better year than the last one and while uncertainty remains, many of the signs are looking positive. As of March, I was honoured to be named Chair of the FHSO and thank our previous Chair, Rob Galloway, R.P.F. (Ret.), and past Chair, Mark Kuhlberg, for all their dedicated work to advance the interests of the Society. Given the meeting constraints we faced due to the pandemic we experimented with a virtual format for our March 18 AGM on ZOOM and added a panel of speakers. Moderated by new Board Member Bill Thornton, the panel included Rob Keen, R.P.F., President and CEO of Forests Ontario, Lacey Rose, R.P.F., County Forester for Renfrew and co-founder of Women in Wood, and Art Groot, retired scientist and forest historian living in Sault Ste Marie. Their presentations are posted on our website. We had a record attendance of 47 join our meeting, suggesting that in future we will need to build in a virtual component to entice participation. At the business session of the AGM, members heard about our bold new plans to rejuvenate the Society starting with a transition to a working Board whereby Board Members take a hands-on role in various aspects of the administration and operation of the Society. The two priorities for the Board going forward are: increasing revenues and memberships; and updating and enhancing our online presence, including social media. The latter is an essential component of driving the former priority. While we will be exploring opportunities to strengthen the value of the Society, *Forestory* will continue to be the centrepiece of our engagement with members. I encourage all of us to contribute articles and stories for our journal and post freely and often on our social media accounts. **Facebook** http://www.facebook.com/forest.history.society.of.ontario **Twitter** https://twitter.com/FHSOntario **We want to hear from you!** If you have articles, photographs or images, interesting facts, web links, personal reflections or events that would be suitable for this newsletter, please contact Caroline Mach, R.P.F. at firstname.lastname@example.org. Deadlines are April 1 and October 1. Some of my earliest childhood memories can be traced back to travelling with my father (Paul Kallioinen, R.P.F.) through the woodyards of the Espanola Paper Mill. Early on, I realized the substantial importance of the industry; the thousands of people who rely on forestry and the forest sector in Ontario to put food on their tables and clothes on their backs. Espanola was the cornerstone of my childhood, and the town to which I owe some of my fondest memories. The Espanola Pulp and Paper Mill has been around for over a century, and is critical to understanding the history of Espanola, and the forest industry in Ontario as a whole. The origins of the first mill operations in the Espanola area can be traced back to 1899, whereby the Espanola Agreement was signed between the Ontario Government and the newly-formed Spanish River Pulp and Paper Company. The agreement outlined the construction of a new mill to employ close to 300 people (in an area then known colloquially as “Webbwood Falls”), and gave the company jurisdiction to run new logging operations in a nearly 5,600 km$^2$ area of Northern Ontario wilderness. By the end of the next decade a town site had been constructed along the Spanish River, and become home to a small community of millwrights, construction workers, and loggers operating in the area. The town became host to the 1910 Spanish River derailment disaster, in which a passenger train carrying approximately 100 people crashed just west of what is now Nairn Centre, resulting in over 40 deaths and one of the worst disasters in the history of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Despite early tragedy the fledgling town site continued to grow, attracting large numbers of migrants from Quebec and Ontario’s Francophone communities who settled south of company jurisdiction in what became known as “Frenchtown”. Following a period of economic boom after the First World War, a trunk road was constructed by the then-Department of Northern Development (now Ministry of Transportation) linking Espanola to Sudbury and Sault Ste. Marie, as well as a route heading South to Manitoulin Island through Espanola which would become known as Highway 68 (later Highway 6). The mill was purchased by the Abitibi Power and Paper Company in 1927. After subsequent financial struggles during the Great Depression, the mill site was forced to close and was abandoned by the early 1930s. The town continued to host a few residents (mostly rural farmers) but was for all practical purposes a ghost town for nearly two decades. The mill site found new life as a P.O.W. camp for captured German and Italian soldiers following the outbreak of the Second World War, some of whom painted a world map on the mill site’s walls which can still be seen today. Towards the end of the war, negotiations began between the Provincial Government of Mitchell Hepburn and the Kalamazoo Vegetable Parchment Company to revitalize the mill site as part of a northern employment initiative. By 1943, Kalamazoo Vegetable Parchment Company had resumed operations at the mill site under the KVP company. From then on, Espanola would become a centre for kraft paper production in Northern Ontario. Throughout the 1950s the town continued to boom, boasting a population of over 5,000 and a mill which employed hundreds. of workers. Despite this, the KVP company came under scrutiny for environmental mismanagement, at one point a lawsuit directed at the company was appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada, although this was never recognized. The townsite itself came under the administration of the Espanola Development Company, a subsidiary of KVP which oversaw the incorporation of “Frenchtown” by the early 1950s. (By that point, much of Frenchtown was still without basic services such as electricity or drinking water.) By 1958, the town was incorporated as a formal municipality, and jurisdiction was placed under the authority of a municipal council which continues to run Espanola today. By 1966, the KVP mill was bought by Brown Forest Industries (a subdivision of Gulf and Western) and eventually sold to the Hull-based E. B. Eddy Company in 1969. E.B. Eddy oversaw the Espanola Mill (in addition to those in Sault Ste. Marie, Timmins, Elk Lake, Chapleau and Ostrom). The latter half of the 20th century saw Espanola continue to thrive as a mill town, and saw the construction of a brand new hospital facility and sewage treatment plant by the late 1980s. During this time, early efforts began to clean up much of the Spanish River’s water pollution, which had been left relatively unregulated by the Ontario government up to this point. Awareness of the cause was made clear by an incident in the early 1980s whereby large quantities of effluent discharged into the Spanish River, killing thousands of local fish. From that point on, the Espanola Mill has made notable efforts to reduce its environmental impact and contribute to the ecological sustainability of Northern Ontario. The area west of the mill’s hydro dam and rail bridge along the river has been designated a fish sanctuary ever since. By the 1990s, the modern vision of Espanola began to take hold. E.B. Eddy was purchased by Domtar Corp. in 1998 and subsequently took over operations of the Espanola Mill. Espanola saw the construction of its modern Recreation Complex in 1999, and the development of a large retail zone south of town by the early 2000s. Today, the town boasts a population of just shy of 5,000 people, and significant investments in infrastructure have brought hope for an even brighter future for the over 120-year old pulp and paper mill. The modern Domtar facility in Espanola provides over 500 jobs to residents, and remains the single-largest employer in the Espanola area. The mill produces 300,000 admt of kraft pulp in addition to 69,000 short tons of paper annually. It creates over 200 grades of technical and specialty papers. The mill has an estimated economic impact of $694 million CAD on the wider Northern Ontarian economy, and last year alone donated nearly $40,000 to local community organizations. The modern community of Espanola owes much of its existence to the Espanola Pulp and Paper Mill, and its significance in the economic development of Northern Ontario cannot be understated. The mill serves as a reminder to families such as my own of the important role the forest industry plays in our history and our communities. In the beginning, or at least, when Europeans first arrived in the New World, this was truly a land of plenty. The forests, lakes and nearshore coastal waters presented what certainly appeared to be an unlimited bounty of fish, wildlife and forest products. But as we went forth and multiplied, consumption began to match, and then outstrip, production. Of necessity, fish and game made up a large portion of early settlers’ diets. Much of the early farming was marginal and fresh produce only available for part of the year. As cities grew, many rural folks derived an income from the sale of fish and game to urban populations. Additional pressures on the resources came from the advent of sport hunting, some of which was carried out in entirely unsporting ways. In the early 1800s, observers commented on how flights of passenger pigeons darkened the skies and vast herds of buffalo ranged far and wide over the great plains. But the extinction of these, and other iconic species became a looming possibility as harvesting continued unchecked. By the end of that century many had all but vanished. The last known passenger pigeon died in 1914. In Canada, the first hint of official concern over the uncontrolled harvest of wildlife came in 1762 when the military governor in Montreal proclaimed the first game law, creating a closed season on ruffed grouse during their mating season. The stiff £5 fine was to be shared equally between the poor in the parish in which the crime took place and whoever turned in the offending hunter. But no one was ever appointed to enforce the law. Forward thinking groups and individuals, the nucleus of a budding conservation movement, began raising the alarm over dwindling fish and wildlife populations during the early 1800s but governments then, as now, tended to act with glacial speed and the first game laws in Upper Canada came with no provision for enforcement. During that era, Ontario enacted various game laws in a piecemeal manner … one law to stop hunting on the Lord’s day, another to set the season for trapping, but placed no limit on numbers of fur bearers that could be trapped. Again, there was no provision for enforcement, although at the time, the province did have “woods rangers” hired to verify wood measurement at logging camps, a function necessary for determining the correct crown stumpage payable. As for meaningful fish or wildlife protection, the federal government was the first out of the gate with a law that had any teeth. The Fisheries Act, with provisions for hiring fisheries overseers, was enacted in the 1850s. But life for the early officers was not easy. They met with frequent violence. while trying to enforce the law in a previously ungoverned fishery. The mutilated body of John Gifford, the officer whose patrol area was Lakes Huron and Superior, was found floating off Manitoulin Island in 1864 after being beaten to death aboard the steamship that was taking him to his next destination. His killers were never brought to justice. Finally, in 1892, the Ontario government got on board and passed the Act for the Protection of Game and Fur Bearing Animals. This new legislation came complete with the provision to hire game overseers, the title eventually evolving to “game warden”. And hire, they did. The first provincial force of game wardens consisted of one chief warden and four paid, part time wardens, plus 392 unpaid deputy wardens whose compensation was to be derived from half of the fine from each successful court conviction. As for the first paid wardens, one can only imagine having responsibility for one quarter of the area of southern Ontario and the settled areas of the near north as your patrol area in an era before bush planes and pickup trucks. John Willmott, for example, had the patrol area that included the Districts of Algoma, Nipissing, Parry Sound and Simcoe County. In the twenty-first century, it would take at least nine hours to hot foot it from one end of that area to the other on modern highways. For $10 per month, the wardens were expected to arm themselves and provide their own transportation. There were no uniforms and no formal training. Upon being hired, they were given several hours of instruction on completing government forms, and then sent to their assigned areas to learn on the job. They did get rail and steamer fares paid and a mileage allowance if they used their own horse, but most patrol was done by canoe or rowboat in the open water seasons and on snowshoes and dog sleds in the winter. For the unpaid deputies, one would think that with the potential for all that fine revenue, they would have made out like bounty hunters, but it didn’t pan out that way. Threats of barn burnings and other personal property damage by irate neighbours tended to dampen their enthusiasm for the job. Only a few put their authority into practice. The original wardens were responsible solely for the protection of game, but they often came on situations of wholesale slaughter of fish, over which they had no authority to act. After protracted jurisdictional wrangling between the provincial and federal governments, the province finally took over fisheries enforcement in 1907 and created the Department of Game and Fisheries. The district wardens, now seven of them, were in charge of protecting both game and fish, provincewide. There were simply far too few wardens to effectively protect the resources they were tasked to do. But it wasn’t until after the First World War that their numbers got a substantial boost. In 1920, the force was increased to sixty full time officers and seven district superintendents. There were still too few officers in an era of increased mobility. City folks began to venture out to vacation in the wilderness in ever growing numbers. And as time passed, the automobile allowed them to hunt and fish even greater distances off the beaten path. Officer numbers continued to grow slowly, but never kept pace with the expanding numbers and reach of the hunting and fishing public. In 1929 the *Game and Fisheries Act* authorized wardens to search aircraft after it became obvious that the rich could fly into remote areas to harvest whatever they wanted, virtually unimpeded by the law. And while Provincial Air Service bush planes gradually became available for enforcement, officers frequently got the short end of the stick. Forest fire spotting and suppression, forest mapping and transporting politicians frequently took precedence. over enforcement. Then, in the midst of the Great Depression, when masses of hungry unemployed pushed wildlife harvests to extremes, the Hepburn government fired all provincial employees, including the 117 game wardens. However, being a game warden is not just a job — it is a calling, and some of the officers kept on working, despite their sudden unemployed status. Fortunately, within a short time, some were rehired, but fish and wildlife populations took a beating all the same. In the early days, the job of the wardens had been strictly one of enforcement, but starting in the period between the wars, they began to be assigned population management roles as well. Fish, pheasant and Hungarian partridge hatcheries started up and the officers became involved in stocking programs and population surveys as well as promoting wise use of the resources through connections with game and fish clubs. In 1946 the Department of Game and Fisheries was merged with the provincial forestry agency to become the Department of Lands and Forests. Fish and wildlife management continued to play an increasing role in the duties of the wardens, but not all wardens were pleased with the evolution. An interesting reverse reaction has taken place among conservation officers of the late twentieth/early twenty-first century era where some are not pleased with the swing back toward the sole role of enforcement. The first wardens’ uniforms showed up in the early 1930s and strongly resembled those of commissioned officers of the Canadian Army in World War One. And in the late 1930s, wardens were issued .32 calibre revolvers and handcuffs, but the revolvers were recalled in 1946 by a senior department bureaucrat who felt that post-war Canadian society would respect the authority of unarmed officers. Not long after, though, the officers were rearmed with .38 calibre revolvers. Aside from a model change along the way, Smith and Wesson .38s were the standard sidearm until 1994 when the early nineteenth century technology was set aside in favour of more modern semiautomatic pistols. Ontario game wardens were officially given the title Conservation Officer in 1948, but old habits die hard, and by many of the folks they serve, they are still called game wardens, among other titles — some not so complimentary. As mentioned above, in the early years, other than several hours of form filling indoctrination, training was nonexistent. New hires were required to be ‘gentlemen of good character and strong physique’ and accustomed to life on the land. Upgraded training was the subject of a number of studies and reports over the years, but Government, being what it is, left them shelved until an influx of World War Two veterans returned home to take up jobs promised before they joined the war effort. In 1946 the Ontario Forest Ranger School at Dorset ran its first thirty-three-week diploma course, followed by specific courses in law enforcement and fish and wildlife management. By the time I began my CO career in 1975, a three-week law enforcement course at the Ontario Police College in Aylmer had been in operation for just over a decade. That, plus my two-year college diploma was pretty much the minimum standard required to become a conservation officer. It is interesting to note, however, that on our last day at Aylmer, the director of Enforcement Branch came and told us that he hoped we had benefitted from our time at the police college, but we should put aside the police tactics we learned and remember that we were the Ministry’s ambassadors with the public. All of that police stuff wasn’t really what we do. Of course, what we graduates drew from that rousing pep talk was that COs were a quasi-military force within a civilian agency that was, at least in part, uncomfortable with our presence. Despite such attitudes, a great deal of progress has been made since the 1970s. Using my own experience as an example, when I was issued my first revolver in 1975, my supervisor, a biologist with no enforcement background, uncomfortably pushed a box toward me, across his desk with one finger. “This is for you,” he said. “Don’t shoot anybody. Go and see the OPP sergeant. They are qualifying next week.” We shot, standing like a row of swordsmen, one hand on your hip, revolver in the other, at targets fifteen and twenty-five yards away. I qualified, but I never felt truly confident carrying a revolver until the training improved in subsequent years. When we converted to the semi-automatic pistols, five years before I retired, the training was topnotch, provided by our own COs, using the police level standards they had been trained to. Before the reader jumps to the conclusion that Ontario COs have become a bunch of hired gunslingers, it must be understood that in an era of dwindling respect for law enforcement, conservation officers are trained simultaneously in verbal de-escalation as well as non-lethal use of force techniques. And with all our advanced training combined, one can be assured that an officer, confident in his or her ability to handle a confrontation, is far less likely to have the situation go badly than it might have back in the days of “Don’t shoot anybody.” **Times Have Changed** The first five Ontario game wardens were responsible for the enforcement of the one law, the 1892 Act for the Protection of Game and Fur Bearing Animals. Over the years, additional laws have been passed that added to the responsibilities of our conservation officers. Now they are responsible for twenty-seven various natural resource and outdoor recreation-related provincial and federal statutes. In the beginning, the job was strictly law enforcement. In the middle years, wildlife management made up an increasing part of an officer’s workload. Now, in the twenty-first century, COs are largely back to straight law enforcement duties. The pendulum has swung both ways. Over the last fifty years, three different Ontario political parties have taken turns in power, each running the Ministry of Natural Resources, once the crown jewel of Ontario government agencies, further into the ground. But despite the repeated abuse, Enforcement Branch has retained much of its pre-belt tightening strength. There are currently 184 field officers working under the direction of 30 managers. When I took my first CO position in Moosonee in 1975, there were no female conservation officers in Ontario. Our first woman CO came onstream around 1980. Now there are 17. Two of them are managers and one is in an advisory position. As mentioned earlier, being a CO is not just a job, it is a calling. Looking over a list of current conservation officers, a number of familiar family names stand out. That calling has been passed down to the sons and daughters of a surprising number of the officers from my generation. In the beginning, there were close to four hundred unpaid deputy COs. The numbers have varied through the generations, but while some deputies actively contributed to the enforcement program with great results, many others added nothing. Twelve active badge carrying deputies currently remain on the roster. In my day, COs worked for MNR Districts, under a lengthy chain of command that included levels of managers and directors with no enforcement background. Now, field COs work in one of twenty Enforcement Units across the province which report directly to Enforcement Branch in a command chain less than half that of the old system. At the same time, Enforcement Branch has evolved into a professional law enforcement agency with capabilities and standards equivalent to many much larger police forces. And in order to be more compatible with like enforcement agencies, positions beyond field level COs are given police style ranks of Sergeant, Staff Sergeant, Staff Superintendent, Deputy Chief and Chief in addition to their traditional MNRF job titles. COs working in Intelligence and Investigations Services (equivalent to a police Major Case Unit) are designated as Detectives. As professional as the organization may now be, it is still one terribly thin green line — there are only 214 enforcement personnel to protect our natural resources in a province where the human population is watched over by more than 25,000 police personnel. L-R: Al Bieck (Pilot), Doug Hyde and Mike Thede to count fish huts on Lake Simcoe Submitted by Retiree Mike Thede David G. Ferguson is a retired Ontario Conservation Officer and Novelist. His career with the Department of Lands and Forests and Ministry of Natural Resources ran from 1970 to 1999 (the first five years as an active Deputy CO). His novels are inspired by, though not based on, his career, training and life’s experiences. His books are available on Amazon in paperback and Kindle editions. Contact: email@example.com Located about four hours east of Toronto, the town of Balaclava has rightfully earned its place in Canadian ghost town lore. Here’s a look at its fascinating history. Ontario is home to more than 200 ghost towns, but few are as famous as Balaclava. Situated in Renfrew County in Eastern Ontario, the site is well-known for its rundown sawmill, which sits along a shallow river and is surrounded by rotting tree logs, pieces of machinery and wagon wheels. Intrigued visitors can find this town on Scott Bush Road, just north of the community of Dacre. Unsurprisingly, Balaclava has for years been a favourite destination for urban explorers and photographers alike. “There are a couple reasons for the appeal of ghost towns,” says Ontario historian and author Ron Brown. “They recall those days of yore when we saw those tumbleweed ghost towns in cowboy movies, but to me and others, it’s also the appeal of finding artifacts or just getting the sense that there was once a place here, with people and businesses.” The town takes its name from the Battle of Balaklava, a skirmish during the Crimean War in the 1850s. In its heyday, Balaclava was a flourishing lumber town that produced up to one million board feet of lumber per week. The sawmill at the heart of the community, one of Ontario’s last water-powered mills, was erected in 1855. It was partially destroyed by a fire in 1936 but rebuilt three years later. The structure remains standing to this day, but in such a state of disrepair, it’s best to admire it from afar. Balaclava was also the site of Ontario’s first-ever environmental lawsuit, says Brown. The Richards family bought the sawmill in 1868, but in 1911, they were taken to court when a nearby grist mill complained that the family was disposing too much sawdust into the river. The grist mill won the case, and the Richards were... required to pay $200 U.S. in restitution. The lawsuit also resulted in the addition of a sawdust burner. By the mid-1950s, depleted timber supply in surrounding areas meant the sawmill was only producing a few thousand board feet every year. Soon, it was forced to shut down, along with Balaclava’s general store. (A host of other shops and businesses had already shuttered several years earlier.) Bypassed by railways and with its only industry gone, Balaclava—once home to approximately 200 residents—was abandoned. In the following years, town staples like the general store, blacksmith shop, two hotels and sawmill, either burned down, were dismantled or fell into decay. Brown has been researching Ontario’s ghost towns, railways and unusual attractions for more than 40 years. The 75-year-old Toronto resident first visited Balaclava in the summer of 1996, and then again in August 2018. On his first visit to Balaclava, Brown remembers a lovely row of wooden buildings and houses with still-intact porches lining the main street, describing it at the time as a “classical ghost town.” But on his second visit, he recalls Balaclava’s atmosphere felt more sad than eerie—in contrast with the notion that ghost towns are haunted and hair-raising sites. Balaclava’s crumbling remains are something visitors may want to catch before they’re lost to the elements or rebuilt. In fact, the latter is slowly taking place. The collapsing attachment to the general store, for instance, was torn down and the building made into a hunting camp. “There was an initiative maybe 15 years ago to preserve [the sawmill], but the property owners didn’t want anything to do with that,” says Brown. “We do not have very good heritage preservation standards in this province, so [the sawmill] sits, falling apart.” That’s right: the sawmill is currently privately owned, with reports of threats to demolish it if people continue trespassing. According to Brown, there are also a few occupied homes in the general area of Balaclava. Since the abandoned buildings are still private property, Brown says those who want to visit Balaclava should be mindful. Ask the sawmill’s owner—likely to be found in the nearest building to the mill—for permission first if you want to get a closer look. It also doesn’t hurt to try and strike up conversations with nearby residents, Brown says. “My mission is to encourage people to explore the heritage which is in their own backyards, whether it’s a built heritage like mills or ghost towns, or geological heritage,” he says. “And there’s a lot of that out there too, which is quite fun.” Editor’s Note: Additional information about Balaclava can be found in the following articles in previous issues of *Forestory*: Lemkay, Dave, “Balaclava Water-Powered Sawmill,” *Forestory* 8, no. 2 (2017): 9-10. [http://www.ontarioforesthistory.ca/files/FHSO_journ_vol_8_issue_2_fall_2017.pdf](http://www.ontarioforesthistory.ca/files/FHSO_journ_vol_8_issue_2_fall_2017.pdf). Macfie, John, “The Balaclava Water Mill: The View from Downstream,” *Forestory* 9, no. 1 (2018): 17-18. [http://www.ontarioforesthistory.ca/files/fhso_journ_vol_9_issue_1_2018.pdf](http://www.ontarioforesthistory.ca/files/fhso_journ_vol_9_issue_1_2018.pdf). The Bruce Peninsula was the last wilderness region of substantial size to be opened for settlement in southern Ontario. The relatively late arrival of settlers to the peninsula and its commercial development is paralleled in the limited attention historians have given to the region. At almost the same time as settlers arrived in the 1860s, hoping to create an agricultural economy, commercial lumbering interests turned their attention to the Bruce Peninsula forests. Despite efforts to facilitate settlement alongside lumbering, disputes between the competing interests often arose. Regardless of the antagonism between the two groups, there were also benefits for both. Lumbering attracted ancillary job-creating commercial enterprises such as sawmills, port facilities, shipping companies, and businesses supplying diverse commodities to forestry workers. Settlements located adjacent to rivers and streams that could power the mills, or along the peninsula shoreline where natural harbours provided safe mooring for vessels transporting forest products arose to service these varied commercial and industrial enterprises. This thesis, by tracing the influence of the forest products and tourism industries on the Bruce Peninsula from the mid-19th century to 2019, fills a longstanding historiographic void. Beginning with the impact of the forest products industry, it examines various historical and geographical factors that impacted, both positively and negatively, the peninsula’s development. When the forest industry declined and largely ceased to influence the peninsula’s development, it was supplanted, albeit only gradually, by a focus on tourism that remains central to the Bruce Peninsula’s present-day economic wellbeing. Somewhat ironically, tourism on the peninsula emerged in response to humans being drawn to a natural environment which the forest industry had done much to diminish. The thesis describes the interactions between the forest products industry and predominantly agrarian-based settlers on the Bruce Peninsula and, how competition between these two groups both promoted and hindered economic growth beyond the timber trade. Ultimately the lumbering industry’s ability to dominate the peninsula’s economy dwindled, to be replaced by tourism as the region’s primary economic driver. Tourism’s rise in influence was slower and more fitful than smooth and successful. For at least half a century following the forest industry’s diminution to little more than a cottage industry serving a primarily local market, the tourism industry struggled to flourish. Not until the 1950s and 1960s did sufficient influences align to enable tourism to establish a secure foundation in the region. The history of the Bruce Peninsula is a unique southern Ontario story, as many of the influences on its development were more representative of the experiences of districts in northern Ontario. It was the growth of tourism based on such popular and increasingly accessible activities as shipwreck diving, camping, hiking, and exploring that the Bruce Peninsula’s unique natural setting offers, that would restore and enhance the region’s economic prospects. For instance, in 1987, the federal government created Fathom Five National Marine Park and Bruce Peninsula National Park. Records from fiscal years 1990-91 show a combined visitation of 212,694\(^i\) and records for fiscal years 2018-19 show that combined attendance for the two national parks had grown to 744,035\(^{ii}\). These significant attendance numbers suggest that the economy of the region has grown due to increasing numbers of visitors\(^{iii}\) to the region. The impact of the increase in visitation is reflected in the Stats Canada revenue statement for fiscal year 2017-2018\(^{iv}\) which shows the amount of money spent by Parks Canada on the two parks, $7,875,000, and by visitors to the parks, $121,486,000, for a total of $129,361,000 by 848,199 visitors”. The Bruce Peninsula stretches south from Tobermory to the Lake Huron shoreline town of Southampton. The eastern boundary follows the Georgian Bay coast to the city of Owen Sound. Highway 21 connects the two southern points. The physical geography of the peninsula provided obstacles not only for settlers hoping to farm the region, but also for the implementation of lumbering activities. The Bruce Peninsula is an extension of the Niagara cuesta, which is part of the dolomite saucer that underlies the Michigan basin. The rock strata dips toward the west. The rise in the east “roughly coincides with the Niagara Escarpment which enters the district near Stoney Creek in Saltfleet Township, and runs northward toward Collingwood, later forming the east coast of the Bruce Peninsula.”\textsuperscript{vi} The differences in the physical geography between the eastern and western sections of the peninsula produced diverse species of trees between the two distinct areas. Coniferous trees dominated the Lake Huron or western shore. These woodlands included spruce, cedar, and tamarack in the wetlands, while pines populated the sandy areas. On the eastern or Georgian Bay shoreline, forests consisted mostly of deciduous trees, including maple, elm, oak, ash, and butternut.\textsuperscript{vii} These hardwood trees were the raw resources that supported the creation of many furniture manufacturing industries in the southern reaches of the peninsula. Most of the “Bruce Peninsula consists of shallow soils over limestone bedrock, suitable for grazing and forestry,”\textsuperscript{viii} but for the settlers bent on creating an agricultural income proved to be marginal at best for growing crops in commercially sustainable amounts. Writing in 1952, former University of Western Ontario professor W. Sherwood Fox provided another perspective on the geography of the Bruce Peninsula. He suggested that one need not visit the peninsula to notice its impact on the Great Lakes region. Merely looking at a map would reveal: ... it is a sword that has cleaved a body clean in twain: instead of one lake there are two. From another point of view, it is a spear piercing the very heart of the Great Lakes; yes, the heart, for the point of the blade lies almost halfway between the east end of Lake Ontario and the west end of Superior, very close indeed to the centre of the lake system’s channels of traffic and travel.\textsuperscript{ix} But, Fox continued, “in the eyes of sailors the same land mass may be just a formidable obstacle dropped most inconveniently across routes which would otherwise be short and easy.”\textsuperscript{x} An examination of the works of academic historians\textsuperscript{xi} best-known for their research on the impact of natural resources exploitation on Canada’s pre- and post-Confederation economic development reveals a striking absence of references to the Bruce Peninsula’s forestry history. Similarly, a review of the historiography of the tourism industry reveals not only a dearth of information about the Bruce Peninsula, but also highlights how tourism in general did not attract much scholarly focus until the 1980s when environmental issues rose to the fore in popularity. In short, the historiography reveals the relative lack of attention the Bruce Peninsula has received from scholars, a shortcoming this thesis endeavors to correct in part. Endnotes \textsuperscript{i} Although the two parks had been in operation since 1987, Fathom Five National Marine Park did not have tabulated results until fiscal year 1990–91. \textsuperscript{ii} Parks Canada Attendance (Fiscal Years – April 1 -March 31), 1988–89 – 2018-19. See Appendix “L” \textsuperscript{iii} Visitors are defined by Parks Canada as: “any individual who visits the park/site for the purpose of heritage appreciation during operating hours constitutes one-person visit. Persons re-entering on the same day, and/or persons staying overnight do not constitute new or additional person visits. If a person leaves the site and returns on a subsequent day, this constitutes a new person-visit. This term is used at all national parks and sites in Ontario.” Source: Parks Canada Attendance records. iv Stats Canada report for Fiscal Year 2018-2019 is not available. v Parks Canada, “Economic Impact of Bruce Peninsula National Park and Fathom Five National Marine Park,” Stats Canada report for 2017-2018. vi Department of Lands and Forests, “A History of Lake Huron Forest District,” Ministry of Natural Resources Library, Peterborough, Ontario, 1963, 1. vii L.J. Chapman and D.F. Putnam, *The Physiography of Southern Ontario*, (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973), 267. viii Department of Lands and Forests, “A History of Lake Huron Forest District,” Ministry of Natural Resources Library, Peterborough, Ontario, 1963, 2. ix W. Sherwood Fox, *The Bruce Beckons*, (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1962), xv. x Fox, *Bruce Beckons*, xv. xi These historians include, Harold Adams Innis, Donald Creighton, Arthur Lower, J.M.S. Careless, and H.V. Nelles. The Trail of White Pine Across the Ocean From Germany to Ontario By: Dolf Wynia The role that eastern white pine played in the settlement of Eastern Canada is well known to everyone that has worked in the forest industry. Initially it was the foundation of many of our industries and it was much in demand as an export product. As the qualities of white pine became known in Europe, it was not long before forest owners there wanted to grow it in their forests. Most forests, particularly in Germany were privately owned and replanting after harvest was done with trees grown by privately owned nurseries. Eastern white pine and Douglas fir became favourite species for their forests. One of the key players in the European nursery business was a firm by the name of “J. HEINS’ SOHNE” in Halstenbeck, not far from Hamburg. As well as operating a tree nursery they also ran a forest training school. The institution was probably one of the largest tree nurseries in Europe. In Ontario, Dr. Edmund Zavitz, who in 1908, with the member of provincial parliament Arthur Pratt and local lumberman Walter McCall, had succeeded in getting an Order in Council approved to develop the first Provincial Forestry Station realized that in order to get public support for the nursery enterprise it would be politically wise to start planting trees right away. Zavitz had graduated in forestry from Michigan University and had previously studied at Yale. He was familiar with imports of seedlings from Germany into the United States, so he made arrangements with J.Heins’ Sohne in Germany to ship 350,000 trees to Ontario. In the St. Williams Forest Station files there is an invoice, dated 12th of April 1909 for 200,000 white pine, 100,000 Scotch firs (Scots pine) and 50,000 spruce firs (Norway spruce). The invoice is signed by E.J. Zavitz: “Goods received, prices fair and just, charge to vote 53”. The cost of the 200,000 white pine was 33 British pounds. Packing for the shipment was £15. The trees left Halstenbeck by freighter on April 13 and Zavitz received them on May 14, 1909 at the Ontario Agricultural College in Guelph. The trees had been packed in willow wicker baskets and must have been shipped on to the St. Williams Forest Station by train for the planting, which Zavitz documented with one of his famous posed photographs. No one realized that with the importation of tree seedlings from Germany, most probably North America also imported the white pine blister rust disease (*Cronartium ribicola*), which is still a problem in white pine management in many areas. Further, many of the early white pine plantings were devastated by our native white pine weevils (*Pissodes strobi* Peck) and on the “blow sands”, exposure to the biting, moving, sand often killed the nursery stock. The early tree planters shifted from white pine to Scots and red pine after they experienced severe losses from exposure and damage from the native white pine weevil. Indeed, according to early employees, there was quite a far reaching senior decision made to try and salvage the first plantation by gradually removing or pruning misshapen trees rather than starting over again by planting new nursery stock. Since 1909 the seedlings have now produced a magnificent stand of white pine of many trees 32 metres high and more than 50 cm in diameter. The invoice from “J. Heins Sohne” also showed 50,000 spruce. This intrigued Dr. Alan Gordon of the Ontario Forest Research Branch who spent a major part of his career researching the performance of many species of spruce planted in Ontario from around the world. He had found some exceptionally well performing Norway spruce in his neighbourhood in Sault Ste Marie and also many other places in Ontario and wondered if they might have originated as part of the shipment from Halstenbeck. So, in about 1975, he wrote to the nursery to see if there were any records of the origin of the seed. Thirty years later he got an answer: Not from the nursery, but from Gabriela Schmidt Heins, one of the granddaughters of Wilhelm Heins, the former owner. She had found Alan’s letter in the nursery files while doing research for an illustrated biography of Wilhelm Heins. She informed him that the Nursery had been closed many years earlier and that no pertinent records were left. She did send Alan a list of the almost 100 tree species that had been produced by the nursery. Even though Dr. Gordon was not able to prove any genetic relationships to the 1909 shipments to St. Williams, the residents of Lake Street in Sault Ste Marie held their spruce celebrations in 1998 anyway, because the trees had so greatly enhanced their neighbourhood. When I travelled the farms in Waterloo County as Zone Forester, I was also impressed by the performance of the non-native Norway spruce planted along the driveways of many Mennonite farms. My supervisor, Ernie Steele, said in 1957 that he believed they had been sold by a travelling nursery man whom I now am starting to believe probably grew them from the seed of that first shipment. When Gabriela Schmidt Heins completed the biography of her grandfather she sent a copy to Alan. Alan graciously passed it on to the St. Williams Forest Interpretive Centre. It turned out that Wilhelm had been a prodigious and skilled photographer in the time that photographs were taken on glass slides. He loved “trick” photography. As the third generation owner of the nursery and forestry school he had become quite wealthy and he travelled around the world taking photographs. The early photographs that Edmund Zavitz took of Ontario’s forestry were also taken on glass. As a result, we now have a continuous photo story of over a hundred years of the first reforestation efforts in Ontario from seeding to planting to maturity. For anyone wishing to see the 1909 plantation, the best approach is to park at the old St. Williams Nursery office building and former interpretive centre (now a staff residence) at 885 Highway 24 West and follow the Norway spruce lane past the old superintendent’s residence and then follow the trail north after the split. The white pine stand will soon be visible. A view of the first planted forest in Ontario after 112 years and four thinnings. Photo by Dolf Wynia, 2020. The black walnut (*Juglans nigra*), is a symbol of ecological recovery in southern Ontario. It is astonishing how this vigorous tree, thriving especially in areas of rich floodplain alluvial soil, should have in the 1870s been at risk of being wiped out in Ontario. Its habitat was encouraged for millennia by native communities, like other nutritional species such as maple, hickories, (of the same Juglandaceae family), the American and Canadian plum and the papaw. Early threats to the black walnut were paradoxically shown by how it was honoured by the German speaking migrants from the United States following the American Revolution. They took the trail of the black walnut seeking to found communities on rich alluvial flood plain soils where the species thrives. The end of the trail, however, the community now called Kitchener, soon became “Sand Hills”, from desertification after they arrived. [1] The desertification at the end of the Trail of the black walnut first became recognized in the Condolence speech of George Johnson, in 1857, upon becoming a Chief of the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee). The Condolence ceremony is also called the Hai Hai, and the Roll Call of Chiefs. It is a passionate invocation extolling the greatness of the founders of the Haudenosaunee League of Peace, one of whose titles has just been transferred. The words used in the Hai Hai when George Johnson was condoled were recorded by his friend, the anthropologist Horatio Hale. It ended with the warning that, “Their degenerate successor have inherited their names, but not their mighty intellects, and in the flourishing region which they left, nothing but a desert remain.” [2] Johnson’s appreciation of the value of the black walnut had, by the time of his condolence, been encouraged by the influence of one of his closest friends, in a relationship that grew over three decades, the Ojibway Chief, the Reverend Peter Jones. Jones won a substantial cash prize from the Canadian Provincial Exhibition for a bowl and lathes he made from black walnut. Jones was a skilled carpenter. To store his books he made several black walnut bookshelves. Jones imparted to Johnson that careful selective logging of valuable trees such as the black walnut would be a sound basis for sustainable and prosperous Ojibway communities in southern Ontario. [3] George Johnson’s home, Chiefswood, was built with black walnut wood selected, harvested and milled from his estate’s grounds. Walnut planks were laid horizontally for board and batten construction. Chiefswood trim, mantles and most furniture, including children’s cradles, were from black walnut. Furniture at Chiefswood was made by Mohawk craftsmen such as James Beaver. Their familiarity and appreciation of black walnut helped build support for Johnson’s forest conservation efforts. [4] George Johnson’s youngest daughter Pauline, in her fictional short story “My Mother”, pointed out how such Mohawk artisans of wood knew and appreciated the value of the trees that wily white traders were stealing from the naive who exchanged valuable trees for rotten whisky. When Pauline was born her parents planted a black walnut midway between their home and the entrance to Chiefswood in her honour. [5] Unlike Euro-Canadian farmers, George Johnson also kept tall old growth walnuts on his estate for aesthetic purposes. His eldest daughter Evelyn recalled how, “On the large walnut tree just behind the house we had a swing, and because we could hear an echo here very plainly, we love to call and shout to each other.” Walnut giants, which had grown there since the American Revolution, towered at Chiefswood. [6] Johnson planted various edible native nut growing trees of the Juglandaceae family. These included black walnut, butternut, and the shagbark, pignut, shellbark, and mockernut hickories. Gradually he developed an impressive reputation for this in the ranks of the Ontario Fruit Growers Association, (OFGA), which he helped to shape into Ontario’s first environmental protection group. In Stratford on July 1, 1878 the OFGA had a meeting on the topic of “The nut-bearing trees of the Province and their adaptability for ornamental purposes, as well as a source of financial profit to the farmer.” One outcome of the meeting was to send a delegation of Charles Arnold and John Freed, to visit, “the groves of Chief Johnson.” They were joined by two reporters. One was from the Hamilton Spectator, another, W. T. Sawle, reported for the Caledonia Sachem. [7] Arnold and Freed told the OFGA that they were stunned by what they saw at Chiefswood. Their report told how, “Your committee were informed, by the Chief and his very intelligent and communicative son, that there were growing on their estate some 800 walnut, 300 butternut, and about 200 hickory trees of various kinds. Many of these trees were noble specimens - especially the walnuts. One upon the terrace below, almost in front of the house, was a really majestic tree, with a large massive globular head of some 120 feet in circumference. The lower branches nearly touching the ground, and the head rising up at least (40) feet in height, and every branch drooping with its load of large fruit, some specimens, measuring eight inches in circumference.” They believed, “There are thousands of persons, doubtless, in our large cities and towns who would be glad to purchase these nuts at much higher prices if it were known where they could be got.” Arnold and Freed told the OFGA that on Johnson’s Juglandaceae grove of 14 acres “Wagon load after wagon load” of walnuts “had been driven off by friends of the Chief from Brantford, Caledonia and Ancaster and elsewhere and still there are thousands upon the ground.” They also found “the quality of the fruit is fine.” They recommended widespread reforestation in southern Ontario, believing that, “A great many homesteads throughout the country would be much improved in appearance by the planting of walnut, butternut, or hickory trees, and beside the shade afforded, a rich produce could be made in a few years from the products therefrom.” [8] Arnold and Freed were joined by other OFGA pilgrims to Chiefswood to learn about the wonders of the native Juglandaceae trees of southern Ontario. One William Burke journeyed from Ottawa. He urged OFGA members “to obtain nuts of the black walnut, or butternut, or young trees, at trifling cost from Chief Johnson of the Six Nations Reserve.” Another was the OFGA’s Vice-President, William Roy of Owen Sound. He urged others visit the “fine walnut grove at Chiefswood at Chief Johnson’s at Tuscarora.” [9] Pioneering conservationists from across Ontario journeyed to Chiefswood to visit both the Juglandaceae groves and take part in the intellectually stimulating salons organized on weekends by George Johnson’s English born wife, Emily. One of those in attendance was a painter from the Kitchener area, Homer Watson. He became an enthusiast for the black walnut and for the native Carolinian forests of the Grand River valley. An early painting of Watson’s, “Nut Gatherers in the Forest”, (also called The “Nutters”), featuring black walnut giants, could have been painted from sketches of Chiefswood. It is the only forest grove in Ontario where I have met with self-named “Nutters” proudly showing me their blackened hands from gathering black walnuts. [10] Before Watson took up the cause there was no interest in forest conservation in Waterloo County. The future City of Kitchener (Sand Hills, Ebyville, Berlin were earlier names), left aside from development no tracts of natural parkland until he got involved. In the first seven decades of the community its parks were artificial creations after all the native vegetation had been cleared away. Watson broke this pattern by his campaign to protect a stretch of Grand River floodplain forest, originally called Cressman’s Woods, where black walnuts thrive. It is now named Homer Watson Park in his honour. [11] Johnson challenged unscientific superstitions that no economically valuable crops could be cultivated under the shade of the black walnut. One of the most delicious treats served in Emily Johnson’s salons were white currant preserves. The currants were cultivated below the towering walnuts at Chiefswood. At an OFGA meeting, Johnson described his success in growing raspberries under their shade. His recommendations were tested out by a pioneering conservationist, Thomas Beall of Lindsay. He reported how he was able to grow productively under the black walnut the same variety of raspberry recommended by Johnson, the Mammoth Cluster. He recommended to his fellow fruit growers that raspberries be planted six feet apart from walnuts. Beall found that no other Ontario hardwood “grows as rapidly”, in southern Ontario’s forests as the black walnut. [12] Johnson gave further encouragement for the use of black walnuts in reforestation at the OFGA’s September 27, 1880 meeting held at the City Council Chambers of London, Ontario. Here he explained his work in encouraging black walnut cultivation with the then Governor General of Canada, the Marquis of Lorne. Lorne was a great patron of Homer Watson’s artistic work and a founder of the National Gallery of Canada. At the 1880 OFGA meeting Johnson explained how the fleshy green casing of walnuts make fine pickles, “if they are got at the right time of year, just when they are so large you can run a penknife through them.” [13] Johnson’s 1880 OFGA address led to an article in its publication “The Canadian Horticulturalist”. It detailed how, “Chief Johnson can supply any amount of either black walnut or butternuts, and they will be found the handiest and easiest to plant.” The magazine’s editor urged readers “to begin at once to plant, to plant early and often and especially to commence with the nut bearing trees.” [14] Johnson’s praise of the black walnut caused the OFGA’s President, Delos Beadle, who had at this time a nursery in St. Catharines, to look around Niagara to see if any black walnuts had survived. He lamented that although the tree lingered longer in Niagara than in other parts of southern Ontario, it had now all vanished. In his remarks to the Ontario Agricultural Commission in 1883 he reported sadly that even in its Niagara stronghold “all has been cut down.” [15] To build support for forest conservation Beadle delighted in telling stories of how Americans wise in the value of the once despised black walnut, were scouring southern’s Ontario denuded countryside looking for their still valuable stumps and roots. Black walnut roots were being avidly dug up for sale to veneer manufacturers in the United States. [16] The worth of the black walnut was taken up by some of the core of the OFGA’s membership base in the Niagara Fruit Belt. After Johnson’s death in 1884 at St. Catharines nurseryman, A. M. Smith took up his example. He grew and marketed black walnuts for reforestation purposes. J. Honsberger, a Niagara fruit grower in Louth Township, now part of the Town of Lincoln, became enthused about returning black walnuts to the floodplain of the Twenty Mile Creek, where, in the past, they grew in abundance. Honsberger explained his passion for the black walnut to an 1887 meeting of the OFGA. Here he explained why he purchased 400 black walnut trees from Smith. Honsberger explained how, “This walnut question is the one that brought me here. The walnut is a native of my native place, and a few years ago the last one disappeared; and being determined the place was not going to be devoid of walnut trees, I began putting nuts in the ground and I grew some trees.” [17] Today the fruits of Honsberger’s combined purchase of trees and planting of nuts can be seen in the valley of the Twenty Mile Creek near his farm. The floodplain is dominated by black walnuts and another flood plain tolerant species, the sycamore. [18] From personal observation in Niagara it is quite compelling to see how forests dominated by black walnut and sycamore will establish themselves in floodplains as soon as agriculture is abandoned. This I witnessed in St. Catharines after a purchase by the provincial government of land in the valley of the Twelve Mile Creek adjacent to the Short Hills Provincial Park in 1996. Within a decade of its acquisition from a rural estate owner who used the land for cattle ranching, a canopy forest of black walnuts had been established and continues to thrive. [19] Black walnut plantations, frequently of cultivars of the wild tree, are routinely established on fertile southern Ontario floodplains, as the tree has become recognized as “one of the most successful edible nut trees in Ontario.” It has dominated floodplains in Niagara and in the various stream valleys flowing between the Niagara Escarpment and Lake Ontario between Burlington and the western edge of the City of Toronto. This has been most vividly expressed in the City of Oakville, whose 845 hectares of woodlands are dominated by black walnut. [20] The ecological recovery of the once barren floodplains of southwestern Ontario is a symbol of the vision of both the strength of the ideas of the ecological prophets of the 19th century and the robust vigour of the tree they encouraged, the black walnut. It is to be hoped that basic planning tools of our day such as wetland and floodplain protection and quarantine measures to prevent wood infected by the fungus that spreads the thousand canker disease will perpetuate this restored forest. Endnotes 1) Elomore T. Reaman, “The Trail of the Black Walnut”, (Clearfield, 1957), passim. 2) Horatio Hale, “The Iroquois Book of Rites”, Chapter Four: Condolence and Installation”, (Philadelphia, D. G. Brinton, 1883) 3) Horatio Hale, “Chief George H. M. Johnson-Onwanonsyshon, His Work Among the Six Nations”, Reprinted from the Magazine of American History, February, 1885, PDF Brantford Public Library; Evelyn. H. C. Johnson, “Memoirs”, (Chiefswood: Chiefswood Mansion, 2009), p. 12. 4) Donald B. Smith, “Sacred Feathers: The Revered Peter Jones and the Mississauga Indians”, (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987) 216-200. 5) “Faithfully Yours: An Exhibition At the Woodland Cultural Centre Brantford, Ontario”, (Woodland Cultural Centre, 2009), p.66. 6) Evelyn Johnson, loc.cit., 30-40. 7) Ibid., 20-30. 8) Charles Arnold and John Freed, “Report on the nut-growing grove of G. H. M. Johnson”, Sessional Papers of the Ontario Legislature, Volume X, Part 1. 9) Annual Report of the Ontario Fruit Growers Association, 1879, Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture and Arts for the Province of Ontario, Toronto: Hunter, Rose and Company by Order of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario, 1879, Appendix D, pp. 305, 306. 10) Homer Watson entry, Wikipedia. 11) Ibid. 12) Ibid. 13) Annual Report of the Ontario Fruit Growers Association, 1879, loc.cit. 14) Minutes of the September 27, 1881 Meeting of the Ontario Fruit Growers of Ontario, Ontario Sessional Papers, 1882, (No. 3). 15) Canadian Horticulturist, 1882”, in Ontario Association of Fruit Growers collection, Brock University Archives. 16) September 27, 1881 Meeting of the Ontario Fruit Growers of Ontario, loc. Cit. 17) Canadian Horticulturalist, Report of Ontario Fruit Growers Association, 1887. 18) Personal observation by author. Black walnut and sycamores are dominant trees in Twenty Mile Creek valley below Honsberger farm, which continues to be operated by his heirs. 19) I was stunned to witness the explosion of black walnut in the area of what is legally defined as Crown Land adjacent to Short Hills Park, shortly after the area was purchased by the provincial government in 1996. 20) Personal communication from Jai Hashemi, Manager Forestry Services, Oakville Parks and Open Spaces Department. Wildlife Research in Algonquin Park by C. David Fowle Reprinted from Sylva 4(1): 51-58, 1948 Most kinds of scientific research require special technical equipment or laboratory facilities. The modern physicist requires the cyclotron as a tool, the chemist makes use of the special instruments and glassware of his profession and the bacteriologist cultures the bacteria with which he works under carefully controlled conditions in specially designed incubators. The wildlife biologist also uses many types of traditional laboratory apparatus but, it is also necessary for him to go out into nature and study animals in their natural environment. Thus, in addition to regular indoor laboratory facilities, the wildlife biologist must also have an outdoor laboratory in which to work. Such outdoor facilities are to be found on the Wilderness Area in Algonquin Park. This thirty square mile tract of forest and water, established by Order-in-Council in June, 1944, lies north of Highway 60 in the northeastern part of Canisby and the southeastern portion of McLaughlin Townships, near Lake of Two Rivers. The boundaries of the Area have been so selected that none of the major fishing lakes of the Park have been included in it. Nor does it lie across any of the important canoe routes. The whole is closed to fishing and public travel. The Wilderness Area is dedicated to wildlife research. In this vast outdoor laboratory, the animals and their environment can be studied year after year under relatively undisturbed conditions. The Area should not, however, be regarded as unique in that the results of all studies carried out upon it should have special reference to it. Rather, it is hoped to discover facts, principles and methods which may be used throughout Ontario and elsewhere, wherever they may be useful. All the investigations going forward on the Wilderness Area have as their aim the production of useful data, that is, information which will be useful to the forester, the wildlife manager and administrator and to the biologist who is seeking a fuller understanding of our environment. There is no dearth of material with which the wildlife biologist may "work. Well over two hundred species of plants are to be found on the area. Many animal forms are there also, including eleven species of frogs, toads and salamanders. The reptiles are represented by at least two species of snakes and the snapping turtle. One hundred and six species of birds have been observed on the area; and at least thirty-two species of mammals have been found, ranging in size from the tiny pigmy shrew, weighing about a tenth of an ounce, to the huge bull moose which may weigh up to fourteen hundred pounds. Thus it will be seen that the forest, taken as a whole, is something more than an aggregation of trees; it is a living, dynamic association of plants in which dwells a variety and abundance of animals which is scarcely credited by the average citizen. It is the role of the animals in this complex environment which we hope ultimately to establish. Animals are constantly acting and depending upon their environment. Many of those on the Wilderness Area depend upon the forest for food and shelter, while some of the forest plants, in turn, depend largely upon birds and mammals for the distribution of their seeds. A change in the forest environment, such as is wrought by logging operations or by fire, is reflected in changes in the size and species composition of the wildlife population ... Moreover, predatory animals, such as the valuable fur-bearing fisher and martin, depend upon squirrels and other small mammals for food. Consequently, the size of the small mammal population may be of great economic importance in view of this dependency. These complex relationships make the wildlife biologist's task a difficult one. Many animals are rare or difficult to observe, so that the collection of data relating to them can only be accomplished slowly and with difficulty over the years. Frequently so many factors are operating in the environment that it is difficult to discover which are the really important ones. The effects of variations in weather conditions, for example, are very difficult to evaluate. The complexity is further increased by the progressive and subtle changes which take place in the animals themselves throughout the year. Many birds, for example, arrive from the south in the spring migration in flocks, apparently bound together by that unity of purpose which is reflected in the migratory habit. Soon after arrival, however, changes associated with the breeding season occur within the birds and the males, who so recently had flown and fed with their fellows over thousands of miles, become completely intolerant of one another, setting themselves apart on more or less limited areas called territories, which they defend against intruding males of their own kind. Here, on the territory, the males usually wait for mates and may later build their nests and raise the young. Similar subtle changes occur in the behaviour of the deer. During the summer when the antlers are growing, a buck may sometimes be seen contentedly browsing with one or two other bucks. In the fall, however, when the antlers are fully developed and the breeding season begins, the same animals may threaten one another or fight whenever they chance to meet. During the past three summers of 1945, 1946 and 1947 field parties, sent out by the Division of Research, have developed the working and living facilities on the Area and have spent much time in studying the wildlife. Visitors to the Area see university and high school students, who make up the field party, at work with the various tools of the wildlife biologist's trade. In the forest, observers with binoculars and notebooks study the behaviour of birds and the feeding habits of deer. Others, with compass and tape, survey lines through the forest along which vegetation study plots will be laid. The visitor should not be surprised to find that a man is concealed in a blind in a tree from which observations on the habits of the ruffed grouse are being made, or to find that some members of the party devote almost all their time to trapping and studying mice and shrews while others build deer traps. All of these activities and many more are part of an integrated program designed to uncover important facts regarding the lives of Ontario animals. As we have already seen, the problems of wildlife biology generally have two aspects, that which concerns the animals themselves and that which concerns their surroundings. Some projects, carried on during the past summer, were concerned with this latter aspect. Exploration of the Wilderness Area, for example, goes on constantly, as more and more information on the distribution of forest types and various kinds of wildlife habitats is collected. Some of this data is plotted on specially prepared maps or on aerial photographs. Familiarity with the vegetation is essential to an understanding of the wildlife environment and to this end a representative plant collection is being accumulated. Collections of seeds, fruits and buds, now being made, will serve as references when the stomach contents of various animals is being identified in food habit studies. General weather observations, recorded several times each day, aid in the interpretation of the data relating to wildlife. Several projects which were principally concerned with the animals themselves were carried out. These may be divided into two groups—those relating to mammals and those relating to birds. To date, twelve species of moles, shrews and mice have been found to inhabit the forest floor. Three other species, the chipmunk, the red squirrel and the flying squirrel are to be found on the ground or in the trees. These animals are thought to play an important role in the economy of the forest for several reasons. As has been noted, many of them constitute important items in the diet of fur bearers and other predatory animals. Some of them, like the squirrels, chipmunks and deer mice, may play an important role in the distribution of seeds. The insect-eating forms, such as the shrews, are known to destroy large numbers of sawfly cocoons as well as a host of other insects. The possible importance of small mammals as agents in soil formation and as factors limiting the survival of seeds and seedlings should not be overlooked. The extent of the influence of these mammals will be governed, for the most part, by their abundance. Thus, a knowledge of the numbers of animals in an area is important and the development of a technique for measuring small mammal populations is fundamental to the collection of such information. For this reason, much time has been spent during the past three summers in an effort to devise a reliable method of measuring abundance of small mammals. Since any method which is used must be adapted to the habits of the animals, considerable time has been spent in studying the life histories and behaviour of the various species. During the past three years, over sixteen hundred small mammals, comprising seventeen species, have been examined, almost nine hundred and fifty of them being trapped during 1947. A detailed examination of each animal yields information on weights and measurements, age composition of the population, diseases and parasites and breeding habits. Details of habitat and home life of some species have been recorded, while the study of captive animals has also added to our understanding of them. The protecting of tree seeds on planted areas has long been a vexing one in forestry. Some species of small mammals such as the squirrels, deer mice and shrews, may eat or remove a large proportion of the seeds from a plantation after they have been sown. A striking example of the storing habits of the deer mouse came to light on the Wilderness Area when a food cache was found which contained about half a million white and yellow birch seeds. However, it should be emphasized that in nature, in a forest already well stocked with trees, it is extremely unlikely that mammals remove more than the large excess of seed which ordinarily would not germinate or develop into trees. The real problem lies in protecting experimental plots, nursery beds, and areas which have been sown in an effort to restore the forest after fire or logging. During the past summer, experiments with captive mice and shrews were carried out to determine the reactions of the animals to various chemical repellents. Seeds coated with repellents were fed to the animals in an effort to discover if any of the chemicals used would protect the seeds. To date, no successful repellent has been discovered. However, it does appear that the reactions of the animals vary according to species, one species refusing to eat treated seeds while others do so readily. The importance of the white-tailed deer as a sport animal in Ontario is very great. In 1946, over 65,000 deer hunting licenses were issued in the Province and this compared with the 35,000 issued in 1941 gives us some measure of the increased hunting pressure which has been brought to bear on this species. Proper management of the deer depends largely upon a knowledge of the animal's life history and upon the numbers in the areas under management. This, in turn, depends upon a reliable method for determining numbers. Thus the wildlife census becomes for the manager what the inventory is to the merchant. It tells him how much stock he has to deal with and, in the cases of the manager, how many animals may be safely harvested without destroying the reproductive capacity of the population. Investigations going forward on the Wilderness Area have been aimed at devising a suitable method for censusing deer in Ontario. Background material for this work is being obtained from a life history study of the species which is now under way. In addition, the problem has been attacked directly in a program of live-trapping and marking which will make possible the study of the local movements of deer. Several trials of known census methods have been made. Among the projects directly concerned with the birds, two have received special attention. The first of these is the work with the birds of the forest. As has been noted in the cases of the small mammals and deer, little can be learned about the role of animals in the forest unless the numbers involved are known. Since this is true also in the case of the birds, an effort has been made to improve the known methods of censusing birds and to devise new ones. In the course of this work, considerable information on the lives and habits of the forest birds has been obtained. Most of the one hundred and six species of birds which have been noted on the Wilderness Area live in the forest. The importance of birds in the economy of the forest is not well understood but it is probable that many species serve man's interests by destroying large numbers of insect pests and... by distributing the seeds of many plants. Moreover, the very fact that these birds are among the most abundant and widely distributed in the forest suggests that we should add to our meagre knowledge of them. The ruffed grouse is eastern North America's premier upland game bird and, as such, it deserves the attention of wildlife biologists. Since the summer of 1945 a general study of the life history and relationships of this bird has been going on in Algonquin Park, with a view to discovering facts which would be of value in managing the species. In 1947, the project was moved to the Wilderness Area, where a permanent long-term program was organized on a special study area where the bird may be studied from year to year. Special attention as being paid to the habitat requirements of the grouse. The discoveries of wildlife research are not spectacular, nor are its rewards easily gained, but it is certain that the steadily increasing volume of information arising from the studies on the Wilderness Area will help us to understand, manage and use wisely the wildlife resources of the Province, which are so much a part of the Ontario scene. Nature has provided most game birds with a colouring that blends with their environment C.H.D. Clarke A moose in its natural habitat. C.H.D. Clarke This friendly fawn enjoys the liberty of the Wilderness Area in Algonquin Park (Lambert, Richard S. and Paul Pross. Toronto: The Ontario Department of Lands and Forests. 1967). The book cover describes this book as: "Renewing Nature’s Wealth, the exciting story of Ontario’s natural resources, is described by Premier John Robarts, in his Foreword to the book, as “much more than a history of one of the Departments of the Government of the Province of Ontario: it is a vital component of the history of Ontario”, reaching back nearly 200 years to the days of the first surveyor General of Upper Canada in 1794. The book describes the impact made by a civilized people upon the primitive forest that originally covered the land, and the development of its natural resources under public administration from an early state of confusion and waste down to the modern era of conservation and scientific management.” We will provide a précis of one chapter of this book in each edition of Forestry. Chapter 21 Fish and Wildlife Management Part 2, Game Management in Ontario Hunting, like fishing, went through its destructive phase in the 1800s. Edwin Tinsley, Chief Game Warden, wrote the obituary for the most popular game bird of the day, the wild turkey, in 1904. The loss of this species inspired some of the earliest game laws. Efforts to restore the species failed. The creation of agricultural lands led to an explosion of bobwhite quail across southern Ontario. This species was a popular game bird for a period of time. But the harsh winters of the 1850s decimated its population. The demise of the quail led the ‘Sportsmen of Toronto’ to agitate for and produce the Game Law of 1856. The quail did not return and the introduced ring-necked pheasants took its place. The first open season for pheasant was held in 1910. By the early 1960s 50 thousand birds a year were being distributed, and their range covered most of southern Ontario. From 1946–1951 special studies of pheasant were undertaken on Pelee Island by the Wildlife Management Institute of Washington, and districts undertook banding programs. Several private and public pheasant hunting grounds were created. Ruffed grouse were found throughout Ontario and were the most popular game bird species. Some of the earliest Ontario game laws were created to save grouse populations. Hungarian partridge were introduced from 1927 to 1937. The most favoured hunting quarry was the white-tailed deer. It was relatively abundant throughout southern Ontario prior to settlement. The expansion of agricultural lands and hunting caused the deer population to decrease in southern Ontario, but timber harvesting north of the shield resulted in an expansion of deer range and numbers from 1867-1892. Deer migrated into Canada from the US at Sault Ste Marie in 1887. The first non-resident deer hunting licence was issued in 1888 and cost $10.00. The first resident licence was issued in 1896 and cost $2.00. The killing of deer in water was banned in 1896. The bag limit for non-residents was raised from one to two in 1899. By 1905 all residents had to have a licence to hunt deer. The first guide was licensed in 1909. The resident licence fee was raised to $3.00 in 1918. Increased road access by the 1930s opened up prime deer range for hunting. The first significant attempts to manage deer began in the 1940s. Check stations were set up to enforce laws and collect biological data. Winter habitat improvements were conducted. By this time deer had taken over prime moose habitat. In the 1880s-90s, Muskoka was a prime moose hunting area. With the expansion of railways, logging and fire, moose range expanded north. By the 1960s there were more moose in Ontario than a hundred years prior. Revenue from moose licences in the 1960s exceeded one million dollars annually. The moose season was closed in 1949/50 to perfect and undertake aerial moose population surveys. From 1867 on, the main game of the north was woodland caribou. But logging decimated its source of food (lichen, which was very slow to regenerate) and the season was closed in 1929. Black bear occur all over Ontario except the deep south. A bounty was paid for this species from 1941 to 1961 at which time it became a game species and the bounty was removed. A spring bear hunt was introduced, which became popular with tourists. In 1958, 4,800 bear licences were sold. The oldest game licence in Ontario was created for a bounty on wolves. The Parliament of Upper Canada enacted a law in 1793 to encourage the eradication of bears and wolves. An Act of 1830 allowed bounties to Indigenous peoples to encourage the extermination of wolves. This policy failed. But the reduction in wolves led to the increase in coyote numbers, especially in settled parts of Ontario. From 1925 to 1964 over 1.7 million bounties were paid out and nearly 100,000 wolves were killed. Attitudes towards predatory wildlife began to change from persecution to management in the mid-1900s. As an example, hundreds of tourists traveled to Algonquin Park in the 1960s to hear wolves howl. Management decided that a bounty was not needed as it was determined that the species could control its own numbers. The worst hunting pressure was on waterfowl. Heavy hunting pressure led to protection laws in Canada but not the United States where much of the habitat was. And there was a loss of another important place of habitat in Canada’s west. Many waterfowl hunters were rich and famous Americans who belonged to private hunt clubs in Ontario. By 1960, over half of waterfowl hunters were American. The Jack Miner Bird Sanctuary was created in 1908. A group on Lake Scugog began the practice of banding ducks to collect migration data. Later Jack Miner took up this practice. There was an amendment to the Game Act in 1916 to prohibit the sale or purchase of waterfowl, and to limit the number of waterfowl that could be shot. That same year Britain (on behalf of Canada) signed with the United States the Migratory Birds Convention that led to protective measures in both countries. To this day the management of migratory birds rests with the Canadian government. Feeding to kill waterfowl was banned in 1935 and the use of live birds as decoys was banned in 1936. From the 1940s to the 1960s fluctuations in population levels led to the development of waterfowl shooting units for public hunting. The Ontario Waterfowl Research Foundation was established at Guelph University in 1961 to further research into waterfowl. The Migratory Birds Convention protected all migrating birds, not just waterfowl. Ontario had enacted a law in 1865 to protect insectivorous birds. This law became part of the *Game and Fish Act* of 1946. The fur trade was an important economic activity from early exploration and settlement times. A steep decline in furbearer populations in the late 1800s led to the Kelly Evans Commission of 1909. This commission led to the closing of seasons for beaver, which led to an increase in the trapping of muskrat. After World War 1 there was an explosion in fur prices, which led to the near extinction of fisher, marten, beaver and lynx. This situation led to the licensing of trapping and the development, in 1917, of the first Crown game preserves. After various strategies were tried, Ontario settled on a program, in 1948, to register all traplines in the province as the tool to manage furbearing animals. By the 1960s, Ontario had the largest, most extensive, fur management program in Canada. Game preserves fell out of favour as a method of management. It is with deep sorrow that we announce the passing of our beloved dad, Peter Murphy. Dad was born Peter John Murphy, February 20, 1930, in Montreal to Helen and Herb Murphy, and was raised in Montreal. He graduated from University of New Brunswick in 1954 with a BScF. He then headed west to work in forestry and worked in British Columbia and in Northern Alberta. It was in Alberta where he met the love of his life, Joan Elizabeth Robson. Pete and Joan had five children: Sharon (Carly, Jason, Jonathan, and Nova), Shelagh (Calvin, Monique, Cian, McKenna, and Keyaan), Thomas (Sarah, Jade, and David), Barbara (Dave, Jacy, and Rose), and Bridget (Colin and Casey). Dad will be lovingly remembered by his brother Dr. David Murphy (Sonia, Luke, Matthew, and Deirdre), and his sister Judy Murphy (Cameron, Dana, Christie, and Terry). Pete and Joan have a huge extended family of cousins, in-laws, nieces, and nephews whom all spent time with him, at one time or another, and were left with fond memories. Dad was predeceased by Joan in 2011 and Bridget in 2009. Throughout his career, Dad established the Forestry Training School in Hinton and was instrumental in the creation of the NAIT and University of Alberta forestry programs. Dad completed his MScF from University of Montana in 1963, and his PhD from University of British Columbia in 1985. In 1973 Dad began working at University of Alberta as a professor and chair of the newly created Faculty of Forestry program. He subsequently became the Associate Dean of the Faculty, until his retirement in 1995. Dad had a great love for Forestry, but his true love was passing on his knowledge to future generations. As an author of numerous books on forestry in Alberta and Canada, his public speaking, and his active participation in tree planting and forest renewal projects, Dad would always find the time to talk with and encourage anyone who had an interest in trees or forestry. His work at the University of Alberta allowed him to share his passion and nurture the love and respect for the forests in students and faculty alike. His work and personality garnered lifelong friendships by many who knew him, and respect from his colleagues in the field. Dad was well respected and loved by many. He was a kind and gentle soul. He was a gentleman and a scholar. He loved bluegrass and classical music, delivering a good pun, and a good story. His favourite place in world was in the Alberta forests and mountains. We will always cherish his stories, good humour and love. Donations may be made to the Dr. Peter J Murphy Fund in Forestry at uabGive.ca/Murphy Published on November 7, 2020 ROBERT LLOYD MITTON Born in Thamesville, Ontario on August 24, 1944. Bob passed away suddenly on April 3, 2021 in Victoria, British Columbia. Bob graduated from the University of Toronto 1969 in Forestry and then worked in Algonquin Park. He later moved to BC where he was able to enjoy his passions of boating and fishing. Bob loved entertaining friends and family on his boat whether he lived in Ontario, BC, Florida, or California. He came back to Ontario in 1988 to become Deputy Minister of Education and later Deputy Minister of Natural Resources. Bob could always find the time to listen and loved being with young people. He was a trusted, loyal, energetic person who dedicated his career and life to the responsible science based management of Canada’s natural resources. Bob is survived by his loving wife, Mimi Vandermolen, son, Craig, brother and wife Don and Judith and many nieces and nephews. All of these he loved and touched deeply. (Continued from page 29) Fur farming started in 1902 and became so popular by the 1960s that the revenues from fur farms exceeded those of traplines. The first farms were registered in 1920. Initially, the key species farmed were foxes and muskrats. In the 1940s, a genetic mutation in mink, which led to the development of various types of mink furs, created an explosion in mink farming. The farming of other species declined. By the early 1960s mink farming was a well established and lucrative business in Ontario. Several hunting accidents and deaths from guns led to the development of a Hunter Safety Program in 1957. An offence of careless hunting was added to the Game Act in 1961. During the 1960s there was a growing public conscience and interest in wildlife – nature students, wildlife photographers, birders and artists. Pressure groups developed to promote conservation of wildlife and protection of its environment. The mission of the Society is: “To further the knowledge, understanding and preservation of Ontario’s forest history” and to accomplish this with the following objectives: To preserve forest and forest conservation history; To encourage and further the development and recognition of forest history; To support research and studies of forest history; To support the archival preservation of records and materials relating to forest history, and To promote the better understanding of forest history through public education. The Society has two ongoing projects, both available on our website: www.ontarioforesthistory.ca The first is a catalogue of publications dealing with all aspects of Ontario’s forest history. Members can submit contributions on our website. The second is the identification and listing of collections and materials relating to Ontario’s forest history. The Society works with established archives such as the Archives of Ontario and several university archives to facilitate the preservation of significant collections. The Society publishes a newsletter, Forestory, twice a year – Spring and Fall - containing informative articles on Ontario forest history. (The FHSO has a privacy policy. Your information will not be shared or sold.) You can initiate or renew your membership online by clicking on the link below: http://www.ontarioforesthistory.ca/index.php/membership Or, by filling out and submitting the form below, with your cheque, to the address listed below: | Name | | |------|---| | Address | | | City | Province | Postal Code | | Phone | Email | |
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Teach Reading & Writing Brilliant ideas for literacy across the curriculum FREE! SPELLING DOWNLOAD! 100 PAGES OF RESOURCES ULTIMATE GUIDE PHASE 4 PHONICS Explore emotions with The Colour Monster Joseph Coelho How to teach poetry with confidence WAGOLL MASTER STRUCTURE WITH PIE CORBETT Reading catch-up WHY IT SHOULDN'T BE A CHORE! 10 BOOKS TO INSPIRE WINTER ADVENTURES IN LEARNING ISSUE: 16 PRICE: £5.99 teach PRIMARY BOOK AWARDS 2022 FIND YOUR NEXT MUST-READ First News Education connects news and learning through a crucial source of non-fiction reading, in the form of First News, the UK’s most trusted newspaper for children. Alongside each issue, time-saving, pre-prepared reading activities based on the latest newspaper support teachers to grow KS2 pupils’ reading comprehension and vocabulary skills, in the classroom and at home. SAVE 15% ON ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS! Visit schools.firstnews.co.uk/packages and use code TRW15OFF *Offer available exclusively for schools who do not have an active subscription with First News Education. Orders must be placed by 5pm on 28/02/2023. Cannot be used in conjunction with any other offer codes. Offer can be redeemed on any package combination and will apply to the first year of the subscription only. Subscriptions will automatically renew at full rate, in line with our standard terms. TRW15OFF can be used at schools.firstnews.co.uk/pricing or via our Subscriptions Team on 01371 851 898, weekdays 9am to 5pm. Welcome... ...friends, to another issue of *Teach Reading & Writing*. As I’m sure you’ll agree, although books are perfect companions for every day of the year, there is something particularly lovely about curling up with a beloved story in the cold winter months. Luckily for us, Carey Fluker Hunt has put together a list of her 10 best winter reads for your class – divided by age group – so you can grab a hot chocolate and set about finding your pupils their new favourite seasonal story. If that’s not enough to get your teacher senses a-tinglin’, Carey has also suggested a wealth of activity and discussion ideas for each title for you to get stuck into. Check out her finds from page 12. On the topic of excellent books, I’m also delighted to announce the winners of this year’s Teach Primary Book Awards. Following a phenomenal number of entries, our panel of expert judges managed to whittle down to a shortlist of 32 titles – a very tricky job indeed. Handily categorised into non-fiction, Reception, KS1 and KS2 books, you can pick and choose the section to best suit your class, or if – like me – you’re keen to peruse them all, you can dive in and see which books you’ll soon be adding to your wishlist, from page 64. Elsewhere, Adam Levick lays out everything you need to know about writing moderation (page 18); Sarah Farrell shares her top tips for making teaching spelling easier and more comprehensive, as well as over 100 pages of resources (page 40); and Emma Spiers digs into the whats, whys and wherefores of phase 4 phonics (page 58). We also are very lucky to have another exclusive model text from Pie Corbett. This time, Pie has written a magical poem, and provides his sage advice on how you can help pupils play with structure and get writing their own verse. See what he has to say on page 46. If you’re on the lookout for alternative formats to help your children along with their writing, break out the popcorn and take a look at James Clements’ ideas on how to include multimedia in your literacy lessons on page 56. If, however, you’re more interested in a simple, quick solution for retrieval practice, check out Jess Darby’s doorway phonics game on page 49 – you can use it for much more than just letter sounds. Many of this issue’s brilliant ideas come from teachers on the front line of primary education, and we’re always keen to hear about what’s going on in schools. So, if you have an idea you’d like to share, please do feel free to contact me at email@example.com I hope you all have a wonderful break, and look forward to catching up with you again next time. With best wishes, Charley Rogers (editor) **Author in Your Classroom** Play the podcast, share the teaching sequence – and inspire amazing writing from every pupil! **LOUIE STOWELL** *Take a journey with the author of Loki: A Bad God’s Guide to Being Good and explore what might happen if mythical gods were placed on Earth as children.* p10 **DARA O’BRIAIN** *Help your class bring information and humour together so each complements the other, taking inspiration from one of the masters of the field, Dara O’Briain.* p38 **CATHERINE DOYLE** *Give kids the opportunity to write their own Christmas story of redemption, where a character can learn a lesson and embrace the spirit of the festive season.* p62 --- **Save time, inspire children, improve outcomes** Find over 1500 expert literacy resources at [plazoom.com](http://plazoom.com) Join now - for just £4.99 a month! [plazoom.com](http://plazoom.com) The award-winning book-based platform now used by over 40,000 teachers! Open the cover to the time-saving platform for teachers that provides complete coverage of your primary English objectives through: - 300+ book-based resources with cross-curricular links. - Spelling and reading comprehension resources. - Coverage and progression documents. - Termly subject leader meetings. - RATE Assessment tools for reading and writing. START YOUR STORY Explore the Literary Curriculum from Literacy Tree. Find the right membership package for your school, download plans and join us on our next free introductory webinar at: www.literarycurriculum.co.uk/how-it-works 020 3196 0140 literarycurriculum.co.uk firstname.lastname@example.org 6 LIBERATING CREATIVITY Poet and Talk for Writing founder Pie Corbett discusses his new book of poetry for teaching, and why he never gets tired of children’s creative output 12 10 BOOKS TO INSPIRE WINTER LEARNING Strap on ice skates, create your own snowy map, or simply grab a cup of hot chocolate and snuggle up with these seasonal titles… 18 A GUIDE TO WRITING MODERATION Grab your sticky notes and take a deep breath: here’s how to make the process work for you, says Adam Levick 23 GATHERING EVIDENCE Make sure the KS1 Teacher Assessment Framework is working for you and your pupils – as well as for the ‘Powers That Be’, says Sue Drury 26 GRAMMAR RULES THAT STICK Rote learning and drills may help (some) children pass SPaG tests – but real progress only happens when we put the content in context, argues Rachel Clarke 29 READING CATCH-UP Are your KS2 pupils still struggling to read? Use these six suggestions to help them catch up, says Charlotte Raby 33 HOW TO RUN A CREATIVE WRITING CLUB Explore endless impossibilities and help pupils get into the scribbling spirit with these ideas for your own group from Mel Taylor-Bessent 40 ALPHABET SOUP Spelling rules can often seem like a bit of a jumble, but this eight-step resource from Sarah Farrell helps pupils know their vowels from their consonants 42 CREATING MAGIC Cressida Cowell on the joy of writing for children, and the particular enchantment of reading for pleasure 45 EMPOWERING CHILDREN TO SAY ‘NO’ Picturebooks are a valuable way to open up discussions around autonomy and consent, says Emma Davis 46 WHEN I BLEW THE MAGIC DUST Master alliteration, similes, and personification – and add a dash of extra wizardry – with Pie Corbett’s brand-new verse 49 SEE IT, TAP IT, SAY IT Turn phonics into a game, and improve behaviour while you’re at it, with this simple, no-prep classroom hack 50 TIME TO EXPLAIN Tackle paragraphs, introductions and summaries while exploring non-fiction writing with Aidan Severs’ guide to explanation texts 53 THE COLOUR MONSTER Explore emotions and what they mean with this gentle exploration of feelings in Anna Llenas’ gorgeous picturebook 56 LIGHTS, CAMERA… WRITING! For today’s children, composition should be about more than pen and paper. So pop some corn, and turn your pupils into producers with James Clements 58 ULTIMATE GUIDE TO PHASE 4 PHONICS Conquer blending, segmenting, tricky words and planning with this guide to building on previous learning from Emma Spiers 60 LITERACY IN EVERY LESSON Subject-specific reading and writing is about more than knowing the right words, argues Shareen Wilkinson 64 TEACH PRIMARY BOOK AWARDS Check out the winners of this year’s awards – 32 titles sure to inspire your class, chosen by our expert judges 74 LAST WORDS Waterstones Children’s Laureate and award-winning poet Joseph Coelho on the power of poetry to literally change lives EDITOR Charley Rogers, email@example.com GROUP EDITOR Joe Carter, firstname.lastname@example.org HEAD OF COMMERCIAL SOLUTIONS Richard Stebbing, email@example.com EDUCATION MANAGER Hayley Rackham, 01206 505988 firstname.lastname@example.org PRODUCT MANAGER Samantha Law, 01206 505499 email@example.com DEPUTY PRODUCT MANAGER Katie Harvey-Jones, 01206 505477 firstname.lastname@example.org SENIOR ACCOUNT MANAGER Hannah Jones, 01206 505924 email@example.com ACCOUNT MANAGER Demi Maynard, 01206 505962 firstname.lastname@example.org. DISTRIBUTED BY Frontline Ltd, Peterborough ART EDITOR Richard Allen PHOTOGRAPHY CiQQ Photography, ciqq.co.uk ACCOUNTS 01206 505995 DESIGN & REPROGRAPHICS Ace Pre-Press 01206 508608 CUSTOMER SERVICES email@example.com 0800 904 7000 Published by DC Thomson & Co Ltd, 21/23 Phoenix Court, Hawkins Road, Colchester, Essex CO2 8JY We are committed to publication of the highest standards and abide by the Editors’ Code of Practice, which is enforced by the Independent Press Standards Organisation (IPSO). If you have a complaint, you can email us at mailto:firstname.lastname@example.org or write to the Readers’ Editor at [name of publication] DC Thomson & Co Ltd, 21/23 Phoenix Court, Hawkins Road, Colchester, Essex CO2 8JY. The views in this magazine are not necessarily those of the publisher. Every effort has been made to ensure the veracity and integrity of the companies, persons, products and services mentioned in this publication, and the details given are believed to be accurate at the time of going to press. However, no responsibility or liability whatsoever can be accepted for any consequence or repercussion of responding to information or advice given or inferred. Copyright DC Thomson & Co Ltd. TR&W Your new book, *Catalysts*, explores the teaching of poetry. Do you have a favourite approach? PC The first list poem I did was an ‘I wish’ poem. When reading what children wrote in response to this, I discovered that, sometimes, adding in constraint to a writing exercise can actually liberate creativity. Because I had made the ‘I wish’ session easy – all the pupils had to do was write ‘I wish’, then add something they wanted to wish for and add a full stop – it seemed to open up their thinking. So, for the book, these kinds of constraints became rather like coat hangers, which you can then dress up in your own ideas. The key to it is to make the constraint, or the pattern, you’re introducing nice and simple. So, for instance, Charles Causley is a great poet to read to children, but he wrote mostly ballads, and that pattern is just too difficult to copy – even for most adults. Something like a list, or an animal poem, is better suited for writing exercises. What activities would you suggest to teachers who aren’t very confident teaching poetry? I really like Poem of the Week: so, each week, the teacher picks a special poem, and at a certain point, say after lunchtime, they read the poem to the class, and then throughout the week the children get to know the poem. It doesn’t take very long - usually only a few minutes. But over a Key Stage, pupils will hear a vast number of different poems. If the children can respond – get their notebooks out, and jot down thoughts and ideas – then over time they build up a tremendous vocabulary, as well as ideas, approaches, turns of phrase, and other elements. And of course everyone is unique, so each child will make something slightly different depending on their experiences, even if they start from the same point. They’ll soon have a repertoire of poems and techniques at their disposal. What role does creativity play in classroom writing? For many pupils, coming to school and making things helps them cope with what’s going on in the world. And it’s a great experience for the teacher, too. I just love it when I go and see children’s artwork, or a performance, and the kids are engaged in creativity. I know they’re taking steps out of the darkness, into the light, and it makes me feel so happy. It’s why I enjoy teaching art, and dance, and music, and writing; because it becomes an extension of your own creativity – their responses are the end result of what you create with them in the classroom. I always found it exciting, when marking a piece of creative writing, to see how pupils had responded to the lesson, and thinking about how I had helped trigger or liberate that. How would you like teachers to use your book? I really hope it creates excitement for teachers, and helps bring back some of the joy of writing, which I know can end up missing in some places, due to the testing regime that schools have to go through. As well as the model poems, there are loads of different activity ideas that teachers can dip into and try out with their classes – they can explore them together, perhaps. Pie Corbett’s latest book, *Catalysts: poems for writing* (£14.99) is available now. Jolly Phonics Trusted by teachers loved by children Enjoyed by millions of children and teachers in over 100 countries. The wonderful way to teach reading and writing www.jollylearning.co.uk email@example.com STABILO EASYoriginal ergonomic handwriting pen specially designed for left or right handers. Approved by UK teachers* and loved by children. Follow us on: @STABILOUK *In UK user trials 95% of teachers approved the use of EASYgraph pencils and EASYoriginal pens in their schools. Available in blue, pink and green designs for both left and right handers Writes smoothly at every angle without leaking or scratching Refillable with a new tip every time Space for a name to personalise the pen Available for left or right handers Line width 0.5mm Sign up for FREE STABILO Pen Licences for your school! www.stabilo.com/uk/pen-licence Bringing mythology into the modern world with Louie Stowell Play the podcast, share the teaching sequence – and inspire amazing writing from every pupil... In what is the first book of a new series, *Loki: A Bad God’s Guide to Being Good*, Louie Stowell places Loki in the mortal world as an 11-year-old child, sent there by Odin, to learn how to be good. Thor has also been sent to keep an eye on Loki, and is his brother on Earth. Other Norse gods have come, too, to form Loki’s unconventional ‘human’ family. While on Earth, Loki must keep a diary, which is programmed with Odin’s personality and knowledge, and corrects him if he lies. The book includes comic-style pictures – all created by Louie herself – which give information and add humour. In this teaching sequence, pupils will have the chance to explore what might happen if gods from other mythical worlds were placed on Earth as children, and discuss how the author describes aspects of the human world through the eyes of a visiting god. Extracts from the *Author in Your Classroom* podcast (bit.ly/AIYCLouieStowell) are suggested to introduce each section of the teaching sequence, providing an excellent way to connect the things children are learning with the work of a professional author. “Until the book is read, it doesn’t mean anything” SESSION 1 A STRANGE MORTAL WORLD 1 | Play the podcast from 6:58 to 21:50, where Louie talks about where she got the idea for her story about Loki, and reads an extract from the book. 2 | Discuss some of the following words: Norse – People from Norway or Scandinavia in ancient and medieval times; Mythology – a series of stories or beliefs (myths) belonging to a particular religion or people; Loki – Norse god of mischief and lies; Thor – Norse god of thunder; Asgard – the place where Norse gods live; Hyrrokkin – a Norse goddess who rode a giant wolf and moved funeral ships; Mortal – a living human being; Immortal – something that lives forever and will never die. Gods are considered to be immortal. 3 | Listen to the extract again and identify things that Loki finds strange about the mortal world (cereal, dogs, the playground). How do these things compare to what Loki is used to in Asgard? What words does he use to describe them? SESSION 2 BRINGING MYTHOLOGY INTO THE MODERN WORLD 1 | Discuss again the gods that have been included in the book *Loki: A Bad God’s Guide to Being Good*. Which area of mythology did Louie Stowell get these characters from? (Norse) 2 | Explain to pupils that they will be writing a diary from the point of view of a god who is sent to live on Earth as a child. Which gods could they use? Explore pupils’ knowledge of gods from various mythologies such as those of Ancient Egypt, Greece or Rome. 3 | Ask pupils to begin to think about their own writing. Which god or goddess would they like to write about? 4 | Explain that they will need to choose a god to be sent to Earth as a child (pupils who would benefit from more support could use Loki, and information from the extract) and think about things on Earth that will seem strange to them. They will describe these things in the form of a diary, similar to the extract from Louie Stowell’s book. 5 | Once pupils have recorded ideas for their god/child, allow them time to discuss their characters and what they might find strange about Earth and the things that are important to a child. SESSION 3 GETTING GOING 1 | Listen to the podcast from 34:01 to the end of section 3, where Louie gives a variety of suggestions for getting started with writing. Discuss whether pupils have ever had moments where they didn’t know where to start with writing. 2 | Which of Louie’s ideas to get going with writing might the children try? Explore options that they might find helpful. 3 | Pupils can begin to discuss, doodle, or write ideas for their diary, describing something from Earth from a god’s point of view. Encourage pupils to add further ideas as they arise. SESSION 4 A GOD IN THE MORTAL WORLD 1 | Remind pupils that they are all writers! 2 | Using the ideas they have gathered earlier in the teaching sequence, ask children to write their diary as their chosen god. Remind pupils to think about how they could show how their god is feeling about being on Earth and also what they see or experience. SESSION 5 ADDING DOODLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 1 | Listen to the podcast from 24:21 to 26:40 where Louie talks about her illustrations in the book. 2 | Discuss how images can help tell the story. If possible, look at the images that Louie uses in *Loki: A Bad God’s Guide to Being Good*. 3 | Pupils can reread and edit their writing and think about cartoon illustrations that they could incorporate, removing any text that could be replaced by a drawing. 4 | Allow pupils time to redraft their writing to incorporate their illustrations and present them for others to read. Give children the opportunity to read and enjoy each other’s writing, discussing what they have learned about the characters. AFTER THE UNIT… - Pupils could continue their diary as a god who has been sent to Earth, giving more information about why they are here. - If you haven’t already, read *Loki: A Bad God’s Guide to Being Good* to the class. Explore how Loki changes throughout the book and whether he does indeed learn to ‘be good’. DOWNLOAD NOW! To download a full set of FREE resources for this teaching sequence – including planning sheets, teaching slides, themed writing paper and more – visit [bit.ly/LStowellpack](http://bit.ly/LStowellpack) To subscribe for free, just search for ‘Author in Your Classroom’ wherever you get your podcasts! 10 BOOKS FOR COLD DAYS & long nights Strap on a pair of ice skates, create your very own snowy map, or simply grab a cup of hot chocolate and snuggle up in your very own Winter Wonderland, with these seasonal titles... 1 FOUNDATION STAGE The Storm Whale in Winter BY BENJI DAVIES (SIMON AND SCHUSTER, 2016) About this book When Noi’s father doesn’t return from his fishing trip, Noi sets off across the frozen sea to help him. But all he finds is an abandoned boat, and there are scary noises coming from the sea below. Noi is lost and frightened, and there’s nobody to help. But long ago, Noi saved a whale caught in a storm, and now it’s the whale’s turn to save Noi. This atmospheric picturebook sequel to The Storm Whale tells a well-rounded story, building to a moment of gentle winter peril that is speedily (and satisfactorily) resolved. Thinking and talking Is Noi brave to go out in the snowstorm? Or should he have stayed at home? Why does the Storm Whale decide to help? What do you think he can see and hear below the ice? What do you know about whales? Pool your knowledge, then visit a library to discover more. Try this… - Imagine stepping into the picture of your choice. What can you see, hear, smell and touch? How do you feel? Use exciting words to bring your experience to life, then write... A Dot in the Snow BY CORRINNE AVERISS AND FIONA WOODCOCK, OUP 2017 About this book When Miki the polar bear cub meets a girl in a red coat, fun and games ensue. A lost mitten leads to a daring underwater dive, and breaking ice tests their connection in a different way – but both their mothers are waiting with loving hugs to keep them safe and warm. In this heartwarming picturebook about curiosity, kindness and courage, Fiona Woodcock’s luminous Arctic landscapes put Miki and his new friend centre-stage in a series of visually exciting page layouts. Thinking and talking What do you wear to play in the snow? What does it feel like? What would happen if you lost your glove? Try this… - Draw fractured ice patterns on the playground with chalk and practise jumping safely to the shore. “Paw after paw, slow through the snow, Miki marched back to the ice …” Can you march like Miki? Find more verbs in the text, then have a go at paddling, swimming and climbing like Miki, too. - Sponge and splatter different shades of white paint onto wallpaper to create a snowy background. Paint differently-coloured circles and cut them out. Which colour looks best against the snow? Why? Which colour is easiest to see from a distance? - What are the girl and her mum wearing to keep them safe and warm? Dress up in winter clothing to go on a journey in a frozen landscape. Roleplay, create mini-stories and share. The Snow Beast BY CHRIS JUDGE (ANDERSEN PRESS, 2016) About this book The Beast is always excited by the first snowfall of winter, but this year, the villagers can’t hold their Snow Festival because an abominable monster has stolen their tools. An exciting chase ensues as the Beast sets off to confront the thief, only to discover that the Snow Beast needs the tools to mend his mobile home. Perhaps the Beast can help? This picturebook sequel to The Lonely Beast features snowy landscapes and activities, plus a fabulous cross-section through the Snow Beast’s iceberg home! Thinking and talking Do you remember the last time it snowed? What would you do if it started snowing tomorrow? Did the Snow Beast mean to steal the tools? What could he have done instead? What do you know about icebergs? Float chunks of ice in water and observe what’s happening. Try this… - Set up an outdoor trail of Snow Beast footprints, with story quotes to read along the way – and perhaps a surprise at the end for everyone to share? - Use the pictures to tell the story of the Beast’s accident-prone trip. Can you draw a picture map of his snowy journey? - Prepare a Beast-shaped template and stencil by drawing him on card and cutting him out with a craft knife. Invite children to explore printing and stencilling, then use your Beast template and stencil with black and white paint to create pictures of the friends. 4 Winter Sleep: A Hibernation Story BY SEAN TAYLOR, ALEX MORSS, AND CINYEE CHIU (WORDS & PICTURES, 2019) About this book On a winter visit with Granny to their special woodland glade, a child is dismayed to find that so much has changed since summer. But disappointment is replaced by wonder as Granny demonstrates that the glade is full of life. Weaving wildlife facts into a fictional story about seasonal visits to a much-loved garden, this calm and engaging picturebook includes four informative spreads which take a traditional non-fiction approach to the same material. Thinking and talking Talk about a garden or outdoor space that you know well. What’s it like now, as autumn turns to winter? What will it be like next summer? Talk about spending time with grandparents or older family friends. Would you like to hibernate and wake up in the spring, or do you prefer the winter? Why? Try this… ■ Explore an outdoor area in winter. Draw from life, take photos and make notes. Repeat in spring and discuss the differences. 5 The Friendly Mammoth BY ANNA TERREROS-MARTIN (DAVID FICKLING BOOKS, 2022) About this book When lonely Mansi meets a woolly mammoth at the museum, the pair find themselves swept back in time for an exciting Ice Age adventure. Together they meet a cave-girl, watch the Northern Lights and discover the mammoth’s family grazing on the plain. On her return, Mansi decides to use her artistic skills to protect the environment, which brings her a real-world friend. The pastel illustrations create soft, inviting textures, and an informative spread about five extinct Ice-Age animals is included. “Mansi and a woolly mammoth are swept back in time for an Ice Age adventure” Thinking and talking What does this book tell us about the last Ice Age? Compare the cave paintings of animals with the wildlife Mansi sees on the plain. What do conservation and extinction mean? How does Mansi try to help wildlife when she gets home? What helps Mansi make friends in this story? Try this… - Find out about mammoths, cave paintings, the last Ice Age and other topics in this story. Write about your discoveries and illustrate your work for a display or class book. - Write or tell this story from the mammoth’s point of view. - Use pastels to draw icy landscapes and the Northern Lights (or colour round your hands to create cave-painting-style prints!) About this book When a boy wanders into a magical forest, its strange inhabitants care for him, and name him Jack Frost because of his ability to freeze things with just one touch. But Jack’s arrival has left the door open for troublesome goblins to follow. They kidnap Jack to steal his magic, and he must use all his imagination and cunning to trick his way out. This picturebook classic bursts with imagination, kindness and humour, and reads well aloud. There is also an animated film version of the story. Thinking and talking How do the creatures in the forest care for Jack? If you discovered that you could fly, where would you go and what would you do? What does frost look like? Feel like? Why does it form? Try this… - Investigate freezing and thawing by making your own ‘frozen suns’ and watching them melt under varying conditions. - Make frosty artwork using blue and white paint to create abstract pictures. Before the paint dries, squeeze patterns of PVA glue over it, then add a sprinkling of glittering Epsom Salts (inedible). - Explore the goblins’ movements as they stomp into the snail-glue puddles and get stuck. Play icy music while you’re moving, then freeze when it stops. Invent an unruly goblin chant to shout! About this book In the coldest part of the monster-infested Snow Sea, settlements must be fortified against attack, and journeys of any kind across the frozen water are perilous. When an accident reveals Ash’s special powers, he and his Yeti guardian are forced to join the *Frosthcart*, an explorer sleigh with a daring crew that needs Ash’s help. Rollercoaster action ensues in this wildly imaginative middle-grade adventure, with black and white line drawings throughout. Thinking and talking Would you rather be safe in a fortified village, or out on the *Frosthcart* with Ash and the crew? Debate the pros and cons. How does Jamie Littler describe the frozen setting for this story? Find the words and phrases that bring it to life. The creatures in this book have adapted to living in a frozen world. Can you invent another well-adapted creature for Ash and his companions to encounter? Try this… - Design a new sleigh for the *Frosthcart*’s crew. What are its key features, and why have you included them? - Write and illustrate a guidebook to the monsters in this book. - Work together to summarise the main events in this story. Where do they happen, and what are we told about these locations? Use this information to help you draw and annotate a picture-map. --- About this book With illustrations evoking the harshness and subdued light of a midwinter landscape, this lyrical picturebook about the age-old customs and beliefs around the Winter Solstice also captures the warmth of human interaction and the promise of new growth. Celebrating the cycle of life and the patterns created by light and darkness in our lives, Susan Cooper’s atmospheric poem was originally written for theatrical performance. As a picturebook for older readers, it makes an intriguing starting point for further research about winter customs and beliefs, and will inspire children’s own creative seasonal responses. Thinking and talking How do you and your family celebrate at midwinter? What other traditions, customs and festivals are you aware of around this time of year? What is the Winter Solstice, and why did people in history care about it? Why do we care, now? While the sun is absent, what other sources of light are visible? Why do you think Carson Ellis depicted the sun in this way? What do these images make you think about and feel? Try this… - Find out about seasonal customs and traditions, then work together to present an assembly or create a class display. - Compare Carson Ellis’s illustration of people collecting firewood with Pieter Bruegel the Elder’s ‘Hunters in the Snow’, then paint your own snowy landscapes with bare winter trees. - Learn this poem and perform it, choral speaking-style. Add masks, mime and music to your performance for even greater impact. Frindleswylde BY NATALIA AND LAUREN O’HARA (WALKER BOOKS, 2021) About this book When Frindleswylde tricks his way into their log cabin and steals the attic lamp, Granny can’t find her way home. Cora follows the mysterious thief into a world where summer lies frozen to retrieve the light, but Frindleswylde tricks Cora into becoming his Winter Queen instead. Frindleswylde doesn’t want anything to change, but deep down, Cora knows that nothing stays the same forever. When she acts on this knowledge, Spring follows her out of Frindleswylde’s kingdom and his spell is broken. This lyrical, longer-form picturebook for older readers draws inspiration from traditional northern folktales (three impossible tasks, a deep dark forest, icy spells…) and is evocatively illustrated in a cold palette throughout. Thinking and talking What would you do as King or Queen of Winter? Frindleswylde wants everything to stay the same, but Cora knows she must grow up. What does this story tell us about change? What is changing in your world? Why do you think people like telling stories on long, dark nights? Try this… ■ “In the living room, hailstones pounded the floor and cracked the windows…” Write creatively about winter coming indoors. ■ Investigate electrical circuits, then use components to make your own working lanterns. Decorate, then read folktales together by their light on a dark day. ■ Inspired by the illustration of Cora in the frozen garden, use icy colours to create watercolour pictures of Frindleswylde’s kingdom. Lines BY SUZY LEE (CHRONICLE KIDS, 2017) About this book As a girl skates across an icy pond, she leaves an increasingly complex line behind her on the pure white page. Her movements are captured using drawing techniques that children can explore themselves, and as the pages turn, we become increasingly aware of the artist’s role. Ignoring a ball of crumpled paper, the girl skates over it to the final page, where she is joined by others, and the illusion of happy skaters on a winter pond is (almost?) complete. Drawn entirely in pencil, this sophisticated wordless picturebook rewards close looking and will prompt questions about the artist’s role and drawing techniques. Thinking and talking Share knowledge and experiences of skating and other winter sports. How does it feel to be active in cold weather? Does Lines communicate these feelings? How? What’s happening in this book? Tell the story from the girl’s point of view. Does she know that she’s a character in a picturebook? Discuss Suzy Lee’s artwork and the way she chose to construct this book. What do you think she was trying to say by working like this? Try this… ■ Copy the girl’s postures and explore the movements they suggest. Join to create sequences, then add icy music for a performance. ■ Skate a pencil line across a blank page to create Suzy Lee-style patterns, then explore the different effects you can create. Draw a frozen landscape with a big pond and populate it with lots of busy skaters. ■ Write a commentary on the action from the girl’s perspective. Repeat from the artist’s point of view. Can you make each voice sound different? Carey Fluker-Hunt is a freelance writer, creative learning consultant, and founder of Cast of Thousands (castofthousands.co.uk) Are you ready for writing moderation? Grab your sticky notes and take a deep breath: here’s how to make the process work for you ADAM LEVICK Writing moderation is something on which we all have an opinion. Some of us relish the opportunity to be able to show off our pupils’ amazing work, while others dread the experience of having to ‘prove’ that a child has managed to cross the threshold of the expected standard. After going through the process, I can confidently say that it was useful and (dare I say) enjoyable. It was a great form of CPD, and allowed for meaningful professional discussion and advice on the next steps to improve my teaching. The key message is simple: know your class’ writing, and know it well. Have the confidence in your ability as a teacher to know where each child is, and know what evidence is available to justify that. This knowledge of the work is the springboard for everything else when it comes to preparing for moderation. To make the process as painless as possible, make sure you have done the organisational prep work needed. For me, that meant checklists colour-coordinated with sticky labels across a class set of writing books. However, any system that showcases where the evidence is and how children have met the standards is a winner. Find what works for you. On top of this, your preparation truly begins at the point of your medium- and long-term plans. Having a broad range of genres, audiences and purposes for writing is essential, making a note of what knowledge you expect the children to gain where you can. Let’s take a closer look at some of these tips, to help you feel ready should you get that writing moderation call. Don’t panic Getting the selection email can be daunting; I remember the sense of dread I initially experienced when my headteacher came and told me, “It’s a yes to moderation”. However, there is nobody in the world better suited to talking through your children’s work than you. Moderators aren’t there to catch you out. Most are teachers and just want to ensure that pupils are getting the grades they deserve. Take a breath, and pause. If you’re prepared and armed with a strong knowledge of your class’ writing, you will be fine! Actually teach the children Being prepared for writing moderation begins on day one. Your teaching sequences will have a huge impact on the children’s work across the year. The final pieces you’ll take to moderation all stem from your lessons. Independent writing is a skill that is honed through explicit teaching. I have made the mistake of letting the children write independently far too early, only to be met with blank stares and a chorus of ‘ummmm’. To be prepared for moderation, you need to put the groundwork in first. Let your class see the writing process and the way a writer thinks. Model writing in front of them, explaining your reasons behind your language or grammatical choices. Shared writes allow you to collate your class’ ideas with you as a guiding voice. Take their suggestions on board and tweak where necessary to show them how they can turn ideas into great sentences. Actually teaching the children how to think like a writer is the best way to ensure their independent writing will be ready for moderation. If you’re not sure where to start, try free podcasts like Author In Your Classroom to bring real-life writers directly to your pupils. **Presenting evidence** Writing will be moderated against the teacher’s assessment framework (TAF), so make sure this is the basis for your prep. Your best tool to help present evidence is a checklist of the TAF statements, mapped onto different examples of the children’s writing. Finding the right checklist is key. Although the moderator will use a list filled with broad and generalised statements, using one that breaks each statement down will make your life easier. For example, instead of ticking off ‘I can build cohesion within and across paragraphs’, use a list that gives each cohesive device its own tickable box (‘for example’, ‘in conclusion’, ‘and’, ‘but’, etc). This allows you to pinpoint individual or whole-class weaknesses. I’m a firm believer that overpreparation is the key to success. I also swear allegiance to anything colour-coded. For me, that meant developing my own system of sticky notes to mark each piece of work for different evidence markers. For instance, I could easily spot that pink meant ‘using a dictionary to spell uncommon or more ambitious words’. Having these visual prompts sticking out of the top of the books meant I could turn to that piece of work immediately and give the moderator the evidence they needed. **Moderate before moderation** Moderation can feel like a lonely process, especially if you teach in a small school. However, a crucial part of feeling prepared is collaboration. To feel at ease, moderate some writing with others before the big day looms. If you’re part of a MAT, ask about cross-school moderation. That way, people who have taught different writing units will be able to look over your work and give you advice and reassurance where necessary. Sitting down with your headteacher to go through your judgements and evidence is also a great help. Chances are, they will have seen the children’s work in previous years and will be able to give you a positive narrative about how much progress they’ve made. The key takeaway is always to ask for the help and support you need. I was lucky enough to moderate with colleagues in school and across the MAT, with my headteacher, and with friends and colleagues through Twitter. Not only did it help me understand where to ensure I had extra evidence, but it also boosted my confidence hugely. You got this! **Adam Levick** Adam Levick is a mixed Year 5/6 teacher in a small school in York. He is also the subject leader for English, PSHE and computing. @_MrLevick --- **9 THINGS YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT WRITING MODERATION:** 1. First, moderation isn’t as scary or daunting as it seems. It’s actually a useful process that is meant to benefit you as CPD and to give next steps to influence your teaching the following year. 2. Keep calm and take it as an opportunity to benefit your own practice as a teacher. 3. Make sure you tune into a positive mindset to make the process work for you. 4. Organisation is key to feeling prepared; using a system to collate evidence without inducing a huge workload. Find a way to showcase evidence that works for you. 5. Ask for what you need; whether that’s time, people to moderate with, or just someone to listen. 6. Reach out to others going through the same. A support network is really helpful for ensuring that you feel prepared and positive going through the process. Twitter is great for this! 7. Make sure you have a strong knowledge of the children’s writing, including their strengths and roughly which level they are working at. 8. Put the groundwork in from day one. A well-planned writing curriculum with a good range of genres, audiences and purposes will ensure a solid evidence base. 9. Make sure you’ve explicitly taught your children the how and why behind writing, providing models and scaffolds at the beginning of the year. My Letters and Sounds is a complete phonics teaching programme that builds upon the original 2007 Letters and Sounds. It has been carefully designed to provide schools that wish to continue using the Letters and Sounds framework with an up-to-date and comprehensive set of resources that meet the DfE’s revised core criteria for effective phonics teaching. Expert CPD training Classroom Kit Detailed teaching guidance Step-by-step lesson plans Digital resources and assessment Practice workbooks Fully decodable readers 110 finely graded, fully decodable readers featuring stunning illustrations and natural English Teacher’s Handbooks providing daily lesson plans and supporting photocopiable and digital resources Write-in workbooks to help children practise phonics skills at home High-quality classroom resources, including friezes and mnemonic flashcards Request a free sample pack by visiting: www.schofieldandsims.co.uk/mylettersandsounds Ensure every child becomes a successful reader! Discover the leading systematic synthetic phonics programme developed to provide schools with high-quality, consistent teaching of phonics. Access the full programme with a low cost membership subscription including CPD, assessment and lesson planning. Go to littlewandlelettersandsounds.org.uk to find out more. Supported by 254 matched decodable books and a range of classroom resources including grapheme cards and charts, teachers guides and more, all from Collins Big Cat. NEW Rapid Catch-up for pupils aged 7+ and SEND resources now available! Scan this code to find out more and sign up to a free briefing collins.co.uk/BigCatLittleWandleL&SRevised Let’s be honest, it can often seem that there are two types of assessment: the kind that helps you teach and the sort that keeps the ‘Powers That Be’ happy. The former – often classed as formative assessment – lets you know how your pupils are doing and allows you to adjust your practice as you go along. Traditionally, however, the latter is the mark by which they and you will be judged. It is high-stakes and, arguably, artificial, dependent on how each child performs in narrow tests on a specific day. The Teacher Assessment Framework (TAF) provides something of a bridge between those extremes. It is still statutory assessment, but it also provides real opportunities to help your pupils demonstrate what you know in your heart is their true ability. What’s it all about? Essentially, the TAF is a tool for supporting teacher assessment at the end of a Key Stage by focusing on certain critical aspects of core subjects such as English. It consists of a number of ‘I can …’ statements to be ticked off using evidence from pupils’ work, which together will show whether each child is working towards or at the expected standard, or at greater depth. There are various provisos defining what counts as evidence, so you will need to look up the official guidance. The main point, however, is that the evidence must be harvested from independent work, so there is no chance of manufacturing better-than-deserved outcomes. Just keep teaching As the ‘Powers That Be’ are at pains to point out, this statutory framework does not cover all the requirements of the National Curriculum, so you can continue to enjoy giving your pupils a broad education. Nor should it replace your school’s existing assessment policy and the way you communicate pupil progress across the full curriculum to their parents and carers. The TAF plays a key role in moderation, too. If your school is one of the 25 per cent earmarked for moderation each year, you will be expected to be able to produce evidence against the TAF standards on demand, so it is well worth keeping tabs on how well your pupils are progressing against each of them, with some kind of tracking system. Put learning to the test Part of your tracking system should record where the best evidence is for each statement, especially if you recognise the following scenario: you know that Pupil A understands how to use punctuation mark B. She has explained it to you and she has shown understanding through class discussions. However, when you come to scan her books for examples in independent writing activities, it’s just not there. It’s not that it’s been missed when she had the chance. For some reason, the way she has worded every single text has simply bypassed the need for that punctuation mark, entirely legitimately. These are the situations in which you need to nudge the fates in your favour, by planning an independent writing task that is likely to yield the evidence you need. Short of command sentences? Get your pupils to write a set of instructions. Need to see some exclamation sentences? An informal letter or personal recount might do the trick. Self-assessment can also help in these situations. If you provide grids of success criteria for specific pieces of work and give them a chance to rate their own, you can bet that your pupils will try extra hard to include examples of all the goals and targets. Ultimately, the guiding principle here must be to think ahead and be prepared. Gearing your planning to take account of the TAF can make your job so much easier. Sue Drury is literacy lead at Plazoom, the expert literacy resources website. Find more advice at plazoom.com/blog 4 RESOURCES TO GENERATE TAF EVIDENCE bit.ly/PlazoomTAF1 ‘Great Fire of London’ - instruction writing pack with TAF checklists bit.ly/PlazoomTAF2 ‘The Wrong Habitat’ - narrative writing pack with TAF checklists bit.ly/PlazoomTAF3 ‘Letter to Neil Armstrong’ - formal writing pack with TAF checklists bit.ly/PlazoomTAF4 ‘Discovering my Home Town’ - recount writing pack with TAF checklists Ideal for Intervention! REAL GRAMMAR Teach grammar RIGHT from the start Everything you need to embed grammar knowledge across your school 1. Teach quality-first grammar lessons with all the resources you need at your fingertips 2. Support and challenge EVERY child with 3 levels of differentiation 3. Upskill your subject knowledge with terminology definitions and modelled examples "All the resources I would make myself if I had the time!" Alice Griffith, Peppard CE Primary School A SIMPLE AND EFFECTIVE 5-STEP STRUCTURE Ensuring progression and complete coverage of the whole curriculum 1. TEACH Comprehensive teaching sequences ensure your pupils grasp every concept and can apply their learning in context. 2. PRACTISE 3 differentiated practise activities that can be used flexibly to consolidate learning and identify any gaps or misconceptions. 3. REVISIT A range of games and activities that will ensure your pupils embed their learning. 4. APPLY Extended writing tasks are used to encourage children to identify and apply the skill in context. 5. REVISE 3 differentiated revision exercises to prepare your pupils for their end of year assessments. Can be used flexibly to suit the needs of your class. GET YOUR FREE SAMPLE UNIT! To download a FREE unit visit plazoom.com/real-grammar Teaching grammar without context is a little like sharing a meme of a literary quote without having read the book from which it has been taken. Yes, we can drill our pupils to spot grammatical features and name them; but without seeing those features used in the context of real texts, children can’t really understand how they work as tools of communication. The view that grammar is best taught in context is not a new one. It’s an approach supported by research, including that of Professor Debra Myhill at Exeter University, and is something that most teachers aspire to do. However, despite this, many still find themselves drilling grammatical terminology in stand-alone lessons in preparation for the spelling, punctuation and grammar test at the end of Key Stage 2. So how can we set about teaching grammar in context so that children remember it? 1. **TEACH** In the first instance, we need to map out the objectives required in our year group; ensuring that every objective is included. Think about the model texts you want to use with children. Recognising that certain text types lend themselves to specific grammar objectives can be particularly useful when you do this. For example, if you need to teach command sentences, using an instructions model text, such as a recipe, makes sense. It’s important to include direct teacher instruction in your grammar planning. You’ll not want to take a directive approach in all lessons, but when introducing objectives, direct instruction means you can be sure that the mental models children create are accurate. Using the relevant grammatical terminology as you explore your model text ensures that children see the grammar in a meaningful context. **Quick Tip:** After teaching children about a target objective through the model text, set them a treasure hunt task. Can they find examples of the objective in their reading books? This could be a homework activity or something you ask them to do in pairs or small groups. You could extend this activity, for example, by challenging them to note whether specific text types use the feature. Equally, you could support pupils by providing accessible texts that you know contain the features you want them to locate. “Without seeing grammatical features used in the context of real texts, children can’t really understand how they work as tools of communication” 2 PRACTISE Once you’ve pointed out the target objective in your model text, children need opportunities to practise using it. This type of low-stakes activity means they can develop their mental models without feeling overwhelmed. Activities such as labelling, filling in cloze procedures and completing sentence starters are perfect for this kind of learning. Quick Tip: Think about progression and what children already know. For example, if teaching pupils in upper Key Stage 2 to use dialogue to develop character and action, you may need to track back to earlier work on adding speech marks, using the range of speech punctuation, and using synonyms for ‘said’ in reporting clauses. Revisit these previous objectives if it will help children access their existing mental models. And don’t be afraid to use pre-prepared resources! 3 REVISIT Teaching a concept or rule once only is unlikely to ensure deep learning, so looking at how to space repetition so that children encounter each objective several times over the year is a good approach. It’s beneficial to use different text types, too – so the command sentences I mentioned earlier, for example, could also be explored in a persuasive article, such as a tourism leaflet (‘Visit Yorkshire!’) With each successive encounter with the objective, pupils modify their mental model and come to deepen their understanding of how an aspect of grammar can be used in real texts. Quick Tip: Create a set of grammar instruction cards. Children could answer these individually, in pairs, groups or as a whole class. Prompts could include: write me a sentence using the past progressive form of verbs; write me a sentence including an expanded noun phrase; write a sentence with a fronted adverbial. Once you’ve made the cards you can swap them in and out based on assessment for learning (AfL) and the ongoing grammar objectives you cover with the class. 4 APPLY When children understand the grammar we’ve taught them, they can use it to write their own texts, communicating for different purposes and audiences. Model texts play an important role in this process, as they give children an example to base their own texts upon, exemplifying the target grammar objectives. Quick Tip: Knowing how to use a grammatical feature to improve a piece of writing is a good way for children to apply their knowledge. Giving them a basic sentence such as ‘The dog walked.’, and asking them to improve it using the target objective (e.g. add an expanded noun phrase, or use a fronted adverbial) is a quick and easy way to check pupils’ understanding. Quick Tip: You could ask the class to write three examples of a question, or to circle all the verbs on a grid of words containing a variety of word families. This will give you the vital assessment knowledge that you need to plan well-pitched and progressive learning, and it will enable the children to recall and revise existing knowledge. Using tests that replicate the question types from the SATs means that pupils become accustomed to the question formats of the tests. It’s worth remembering that 3–5 questions planned into a teaching sequence is plenty. 5 REVISE Giving pupils opportunities to practise using their stored knowledge helps them to draw on it when they need it. This is why it’s worth planning opportunities for children to revisit and revise their understanding as part of any grammar teaching sequence. Quick Tips: Low-stakes testing is a good way to help children retrieve and recall their grammatical knowledge. Testing doesn’t need to be formal – for example, you... PICK A STORY GET PRIMARY PUPILS ENGAGED IN READING! OUT NOW COMING 5TH JANUARY Packed with twists, turns and choices to make on every page, so children can choose where their story takes them. Get a copy for your class now! This year, more than 25 per cent of children in Year 6 left primary school reading at below the expected level. The impact of this, as we all know, is that secondary school will be much harder for these children than for their peers. The secondary curriculum is reliant on pupils reading with fluency and understanding, and when they enter KS3 not being able to read well, they can quickly lose confidence. In our primary schools we have children in KS2 who have really missed out; those who didn’t get the teaching and attention they needed to become confident readers, especially during the pandemic. We need to do something now. So how do we help all our children learn to read? 1. Make your class a reading class Professor Teresa Cremin (president of the UK Literacy Association) often speaks about how we need to address both ‘the will and skill’ when it comes to reading. For any child that is a wobbly reader, being read to and experiencing a rich diet of all types of literature, poetry and non-fiction is crucial to igniting that will to read. We know that teachers who read to children every day are doing just that. And when you create a reading classroom where pupils can explore all sorts of texts, comics, graphic novels, magazines and catalogues, and where reading is a shared, out-loud experience, every child can see themselves as a reader and find themselves in books. We also know that reading time has benefits beyond the enjoyment it fosters. When teachers read aloud and chat with children about a book, they are creating understanding, connection and memory which of course underpins comprehension. Curious conversations about books that have been shared are powerful in themselves, too; they lay the foundations for meaningful comprehension in an enjoyable, inclusive fashion. Make this part of your daily practice and you will be ensuring not only that the children you teach experience lots of quality literature, but you will be showing them that reading is important to you – that it matters. Whatever the reason, you need a robust assessment to work out exactly what these children need and what the gaps are. Your SSP should have an assessment that can benchmark pupils’ phonic knowledge, and you may also want to do a fluency assessment which will help you work out if reading speed and accuracy are issues, too. But make sure the fluency assessment is at 2. Quickly identify children who have not secured the alphabetic code There are many reasons why children may need to be taught reading in KS2: - they have missed chunks of schooling and so have gaps in their phonic knowledge; - they have not been taught with consistency and so have not secured adequate phonic knowledge to read fluently; - they need more practice and time to secure each stage of the phonic code and so have fallen behind their peers; - they are new to the country and reading or speaking English. the right level and is fully decodable. Again, your SSP should have one available. 3. Make a plan: timetable lessons and get teaching every day It’s pretty clear that children who are not reading in KS2 need urgent support and that it should be as quick and effective as possible. There is no time to waste so let’s make every minute count! Your assessments will help you work out if you need to teach small groups of children or if they need one-to-one teaching. Consider timetabling reading lessons before school, and providing breakfast. It seems so unfair that children who need more help miss out on the wider curriculum, so even if before school doesn’t work, think creatively about how to timetable lessons so children don’t miss out. We all know that a child who is missing their favourite class is going to find it harder to give these lessons their all. To stop catch-up feeling like a chore, make one lesson a week into a celebration: whip out the hot chocolate and read to the children at the end. They are working hard, and we need to acknowledge that! 4. Find a place that is calm and private Children who have not learned to read at the same time as their peers will have lost confidence and may show this through their behaviour. It is vital that we make them feel safe and ready to learn in their catch-up lessons. Pupils may feel that they cannot learn to read, that it is too difficult or not for them, so it is up to you to help them believe that they can do this by showing them that it is possible and celebrating their successes. Older children in particular need to feel that they are not being patronised or considered ‘not intelligent’ because they have not yet learned to read. Keep your tone warm and encouraging and the pace of the lesson brisk so that every moment is used to learn. Try to see these lessons as a team effort with you and the children working together. To keep the cognitive load low: - keep distractions to a minimum; only put out the resources that you need for the lesson; - don’t talk too much – use the minimum talk needed to teach. Too much talk is overwhelming for some children; - use the same teaching resources as your SSP – the same grapheme cards and grapheme charts will ensure consistency; - use the same routines and activities; this will help pupils to focus on learning to read rather than learning a new activity. 5. Make reading central to your teaching Phonics is only part of teaching reading. Your catch-up programme must include reading practice with fully decodable books, ideally created with older readers in mind. Teach reading fluency, prosody and comprehension in these sessions. Make sure that the children take these books home to practise or that they read them to another adult during the week. 6. Don’t stop until they are reading fluently! (And don’t forget about spelling.) Children who have secured all of the phase five grapheme-phoneme correspondences (GPCs) and can read them with ease, and have a reading accuracy speed of 90+ words per minute, are ready to exit the phonics instruction part of a catch-up programme. They will, however, need to continue reading sessions, which will ensure that they are practising their phonic knowledge in context and will provide challenge in terms of vocabulary and comprehension. Continue to use grapheme charts in class to aid spelling and ensure that the children are given time to use their phonic knowledge to decode new words when they are reading. TP Charlotte Raby is programme developer at Little Wandle. She is a champion of reading for pleasure at home and at school and never leaves the house without a book in her bag! Accelerate reading progress by up to 96%* Reading Plus is the online reading development programme designed to improve pupils’ fluency, stamina, and comprehension. **THE STUDY** Ran from Sept 21 - May 22 Reading Plus efficacy study in partnership with Derby Research School and Spencer Academy Trust. **THE RESULTS** Reading Plus pupils achieved on average: - **All pupils:** - 50% increase in their results from the first to the last test. - SIX-MARK increase on their scaled score ending with a pass of 102. - **Pupil premium pupils:** - 96% more progress than pupil premium children in the control schools. - EIGHT-MARK increase on their scaled scores finishing with a pass of 102. Involved 470 Y6 pupils 3 schools used Reading Plus 3 schools did not use Reading Plus FIND OUT MORE READINGSOLUTIONSUK.COM *In a Reading Plus study of 470 Y6 pupils over the 2021/22 academic year. READATHON GETS KIDS READING! Reading can be a refuge for pupils in these hard times, reaping life-long benefits whilst alleviating the stresses and worries around them. Readathon is a tried-and-tested way to motivate pupils to read with purpose, getting books to children in hospital, whilst boosting their own mental health, self esteem and happiness. It’s really easy to run too – just order a FREE kit and we’ll send you a box of goodies with everything you need to run your Readathon. To order your free kit scan this QR code, email us at firstname.lastname@example.org or call us on 01453 839005 EXCLUSIVE MICHAEL MORPURGO AUTHOR EVENT! Visit readforgood.org/morpurgo to find out about our exclusive online author event with the best-selling author, Michael Morpurgo, celebrating World Book Day 2023! Read for Good is a charity which transforms the lives of children and young people through reading for pleasure. We motivate hundreds of thousands of children to read through our sponsored Readathon in schools. Any money pupils raise helps to bring the magic of books and stories to children in hospital across the UK. readforgood.org How to run a creative WRITING CLUB Would you rather be able to fly, or be invisible? Maybe both? Explore endless impossibilities and help pupils get into the scribbling spirit with these ideas for your own group MEL TAYLOR-BESSENT If you could wish for one thing, knowing that it would definitely come true, what would you wish for? A million pounds? To fly? To talk to animals? To live in a tree house? To travel the world at the click of a finger? I’ve asked this question hundreds of times to thousands of pupils, and their answers are always imaginative, normally well thought-out, and quite often, impossible. I then follow it up with the question, “What if you could experience that thing right here, right now?” Cue eyes widening, ears pricking and backs straightening. “All you need is . . .” I explain, “…a pencil.” Before becoming an author, I ran creative writing clubs in 30 schools a week for almost a decade. I hired over 100 tutors, won some awards, teamed up with publishers to arrange author events, and even had requests from teachers in Europe, Dubai and Australia asking to launch a club in their schools. There were long waiting lists in almost every school, and teachers, parents and librarians would ask on a weekly basis, “How have you turned that reluctant reader/writer into someone that actually wants to do more writing after school?” The secret? First and foremost, I planned workshops that were FUN. I knew if I enjoyed running them, pupils would enjoy taking part. I was just another writer in the room who talked about the books I was reading, collaborated on ideas, and asked for feedback on stories in the same way they asked me. I wasn’t a published author at this point – just someone that loved to invent characters and write about fantastical, magical worlds. I wrote alongside the students, making mistakes, scribbling over anything I didn’t like, and asking for help whenever I got stuck. Everyone knew this was just ‘rough’ work. There was no pressure. No marking. No tests. And we didn’t have to share our ideas if we didn’t want to. I genuinely looked forward to every single workshop I ran, and I know the students felt the same when they came racing into the classroom and didn’t want to leave at the end (yes, even the ones who ‘hated’ writing to begin with!). Of course, I couldn’t rely on pupils simply coming up with new ideas each week for enjoyment. I had to provide them with inspiration, jumping-off points, and exciting writing hooks, too. For this, I turned to the experts – children’s authors. I chose five ‘Authors of the Term’ that I knew would enthuse and inspire the students, and designed workshops around their books. This was always a really fun part of the process – I looked for books that had wide appeal, simple concepts, and a fun, excitable element that made my inner child say ‘ooooooh!’. Here are a few examples I used Abi Elphinstone’s Rumblestar to write fast-paced adventure stories. We plotted our adventures on maps, planned the main action in ‘cloud planners’, and focused on exciting ‘world-crossing moments’ to start our stories. At Halloween, I chose books like Guy Bass’ Stitch Head and Joseph Coelho’s Zombierella, and ended each workshop with a spooky storytelling session where we turned off the lights, closed the blinds, and sat on the floor as if we were gathered around a campfire! The most successful workshops were the simplest. I used L.D. Lapinski’s Strangeworlds series and copied what happened to the protagonist when she jumped inside a suitcase and travelled to another world. Pupils planned their new setting, focused on the five senses, and described the first thing they noticed when they arrived. Their stories were thrilling, fast-paced, hugely descriptive, and completely individual because they had the freedom to take their ideas in any direction they chose. I normally planned two sessions around each book – the first session involved planning and starting stories (or poems / diary entries / letters, etc), and the second session involved extending, improving, or continuing them. I also added one ‘paint a picture’ session (using images for inspiration) and a ‘free writing’ session at the end of each term to give pupils a chance to finish their favourite piece of work. Remember, if you want to boost writing for pleasure, pupils should know that they can write about anything. Nothing is off limits. Nothing is impossible. Nothing is ‘wrong’. And if you’re not sure how to start your first session, why not ask your pupils if there’s one thing they could wish for, knowing that it would definitely come true, what would it be? Happy writing! --- **FIVE GAMES TO BOOST WRITING FOR PLEASURE** 1. **DISTRACTION!** Beware: pupils love this game so much, they might ask to play it every week! The idea is simple. Children write for 10 minutes, in silence, and if they speak / laugh / stop writing for an extended period of time, they get a ‘strike’. If a table gets three strikes, they risk not being allowed to read their work out. The twist? It’s your job to distract them! Shake tables and shout ‘EARTHQUAAAAKE!', steal their pens, use rulers as drumsticks on the tables, play songs they’ll want to sing along to, bust out the YMCA and get caught by a bemused head teacher (err, guilty!). Between the giggling and dancing in their seats, pupils write so much in these 10 minutes, and it’s a great way to get them writing without overthinking. 2. **WHERE AM I?** Give students a setting (e.g. a library / the moon / horse stables / a rocket ship launch) and challenge them to describe it without saying where it is. They should focus on the five senses. They must give at least three clues before the class can guess where it is, and the person who guesses correctly gets the next go. The winner is the person who gets the most correct answers or the person that comes up with your favourite description. 3. **FIVE-MINUTE CHALLENGE** Tell students that most adults can write two lines in one minute, and then challenge them to write 10 lines in five! Give constant time reminders, walk around the room shouting out ideas or words of encouragement, and watch their competitiveness soar. This is a great game to play if, like me, you spend most of the lesson talking about books and story ideas, and realise there’s not much writing time left! 4. **ONE-WORD GAME** This game is a great way to warm up imaginations at the start of a workshop. Ask pupils to stand behind their chairs and give them an opening line such as, ‘I was walking through the haunted castle when . . .’. Walk (actually it’s more of a run!) around the room, pointing at each pupil in turn, and asking them to add one word to the story. It must make sense and they have three seconds to answer. If they can’t think of a word, if it doesn’t make sense, or if they take too long, they are out and must sit down. The winner is the last person standing. Note: when they get really good, try introducing a one-second hesitation rule – it’s hilarious! 5. **WHAT’S YOUR PROBLEM?** Remind students that every story needs a problem to make it exciting. Then ask them to stand behind their chairs and each give one problem like, ‘aliens invaded Earth’ or ‘I broke a fingernail’. Problems can be big or small, but they must give an answer in three seconds, and they can’t repeat anything that’s already been said. The winner is the last person standing. 100 decodable books that pupils can read “The Red Squirrel’s series worked! Not only were my pupils strong, confident readers at the end of the year but they LOVED reading.” — Kaye Twomey, Presentation Primary School, Limerick City Red Squirrel Phonics is a series of 100 decodable books that have been written to help children succeed in developing good decoding and comprehension skills from the very start. - 100 enjoyable stories and non-fiction texts - Decodable vocabulary with some high-frequency words - Comprehensive Teachers’ Books that include guided reading lesson plans, activity sheets and assessment - Recurring characters and fun illustrations Perfect for use in the classroom and at home, Red Squirrel Phonics will help children to use and apply the phonic skills they have learned through their systematic synthetic phonics programme. 30 NEW BOOKS NOW AVAILABLE Download your free samples To find out how Red Squirrel Phonics could help your pupils, visit www.raintree.co.uk/red-squirrel-phonics Resource roundup Eight ideas for exceptional literacy teaching 1. **Ready for reading** Reading Plus is an evidence-based adaptive reading development programme, with an extensive research portfolio demonstrating statistically significant effects on improving student outcomes. Aimed at pupils in KS2 and above, Reading Plus has a readability range from Y2 to beyond GCSE. It supports children in developing their skills to read competently and confidently by improving fluency, stamina, vocabulary, and comprehension. Disadvantaged students, boys, and reluctant readers benefit greatly from the structured instruction, the patented Guided Window, and the pupil-led approach. See the impact for yourself and try a free four-week pilot of Reading Plus. Visit readingsolutionsuk.com for more information. 2. **Create writing experts with STABILO** STABILO specialises in ergonomic shaped pens and pencils which are specifically designed for left and right handers. Learning to write is an important skill to master and with the EASY Start range of handwriting pens and pencils this can be made EASY. Within the range you’ll find something suitable for all school ages and abilities. Also, the EASYgraph and the EASYoriginal are not only loved by kids but they are also approved by UK teachers. stabilo.com/uk *In UK user trials 95% of teachers approved the use of STABILO EASYoriginal pens and STABILO EASYgraph pencils in their schools.* 3. **Ireland leading the way** Did you know that the phonemic awareness of preschool / reception year children is the single best predictor of their future reading ability, better than either SES or IQ? (Stanovich & Stanovich, 2003). Jolly Phonics builds solid phonemic awareness and blending skills across 42 sounds. 91 per cent of Ireland’s primary schools now follow the Jolly Phonics Programme, with trained teachers. In the latest PIRLS results for 10-year-olds which compares reading and literacy skills across countries, Ireland came fourth out of 50 countries, and first in Europe. CPD College provides certified online training in Jolly Phonics on behalf of Jolly Learning. Visit cpdcollege.com 4. **A Passion for Books** Ensure that every early reader will experience success from their very first book with Red Squirrel Phonics! Featuring 100 decodable titles, the programme helps teach children phonics skills in a sequential and systematic way and includes comprehensive teachers’ books that provide guided reading lesson plans, activity sheets and assessment. Better yet, the series can be used alongside your school’s systematic synthetic phonics programme! Download your samples and find out more at raintree.co.uk/red-squirrel-phonics A word a day Become a master storyteller, one word at a time with Mrs Wordsmith Storyteller’s Word A Day, Ages 7-11 (Key Stage 2), which was shortlisted as an ERA 2022 finalist. The Word a Day format makes it easy to do class vocabulary work in bite-sized pieces. Display the word all day for multiple exposures and better retention. Get to the core of each word by exploring its pairs, synonyms, history, and usage in classic literature. With an illustration-based story starter for every word, get creative! Tell a story, or write, sing, or draw something new every day. To find out more, email email@example.com The Ogress and the Orphans You know Kelly Barnhill – she’s the award-winning author of bestseller The Girl Who Drank the Moon – and now she’s back with another beautiful fantasy fable for ages nine and up: The Ogress and the Orphans. With her story of a small town, a dazzling-but-deceitful mayor, and an unfairly victimised Ogress, Barnhill has penned a modern masterpiece. A wonderfully moving and utterly compelling tale of kindness in the face of lies and the enduring power of love and light when all around is dark, The Ogress and the Orphans confirms the author’s place at the very top table of young person’s fiction. Shop now at Ink.to/OgressOrphans The Ten Minute Box Many children master the basics of phonics but struggle to move on to the next stage: digraphs. Confidence is often low in these learners. The Ten Minute Box has expert support in one handy place: assessments, a structured programme of activities and progress trackers. Build self-esteem with individualised sessions that motivate even reluctant learners. Avoid learned helplessness with strategies that transfer across the curriculum. Implement multisensory teaching that identifies potential signs of dyslexia and boosts children with EAL or communication needs. A perfect use of targeted funding. Email for more information or to FREE TRIAL any Five Minute Box intervention. firstname.lastname@example.org Book-based learning Used by over 40,000 teachers, the Literary Curriculum from Literacy Tree is a comprehensive and cohesive award-winning, book-based approach to primary English. Written by teachers and using expertly chosen, high-quality texts, pupils are immersed in fictional worlds to heighten engagement and provide meaningful contexts for writing. School members have access to over 300 book-based resources for writing, reading comprehension and spelling, as well as resources for catch-up and home-learning. Learn more at literarycurriculum.co.uk Using humour in non-fiction writing with Dara O’Briain Play the podcast, share the teaching sequence—and inspire amazing writing from every pupil... As well as being full of fascinating information, lots of factual books are laugh-out-loud funny, with authors deciding that humour can be a key way of explaining their ideas and keeping their reader interested in some very deep and potentially challenging topics. This type of writing is a wonderful thing for young writers to try to emulate in the classroom, bringing together the interest many children have in facts and information with their natural desire to have fun and laugh. But as every teacher knows, striking the right balance between humour and information can be a tricky thing to do well. In this teaching sequence, children will have the chance to learn how to bring fascinating information and humour together so each complements the other, taking inspiration from one of the masters of the field, Dara O’Briain. Extracts from the Author in Your Classroom podcast (listen at bit.ly/AIYCDaraOB) are suggested to introduce each section of the teaching sequence, providing an excellent way to connect the things children are learning with the work of an accomplished author. SESSION 1 USING HUMOUR TO ENGAGE 1 | Play the section of the podcast that starts at 00.28 up to 02.45. Ask children to think about Dara’s quotes about the role of humour in non-fiction writing. Ask pupils if they can think of any books they have read, or TV programmes or online clips they have watched, that use this approach. Did they enjoy them? How effective do they think these were at sharing information? Were there any instances where they thought the humour got in the way of the information? 2 | Ask the children to discuss why humour might be useful when writing non-fiction texts. Encourage them to think about: - What are the potential positives in using jokes and humour? - Are there any potential disadvantages to using humour? 3 | Ask pupils to think about some of the types of humour they could use in their non-fiction writing. Ask them to work in pairs to jot down any other ideas they can think of and to try and think of some examples of each (be prepared, this can be really hard in the abstract!). Finally, suggest why it might be important for them to choose a topic that they are interested in to write about. SESSION 2 SELECTING A TOPIC 1 | Play the section of the podcast that starts at 06.00 up to 08.16. 2 | Ask the children to work with a partner or small group to jot down some of the things they could choose to write about. Once they have a few different ideas, they could share these with the rest of their group or the whole class. 3 | Next, they need to choose one subject that they will write about. Remind the children that they could choose a broad topic (trains, animals, the human body) or a very specific area (The Flying Scotsman, narwhals, the left toe!). 4 | Once they have chosen their subject, they can begin deciding what they will write about. In their books, or on sheets of paper, they can record some information or facts that they know about already and they can conduct some research to find out some new things that they didn’t know. 5 | When they have done this, they can share their research in small groups or pairs. What are the most interesting things that they are looking forward to writing about? Which ideas might allow them to write something funny and engaging for their readers? Once they have done this, they can share their ideas as a whole class, feeding back on the things they like best from each other’s plans. SESSION 3 ADDING SOME HUMOUR 1 | As a whole class, list some types of humour that pupils could use in their writing. They could think of some more ideas to use and then devise some examples of what the different ideas might look like in practice. 2 | Play the section of the podcast again that starts at 08.57 up until 13.28, where Dara reads from his book. Can they spot Dara using any humour that is similar to their ideas? Are there any types of humour that he uses that they haven’t suggested, but could use? 3 | Play the section of the podcast again that starts at 15.29 up until 17.20. Remind the children that they are using humour to ‘add a bit of colour’ and ‘soften their writing with some silliness’, and that getting their interesting information across is still the most important thing if their writing is to be successful. 4 | Working independently or in pairs, the children can now start adding some humorous ideas to the facts they have already collected. SESSION 4 USING A CONVERSATIONAL TONE 1 | Explain to children that the tone of a piece of writing is the name we give to the overall style. The tone tells the reader about the writer’s attitude and includes the language they use, the structure of the sentences, the layout of the text and the things they choose to include in the text: jokes, imagery, and grammatical features like contractions. All of these add up to tell us about how a writer feels about something, their mood, just like the tone of someone’s voice when they’re speaking. 2 | Tell children they are about to hear Dara read from his book again (08.57 up until 13.28), and ask them to make notes as they listen, identifying where he uses a conversational tone. They might comment on: - the structure of the sentences and word choices to sound like speech (‘That covers it. Oh, and insects as well’); - the repetition (question after question after question); - the comments directly to the reader that comment on the writing (and where is the question mark, oh thank heavens, here it is: ?); - rhetorical questions (‘Animals, right?’); - use of ‘we’ to show it’s the writer and reader together. SESSION 5 WRITING A NON-FICTION PIECE 1 | Ask the children to write their own piece of non-fiction, using the information they collected and their ideas for humour. Remind pupils that when they are writing, they might want to consider: - using a conversational tone, still writing in full sentences and standard English, but not writing too formally; - asking rhetorical questions to engage their reader; - explaining the meaning of tricky words or phrases as they go; - writing in a consistent tense; - thinking carefully about how they can use the layout of the page or illustrations to add humour or draw the reader’s attention to different pieces of information. 2 | Once the children have finished their writing, ask them to share their work with a partner or look at some examples together as a class, asking them to share the parts that they are especially pleased with. Once they have had some feedback, they can look at their work again and make some changes to improve it. If you have a working wall, extracts from children’s work could be displayed for everyone to see. AFTER THE UNIT... Ask the class to think about the different ways of telling stories that Dara mentions in the podcast: non-fiction writing about their interests, telling stories and performing jokes, stories in computer games, or writing stories themselves. Which types of writing do they most enjoy? Which might they want to do more of? Teaching spelling can be a bit of a minefield. There are so many different approaches, all with different advantages. As English takes so many words from other languages (one statistic I’ve seen suggests this accounts for around 80 per cent of our collective vocabulary.), we end up with many exceptions to the spelling ‘rules’. Many people disagree with referring to them as rules for this reason, so perhaps ‘generalisations’ would be a better term, as it sounds less absolute. Having a good phonics knowledge plays a huge part in learning to spell: if children can identify the different sounds they can hear, then they can make a phonetically plausible spelling suggestion. There are many excellent resources out there that suggest ways to bring a more phonetic approach into the KS2 curriculum. However, I’ve always believed that exploring the different rules or generalisations alongside solid phonics-based teaching helps children tackle unfamiliar words. For this reason, I set about making a resource that gives pupils the chance to explore and experiment with different spelling patterns. Here’s what I include: 1. **A spelling guide** Start the resource with a guide for using the spelling pattern you’re teaching – using a prefix to negate the root word, for example. In this case we might lay out that, for words starting with ‘m’ or ‘p’, we usually use the im-prefix (e.g. possible / impossible), rather than in- (inpossible). I deliberately use the words ‘usually’ and ‘often’ to reiterate that there are exceptions, and that it is not a hard and fast rule. Having this guide available when children are completing the activities means they can refer back to it, rather than having to try to commit it to memory while it is still being explored. This also offers a level of scaffolding; more confident children may choose not to use it. 2. **Add it** In this section, provide a set of words to which pupils can apply the spelling rule you’re working on. E.g., for the -ing suffix, you might give them a set of root words such as hope, cry, hint and mop to which they will add -ing (potentially involving adding or removing letters from the end of the word). 3. **Circle it** Here, provide children with a sentence containing a missing word, and several possible spellings to choose from. Make sure all the spelling alternatives include likely misconceptions, and all refer back to the guide at the top. How is he __________? copping copeing coping With this example, children will have to identify the root word (cope) and then apply the correct rule (in this case, remove the ‘e’ before adding the suffix). 4. **Sort it** In this activity, give the class a set of words to sort into the correct groups. For example, if they were given patient, legible and regular, they would then be asked to match each of these to the correct prefix from the list supplied (im-, in-, il-, ir-). 5. **Find it** In general, I don’t think a wordsearch is necessarily a useful tool for spelling. However, what I have used the resources I’ve created is a wordsearch that contains five correctly spelled words that relate to the learning objective, as well as some incorrectly spelled ones. I don’t give pupils a list to find, so they must look for words and decide (with or without the guide’s help) whether they are spelled correctly or not. 6. **Correct it** Give the children a set of sentences containing spelling mistakes, which they must correct. As with any activity where pupils are correcting mistakes, I think it’s important that not EVERY word is wrong, as otherwise they quickly learn to just swap it for an alternative, rather than referring back to their prior knowledge (or the guide!) and judging the spelling for themselves. 7. **Investigate it** This is my personal favourite section, as it gives children a chance to discuss and really explore the rule through a few different lenses: **What’s wrong with this?** Provide either a sentence containing a spelling mistake (*He is gazing at the stars*) or an incorrect statement (*You always double the last consonant before adding -ing*). Ask children to decide whether the statement is true or false, and explain why. In this example, they might say the statement is incorrect as the consonant is only doubled when the root word ends in a single vowel then a single consonant. Write three words that fit each category. Either using vocabulary they have already explored or using their own knowledge, ask children to find words to fit different categories, such as ‘Words with the prefix *im-*’. They might write three words that use each of the *im-, in-, il-* and *ir-* prefixes, for instance. Explain your reasoning. Give pupils a question or statement to discuss, such as ‘How are the rules different for words that end in ‘e’ and words that don’t end in ‘e’?’ Is this correct? Provide either a sentence containing the focus spelling (Unfortunately, he will be late for school), or a statement about the rule (To make any adjective an adverb, just add -ly) which they must prove or disprove. Like with the ‘What’s wrong with this?’ challenge, the statements refer back to the guide at the beginning of the resource. If this is the answer, what could the question be? I love this activity in maths, so I HAD to bring it into spelling! As the name suggests, the idea is to give pupils an answer for which they must find a possible question. For example, for the *in-, il-, im-* and *ir-* prefixes, the answer may be ‘To change the meaning of the word to its opposite’, and children may suggest the question ‘Why is the *in-* prefix added to words?’ Finding exceptions. This is another of my favourite challenges, as it actively encourages children to look for exceptions or words that don’t fit with the others. This then opens up discussion about why it doesn’t fit. Encourage children to suggest words that are exceptions to the rules they’ve learned (like the infamous ‘I before E except after C’!). Some rules may not have any exceptions, but plurals often do, such as the plural of ‘fish’ not being ‘fishes’! 8. Apply it In spelling lessons, children will often be given a set of words and told to write a sentence for each one. This can be quite difficult, as even if they know the meaning or find it in a dictionary, it can be tricky to put some words in context without direct instruction on how to do so. Instead, try giving pupils a range of words related to the spelling pattern they’ve been studying, and get them to select the correct one to fit into different sentences, based on the context. E.g: trying climbing hoping He is ___________ a ladder. This resource is definitely not a quick fix for spelling and should be used alongside good teaching that refers to phonics and etymology. What is does do, though, is allow children to explore the different rules or generalisations that they’ll encounter in the English language. Sarah Farrell is a KS2 teacher and maths subject lead in Bristol who makes and shares resources online. @SarahFarrellKS2 mrsfclassroom.wordpress.com I have spent 20 years writing the *How to Train Your Dragon* and *Wizards of Once* books, and over those two decades I have lost count of the times people have asked me, “Have you ever thought of writing for adults?” But for me, writing for children is the greatest privilege on earth, and my quest as a writer is to play some small part in trying to get the children of today to read books with the same excitement and wonder that I read them when I was a kid. **Books = happiness** There’s a wealth of research to show that the two key factors in a child’s later economic success (let alone their happiness) are parental involvement in education, and reading for pleasure. However, making a book that a child of today will read with the same amount of pleasure that I read books when I was a kid is rather trickier than it sounds. When I was a child, the telly was terrible, there was no internet, no PlayStation. Now the telly is glorious and incessant, and it is magically ‘beamed’ into children’s heads without them having to do anything, whereas books can only be accessed by a laborious act of de-coding. Even if a child doesn’t have a learning difficulty, books can become associated with school and hard work, but if a child has dyslexia, it can be worse than that. In that case, books can sometimes come to represent something that actively makes the child feel stupid, and how on earth can you love something that makes you feel stupid? So I have to work very, very hard to overturn that impression, and make sure that the stories are worth the effort the child has to put in to access them. Children of today are very visual (all that screen time), and they have shorter attention spans than when I was a child (again, all that screen time) and you do have to bear that in mind when you are writing, and make sure that the story whips along at a cracking pace. However, that doesn’t mean you have to ‘dumb down’ the content. That would be boring. Children may be more impatient than they were when I was a kid, but they certainly aren’t less intelligent. So as long as the plot is exciting and scary and funny enough, and the child cares about the characters, you can get away with challenging content and complicated language – indeed, children *want* that. They are natural linguists, natural philosophers, naturally curious, naturally iconoclastic and they are always asking questions. It makes for a fascinating writing challenge. **Reading aloud** I write about the things that interest children, and they tend to be the truly important things in life: heroism, bullying, wilderness, our relationship with the natural world, death, love, spirituality and adventure. I write the books to be read aloud, and that is a key factor in getting a child to read for pleasure. Books read to you in your parents’ voice live with you all your life. So I think about the books as a performance, and the mouth-feel of the words, the loudness or softness, or bellow-yness of the characters. It’s why I gave Toothless a stammer, and Squeezjooz and the sprites a bit of a his-s-sylis-s-sp, and Horizabel in my new series an accent “so posh it sounded like she was making a radio broadcast from the 1950s,” … so that they make a joyous acting performance. The language varies wildly in tone, which keeps everything lively. The plots are wildly unexpected, and they rattle along with a roller-coaster energy that is barely in control. This makes things exciting, for the reader does not know what will happen next, and you have to make them feel that they might be in the hands of an author who is prepared to give the story a sad ending if necessary. The changes of direction in emotional mood, the breaking up of the text, the anarchic style and the surprises along the way, all serve a purpose in making the child feel that this is a joyous, modern play-object to be read for pleasure, not a school-y, laborious task that has to be done. A long time coming I wrote the first lines of my new series *Which Way to Anywhere* 25 years ago, before I’d even started writing *How to Train Your Dragon*. It’s been living and growing with me all that time, for this is a BIG story, set in not just one world but many, not just about one person, but an entire family, and it needed time to develop. You see, I think that stories have a life of their own. They find YOU, just as much as you find THEM. For 25 years they can lie quiet in your shed, until the story flies up, like a bird, finding you at just the right moment. This story found me at a very difficult time, just after my father died, and at the start of the pandemic. It came flying towards me on a sort-of rescue mission, at a time when we were all suddenly, in our little family units, facing something larger than all of us. It felt like the right time to be writing a book about some children searching for their lost father, and an entire family trying to rebuild itself, the great challenges facing the whole of humanity, and to be celebrating the power of human creativity in facing those challenges. *Which Way to Anywhere* started with a very simple idea. As a child I used to draw and re-draw maps of strange places and imaginary worlds – what if those imaginary worlds were real, and what if there was a child like me who had the gift of showing the crossing points between the worlds, in a sort of Alternative Atlas? Because a piece of paper has two sides, doesn’t it? On one side you draw a map of your imaginary world, an island maybe, or a mountainous country, and on the other you draw a map of somewhere you know well, the airing cupboard in your house, for instance, or the muddy bit at the bottom of your garden. And then you draw a cross where the line between the two worlds is so thin that you can just cut through. But this isn’t just a story about the kid who has that ‘Atlas’ gift, it’s a story about the whole family. And it takes place, in a first for me, not way back in Viking times or in the Bronze Age, but right here and right now. K2 and Izzabird O’Hero are twins from a magical family who are keeping their magic secret on a planet Earth that does not think that magic exists. Their parents have divorced and their father has disappeared. And now their mother has married the father of Theo and Mabel Smith, and the two sets of children are really not happy about it. The only thing the children can agree on is their baby sister Annipeck. But when Annipeck is stolen and taken into an alternative world, the two sets of children are going to have to work together to rescue her. Every book I write is like Hiccup from *How to Train Your Dragon*’s boat, The Hopeful Puffin, setting out into a stormy world, with an optimistic heart and a head full of an equal measure of wisdom and of nonsense, and Hiccup’s good sword Endeavour held in one inventive hand, and an invisible Giant beside me, cheering me on. *Cressida Cowell’s brand-new series, Which Way to Anywhere (Hodder Children’s, HB £12.99), was launched on 15 September.* COLLECTIBLE BOOKS WITH COLOUR ILLUSTRATIONS Stimulating stories for newly independent readers, ages 5-8 Now in paperback! www.littletiger.co.uk SCHOOL STORAGE BiGDUG’s shelving and storage helps you stay organised. The trusted experts in space utilisation. See our full range of Gratnells Trays online. Scan me WWW.BiGDUG.CO.UK 03450 177 721 We know that picturebooks have multiple uses, offering much more than storytelling. They can act as child-friendly conversation starters, through text or illustrations, giving educators a way to introduce key concepts. An example of this is the subject of body autonomy. We are lucky to be educating and caring for children in a time when so many body-positive books are available. These are a powerful tool in initiating conversation and engaging in talk about our body parts, touch and feelings. We can use books to help children develop language around their body, perhaps naming body parts, giving them the vocabulary to express themselves, their feelings and preferences. **The educator’s role** As with any book we read with young children, we need to be able to bring it to life. This might mean using different voices, sound effects or body language. If we are animated and having fun, children are more likely to engage and focus. When choosing a book related to body autonomy, remember to ensure that it’s relevant and accessible to the children. If it’s too in-depth and wordy, children will disengage. Instead, we want pupils to be tuned in, interested and ready to ask questions. Similarly, remember to focus on the illustrations as much as the text. These can prompt rich discussion as children begin to make meaning of them. You can engage in sustained shared thinking, too; a valuable strategy in facilitating thought and talk. This is a method of encouraging your pupils to engage, share ideas and discuss their feelings in a way which is open and without the pressure that comes with questions. Although books can open up discussions which prompt children to think about their own boundaries, they are also a valuable way of considering how others feel. As we know, all children are unique; we are not always aware of their history, and they will have had different experiences which impact on their holistic learning and development. In being mindful of this, we can ensure we are taking the feelings of all our pupils into account. Some might be happy with hugs, holding hands, etc. Others might feel uncomfortable with touch, whether that be from an adult or another child, and would prefer to be touched on their own terms. Through our discussions, we can support children to develop the confidence to make their own decisions about touch – we can enable them to experience control, understanding that it is okay to say ‘no’. Books can help us instil in children the message that we need to be respectful of the boundaries of others, encouraging them to understand that not everyone is the same. **Self-expression** All children deserve respect and to feel in control of their bodies. However, it’s important to point out that expression is more than just verbal communication. Some of your pupils may be nonverbal or speak English as an additional language (EAL). These pupils can still be supported to develop autonomy over their body. The first step in this is in accepting that communication can take many forms. Just standing back and observing will illustrate a myriad of ways in which children make their feelings known. As educators, it’s our role to ensure all pupils have a voice. This means tuning in to body language, gestures, facial expressions and changes in behaviour. Young people can tell us so much without even using any words. You can embed the rights of children in relation to body autonomy in the culture and ethos of your classroom, recognising that children can consent, just as adults do. Sometimes you may need to explicitly teach key concepts such as this. The value in promoting body autonomy in EYFS and KS1 lies in children feeling respected in relation to their bodies, learning to be respectful to others but also understanding why this is important. In supporting pupils to understand body autonomy, we can facilitate an environment where they feel safe, heard, valued and accepted. *Emma Davis is an early years lecturer, PhD student and forest school leader.* @EmmaDee77 This is a sequence of sessions that builds towards writing a magical poem. In my poem opposite, *When I blew the magic dust*, there is a distinct pattern that involves using basic poetry techniques in a playful manner. - The first verse is a list of animals, using alliteration. - The second verse is a list of things we can see, using personification. - The third verse is a list of things found in nature, using ‘like’ similes. - The fourth verse is a list of things, using ‘as’ similes. - The final verse explains what the writer did once the magic dust had settled. You could complete a number of short-burst pieces of writing across a week to practise these skills and prepare for the final challenge. Start with a number poem which uses alliteration. This activity is one of the few occasions where a dictionary might help. One white walrus waved at a wonderful washerwoman. Two trains try to tackle a tremendous tin of tomatoes. Three thankless thistles threatened a thrilled thief. Four fantastic fellows found a frantic frog. Five fast-moving fingers falsified a famous foot. Six serious sausages selected a silent sunbeam... The basic approach for each short-burst piece will be the same: - Read and discuss any model The second skill involves personification. Create a massive list (which we’ll call list A) of ‘things’ found outside, e.g., wall, fence, playground, cloud, sun, road, car, pavement, house, etc. Then make a long list of verbs (list B) which are things that humans do, e.g., jump, sneeze, yawn, sing, blink, giggle, shout, stoop, etc. Take something from list A and pair it up with a verb from list B, e.g., *The wall jumps*. Now think of a way to extend the sentence by adding *in* and *on*, e.g., *The red brick wall jumped over the rickety fence*. Encourage the class to think of objects and verbs not on the class lists. The next skill is to create a bunch of similes using ‘like’. What does something look like? What does it remind you of? For this session, you could provide a list of possible vocabulary. Avoid clichés! (See Table 1 for an example.) *The moon is like a silver plate on a king’s table.* *An apple skin is like a thin, red tunic.* *A frozen lake is like a giant’s mirror.* The fourth verse uses similes with ‘as’ to compare. It helps to provide a list of qualities. Show children how to extend... their ideas. Use Table 2 for the game, based on the alphabet! As angry as a wasp trapped in a jar. As bright as the shine from a glow-worm at night. As clean as a plate licked by a starving child. As dark as the space beneath the stairs. As excellent as an ice cream topped with chocolate fudge. The final verse suggests what the writer would do or what would happen once the magic dust had settled. This idea could be developed in the session where everything is pulled together and the children write their own version of my poem. They could vary the title and idea by changing the nature of the magical dust. Is it: *the dust of destiny, of imagination, of sunsets, of frost, of the wilderness*, etc? The success of these writing sessions hinges around three key conditions: - Massive class brainstorming that create banks of ideas; - Using shared writing time to write class poems together, so that everyone knows how to set about the writing; - Children writing in silence with a time limit to create a sense of meditative concentration. **WHEN I BLEW THE MAGIC DUST** When I blew the magic dust, sly serpents slithered silently, pink parrots perched on plum trees pecking painfully, tiny turtles tricked a terrified tarantula, a lazy lizard lay on a lilo laughing and a gorgeous gorilla gobbled up Greta in one great gulp. When I blew the magic dust, an oak tree sneezed, a Ferrari giggled as it rushed past, the school fence cheered at the end of the day, a dustbin danced the tango and a lamppost crouched down to tie its laces. When I blew the magic dust, winter leaves fell like frail playing cards, the sun sizzled in the sky like a polished button, stars glittered like sequins on an ebony ball gown, a river wound its way round a hill like an anaconda and clouds drifted by like grey candy-floss. When I blew the magic dust, a bee settled on a rose, as quiet as a thief, a blade of grass grew, as thin as silk, a car’s hubcap spun round, as quick as a tumble dryer, a cat’s claws scratched, as sharp as a lie and the school clock struck midday, as sure as a teacher’s tick. After the magic dust settled, I folded up my shadow, packed my pockets with promises and left the room alone, with its cold heart ticking. © Pie Corbett *Pie’s latest collection, Catalysts, has over 130 model poems (*A book full of magic and wonder* – Poetry Roundabout). Get your copy at shop.talk4writing.com/products/catalysts-poems-for-writing* Reading beyond phonics If you’re thinking about next steps for reading after your children have finished their phonics programme, we can help. We have a broad range of books suitable for school children that have been developed using Oxford Reading Levels – our unique text levelling system. We also have loads of popular titles for wider independent reading. Our expert team of educational consultants can provide you with tailored guidance for your school’s specific needs. Simply scan the QR code to book a free, no-obligation appointment. A motivational digital reading programme that improves children’s comprehension. High-quality books from well-known and loved authors. Action-packed fiction and non-fiction adventures for independent reading. Spectacular space stories to support and motivate readers. www.oxfordprimary.com/reading-beyond-phonics Phonics. As a previous KS2 teacher, the word used to send shivers down my spine. I made the transition to Year 1 a year ago and have been on an incredible journey since – I have never looked back. Phonics is nowhere near as scary as people think. Important, imperative even, yes… but certainly no longer scary. I have developed such a huge passion for the subject and its effective teaching since becoming phonics lead at my school in the last academic year. My biggest aim will always be to pass that passion on to my children and give them what they deserve – the ability and tools to read, but above all, to find joy and pleasure in reading. We already do two daily phonics sessions in my class – a full 45-minute session in the morning and a quick whistle-stop session after lunch. I had been thinking of ways to level this up and give the children consistent opportunities to review previous learning. I had come up with a few ideas, but flashing sound cards while the children were lining up became my go-to because, let’s face it, teachers are spinning so many plates as it is – I needed something with minimal prep but maximum impact. It was okay, but just that, and certainly not giving me the outcome I had envisioned. Children at the back of the line couldn’t see the cards properly, and there’s always those couple of louder voices drowning out everyone else, so you can never be sure just how engaged each child is. Then my headteacher suggested popping a sound on the door that the children have to say whenever they enter or exit the room. Initially, the idea was to put a new sound up every day, but it soon occurred to me that this was the perfect opportunity to get some of those previously taught sounds up there to ensure past learning could be reviewed consistently. Now I tend to choose a sound I know the majority haven’t nailed. Take ‘igh’, for example – always that bit trickier as it’s a trigraph. The sound stays up for the full day and the beauty of it is, all I need to do is take the flashcard off one side of the door and pop it up on the other, depending on if the kids are coming in or going out. No preparation, no resource making, no marking – just a simple, low-stakes but incredibly effective way of reviewing previously taught sounds. This review method has slotted straight into our routine. As the children walk past, I say “Tap the sound, say the sound”. While the children do this independently, I stand by on the off-chance that someone needs a prompt. If they don’t copy the child in front, I’m right there to offer on-the-spot support. Not only that, but it helps behaviour in the line – the children know what they need to do, and are more focused on what sound they are going to be tapping and reading than making any poor behavioural choices. There are so many adaptations that could be made to this simple activity. I have my KS1 head on and of course the priority is phonics. However, a couple of simple tweaks and this could easily be something that can be transmitted throughout each year group: common exception words or high-frequency words, for example. For KS2 you could try times tables, year group spellings, fractions, literary techniques, or even arithmetic. As teachers, we know the importance of daily review; it strengthens the neural connections over time that are necessary for developing expertise, supporting retention in short-term and long-term memories. However, I think sometimes we are all guilty of over-complicating things. Who would have known that such a simple activity could lead to so much engagement in some of our youngest children? The impact has already been immense. Pupils are now able to recall sounds at a faster pace due to the consistent exposure. They are able to better spot digraphs and trigraphs in words, which in turn leads to a more successful and more accurate decoding rate. For assessment purposes, it helps me identify which children may need a little extra support and/or intervention around a particular sound. Not only that, but it engages my children – they view it as a game and they genuinely enjoy the process. In the morning, while hanging their coats up, I hear them say, “Ooh I wonder what sound it is today!”. Isn’t THAT what we are all here for? Jess Darby is a Year 1 teacher, and phonics and history lead at a primary school in Yorkshire. @missdarby_ Although writing explanation texts takes some careful and specific teaching, explanations are a part of children’s everyday oral, aural and mental experience: they hear them at home and at school, and they explain things to each other and to adults just as much as they have things explained to them. Even the way we think about how to do everyday tasks is a kind of self-explanation. When it comes to writing explanation texts, then, pupils have a strong starting point that should be explicitly pointed out and capitalised upon. **Paragraphs** The National Curriculum requires that children in Year 3 are introduced to paragraphs as a way to group related material. The Water Cycle example (see download) has very short paragraphs, making it easier for younger readers to understand. Most non-fiction books aimed at children follow this convention, so any examples you share from real texts will almost certainly have similarly short paragraphs. However it’s worth remembering that when pupils hand-write paragraphs of similar length, it will look like a lot more than the word-processed example! Short paragraphs also demonstrate how specifically related ideas can be grouped. Look at the first paragraph of the Water Cycle text under the subheading ‘What do we mean by ‘changing state’?’. It consists of four sentences, which themselves are quite short. The paragraph is very clearly about the three states in which water can exist. The following paragraph is limited to the idea that water can change between animal’s habitat but with facts relating to country, biome and construction. **Heading and subheadings** Writing a main heading should be fairly straightforward – children just need to know that it should summarise what the whole piece of writing is about. To ensure they are secure with this, try activities like multiple choice questions, where pupils select the best heading (the other options could be better suited as subheadings). You can decide on subheadings as a tool prior to grouping information, or once it has occurred. Either way, the generation of subheadings should be a part of those practice activities so that when children come to writing a full explanation text, they have their subheadings already written. In the example text, there are subheadings for the three main sections, and one for the summary. The introduction sits under the main heading. This is a simple enough structure... that you can teach, and ask children to follow. The example text also structures its content around three main questions, which provide further structure for the content of the paragraphs. Pupils can focus on ensuring that their content helps to answer a certain question, and if it does not, they can consider revising and removing that part of their text. **Introductions** These are notoriously difficult for children to write, but can build on prior work on introductions and summaries, as many non-fiction text types feature similar beginnings and endings. Employ extensive modelling, exemplifying writing introductions and summaries multiple times during the unit. The basic principles of an introduction for children in KS2 are that it should appeal to the reader’s curiosity, and be very clear on what the text is going to be about. You can also consider: - Go-to stock phrases and sentence structures. These may come in handy, particularly if you are teaching this text type towards the beginning of KS2. - Including questions that children might have had themselves, making sure the content connects with their natural curiosity: ‘Have you ever wondered…?’ - Facts that the reader will likely already know, coupled with a ‘but’ and a question, to begin to extend the reader’s thinking and to pique their curiosity: ‘Rivers flow into the sea but how does the water get into the rivers?’ Phrases to avoid, particularly for children at the upper end of KS2, are the ones that pupils reach for when they feel stuck. For introductions, these include: ‘This piece of writing is about….’; ‘In this text you will find out about….’; and ‘Read on to find out more.’ Children do not need to write full explanation texts in order to practise writing introductions, either. After studying them in class texts, perhaps linked to their work in other subjects, pupils can begin to write their own three- or four-sentence introductions to texts about almost anything – they don’t need to know too much about the content of the rest of the piece of text, as at the practice stage they aren’t actually going to write it. **Summaries** Children in KS2 need to understand that a summary should explain in just a few sentences what the main takeaway is. As writers, they should attempt to tell the reader what they have just learned, but in fewer words, with less of the explanation, and focusing on the main points only. Again, some taught phrases and structures will be useful: - A sentence or two that points out why it is useful to know the content of the explanation text they have just read: ‘Knowing about… helps us to understand….’; ‘It also helps us to see that….’ - A one-sentence summary, that contains the central point of the text, and which might refer back to the questions asked in the introduction: e.g. ‘The rain water that flows into our rivers will one day be rain again!’ Phrases to avoid in summary writing include: ‘I hope you have learned more about….’; ‘This piece of writing was about….’; and ‘In summary….’ In terms of practice activities, once children have studied existing summaries and have seen you modelling how to write one, they could focus on identifying the main points in an explanation text, and then write a summary for it. The identification of main points alone is something that pupils often struggle with, so some shared work and modelling will usually be necessary. When it comes to summarising and identifying main points, and in order to ready the children for writing their own summaries, practise writing a 20-word summary of something they have learned or read; then challenge them to reduce it to 10 words, then five, causing pupils to really think about what the key information is. For more tips on explanation texts, see tinyurl.com/tp-explanation Aidan Severs is an education consultant with over 15 years of teaching experience. kensington.newham.sch.uk @AidanSevers Jolly Phonics ONLINE TRAINING COURSE Gain your certification now!!!! Professional development training that will make a real difference to you and your students. Add to your skillset and become a better teacher today. Course: Jolly Phonics Online Training Course Duration: 20 hours online in your own time and at your own pace Cost: £89.00 Approved by: Department of Education, Ireland Certification: by CPD College, Ireland To Enrol: visit www.jollyphonics.cpdcollege.com Unlock your true potential with our expert training. “We introduced the handwriting workbooks last year and they have been a great success. The children enjoy them and take pride in their work, looking forward to their weekly handwriting sessions. As a teacher, I find the workbooks provide an excellent resource for teaching handwriting. Working through the books has helped build progression throughout the year groups. I definitely recommend these workbooks.” Jenny Merrison Year 2 Teacher Christian Fellowship School “I really enjoyed how the training was grounded on science and research, which helped me to understand how to best improve my class” Y6 Teacher Charterhouse Square School London Reach for Morrells Handwriting Books for handwriting resources and training DESIGNED BY A HANDWRITING SPECIALIST USED IN OVER 3000 SCHOOLS PERFECT FOR CHILDREN, TEENAGERS AND ADULTS FOLLOWS THE NEW HANDWRITING CURRICULUM (JULY 2021) SCAN HERE TO PURCHASE TODAY Prim-Ed Publishing The Colour Monster is a wonderful exploration of difficult feelings. The story begins with a poor monster who feels overwhelmed and confused by his jumbled-up emotions. But fear not, he eventually learns how to make sense of what he’s going through. The various feelings are brought to life for readers as the monster takes them through each emotion, one by one, via a series of beautiful collage-like illustrations. This is a simple story about friendship, which can also help children decipher and identify their own emotions, providing them with important emotional literacy skills. The pop-up version of this book is particularly brilliant for engaging children in this surprisingly powerful and reassuring story. The colourful illustrations make it an excellent choice for a Reception or KS1 class because it’s immediately engaging. At this stage of development most children are still getting to grips with their own emotional literacy skills so this book can act as a wonderful toolkit to get students started. In addition, the work you do around this book can lead to some vibrant, interactive displays that will really bring the story to life and allow children to take ownership of their learning and their own personal interpretation of the story. Sharing the book When I’ve used this book in my lessons, I’ve found that pupils are fascinated by the idea of emotions coming to life. This personification opens up their minds to their own feelings and emotions and enables them to understand what they think and feel about certain things. The pop-up version of the book allows students to get the full benefit of the illustrations and better engage with the story. Picturebooks are a great option for Reception and KS1 as they’re not intimidating and allow for lots of creativity from pupils. You undoubtedly have a wide range of needs and abilities in your classroom but this particular story is accessible for all. The plot is simple, yet more able children can be stretched to think about why the writer has decided to portray a particular emotion in that colour, style or shape. Less confident readers are still able to grasp the story and take away its message, without feeling left behind. While reading the book for the first time, pause each time a new emotion is revealed to allow for discussions and questions. Alternatively, explain to children that you’ll read through once and then again to reflect on each ‘character’. This way, pupils can get a feel for the plot and then have the opportunity to share their own thoughts. Practical activities Tell the story The Colour Monster goes on quite a journey through the book. Ask pupils to explore how he feels throughout. What changes inside his head when he encounters the different emotions? How does he feel at the beginning compared to the end? Use a visual flow chart or an emotion thermometer to help pupils understand. For example, draw a large timeline or thermometer on your board, with extreme emotions at either end. While reading, ask children to volunteer what the character is feeling at certain points. This is an excellent way for students to explore each of the emotions individually, while empathising with the monster and reflecting on their own feelings. Before and after Where did the monster come from? How did he get to be so confused? What was his life like before he was able to understand these emotions? Are there other monsters like him out there? Encourage pupils to be creative with the origins of the monster, thinking about what his family, friends and home might be like. Ask children to write a short series of diary entries from the monster or create an ‘all about me’ profile. Alternatively, as a class, collect ideas together before asking children to independently write a short introduction to the monster’s life in the form of a biography. For students that struggle with writing, try a more visual activity: label a drawing of the monster with ideas about his origins. Give students a word bank to choose from to support their work. An alternative idea is to focus on what happens to the monster after the book. What is life like for him now he understands his emotions? Is it easier? Is it harder? What can he do now that he couldn’t do before? This activity can be done in the form of a storyboard or comic book strip. Limiting children to shortened formats like these means their ideas are concise and they don’t get too carried away. Create a comic book or storyboard for the monster’s life the week following the events of the story, adding speech bubbles with captions. Take it further Explore outdoors Now pupils have identified colours and shapes for each emotion, try exploring objects outside that you think match each individual feeling. Alternatively, recap the colours in the story then go outside and see if you can spot some of the same colours. Can children find any colours that weren’t in the book? Take a piece of card outside, along with double-sided tape, and stick different coloured objects to it, focusing on senses as you explore. Using old pots or flower beds, collect all of your favourite things from the outdoors to make your monsters a garden. Each monster can have a pot with objects and textures that reflect their emotions. Children can then use Colour synonym wheels Help pupils to develop their vocabulary and stretch their imaginations by creating a colour synonym wheel. Make a wheel for each colour and task children with labelling it with alternative shades (for example, for red you could also include crimson, maroon, cherry and ruby). This is a more creative way of developing a word bank. Allocate one colour per group then use children’s finished wheels as display materials. Add speech bubbles The illustrations in this book are very vivid and expressive. Ask children to add a supporting speech bubble for each of the monsters. What are they thinking? Why have pupils chosen that word? How is it different to what another character is thinking? Pupils will need to engage with their own emotional literacy to come up with ideas for each of the monsters inside the book. Colour connotations As a class, get students to close their eyes. Say a colour and ask pupils to think of what comes to mind when they think of it. Next, create a class collage of illustrations to go with each word. For example, your yellow collage may contain sunflowers, daffodils and ice cream, whereas blue may feature the sky, ocean and so on. Feelings jars Label up several jars with different emotions, such as happy, sad, angry, fearful, calm and loved. Hand out slips of paper and ask children to write or draw what makes them feel each individual emotion, before popping them in the different jars. This is a lovely chance for pupils to self-reflect. It’s also a helpful resource for students who struggle to identify their own emotions and what to do with them. Are there any overlaps between pupils’ suggestions? Have any of their emotions changed as they’ve got older? Are pupils’ ideas similar or different to their friends? As an extension, discuss what things help when we’re feeling sad, afraid or angry. Working in pairs, ask one pupil to write an emotion in a speech bubble, then their partner can write their own speech bubble with a suggestion for what the first child could do. For example, if the first child writes ‘sad’, the second can write, ‘read my favourite story’. Emotional dictionary Can pupils think of any other emotions that are missing from the book? What would these monsters look like? What colours would they be? What makes pupils feel these emotions? Create a display featuring emotions with matching images and colours. Make it interactive by allowing children to add strategies on how to cope with each feeling too. Slime monsters Make a basic slime recipe, adding food colouring of your choice. Ask pupils to apply googly eyes, glitter, buttons and sequins for decoration. Allow time for children to explore the textures created. How do the monsters feel? What would happen if you added another colour? Puppet show Now children know the story, get them to recreate the story using monsters created from old socks or lollipop sticks. This is a great chance for pupils to develop their speech and language skills. Pause the puppet show to ask questions or ‘hot seat’ the monsters. Why did they feel like that during that time? Loved this? Try these... - The Invisible String – Patrice Karst - The Colour Monster Goes to School – Anna Llenas - The Mixed-Up Chameleon – Eric Carle - Where the Wild Things Are – Maurice Sendak - Two Monsters – David McKee Emotion monsters Each of the monsters in the book are given their own colour and identity. Ask children to design a new monster for each emotion and justify their choices. How does that colour show that emotion? Why is it that shape? Messy play Let students explore mixing paints or water and food dye to see what new colours they can make. What feelings can they link with each? Why do they think that colour matches that emotion? Make your own monster You can do this through junk modelling, salt dough or drawing. Ask students to justify shape, size and remind them to show how their monster is feeling through the colours chosen. Hannah Rix has taught English in secondary schools for eight years and currently teaches English in a SEND school in Norwich. Alongside her husband James, she co-founded Readingmate Ltd. @readingmate readingmate.co.uk In the modern world, writing is no longer confined to words on a page. Many of the texts that pupils read and write now exist on a screen; they are interactive with a very different structure to that of a traditional book. Learning to write texts like these and using them to develop their skill and motivation as writers can be an integral part of children’s writing experience at school. So, how can we include multimedia in our lessons? Let’s look at two case studies that show how different teachers have made use of technology to motivate pupils to create modern texts, all the time supporting the development of children’s traditional writing skills. **Writing for the web** As part of a unit of history work on the Victorian era, one Year 6 class researched and then wrote biographies of historical figures from this period. These were then word-processed and published in a class book. The teacher decided that the biographies would provide a good opportunity to explore the idea of tailoring writing for different purposes. First, the teacher showed the class some pages from the DK Find Out website, covering a range of different topics. They then asked pupils to work in pairs to make notes about how the information was displayed, concentrating on: - page layout; - length of paragraphs and sentences; - vocabulary; - use of images; - use of links to further information. The children noted that the pages tended to be dominated by images, with short blocks of text, each introducing a key idea. Links to further information or boxes that expanded to provide more detail were common. Each page usually had a short introduction, but then information could be accessed in any order, with readers free to follow the strands that interested them. Once they were familiar with these features, the children used a laptop to return to the text of their biography. They edited their work, breaking it into smaller paragraphs of only a few sentences and finding images to illustrate each. They ensured that key vocabulary was picked out in bold and that each paragraph made sense when read alone and wasn’t dependent on other text being read first. Because they already had the text to work from, and they were concerned with simplifying, rather than adding, the children enjoyed this task immensely. Then pupils worked with a partner using Weebly to copy and paste their text into a webpage, adding in images and interactive features such as links and expanding text boxes. These pages were added together to make one class website, which they then published this online. Finally, the children were asked to compare the original biography they had written and the text of their new webpage, comparing the language and structure. The teacher reiterated the point that one style of writing isn’t better than the other; the language choices we make need to reflect the purpose and format of our writing, as well as our audience. **Making films** A small village school with three classes decided to run a ‘Film Fortnight’ where children would work in groups to create a short film based on the school’s termly curriculum theme: ‘Animals and Conservation’. On the final Friday, children, staff and parents would gather in the hall for a viewing of the completed films (with popcorn, of course). Acorn Class (Reception and Year 1) decided to make a documentary, with each child talking to the camera about a different endangered animal. The teacher helped the children to choose an animal and rehearse what they were going to say, prompting them to explain why they had chosen the animal and why it was important to try and save it. In a shared writing session, the class wrote an introduction, explaining why some animals were in danger of extinction, and a closing section where they explained what people could do to help. Next, the teacher filmed each of the children in turn (with different pupils acting as ‘assistant directors’ and pressing start and stop on the tablet). Children also drew and annotated pictures of their chosen animals and these were edited into the finished film, too. Oak Class (Year 2 and Year 3) chose to make stop-motion animations. Working in small groups, they devised a story involving animals and then created storyboards of the action, focusing on how this kind of writing differed from a traditional story (shorter sections, key moments, etc). Then they wrote a script for a narrator, which again introduced a new medium – such as how speech differs from written work (is it less formal? Is the length of each section different? Etc). This writing followed a process, with the chance to plan, draft, evaluate and then edit and redraft. They then used model animals (borrowed from Acorn Class) to film. They created backdrops and then used the app Stop Motion Studio on tablets to create their films. Forest Class (Years 4, 5 and 6) chose to create improvised narrative films about animals using iMovie. Working in small groups, they planned their story and thought carefully about the roles they would each play, the shots they needed to film and other aspects such as costumes, sound effects and editing. Over two afternoons, the children filmed their scenes (the second day being for re-filming after they had watched their footage back and realised some parts weren’t quite right). The children then worked (with an adult ‘assistant’ on hand) to edit their footage into a narrative, choosing shots and talking about the implications of different ways if combining their footage. This led to lots of interesting conversations about how the editing stage could make changes to the meaning of the story, something the teacher was keen to draw upon when children were writing in a more traditional way. On film night, the children entered the hall via a red carpet and enjoyed sharing their films with parents and carers. The final products were shared on the school’s website too, so children could go back and watch them again – which they did. Many times. Visual, multimedia texts play an important part in children’s lives, so they can and should play an important part in a classroom. If we want to help children become confident, enthusiastic, skilful writers, then technology is a powerful tool we can harness to facilitate this kind of development. “In the modern world, writing is no longer confined to words on a page” THREE TYPES OF TEXT: - **Visual** – texts where an image plays a significant role in conveying meaning. This might be a still picture – a painting or photograph; a moving image on film; a picturebook; poster; or a cartoon. - **Multimedia** – texts where meaning is conveyed through audio, film and animation as well as texts and images. Websites that contain links between different items or pages might also be considered as multimedia. - **Multimodal** – texts that combine more than one system of making meaning, featuring a mix of words, images, film, and audio, as well as design features (and even gestures in a presentation, film or drama). Picturebooks, posters, websites, films and graphic novels can all be multimodal. Don’t worry, as so often with the relationship between academic theory and classroom practice, using the correct terminology matters a lot less than making use of the feature in the classroom! James Clements is an education researcher and writer. This article is adapted from On the Write Track: A Practical Guide to Teaching Writing in Primary Schools by James Clements, published by Routledge in October 2022. @MrJClements Phase 4 phonics can feel trickier to teach than phonics phases 2 and 3, because there are no new letter-sound correspondences (grapheme-phoneme correspondences) to learn. This is a teaching phase designed to consolidate and build on all previous learning, challenging children to read longer words, and a larger bank of tricky words, ‘at a glance’. Put simply, phase 4 phonics is all about building children’s confidence and capacity to read more words. They will be applying these in slightly longer sentences, using the letter-sound correspondences that they already know. **Sounds** Children should be able to blend-to-read – and segment-to-spell – CVC (consonant-vowel-consonant) words using the correspondences taught in phases 2 and 3. We also want them to be able to independently read and write captions and simple sentences including these words. The phase 2 and 3 common exception words that children beginning phase 4 phonics should already be able to read will include: *I, the, no, go, to, he, be, we, me, she, was, my, you, they, her, all, are* **Activities** All phase 4 phonics activities should include lots of opportunities to blend-to-read, and segment-to-spell words including adjacent consonants, and words of more than one syllable, including: - **CVCC words** Consonant-vowel-consonant-consonant For example: *milk, desk, went, last, soft, chest, shelf, toast* - **CCVC words** Consonant-consonant-vowel-consonant For example: *from, stop, plan, frog, flag, grab, green, brush, sport, crash* - **CCVCC words** Consonant-consonant-vowel-consonant-consonant For example: *stand, spend, trust, twist, blink, crunch, shrink* - **CCCVC words** Consonant-consonant-consonant-vowel-consonant For example: *splash, spring, street, string* It’s important to remember that the vowel digraphs and consonant digraphs taught in phase 3 are included in these words as a whole unit. For example: *b-r-u-sh* is a CCVCC word. The digraph *sh* is made of consonants and is considered as a single consonant unit in this word. *G-r-ee-n* is also a CCVC word. The digraph *ee* is made of vowels and is considered as a single vowel unit in this word. **Planning** All phase 4 phonics planning should follow the same routine and simple teaching sequence. This reduces the cognitive load in the working memory, enabling children to engage fully with improving the processes of blending and segmenting with more complex words. With cognitive load in mind, a systematic and simplified approach is recommended, blending and segmenting with one particular combination of adjacent consonants in each lesson. For example: **Day 1:** words with the adjacent consonants *b-r*; *brush, bright, bring, broomstick* **Day 2:** words with the adjacent consonants *s-t*; *step, stop, stand, stamp, stink* **Day 3:** words with the adjacent consonants *f-l*; *flap, flop, flash, flight, flicker* Blending and segmenting with adjacent consonants We also need to show children how to hear the adjacent consonants in words. They often find these tricky to determine as some phonemes (sounds) are more dominant in words. For example: hearing *went* as *wet*; missing out the ‘n’, as it is the most subtle phoneme (sound). We also need to show pupils how to say the adjacent consonants in words. This can be tricky, depending on clarity of speech. For example: saying *jum* rather than *drum*; *chain* rather than *train*; or *cat* rather than *that*. To achieve success in this area, begin by orally blending and segmenting the chosen words as a class. Use strategies consistent with those already introduced in phases 2 and 3 phonics lessons, and don’t initially read or write anything. Teach children to blend the chosen words together, following the ‘I do, we do, you do’ method: - the adult models the blending; - process first (I do); - children and adult blend aloud together (we do); - children blend independently as a class (you do). Keep the number of words limited to no more than eight, using the focus consonants for the session. Repeat this process by segmenting to spell the same words, using the same methodology. Applying phase 4 phonics It’s important that children learn to apply phase 4 phonics beyond the isolated word level, because the aim is for them to use this knowledge as they read and write. Every phase 4 phonics lesson should therefore include explicit teaching of how to read or write a sentence, including some of the focus words explored during the lesson. This could consist of shared sentence-reading, or dictated sentence-writing, using the ‘I do, we do, you do’ strategy previously mentioned. Another useful strategy is to read or write all together as a class, blending or segmenting one word at a time. As each word is read aloud or written, the group should be guided back to the beginning of the sentence to reread previous words. This will significantly improve memory, training the children to check that what they are reading or writing makes sense. Things to avoid: - asking the children to think of their own sentences to write The objective is for the children to apply the words taught in a sentence, with a high degree of accuracy in spelling. Thinking of a sentence requires the children to think of much more than just that, stepping beyond the purpose of the lesson; - expecting the children to read or write without a model This part of the teaching sequence is not an opportunity to assess the success of the lesson. It’s a chance to over-model and clearly demonstrate how learning can be applied in reading and writing beyond the phonics session. Top tips for teaching tricky words There are many new tricky words to introduce in phase 4 phonics. These include: *said, so, have, like, some, come, were, there, little, one, do, when, out, what*. Using flashcards is a great strategy for some children with good visual memory, as is teaching mnemonics (for example, *silly ants in dresses*), but neither are universally successful. If you’re having trouble, why not try: - unpicking each word explicitly in a lesson Explain that there are parts of the tricky word which aren’t so tricky. This reduces the overwhelm required in simply ‘just learning’ a word. For example, *s* and *d* in *said* are fully decodable; nothing tricky there; - explicitly teaching the tricky part Explain that the children only need to remember the tricky part in the word. For example, that *ai* in *said* looks like *ai* in *rain*, but in this word, it’s making an *e* sound instead. What’s the impact? By the end of phase 4 phonics teaching, children will be able to: - blend to read words including adjacent consonants taught in phase 2 and phase 3; - segment to spell words including adjacent consonants taught in phase 2 and phase 3; - read two-syllable words including letter-sound correspondences taught in phase 2 and phase 3; - read all phase 4 tricky words; - apply phase 4 learning when reading and writing sentences. Children secure at phase 4 phonics will have a good foundational knowledge of the basic alphabetic code. This means that they will have a solid basis for successfully exploring the complexities of the alphabetic code taught in phonics. Emma Spiers is an author, early literacy consultant and trainer. learninglady.co.uk @learningladyuk Over the past few years, I have heard several discussions of and references to disciplinary literacy in secondary schools, but what is it, exactly, and how can we embed it in primary schools? Professor Timothy Shanahan (University of Illinois at Chicago) defines it as ‘the specialised ways reading, writing, and oral language are used in academic disciplines such as science, history, or literature’ (‘Disciplinary literacy in the primary school,’ 2019). Disciplinary literacy goes beyond producing a diary from the point of view of an historical character, and focuses on what writing might look like in a particular subject. For example, in history, you might be teaching about primary and secondary sources. This is different to generic reading comprehension strategies in English (e.g. making predictions, asking questions, and clarifying the meaning of unknown words), which might be a requirement for reading in general but is not specific to history. In other words: ‘Each field of study has its own special ways of using text to create, communicate, and evaluate knowledge.’ (Shanahan, 2019). For those of you wanting to develop pupils’ disciplinary literacy across the curriculum, here are five key approaches to try. 1. **Start with the basics for writing and reading** In many ways, especially for primary schools, there are basic grammar and punctuation aspects needed for all types of writing; for example, capital letters and full stops. Ensure pupils are competent at these, before embarking on detailed aspects of the purpose and audience for writing. As Shanahan (2019) explains, subject-specific (or disciplinary) literacy requires more than the ‘general literacy skills that can be applied in all subjects,’ but also includes the ability to ‘apply both these general and specialised skills in sophisticated ways’ within various disciplinary contexts. Thus, we need to emphasise the importance of general literacy skills, including decoding for reading, first and foremost. 2. **Ensure any approaches are age-and stage-appropriate** This is particularly pertinent for younger pupils. Of course, we are not expecting our littlest children to be knowledgeable and competent in writing and reading like an historian, but we can ask them disciplinary questions and expose them to disciplinary texts. For example, perhaps during reading time, try asking: ‘What do you think is going to happen next in the story?’, ‘Have you read a book like this before?’, or when they’re playing: ‘How are these toys similar or different to your toys?’ etc. This will introduce them to historical approaches without requiring them... 3. Make time for CPD We all know that primary teachers are not always experts in every subject they teach. I still draw like a six-year-old – although learning how to observe like an artist has helped in recent years! I would have benefitted from this approach in the past. Many of us must juggle and/or lead more than one subject at a time. One of the best ways you can tackle this is to carry out an audit of current knowledge and understanding and to ensure all staff have access to high-quality networks, such as being a member of the subject associations. This will, inevitably, help with the development and understanding of disciplinary literacy. 4. Ensure that all teachers are aware of Tier 3 vocab* There are certain words across the curriculum that are pertinent to a particular subject. For example, to ‘take away’ means something very different in maths, to a ‘cheeky takeaway’ on a Friday night! Provide opportunities for pupils to understand what key terms are across the disciplines you teach. They should understand any synonyms or antonyms, the definition (through multiple exposure to the word) and the etymology (or word origin) of important terms. 5. Ensure teachers have sufficient subject knowledge A key step to embedding disciplinary literacy across the school is to know and understand what reading, writing, and thinking looks like in different subjects. This is challenging, and so curriculum leaders should be given the opportunity – and time – to explore this within their own subjects. Many elements have been outlined in the National Curriculum and Ofsted research reviews already, so it’s just a case of finding them. I’ve also included some examples in this article (see the panel to the right). Once subject leaders are clear on what literacy looks like in their area, it is helpful to produce posters and resources, so they can begin to embed what they’ve learned in their lessons. Again, you can find ideas to include within the panel to the right. Hopefully, these five ways will support you with making a start with disciplinary literacy. Remember, it is not about changing everything, but exploring where opportunities can be embedded within your existing provision. *(Beck et al, *Bringing Words to Life*, 2013) Shareen Wilkinson is an education adviser and primary teaching and learning director for a multi-academy trust. She is also an established educational author and writer. @ShareenAdvice Who doesn’t love a good Christmas story? Whether it’s a tale that’s been retold time and again or a brand-new narrative; whether it’s a fable told to us by a relative, a book read being aloud or a favourite festive film on TV, we know what we’re getting with a good Christmas story: someone, somehow will mend their ways and learn the true meaning of Christmas. What could be more reassuring, enjoyable and fun to write? This teaching sequence will give children the opportunity to write their own Christmas story of redemption, where a character can learn a lesson and embrace the spirit of the festive season. Your young writers will have the chance to learn from Catherine Doyle, award-winning author of the *Storm Keeper* series and her wonderful Christmas book *The Miracle on Ebenezer Street*, a delightful reimagining of *A Christmas Carol*. For each section of the teaching sequence, there are extracts from the *Author in Your Classroom* podcast (bit.ly/AIYCCatDoyle) to support your teaching, providing inspiration and linking the process that children will follow with the work of a hugely talented and popular author. **SESSION 1** **REIMAGINING A CHRISTMAS STORY** 1. Play the section of the podcast from 15.43 up until 18.11. Ask children why they think Catherine chose to create a reimagining of *A Christmas Carol*, rather than a retelling. 2. As a class, discuss the difference between these two ideas: that rather than simply telling the same story in a different way, when reimagining, the writer can take any elements that they like from the story – characters, setting, themes, ideas – and use them in a completely different way. 3. Working in pairs, ask the children to think of as many Christmas stories as they can. They can start with books and poems, but remind them that films and songs can also be good sources. 4. As a class, ask the children to look at the tales they have collected and list some of the elements that the stories have in common. They might suggest themes, settings, characters, objects or background features. Explain they’re going to use these to write their own stories. “Write down all your ideas the second you have them” SESSION 2 PLANNING A STORY 1 | Play the podcast from **01.49** up until **05.22**. 2 | Remind pupils of the list of Christmas stories they made in the previous session and ask them to think about if there are any that they think could form the basis of their own story. If so, ask them to jot down the elements that they might use (characters, settings, parts of the plot, themes, etc.) If there aren’t elements they wish to use or they are finding this difficult, tell them not to worry because they will have the chance to plan a story from scratch, using their own Christmas ideas. You might need to remind pupils that although they might be tempted to include lots of different Christmas elements, it might make for a better story if they just choose a few. 3 | Next, remind pupils that in many Christmas stories, including *The Miracle on Ebenezer Street*, one of the characters changes because of the events in the story. Share the list of Christmas stories with the children again and ask them to identify where a character changes somehow. 4 | Ask pupils to take their initial ideas and turn them into a story plan where one of their characters changes or learns a lesson because of events in the story. SESSION 3 ADDING SOME MAGIC 1 | Play the section of the podcast from **10.05** up until **13.11**. Ask the children if they can think of any other stories that employ ‘magic realism’, adding magical events or objects into the real world. Ask the children to think about why this type of writing might suit Christmas stories particularly. 2 | Ask the children to return to their plans and see if there is any opportunity to include something magical in their story. Of course, it might be that they have done this already, but if not, this gives them an opportunity to include another element of a good Christmas story: some festive magic! SESSION 4 WRITING THE STORY 1 | Play the podcast again from **05.58** up to **09.55**. Tell the children that what a character says and how they say it can be a great way of revealing things about a character and how they are feeling in a particular scene. Working in pairs, ask pupils to think about the conversation between George and Mr Marley and discuss the following questions: What do we learn about the two characters from the scene? How does Catherine Doyle suggest that Mr Marley is a magical, mysterious and mischievous character without telling us? 2 | Ask the children to write their own Christmas stories, drawing on their plans. Challenge them to use dialogue to show the reader how their characters feel or what they are like, using some of the ideas above. 3 | Once pupils have written their story, ask them to share their work with a partner or look at some examples together as a class. Then they can make improvements. AFTER THE UNIT... - Play the podcast from **21.19** until the end. - Discuss Catherine’s advice for young writers: - ‘Read, read, read. Read as many books as you can as often as you can.’ - ‘Write down all your ideas the second you have them.’ - ‘Before you start writing your own story, try and do a little bit of a plan… the better your structure is before you start, the easier it will be to write the story.’ - ‘If you’re struggling to come up with characters… just look around you at your gran or your brother or your dog or your cat and just steal them!’ - Ask the class if they can think of times when this advice would come in useful for their own writing. To download a full set of FREE resources for this teaching sequence – including planning sheets, teaching slides, themed writing paper and more – visit [bit.ly/AIYCCatDresourcepack](http://bit.ly/AIYCCatDresourcepack) To subscribe for free, just search for ‘Author in Your Classroom’ wherever you get your podcasts! teach PRIMARY BOOK AWARDS 2022 32 AMAZING BOOKS SURE TO INSPIRE YOUR CLASS “These awards do a fantastic job of informing teachers and pupils about the latest and greatest children’s books” David Solomon, author and judge If there’s one thing the publishing world – and the children’s sector in particular – is not short of, it’s prizes. However, the Teach Primary Book Awards is the only competition that takes into consideration the unique way that original works of fiction and non-fiction can enhance a classroom – opening doors to new worlds; modelling powerful language; awakening curiosity; and inspiring pupils to produce wonderful writing of their own. 2022 marks the eighth year of the Teach Primary Book Awards; and my first involvement, as editor of Teach Primary and Teach Reading & Writing magazines. I’m hugely proud to have been a part of the process, which saw a phenomenal number of entries, somehow whittled down to a shortlist of 32 titles, before being sent out to our brilliant panel of judges. Armed with a set of criteria including such things as learning opportunities, emotional depth, and language play – not forgetting, of course, exceptional writing and beautiful illustration – these intrepid adjudicators were charged with picking a winner and a runner up in each of four categories: non-fiction, Reception, KS1 and KS2. It was an incredibly tough task, but they tackled it with both diligence and delight; these are books with something special to offer above and beyond the sheer joy of the reading experience, and I am thrilled to be able to share them here. Charley Rogers, editor, Teach Primary and Teach Reading & Writing “What an honour – and a treat! – to be judging for the Teach Primary Book Awards, championing new and sparkling stories for young people.” Joan Haig, author and judge Meet the judges BEN GARROD is professor of evolutionary biology and science engagement at the University of East Anglia. EXTINCT: THE STORY OF LIFE ON EARTH (Zephyr), is his eight-book series for young readers. @Ben_garrod JOAN HAIG was born and grew up in Zambia – and lived in Vanuatu, India and Nigeria before settling in Scotland. Her debut novel, Tiger Skin Rug, was nominated for the CILIP Carnegie Medal. @joanhaigbooks DAVID SOLOMONS’ first novel, My Brother is a Superhero!, won the British Book Award for Children’s Book of the Year in 2016. A Beginner’s Guide to Ruling the Galaxy is his sixth novel for children. @DavidSolomons2 STEPH ELLIOTT is a Year 6 class teacher in Newcastle, and a book blogger. She has a passion for reading and believes every child is a reader, too – they just need the right book! @eenalol LUCY STARBUCK BRAIDLEY is senior programme manager – reading for enjoyment at The National Literacy Trust. She is also a former primary school teacher, English subject lead and moderator. @Lucy_Braidley BROUGH GIRLING is co-founder of the Readathon charity. A qualified teacher, he has written over 30 children’s books, broadcast widely and lectured in children’s reading from Canada to Cairo. @ReadforGoodUK **RECEPTION** **WINNER** *My Dog Banana* Roxane Brouillard, ill. Giulia Sagramola (Greystone Kids) Described as “surreal and witty with a distinctive style” by judge and author David Solomons, this book blends silliness and sophistication to perfection. Why is the protagonist taking a walk with a banana on a lead? Does he really think that it’s a dog? Children will love the way that all the adults are so baffled by his claim – and discussing whether, in fact, there’s a chance that he could actually be right… “Surreal and witty with a distinctive style” David Solomons **Runner up** *A Pair of Pears and an Orange* Anna McGregor (Scribble) When teacher, blogger and Book Awards judge Steph Elliott shared this story with her class, it became an instant favourite. “It’s so, so original,” explained Steph, “with lots of funny puns and word play.” There’s a lovely message, too, about how to navigate the shifting boundaries of friendships – especially when someone new appears on the horizon; making this an ideal book for kickstarting discussions about kindness and inclusivity. “So, so original” Steph Elliott **Also shortlisted** - **Cindergorilla** Gareth P Jones, illustrated by Loretta Schauer (Farshore) - **Bloom** Julia Seal (Sunbird Books) - **The Boy Who Sailed the World** Julia Green & Alex Latimer (David Fickling Books) - **Party Parade** Leanne Miller & Sara Miller (Scholastic) - **Grumpy Hat** Nicola Kent (Andersen Press) - **Puffling and the Egg** Erika McGann & Gerry Daly (The O’Brien Press) KEY STAGE 1 WINNER The Story Shop: Blast Off! Tracey Corderoy, ill. Tony Neal (Little Tiger) Our judges loved the concept at the heart of this book: a shop where you can walk in and pick all the ingredients for a story adventure of your own. “You could do so much with this idea, and let children’s imaginations go wild!” said Lucy Starbuck Braidley, of the National Literacy Trust; while author Joan Haig praised the “fantastic integration of pictures and words,” calling it an “original, fun idea, with likeable characters.” “you could do so much with this idea, and let children’s imaginations go wild!” Lucy Starbuck Braidley How Beautiful Antonella Capetti, ill. Melissa Castrillon (Greystone Kids) The author of this gorgeous story about a curious caterpillar searching for the true meaning of the word ‘beautiful’, is a primary teacher herself, in Italy; and her dreamy prose has a gently pedagogical quality, nudging readers to ask questions of themselves, and perhaps look at the world around them rather differently as a result. Judge Joan Haig called it “a fabulous lesson in the philosophy of language for young children,” and “a book for everyone.” “A book for everyone” Joan Haig Also shortlisted THE BOY WHO GREW A TREE Polly Ho-Yen (Knights Of) YAPPING AWAY Joshua Seigal, illustrated by Sarah Horne (Bloomsbury Education) BUMBLE & SNUG AND THE ANGRY PIRATES Mark Bradley (Hachette Children’s Group – Hodder Children’s Books) ANISHA ACCIDENTAL DETECTIVE: HOLIDAY ADVENTURE Serena Patel, illustrated by Emma McCann (Usborne Publishing) VELDA THE AWESOMEST VIKING AND THE GINORMOUS FROST GIANTS David MacPhail (Floris Books) PRINCESS MINNA: THE ENCHANTED FOREST Kirsty Applebaum, illustrated by Sahar Haghighoo (Nosy Crow) KEY STAGE 2 WINNER When the Sky Falls Phil Earle (Andersen Press) This exceptional piece of storytelling has already picked up a handful of awards, and rightly so. As judge David Solomon says, it’s “original, heartfelt and superbly readable. You know you’re in safe hands with Phil Earle from the first page.” Inspired by a true story, it describes what happens when a lonely, angry boy, sent to live with a stranger during WWII, starts to build a bond with the mighty silverback gorilla who is also in her care. “Original, heartfelt and superbly readable” David Solomons Runner up Nisha’s War Dan Smith (Chicken House) “Spirited and spiritual and quite thrilling to read,” according to judge Joan Haig, the runner up in this category is another tale of WWII; but from a very different perspective. Nisha has arrived at her grandmother’s house in the North of England, having escaped the Japanese invasion of Singapore. It’s cold and grey, and the local villagers treat her with suspicion – so when a boy beckons one night from the treehouse she’s been forbidden to play in, it seems she has nothing to lose... “Spirited and spiritual and quite thrilling to read” Joan Haig Also shortlisted ESCAPE ROOM Christopher Edge (Nosy Crow) THE LION ABOVE THE DOOR Onjali Q Rauf (Hachette Children’s Group – Orion Children’s Books) THE LIGHT IN EVERYTHING Katya Balen (Bloomsbury Children’s Books) THE SWALLOWS’ FLIGHT Hilary McKay (Macmillan Children’s Books) THE BOOK OF STOLEN DREAMS David Farr (Usborne Publishing) THE AMAZING EDIE ECKHART Rosie Jones (Hachette Children’s Group – Hodder Children’s Books) The Secret Signs of Nature Craig Caudill, ill. Carrie Shyrock (Magic Cat Publishing) Meet two young adventurers as they discover the ancient art of reading outdoor clues. Join them as they learn to read a full moon, decode the colour of the ocean, and forecast the weather with a rainbow, uncovering the secret signs of nature and a world of forgotten skills. Naturalist Steve Backshall provides a foreword for this book, which made judge Ben Garrod “want to run outside and explore”. Live Like a Hunter Gatherer Naomi Walmsley, ill. Mia Underwood (Button Books) “With practical guides, this is the perfect book for any young reader wanting to unravel our own complex but fascinating family tree,” said Ben Garrod – and indeed, there is plenty to delight and intrigue children in this informative and generously illustrated guide to the Stone Age, written by a real-life hunter-gatherer! Also shortlisted GOOD NEWS Rashmi Sirdeshpande (Hachette Children’s Group – Wren & Rook) EVERYTHING YOU KNOW ABOUT DINOSAURS IS WRONG! Dr Nick Crumpton, illustrated by Gavin Scott (Nosy Crow) FIRST NAMES: GRETA THUNBERG Tracey Turner, illustrated by Tom Knight (David Fickling Books) EVERYDAY STEM TECHNOLOGY: MACHINES Jenny Jacoby (Pan Macmillan) EPIC ADVENTURES: EXPLORE THE WORLD IN 12 AMAZING TRAIN JOURNEYS Sam Sedgman (Pan Macmillan) BEYOND BELIEF Alex Woolf (Little Tiger) If teaching phonics is something you feel you can do standing on your head, knock yourself out. If not, this new arrival from Jolly Phonics might interest you. Of course, you know of Jolly Phonics. Established well before the teaching of synthetic phonics was even included in the National Literacy Strategy of 1998, it is one of the most popular and enduring phonics programmes on the market. Like most successful products, it has had to move with the times. Recently, the fifth edition of the Jolly Phonics Handbook was launched, including updated illustrations and several new worksheets and additional new content. Now, they are introducing a digital platform to enhance its impact still further – Jolly Classroom. As you might expect, it includes everything you need to introduce the 42 letter sounds to your pupils, along with the accompanying skills of letter formation, blending, segmenting and spotting tricky words. It then goes on to alternative spellings, new letter combinations, further tricky words and so on, while consolidating earlier learning. The resources work together to form an extensive year-long programme, aligned to both the familiar Jolly Phonics handbook, and pupil books. Each letter sound is pre-recorded for you, in case you’re self-conscious about your schwa. And you don’t have to worry about repetitive strain injury from flourishing your flash cards, either. But, for me, what really brings the resources to life is the way they use bright and appealing pictures, entertaining short stories, touch-screen letter formation and even brief ditties using familiar tunes to bring the learning to life. In all likelihood, the rookie readers will be absorbing their letters and sounds so happily, they won’t realise what abstract magic they are mastering. In order to embed that new learning still further, there is a wide variety of engaging activities included in Jolly Classroom. These can all be completed on an interactive whiteboard with the whole class, and many can also be printed out for pupils to attempt individually, if you so wish. I have every confidence that the children will love doing the activities, as they are based on the winning formula that has worked so well for Jolly Phonics for so many years. From the teacher’s perspective, I can see this not only saving a lot of planning time, but also providing an easy-to-follow, carefully structured programme that should make teaching phonics a joy. It’s simple to set up and intuitive to use. But, just in case, like me, you are prone to techno-befuddlement, there are tips and instructions at every stage to keep you on track. For existing fans of Jolly phonics, it will probably feel like an impressive film adaptation of a favourite book. But I can see it converting many newcomers, too. If you like to make your phonics lessons a vibrant, multi-sensory experience for your pupils, you will probably take to this like a spotty snake to hissing. **VERDICT** - Bright and engaging - Simple to set up and use - Attractive, screen-based lessons - Interactive, multisensory activities - Saves planning time - Perfectly pitched for young children - Useful online support **UPGRADE IF…** You want to give your phonics lessons extra impact through engaging, multisensory, screen-based activities. How much do we think about handedness when we consider children’s needs? Handedness is the preference for using one hand over another and when it comes to the school environment this really matters. Left-handed children often struggle when the resources aren’t there to support them. This is often the case when it comes to writing utensils and scissors. Left-handed pupils can often appear uncoordinated or disorganised as most equipment is set up for right-handed children. STABILO has thought long and hard about the user experience to cater for everyone and its product range is impressively inclusive. Every operational characteristic has been considered from the size, weight, shape and length of the instrument to the surface texture and hardness of the shaft, ink flow, smoothness, writing fatigue and more. The EASY Start range is a vibrant and ergonomic family of writing equipment specifically designed for learning and improving handwriting skills at a young age. Led by the latest research in handwriting ergonomics, these are clever products that put writing comfort, legibility, efficiency and motivation right at the centre of design so that children can have fun improving their skills. STABILO’s EASYoriginal pens are a joy. These really attractive wide-barrel refillable pens have been ergonomically moulded so that children use the lightest grip possible while writing. The slightly arched shape helps pupils to achieve the recommended tripod grip, eliminating strain. It also features a rubberised grip around the pen barrel for increased traction. The STABILO ergonomic pens use a rollerball design which flows freely. This helps reduce writing pressure which can lead to pain over longer pieces of written work. The nibs are broad and flexible and use royal blue erasable ink, ideal for school use. STABILO’s handwriting pencils with break-resistant 2.2mm lead have also been designed specifically for left- and right-handers. EASYgraph S pencils have a brilliant triangular design and non-slip grip moulds which magnificently support a relaxed hand posture. They also have a subtle yellow and red colour coding at the end of the pencil to indicate whether it is a left- or right-handed version. They come in a range of five shaft colours and the S (slim) versions have a slenderer barrel than the original, but still with a space for inscribing your name. Every child should benefit from adopting an ergonomic way of working and STABILO has given us the tools to work in a more efficient and child-friendly way. These are writing resources that truly break the mould. Pens from £3.29, pencils from £1.04, stabilo.com/uk VERDICT ✔ Sophisticated, intelligent and intuitive designs to tackle handwriting issues ✔ Non-slip, comfortable to hold and prevents stress, tiredness and potential damage to hand posture ✔ Revolutionary, fun and attractive designs ✔ Quality through and through for a great price ✔ Takes the stress out of handwriting UPGRADE IF… You are looking for writing resources that truly cater for left-, right- and mixed-handers. Plazoom – Real Grammar A whole-school grammar resource, packed with plenty of pedagogical punch AT A GLANCE - Quality-first grammar lessons furnished with a raft of resources - Follows a simple five-step structure - Three levels of differentiation included - Terminology definitions and modelled examples - Superb teaching guide REVIEWED BY: JOHN DABELL Recent research suggests that what helps children to develop their writing skills at different points in development, is focusing on teaching approaches such as sentence-combining, strategy instruction and emphasising the processes of writing. For this you need innovative, interactive and expert literacy resources such as those by Plazoom. For grappling with grammar then look no further than their new whole-school programme, Real Grammar. This multimodal and visually appealing set of resources follows a new approach to teaching grammar to ensure deep learning through meaning, creativity and choice. Real Grammar adopts a very structured approach and is taught as part of the literacy sequence ‘teach, practise, revisit, apply, revise’, so that learning can be spaced over time. The units have been organised to cover all the grammar and punctuation objectives and each has a specially written model text showing the objective in context. The ‘teach’ section provides comprehensive teaching sequences so that pupils are able to get to grips with every concept and can apply their learning in context. There are impressive teaching scripts to follow, with key questions and prompts included for high-quality learning. The ‘practise’ examples are pitched at three different levels and so they should capture the needs of most pupils, and can be used to consolidate learning and identify any gaps or misconceptions. These sections can be adhered to as part of a classroom literacy routine, but they can also be used flexibly rather than as a fixed route through grammar terrain. A range of games and activities are included so that areas can be revisited and embedded. ‘Revise’ sections include differentiated exercises to help prepare pupils for end-of-year assessments. Embedded within these sections is an outstanding collection of teaching essentials, including detailed notes, editable PowerPoint lessons, model texts, practice worksheets, games, writing prompts, and more, all of which have suggestions for challenge and support, with opportunities to investigate and develop ideas. The high-quality resources are child-friendly without being childish, age-appropriate, and have plenty of pedagogical punch. These are genuinely outstanding materials that are expertly created for making grammar lessons easy. VERDICT ✓ A sure-fire way of helping pupils to generate sentences and get in the groove with grammar ✓ Supports children apply their skills across the curriculum ✓ Grammar for fun, challenge, interest and creativity ✓ Helps to improve listening and comprehension skills ✓ Everything you need to introduce, explore and identify each objective in context UPGRADE IF… You are looking to create cohesion in your grammar provision using effective resources underpinned by a robust teaching sequence so that children can achieve deep grammatical learning. Raintree Red Squirrel Phonics Thoughtful, precise and fun books to help pupils develop their reading abilities AT A GLANCE - 100 decodable books - Authentic storylines and fun characters - Systematic progression for learning phonemes and graphemes - Teaching notes included in each book - Comprehensive teachers’ books with lesson plans, activity sheets and assessment - Clear guidance to support children REVIEWED BY: JOHN DABELL Red Squirrel Phonics are multifaceted reading materials tailor-made for phonics fun and progression. They allow children to practise their emerging phonic knowledge by reading books that only comprise the sounds that they have learned. There is a precision and intelligibility to each page with large, well-spaced text in an unfussy font. The attractive and colourful illustrations support the text and bring the books to life. The book levels are sagely sequenced phonetically with lots of practice at the vital CVC stage with a measured build-up of sight vocabulary. They combine decodable, predictable, and repetitive text in the context of topics that are age-appropriate and familiar to children. Some trickier ‘difficult to decode’ high-frequency words are also included that are not phonetically consistent. They are well-written and thought-provoking too, each with a meaningful storyline – both fiction and non-fiction – with plenty to dissect and discuss. At the early levels, the books are supported by the same key characters along with their pets and friends, and later levels introduce a wider range of characters and artwork. Levels 1–3 introduce all consonants and short vowels, and the focus is on predominantly VC and CVC words and a few tricky words. Levels 4–5 introduce consonant digraphs, vowel digraphs and trigraphs and adjacent consonants with short and long vowels. Levels 6–7 introduce new graphemes for known phonemes. An indicator of a good series of decodable texts is that the concepts are laid out in a clearly defined way, with new concepts building on those addressed in previous books. These books do exactly that. A Phonics Overview chart is also available to download from the Raintree website, providing a very helpful breakdown of the phonemes and graphemes introduced at each level. On the inside front cover there is a Before Reading skills-focus practice page for warming-up, and at the end there is a summary of how to use the book with pre-reading ideas in more detail, words to blend, and a tricky words review. There is also a post-reading section with ideas for applying learning and building understanding, and supportive notes for helping children to read a text accurately, quickly, and with expression. To support the books are three brilliant teachers’ resources that go into greater depth with explicit guided teaching notes, a phonics overview, scope and sequence, word banks, assessments and photocopyable pages matched to every title. These can be followed to the letter but there is also room for thoughtful adaptation where teachers can employ their expertise in ways that best meet the needs of their children. The Red Squirrel series makes a valuable contribution to the ‘Big 5 of Reading’ by helping children build their phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension. They provide children with exciting opportunities to practise specific phonics concepts, and are fantastic tools for building reading confidence and allow children to show they CAN read. VERDICT ✓ Systematic, explicit, engaging and success-orientated ✓ Helps teach children phonics skills in a sequential and systematic way ✓ Meaningful books that develop context, interest, and engagement for all children ✓ Ensures that every beginning reader experience success in their reading ✓ Perfect for use in the classroom or for home reading ✓ Pitch-perfect levelled books ✓ Clear, concise and comprehensive teaching notes for phonics coaching UPGRADE IF… You are looking for high-quality resources that can be used alongside SSP programmes, and that draw upon multiple criteria to promote phonics literacy. Red Squirrel Complete Pack — 100 titles plus four teacher books £525. Please contact email@example.com to find out more ‘Emotion made into a dance of words’ Waterstones Children’s Laureate and award-winning poet Joseph Coelho on the power of poetry to literally change lives Twenty years of running poetry sessions within schools has shown me that there is a general fear around writing; poetry in particular. I want to help change that. I really enjoyed my own time in primary school, and even back then I was entranced by words and poetry. I have particularly fond memories of teachers reading Anne Holm’s *I Am David* and Allan Ahlberg’s *Please, Mrs Butler*, and of borrowing a copy of Raymond Briggs’s *Fungus the Bogeyman* from the local library. It was immersing myself in these texts that inspired me to try writing my own stuff. When I first got *Fungus* I took it straight home and traced the pictures, then attempted creating my own stories to match the images. From that point, I was hooked! That’s the kind of process I’d like to recreate for pupils – that feeling of reading or seeing something, then getting that spark of an idea that you just have to get down on paper. There’s nothing like it. Sadly, all too often, reluctant writers can see the process as something that just isn’t for them; that writing is somehow difficult and mysterious. Especially poetry. Teachers often tell me of their own fear regarding poetry, too, so my idea for Poetry Prompts grew out of a desire to provide a resource that will get pupils writing in fun, creative – and most importantly – non-threatening ways. Each prompt is no more than 10 minutes long, so they’re designed to fit into the gaps in the school day. The idea is you could slip in a prompt during registration, before a lunch break, or perhaps at the end of the day when your class have finished a unit of work and there’s a little bit of time left. I want these writing moments to be fun and engaging – not just for children but the adults, too – and for them to be seen as gentle invitations to write, helping to rid our classrooms of this fear of putting pen to paper. And the inspiration doesn’t have to be existing poems, or a book, necessarily. There are ideas everywhere – you might write about what you can hear, or see from your classroom, for example. If you are using texts to inspire kids, you can use any kind of format that they’re already interested in. But, of course, your children might also surprise you in their choice of reading material. My love of language actually came into its own when my grandmother gave me her old dictionary and thesaurus – not something you’d think would be especially interesting for a child, but I couldn’t get enough! Another thing that really brought poetry alive for me was discovering the performance poetry organisation, Apples and Snakes. In my early 20s I saw poets like Stacy Makishi sharing poems and smashing eggs filled with paint; and performers like Francesca Bears creating whole theatrical shows using poetry. The form completely shifted in my mind, becoming a theatrical art that could include lighting, sound, costume, voices, and physical theatre. When I was a child, poetry was something that was definitely confined to the page, but as an adult, I’ve realised it’s that and so much more – it is song, it is theatre. It is emotion made into a dance of words. And engaging in poetry – in whatever form – can be incredibly powerful. Some of my favourite memories are where I’ve experienced a child with elective mutism choose a poetry session as the place to share their voice. This was a huge inspiration behind my book *My Beautiful Voice*, which tells the story of a little girl who doesn’t speak, but who, through gentle and patient listening and encouragement from her teacher, finds the courage to talk. I’ve met with some absolutely brilliant teachers who have worked with children like this over weeks and months, and sometimes years, to find their voice. Being able to be a part of that – even a small part – is extraordinarily humbling and exciting. Joseph Coelho is an award-winning performance poet and writer. He is currently the Waterstones Children’s Laureate for 2022-2024, and you can see his Poetry Prompts series at tinyurl.com/tp-JCPoetryPrompts The first book in the monstrously funny new series is out now! MONSTER HUNTING Perfect for readers aged 7-11 to sink their teeth into... Book 2 coming 5th January Phonics from Oxford: choice, quality and expertise Find the right solution for your school Each of our systematic synthetic phonics programmes offer high quality classroom resources, decodable phonics books and professional development. DfE validated ✓ Read Write Inc. Phonics “Our children make progress in reading regardless of their background, language or SEND status.” Grange Lane Infant Academy, Doncaster ELS Essential Letters and Sounds “Pupil progress has been incredible! I can only put it down to ELS and the support that we’ve had.” The Parks Academy, Hull Floppy’s Phonics Teaching Programme “After using the programme for a short time the children were making excellent progress, especially the lowest 20%” Hartford Manor Primary School and Nursery, Cheshire Scan to book an appointment with one of our expert team Find out more at www.oxfordprimary.com/phonics
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The impact of video as a self-reflective tool for improvement of teacher feedback practices Julia Mueller Edith Cowan University Follow this and additional works at: https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses Part of the Education Commons Recommended Citation Mueller, J. (2019). *The impact of video as a self-reflective tool for improvement of teacher feedback practices*. Edith Cowan University. Retrieved from https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/2241 This Thesis is posted at Research Online. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/2241 Edith Cowan University Copyright Warning You may print or download ONE copy of this document for the purpose of your own research or study. The University does not authorize you to copy, communicate or otherwise make available electronically to any other person any copyright material contained on this site. You are reminded of the following: - Copyright owners are entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright. - A reproduction of material that is protected by copyright may be a copyright infringement. Where the reproduction of such material is done without attribution of authorship, with false attribution of authorship or the authorship is treated in a derogatory manner, this may be a breach of the author’s moral rights contained in Part IX of the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth). - Courts have the power to impose a wide range of civil and criminal sanctions for infringement of copyright, infringement of moral rights and other offences under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth). Higher penalties may apply, and higher damages may be awarded, for offences and infringements involving the conversion of material into digital or electronic form. The impact of video as a self-reflective tool for improvement of teacher feedback practices This thesis is presented for the degree of Master of Education Julia Mueller Edith Cowan University School of Education 2019 Teacher reflection on instructional practices can improve performance and positively influence student achievement. This qualitative quasi-ethnographic study investigated the impact of self-tracking video technology as a reflective tool for improvement of teacher feedback in a specialist primary classroom. Video provided observational data which was analysed using a checklist and researcher and reviewer annotations. The study concluded that the teacher used non-specific feedback strategies more than specific-feedback to respond to behavioural, engagement and learning issues. Thus, context was identified as an important determinant of effectiveness in feedback. The video technology features enhanced the teacher’s reflection and strengthened the collaborative reflective processes. DECLARATION I certify this thesis does not, to the best of my knowledge and belief: I. Incorporate without acknowledgement any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any institution of higher education; II. Contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text of this thesis; Or III. Contain any defamatory material. Signed and Dated: 26th June 2019 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would not have been able to complete this Master’s Degree by Research without the support, guidance, patience and belief of a number of amazing people. Before all, I need to acknowledge and thank my friends and fellow research students friends who completed this journey with me: Steph, Kristie and Tammy – thank you for your continuous support, your listening ears when it all got too much, your love, encouragement and motivation, and many, many coffee runs. Many thanks to my supervisors, Dr Kuki Singh for your guidance, support and encouragement throughout the completion of the research. Thank you also to Dr Jenny Lane who supported me in the early stages of the degree and who helped me to organise my thoughts and ideas. Thank you to Dave Lewis for finding endless hours to view video footage of my teaching and making valuable and insightful comments to guide me along. I greatly appreciate your support and guidance. Thank you especially to my wonderful family, whose endless patience, love, understanding and encouragement was so incredible. To my two amazing children, Lucy and Matilda, who mastered the skills of knowing when to leave me alone, and when to gently nudge me to keep going, over the years. To my wonderful partner Neil and his family. I cannot thank you enough for the encouragement and time you freed up for me and how much you enabled me to grow and learn. Thank you for the hours you spent helping me formatting and talking me through my thoughts and frustrations. I love you all very much! I thank my dad in Germany, who travelled thousands of kilometres to cook for me and give me love, support and advice. I could not have done this without your belief in me. Finally, I would like to thank the participants for their willingness to be involved in this study and their enthusiasm during the process. # TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. i DECLARATION ........................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ iii TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................. iv LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... vii 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 7 2.1. FEEDBACK AS COMMUNICATION FOR LEARNING .................................. 8 2.2. THE IMPORTANCE OF FEEDBACK FOR LEARNING .................................... 10 2.3. FEEDBACK HAS AN EFFECT ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT .................. 10 2.4. FEEDBACK CAN FOSTER RISK TAKING BEHAVIOURS NECESSARY FOR LEARNING ................................................................. 11 2.5. FEEDBACK PROCESSES CAN BE USED TO DETERMINE SUBSEQUENT DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING ................................................................. 12 2.6. FEEDBACK STRATEGIES ............................................................................... 13 2.7. CHALLENGES WITH GIVING AND RECEIVING FEEDBACK .......................... 15 2.8. HOW VIDEO FOOTAGE CAN HELP TEACHERS REFLECT ON THEIR OWN FEEDBACK PRACTICES ................................................................. 17 2.9. THE IMPORTANCE OF TEACHER REFLECTION ........................................... 18 2.10. WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF VIDEO CUED REFLECTION? ....................... 19 2.11. WHAT ARE SOME OF THE CHALLENGES OF USING VIDEO IN THE CLASSROOM, AND HOW CAN THESE BE MITIGATED? ........................................ 20 2.12. WHAT NEW TECHNOLOGIES ARE AVAILABLE TO SUPPORT UNOBTURSIVE USE OF VIDEO IN THE CLASSROOM, FOR THE PURPOSE OF TEACHER REFLECTION? ........................................ 21 2.13. SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 21 3. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................. 23 3.1. THE RESEARCH PARADIGM ........................................................................ 24 3.2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ..................................................................... 25 3.3. THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................... 29 3.4. PARTICIPANTS ............................................................................................. 30 3.5. THE DATA COLLECTION METHOD ............................................................. 31 3.6. DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................. 35 4.6.1 COMPILED ................................................................. 36 3.6.2. DISASSEMBLING ....................................................... 36 3.6.3. REASSEMBLING ......................................................... 37 3.6.4. INTERPRETING ......................................................... 37 3.7. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY ........................................... 38 3.8. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS .......................................... 38 3.9. DATA MANAGEMENT ..................................................... 39 3.10. LIMITATIONS .............................................................. 39 3.11. SUMMARY ................................................................. 40 4. ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS ............................................... 41 4.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 41 4.2. STUDY CONTEXT .......................................................... 41 4.3. PHYSICAL SETTING ....................................................... 43 4.4. VIDEO RECORDINGS ..................................................... 45 4.5. DATA ANALYSIS ........................................................... 47 4.6. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ............................................ 77 4.7. SUMMARY ................................................................. 86 5. RESULTS ........................................................................... 88 5.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 88 5.2. OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ............................................ 88 5.3. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................. 89 5.4. IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND PRACTICE .... 96 5.5. SUMMARY ................................................................. 97 6. REFERENCES .................................................................... 98 7. APPENDICES .................................................................... 107 | Table | Description | Page | |-------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | 1 | Data collection techniques relating to the corresponding research questions | 32 | | 2 | Video recording time for each Health lesson | 33 | | 3 | Implementing Yin’s Five Stages of Qualitative analysis | 35 | | 4 | List of technical problems during the recording process for each Health lesson | 46 | | 5 | Overview of the interconnections made across different data and Yin’s five stages of analysis | 48 | | 6 | Extract of video data log collated from Lesson 1 | 51 | | 7 | Checklist for Lesson 1 showing frequencies of the observed feedback strategies | 52 | | 8 | Total amount of progress feedback given in Lesson 1 | 54 | | 9 | Example of succession of non-specific feedback over 6 minutes during Lesson 1 | 55 | | 10 | Checklist for Lesson 2 showing frequencies of the observed feedback strategies | 56 | | 11 | Checklist for Lesson 3 showing frequencies of the observed feedback strategies | 61 | | 12 | Checklist for Lesson 4 showing frequencies of the observed feedback strategies | 64 | | 13 | Checklist for Lesson 5 showing frequencies of the observed feedback strategies | 67 | | 14 | Checklist for Lesson 6 showing frequencies of the observed feedback strategies | 72 | LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Percentage of academic variance of achievement based on Hattie’s (1999) research...........12 Figure 2. Vygotsky’s first generation model of a mediated act ..........................................................26 Figure 3. Conceptual framework demonstrating the cycle of giving feedback ......................................30 Figure 4. The layout of the Year 2 classroom in which Health lessons were conducted.......................43 Figure 5. Screenshot of Video recording, showing the Year 2 students seated on the mat (own photo) .................................................................................................................................................................................44 Figure 6. Screenshot of Video recording, showing the Year 2 students seated at their desk (own photo) .................................................................................................................................................................................45 1. INTRODUCTION Feedback has been recognized as being among the top ten influences on student achievement, with Hattie and Yates (2014) identifying it as one of the most effective strategies to improve student learning. Timely, effective, and meaningful feedback, according to Hattie and Yates, can double the rate of learning. In earlier research, Hattie (1999) found that feedback can be measured as having the highest effect size on student achievement, particularly if it involves students receiving feedback about a task and how to do it more effectively. Hattie and Timperley (2007) describe feedback as a "consequence of performance" (p. 81), where information relating to a task or process is being provided, with an aim to fill the gap between what has been understood and what is intended to be understood. In a classroom, effective feedback can fill those gaps in a number of different ways: encouraging increased effort, providing the student with motivation, or engagement. In addition, feedback can be given by restructuring the student’s understandings, confirming with students that they are correct or incorrect, demonstrating if more information is available or needed, pointing students to directions they could pursue, as well as pointing out alternative strategies to clarify information. Addressing the importance of feedback in students’ learning, the present study analysed the feedback strategies used by a teacher in a primary classroom setting using self-tracking video technology as a reflective tool to guide ongoing improvements in the practice of feedback. The importance of feedback for effective student learning has been the subject of educational research for several decades (Hattie 1999; Hattie & Yates, 2014; McKeachie, Lin, & Mann, 1971; Myers, Travers & Sanford, 1965; Voerman, Meijer, Korthagen & Simons, 2012; Zahorik, Halbach, Ehrle & Molnar, 2003). Hattie states that “the most powerful single moderator that enhances achievement is feedback.” (Hattie, 1999, p. 11), and predicts that “programs that do not capitalise on effective classroom management practices to optimise feedback, will not be successful” (Hattie, 1999, p. 12). In addition, Voerman et al. found that feedback can increase learning, on the condition that the feedback provided, contains sufficient information, enabling the student to recognize what is right or wrong in their performance or understanding. In their 2014 paper, Using Feedback to Promote Learning, Hattie and Yates identify feedback as an opportunity for the individual student to identify progress toward learning, which allows students to make informed choices as to which next step to take to progress in their achievements. Zahorik et al. conducted a study on the effectiveness of teachers and found that more effective teachers gave clear expectations and provided feedback. When used effectively in the classroom, feedback can have the benefit of creating a supportive community culture. This entails fostering a classroom culture in which students feel comfortable to learn from their mistakes. By responding to students' mistakes in a supportive manner, a teacher can foster a culture where students feel willing to take risks. Dockterman and Blackwell (2014) elaborate that by responding to mistakes with supportive feedback teachers can propel opportunities for student learning and growth. These researchers argue that core values and content-specific skills nurture a classroom culture where students can experience success. Although research has shown that feedback has a positive impact on student learning, not all types and only the right amount off feedback are effective. Teachers, who praise for the sake of giving praise, decrease its value. Hattie and Yates (2014) find that praise within the classroom can become a problem when it fails to convey any genuine feedback information. Giving feedback to students on the process they have engaged in, rather than simply praising them for the end product is critical (Dweck, 2010). Dweck explains that teacher feedback that is focused on the process students have engaged in, namely the exertion they employ, the effort they maintain in task focus, the strategies they utilize, the choices they make, and the perseverance they display, generates longer lasting benefits rather than simply praising students for the end product when they succeed in a learning task. In addition to the nature of the feedback given to students, the amount of feedback received is also crucial for student learning. On this point, Hattie and Yates (2014) allege that the amount of feedback received by most students is often as little as only several seconds per day, which they claim has serious implications for fostering and sustaining learning arising from teacher feedback. A closer analysis of the patterns of classroom interactions has shown that, on average, teachers talk for more than two-thirds of the time (Nuthall, Graesser & Person, 2017). In this regard, Hattie and Yates found some of this talking is delivering instruction and the actual time feedback is given is often very small, and thus is a significant concern. Further research argues that it is not just the amount of feedback that has an impact on student learning, but the quality and whether it is specific and timely. To be effective, teacher feedback needs to be targeted. Targeted feedback guides students in taking specific actions that can help them achieve targeted learning standards (Brookhart, 2008). Targeted feedback can enable students to feel empowered to take control of their own learning, which involves exercising the “motivational factor” (Brookhart, p. 2). To develop self-regulation in learners, it is necessary for feedback to be focused on encouraging students to take more and more responsibility for their own learning, to critically reflect on their learning and to independently complete tasks. (Hattie & Yates, 2014). These researchers add that feedback should guide students towards being able to learn autonomously, and to learn to manage their time and approaches with increasingly less support from the teacher (Hattie & Yates). The research cited here would suggest that once students feel they understand what to do, and why, they are more likely to use the advice given by the teacher to plan and execute steps for improvement with decreasing levels of support from the teacher. Providing meaningful feedback that is appropriate to students’ cognitive developmental stage and which supports them to persevere and take responsibility for their own learning as self-regulated learners (Askew, 2000, Hattie & Yates, 2014, Hawe, Dixon & Watson, 2008), is critically dependent on the feedback strategies used by teachers. Adoption of a growth mindset culture (Dweck, 2010) in the classroom provides a mechanism for encouraging learning through the use of effective feedback strategies. Furthermore, feedback, given by the teacher, without being meaningful and addressing the child’s developmental stages, is worthless according to Hattie and Yates. Therefore, a teacher must employ processes to gain awareness of the feedback strategies that he or she employs, and then evaluate the quality of the feedback, to foster high quality teaching in their own practice, to potentially influence improvements in students’ learning. Teachers’ capacity for providing effective feedback is fundamental to supporting Western Australia’s High Performance-High Care 2017 strategic educational goals (Department of Education, 2016, p. 2). The capacity for teachers to provide effective feedback is implicit in two of the four priorities, namely “success for all students”, and “high quality teaching” (p. 2). Thus, Western Australia’s Classroom First Strategy (Department of Education, 2017b) requires that teachers have the capacity to make informed judgments to develop and empower high performance in their own practice, as well as for their students’ learning outcomes. This requires that teachers regularly reflect on their practices and use critical self and or peer-to-peer appraisal strategies to evaluate their delivery of content and their pedagogical understandings. Liang (2015), argues that “classroom observation of teaching is a process involving educator observers who review an instructor’s performance, with the purpose of providing constructive feedback for teacher development” (p. 236), allowing teachers to reflect on their teaching pedagogies. Richards (1995) identifies the term, “Reflective teaching” (p. 1) and argues that one way for educators to move towards a higher level of pedagogical awareness, is through observing and reflecting on their own teaching, using observation and reflection as a way of developing their instructional techniques and practices. To build teacher capacity, Liang argues that teacher professional development is essential and that it should involve a process of identifying weaknesses and taking actions for improvement. Both, teacher reflective practice and professional development are widely promoted in the research literature as levers for fostering student success and sustaining high quality teaching. Bartlett (1990) notes that teachers, who are asking reflective “what and why” questions, are more empowered. He further states that: the degree of autonomy and responsibility we have in our work as teachers is determined by the level of control we can exercise over our actions. In reflecting on the above kind of questions, we begin to exercise control and open up the possibility of transforming our everyday classroom life. (p. 267) Evidently both reflective practice and professional development are implicit in the Department of Education’s goals, as stated in High Performance-High Care goals (Department of Education, 2016) and Classroom First Strategy (Department of Education, 2017b). This study aimed to use video cued reflection to identify and improve teacher feedback strategies in a primary classroom. The significance of the study is twofold. First, while there is significant research literature on feedback strategies (Askew, 2000; Dean & Marzano, 2012; Harks, Rakoczy, Hattie, Besser & Klieme, 2014; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996) there is little research on which strategies are the most effective ones. Second, currently research on the use of video as a tool for reflection to improve teaching practice and positively impact student engagement in the primary classroom context is very limited. The study sought to address these gaps in the research literature, from the perspective of a teacher-as-researcher. The study sought to address the following research question: - How does the use of video as a self-reflective tool impact on the quality of teacher to student feedback? Subsidiary research questions were: - Which types of strategies are used by the teacher to give feedback? - How does video cued reflection enhance teacher feedback practices? Employing a qualitative research approach, Activity Theory (Vygotsky, 1934–1987) guided the analysis. This theoretical framework enabled the researcher to investigate the range of feedback strategies employed in the classroom and to evaluate their effectiveness, with a specific focus on process orientation, using the triadic framework of subject-object-tool. The study was located at a Perth primary school involving 23 students in a Year 2 specialist Health classroom. Weekly one-hour lessons were recorded over a period of six weeks. The self-tracking video technology (i.e., a robotic tool that tracks movement and supports a portable videoing device such as an iPad or a mobile telephone) was used to unobtrusively film classroom interactions between the teacher and students. During the study period the teacher engaged in structured video-cued reflection to identify and evaluate the feedback strategies that were being utilised, and to introduce improved feedback strategies based upon the reflective analyses. The video-cued reflection provided an opportunity for self-directed professional learning, where observation of verbal and nonverbal or embodied cues became accessible for the teacher to review. In Raingruber’s (2003) terms, the researcher was able to identify the “moment-by-moment interaction patterns, shifting nuances, and multivalent meanings . . . because of the access to nonverbal influences afforded by videotaping” (p. 1165). Video data allowed the researcher to capture temporal, relational, emotional, and spatial meanings, in keeping with the focus on Activity Theory (Raingruber, 2003). The use of video footage to reflect on classroom practices enabled the teacher-as-researcher to be drawn back into the experience, allowing her to grasp several aspects of the situation, to identify subtle influences, and to notice relevant elements of how feedback is given quickly. The video footage was analysed to assess the type, nature and frequency of the feedback provided to students and to determine whether the feedback given was effective, meaningful and process oriented. The study maintained a focus on teaching practice, excluding the impact feedback has on student learning and behaviour. Although the study was limited to one teacher in one classroom setting, it provided insights that could be potentially useful for similar primary education contexts. The study revealed potential benefits of engaging in video-cued reflection using self-tracking video technology in the classroom. This strategy also revealed its usefulness for self-driven, personalised professional learning for teachers. These combined contributions instil the value for teachers to constantly reflect on their own practice and to assess how well they are getting through to their students, whilst searching for ways to update and improve their practice. The potential limitations related to the study arise from four issues: - The researcher and the teacher are the same person. - The length of the research study was limited to six weeks. - The results and findings of the research are confined to only one classroom in one school and cannot be generalised. - Having only one researcher working on the study allows for researcher bias and could therefore have been seen as a limitation to the validity of the study. By inviting an independent reviewer, the researcher took precautions to minimize the bias. These limitations could have generated doubts as to the reliability of the findings from the study. The researcher was aware that a quasi-ethnographic style of research is a process which analyses data found in a situational activity, located in its natural setting, and consequently the results would be interpretive of the teacher in situ. However, as Bell (2010) suggested, the study refrained from making “assertions which cannot be validated” (p. 15); nevertheless, the findings will be relatable in a way that will let teachers in similar settings recognise problems and, possibly, guide them towards ways of solving similar problems in their own contexts. The introduction provided an overview of the research. It addressed the significance of the study and presented the questions that guided the research. The second chapter is a review of the existing literature. Here the researcher presents a discussion on current literature relating to feedback and self-reflection strategies and relates this to the objectives of the present study. Chapter three presents the methods applied in the research and provides a rationale for its suitability. The fourth chapter analyzes the data that was collected, followed by chapter five in which the results and findings of the study are discussed and evaluated. The appendices and a list of references are supplied at the end. Although research studies over the last two decades have shown that feedback is a key element in learning and teaching, limited research has been undertaken on students’ perceptions of feedback and the contribution feedback makes to their learning. In the context of student learning, Hattie and Timperley (2007) define feedback as a process of passing on information relating to one’s performance or understanding a teacher, peer, book, parent, or oneself. Winne and Butler (1994) define feedback as “Information with which a learner can confirm, add to, overwrite, tune, or restructure information in memory, whether that information is domain knowledge, meta-cognitive knowledge, beliefs about self and tasks, or cognitive tactics and strategies” (p. 5740). The consistent themes from these definitions are that feedback involves a communication process that should clarify expectations; feedback should facilitate performance; and feedback should assist learners when they are having difficulties achieving learning outcomes. Hattie and Timperley (2007) explain that the purpose of feedback is to reduce the discrepancies between the students’ existing understanding or performance and the understanding or performance that is expected. Researchers have argued that effective feedback is necessary to support students’ learning. To be effective, feedback must be both appropriate and timely and suited to the needs of the situation (Poulos & Mahony, 2008; Yeager, Paunesku, Walton & Dweck, 2013). Collectively these researchers claim that if feedback is not given effectively, despite being well-intended and with the aim of motivating students, it can have an inverse effect and cause harm. Although the literature on feedback is extensive, much of the findings in current research seem to not directly apply to teacher feedback during learning (Van den Bergh, Ros & Beijaard, 2013). These researchers argue further that researchers have not yet reached consensus about how feedback in the context of student learning is defined and what constitutes high-quality and effective feedback. The purpose of this literature review is to examine the research literature that addresses the nature of teacher feedback during learning, including the factors that contribute to the effectiveness of feedback in this context. The researcher will discuss the types of feedback and the characteristics of feedback. To address these issues in-depth, this literature review will begin by situating the role of feedback in the context of classroom teaching and learning, and then analyse current research on the importance of feedback in the classroom (Hattie, 1999; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Hattie & Yates, 2014; Tollefson, 2000). The researcher then shifts attention to pedagogical practices by examining different feedback strategies a teacher can implement within a classroom setting (Askew, 2000; Hattie & Timperley). To further support the current investigation on the impact of feedback on students’ learning, research literature focused on how feedback can create attitudinal shifts in students towards learning is then examined (Hattie & Timperley). Finally, as a means for fostering teachers’ development in feedback practices, a specific focus on teachers’ self-reflection processes through the use of video footage is developed (Cunningham, 2002; Richards, 1995; Tripp, & Rich, 2012). 2.1. FEEDBACK AS COMMUNICATION FOR LEARNING Feedback is an important part of the communication that occurs in classrooms (Voerman, et al., 2012), however communication is multi-faceted and this can impact how feedback works. Communication is more than simply translating an idea into words and then sending it, either verbally or in writing, to a receiver who decodes it. Feedback communicates to a student, that another person cared about their work to talk about it (Brookhart, 2008). Smart and Marshall (2012) state that “verbal communication between teachers and students in classrooms shapes the learning environment by influencing the type of talk that students engage in during instruction” (p. 250). However, communication is not limited to a verbal exchange, but includes gestures, facial expressions, eye contact etc. It is what Pennycook (1985) calls paralanguage. Paralanguage includes gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, proximity, touching and voice change. Within a classroom environment, Smith (1979) points out that “whether teachers are talking or not, they are always communicating. Teacher’s movements, their gestures, the changes in their tones of voice, and even their ages and physiques are continuously communicating something to the students in their class” (p.633). Smith adds, in return, students continuously communicate in similar ways with their teachers. Knowing the different forms of communication, or paralanguages, within a classroom setting was important for this study, as effects of the combined elements of verbal feedback given by the teacher was investigated. Feedback can be understood as a communication tool for teachers and students to interact. It is through classroom discourse that students acquire new knowledge, develop new skills and communicate their needs and understandings (Voerman et al., 2012). Understanding the complexity of communication and its continuous presence in classroom interactions provides important insights into how feedback is communicated and its consequent impacts upon student learning. Hattie (2014) argues that there is a considerable variation in the effectiveness of feedback, implying that some forms of feedback are more powerful than others. Furthermore, Harks et al. (2014) argue that: Generally, teachers . . . assume that students automatically perceive feedback in the way they intended it to be perceived and expect that the information contained in the feedback is taken as input into the information-processing, motivational or self-regulation systems. (p. 272). Ellis (2009) identified that teachers should correct a specific error on several occasions to empower the learner to achieve full self-regulation. However, as stated by Ackerman and Gross (2010), students who may understand feedback as reflecting a teacher’s negative assessment may avoid accepting the feedback, because it threatens their self-perceptions. Rather than attending to the feedback as useful information, students may instead develop self-serving attributions to protect their self-perceptions. Hattie (2014) further states that the amount of feedback is not what makes an impact, but the quality and whether it is specific and timely. A close look at the patterns of interaction characteristic of a number of classrooms has shown that, on average, teachers talk for more than two-thirds of the time (Nuthall et al., 2017), however, as Hattie and Yates (2014) found some of this talking is delivering instruction and the actual amount of feedback received by some students can be as little as several seconds per day. In fact, research by Pauli (2010) found that teachers often pose new questions or put forward further details without explicitly reviewing the response or statement of their students. The research discussed in this thesis aims to categorize the feedback given and the time spent in the classroom giving feedback, and to discuss if it is in fact meaningful and whether it furthers students’ learning as opposed to feedback as delivery of instruction and classroom management. This research aimed to either confirm or reject the claims made by previous researchers about the amount of feedback given by the teacher, focusing on timeliness and effectiveness. This included considerations about how feedback might or might not further learning and encourage deeper thinking. 2.2. THE IMPORTANCE OF FEEDBACK FOR LEARNING In this section, the importance of feedback for learning will be discussed. Within an educational setting, feedback is a tool to assist students to acquire new learning and to reflect on their performance. Research shows that in a classroom, effective feedback can fill students’ gaps in learning and understanding concepts in a number of different ways, including encouraging increased effort, providing the student with motivation, and fostering engagement (Brookhart, 2008; Harks, et al., 2014; Hattie & Timperley, 2007). As stated by Westberg and Jason (2002), “Beginners aren’t equipped to give themselves feedback. When acquiring new capabilities, beginners don’t know enough to assess their own performance completely or accurately” (p. 15). If done effectively, feedback can be very powerful, addressing the cognitive as well as the motivational factors. Effective feedback is about its timeliness and giving students access to information they need to understand where they are in their learning and which direction to head next, which has been described as the cognitive factor by Brookhart (2008). The motivational factor is a feeling students develop once they believe they understand what to do and why, thus giving them control over their own learning. 2.3. FEEDBACK HAS AN EFFECT ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT To investigate the effects of feedback on learning, researchers have explored the relationship between feedback that is task-focused as opposed to feedback that is self-focused (Hattie & Yates, 2014; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Voerman et al., 2012). Kluger and DeNisi (1996) performed a meta-analysis of 131 studies on feedback, the majority of which were not classroom-based. They found that, for the most part, feedback interventions improved performance, but over one-third of feedback interventions decreased performance. To explain this phenomenon, Kluger and DeNisi suggested in their Feedback Intervention Theory that the effectiveness of feedback interventions decreases if the feedback draws attention closer to the self, and away from the task (p. 254). They claimed that feedback lacking in specificity may be seen by students to be useless, while feedback that is too elaborate may cause a cognitive overload or may again direct the receiver’s attention away from the task. In addition, these researchers found that both positive and negative feedback can enhance learning, provided the feedback contains enough information to allow the student to acknowledge what is right or wrong in their performance or understanding (p. 1108). The findings from Kluger and DeNisi’s study can be linked to more recent research from Hattie and Timperley. In describing feedback as a “consequence of performance” (p. 81), Hattie and Timperley draw attention to feedback as being ‘task-focused’. They explain that feedback involves giving information related to a task or process, with the aim of filling the gap between what has been understood by the student and what is intended to be understood by the student. 2.4. FEEDBACK CAN FOSTER RISK TAKING BEHAVIOURS NECESSARY FOR LEARNING In addition, when feedback is of a particular quality, it can have the effect of fostering in learners’ risk taking behaviours that are necessary for learning, further reinforcing the importance of feedback and its composition and quality. Linked to this notion of feedback, an understanding about theories of intelligence becomes crucial. Bandura (1997) highlights, that the effectiveness of feedback, however purposeful and targeted to the needs of the student, may be dependent on students’ beliefs about their abilities – which are “often preconscious and often inaccurate” (Hattie & Yates, 2014, p. 11). Support for this argument can be drawn from Litt’s (1988) study which showed that individuals, when given fabricated feedback on their pain threshold, changed their levels of perceived self-efficacy, which was accompanied with actual changes in pain tolerance. He concluded that, the changes in perceived self-efficacy were comparable with the changes in pain tolerance. However, research signals that these beliefs can change over time, meaning that teachers and their feedback strategies can influence the students’ erroneous personal beliefs and opinions about their abilities as they develop (Bandura, 1997; Dweck, 2010). Research has also shown that children who do well in school, often enjoy learning, feel more capable of taking on risks, and are more likely to master the material independently (Lepper, Corpus, & Iyengar, 2005). In a study involving 797 primary and high school students, Lepper et al., found that students might come to enjoy learning and feel more capable of taking on challenges as a result of receiving high marks and positive feedback. Hattie (1999) found that feedback can be measured as having the highest effect size on student achievement, particularly if it involves students receiving feedback about a task and how to do it more effectively. The graph in Figure 1 shows that teachers, after the students themselves, have the greatest effect on students’ achievements. In his research Hattie found that of the effects of the influences on student achievement, it can be shown, based on effect size, that the major influence on student learning can be attributed to the teacher (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Percentage of academic variance of achievement based on Hattie’s (1999) research 2.5. FEEDBACK PROCESSES CAN BE USED TO DETERMINE SUBSEQUENT DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHING For feedback to be meaningful and effective it is crucial to reflect on the questions to be asked and evaluated, “Where am I going? How am I going? and, Where to next?” (Hattie & Timperley, 2007, p. 87). They argue that, for a good learning environment, it would be beneficial, if both teachers and students answered these questions frequently. However, according to Hattie and Timperley teachers will often limit students’ opportunities to get valuable information about their work in relation to any of the above questions by assuming responsibility for the students and not taking into consideration the learning possibilities of students taking responsibility for themselves. Hattie (1999) found, that the measured effects of praise, rewards and punishment were much lower than targeted feedback. Hattie and Timperley point out when teachers give effective feedback, they are not simply passing on information and understandings to their students, but assessing and evaluating students’ understanding of the given information to ensure that the next teaching task can be matched to the actual understanding of their students. However, according to a study by Nuthall (2007) when students were asked what type and amount of feedback they experienced in classrooms, many students described the amount as being low to almost none. As a matter of fact, Nuthall found students received much higher levels of feedback from their fellow students than from their teachers. This research analysed the amount of feedback given to students by the teacher and whether the findings from this study are confirmed by the ideas put forward in earlier studies. As Brookhart (2008) states, giving good feedback is a skill that requires practice. Hence, this research evaluated whether the teacher’s feedback changed over time, and became more effective and timely as the research progressed. The above mentioned research by Hattie (1999) was extremely relevant to this research, as it shows that teacher feedback plays the most crucial role in students’ learning. Video cued reflection was used in this research to evaluate the teacher’s progression in the use of evaluating and questioning as suggested by Hattie and Timperley (2007, p. 4) with a view to improving effectiveness of feedback given by the teacher. 2.6. FEEDBACK STRATEGIES Feedback as identified by recent research (Black et al. 2007; Brookhart 2008; Hattie & Timperley 2007; Hawe et al., 2008) is regarded as part of the crucial interaction between teacher and student, or students, with the intention of furthering learning. For feedback to be successful within a classroom setting, both teachers and students need to have a clear understanding of the learning intentions and expectations, thus enabling students to accept feedback as a helpful tool to reach their learning goals (Hattie, Fischer & Frey, 2016). Black and William (as cited in Gamlem & Smith, 2013) relate feedback to classroom settings, in saying that feedback should be incorporated into the instructional process of learning, and should be understood as critical points where learning changes direction. The feedback should allow students to recognize what is not yet understood, identify any student misconceptions and engage students in deeper learning. Erickson (2002) found in her research, that nations who traditionally score high in international comparisons of academic results, often centre their curriculum around the understanding of concepts and principles rather than just the content knowledge, in order to foster deeper engagement with the content and therefore encourage students to make “rich and extensive use of the information” (p. 7). This deeper engagement can be achieved by giving targeted and explicit feedback to students, to encourage higher order thinking and critical engagement with the content. Moss and Brookhart (2012) note that during a formative learning cycle, both halves of the learning team, meaning the teacher and the students, gather evidence of student progress and use that evidence to improve what they do. Communication between students and teachers can affect various aspects of student learning in the classroom. Smart and Marshall (2013) observed a positive relationship between students’ cognitive engagement and the teacher’s questioning level, specifically the complexity of questions asked, the communication patterns, and the overall classroom interactions (p. 249). Additionally, feedback, as noted by Hattie and Yates (2014), given to students, can be understood to be a key driver of behavioural adaptation. They state that effective and meaningful feedback can double the rate of learning, and claim that feedback is among the top 10 influences on student achievement. Research has shown that effective educators focus their teaching on the fundamental reason for schools to exist, namely learning. While most educators are aware of the importance of feedback and believe they give sufficient and valuable advice throughout a day, Hattie and Yates (2014) allege that the amount of feedback received by most students is often as little as only several seconds per day. Johnson (1999) describes two forms of communication, verbal and nonverbal. When communication takes place without oral language, it is defined as nonverbal. This form of communication often includes body movements, facial expressions, physical contact, posture, written feedback and proximity. When communication takes place using oral language, it is defined as verbal. Verbal and nonverbal communications are interdependent; however, nonverbal behaviours are frequently used to support or modify verbal behaviours. Feedback, in an educational setting, is not only understood to be a verbal interaction between teachers and students, as well as student-to-student, but can also be given non-verbally, and in writing. Koka and Hein (2005) found that feedback, even when given non-verbally, can have a great effect on student motivation. They state that “higher frequency of perceived positive nonverbal feedback such as smiling, patting on the shoulder, and clapping hands from . . . a teacher should lead to greater satisfaction with the teacher, which ultimately might increase student intrinsic motivation” (p. 6). It is crucial for teachers to understand the feedback strategies they use in the classroom and how their feedback is given to students, in order for it to be meaningful and valuable. Studies conducted by Ingvarson and Hattie (2008) showed that even expert teachers applied insignificant amounts of feedback during classroom instruction. On the point of the amount of feedback, de Brabander and Martens (2014) have this to say: A student is not regarded as an empty vessel that needs to be filled up, but more as a sponge that naturally sucks up the liquid that is available. The learning environment should prevent any disturbances and must provide enough ‘tasty’ liquid to enable the learning process to continue (p. 29). A closer examination reveals that this “liquid,” as described by de Brabander and Martens (2014, p. 29) is identified as both personal and academic learning goals for the student. This notion is supported by Hattie and Timperley (2007) who argue that, students are more likely to seek and receive feedback about their learning goals when they share a commitment to attaining them. It becomes apparent, de Brabander and Martens (2014) argue, that for teachers to be effective, they need to have a greater understanding of the feedback they give, to ensure students’ can engage deeply and in meaningful ways with the content. Research shows however, that teachers still give feedback which is not process oriented, but instead grade oriented which consequently does not promote grit, perseverance and critical thinking skills (Hattie & Yates, 2014; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). This research examined the types of feedback and compared the frequencies of verbal and non-verbal feedback provided by the teacher and further explored whether the students were given clear directions and learning intentions, as proposed good practice principles drawn from the research literature discussed in this chapter. 2.7. CHALLENGES WITH GIVING AND RECEIVING FEEDBACK As with every interaction, giving and receiving feedback can be challenging. Perrenoud (1998, as cited in Gamlen & Smith, 2013) compares the giving of feedback to students with throwing a bottle into the ocean, saying that, “No one can be sure that the message they contain will one day find a receiver” (p. 150). Although feedback has a positive impact, not all types, and only the right amount of feedback is equally effective. Kluger and DeNisi (1996) explain that feedback seems to obtain high effect sizes when the information received by students is on the task and about how to improve performance; and lower for feedback where the focus is on target-setting. The lowest effects are found when only rewards, praise or punishment are given (Hattie & Timperley 2007; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). In this study, the researcher investigated whether feedback given to students by the teacher is meaningful and targeted, or non-specific, and how the feedback impacted student learning, thereby integrating contemporary pedagogical research to improve classroom practice. Carless (2006) finds that teachers will often deem their feedback far more helpful than their students. In fact, students express that they may find a teacher’s feedback non-understandable, non-reasoned and at times confusing. Furthermore, teachers, who praise for the sake of giving praise, decrease its value. Hattie and Yates (2014) find that praise within the classroom can become a problem in that it fails to convey any genuine feedback information. A student who receives a lot of praise, without meaning, will only learn that their teacher praises often; nothing else. Harks et al. (2014) explain that, in order for students to improve their learning outcomes, they need to receive feedback with a focus on task performance. Dweck (1999, as cited in Hattie and Yates, 2014) supports this idea, by maintaining that meaningless praise rather than explicit feedback, “can shift the students’ attention onto irrelevant, even destructive, factors, such as excessive attention to the self or one’s ability, thus discouraging further effort or listening to feedback about the task” (p. 47). Research conducted by Harks et al. (2014) shows that feedback with a process orientation was perceived as being more useful than grade-oriented feedback and that the perceived usefulness of feedback, in turn, had a positive effect on changes in achievement and interest. Furthermore, Hattie et al. (2016) identified that, whilst teachers readily give feedback to students, getting students to receive the feedback can be challenging. They found in their research that students who receive feedback and are generally willing to reflect critically on their learning and make changes accordingly, whereas those who do not receive the feedback often prefer feedback that increases their sense of self. Students in a study conducted by Gamlem and Smith (2013) perceived corrective feedback as positive or negative, depending on the teacher’s practice. The feedback was understood as negative or disapproving feedback, and made students feel “useless” (p. 160) if the teacher did not give the students sufficient time to work with the feedback received, or did not follow up on the feedback given. Feedback was perceived as positive when the teacher gave the students some time to work with the feedback received, and followed up the feedback given. These research findings informed the study and were considered from the perspective of constraining factors that also influence what and how the teacher provides feedback to support student learning. 2.8. HOW VIDEO FOOTAGE CAN HELP TEACHERS REFLECT ON THEIR OWN FEEDBACK PRACTICES Change in a teacher occurs when the teacher pays attention to what is important, makes theoretical and practical connections, and applies what they know about their own teaching context to reason about a given situation (Van Es & Sherin, 2002). Observing one’s teaching practice by means of video recordings can help a teacher notice what is important and further provide a basis for linking theory to practice and reasoning to understand and improve one’s classroom practice. Some researchers have noted that video technology “affords the luxury of time” (Sherin, 2004, p. 13) and may help teachers observe their ability to facilitate professional learning discussions by slowing down the fast pace of classroom life, so that clear noticing of specific aspects of practice can be further analysed. 2.8.1. What is video cued reflection? Using video technology for teacher reflection is a powerful tool to improve teacher practice as it allows the teacher to effectively reflect on classroom discourse in a non-invasive and objective way. Use of video technology in this study provided a means for her to closely observe her own classroom practice; she was able to revisit lessons without having to attend to teaching and reflection simultaneously. The Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) website (Department of Education, n.d.) highlights in the *Rationale for the Technologies Learning Area* the importance of the use of technology for students, saying that, “digital technologies provide students with authentic learning challenges that foster curiosity, confidence, persistence, innovation, creativity, respect and cooperation”, but the use of technology for teachers for professional reflection is missing. Using video cued reflection, according to Raingruber (2003) is especially valuable for educators, as it allows an unbiased insight into their everyday practices. A question Raingruber poses, is, “how often does the camera capture reality with a viewpoint and perspective that differs from that of the participants?” (p. 1156). Raingruber’s idea on gaining an unbiased insight into the teacher’s everyday feedback practices through video cued reflection presented an objective, unobtrusive means of studying the phenomenon of interest to the researcher. Gaudin and Chaliès (2015) discuss two main reasons for the increasing use of video to aid teachers’ professional development. First, videos allow both pre-service as well as experienced teachers greater access to classroom events than in class-observation (Welsch & Devlin, 2006) without sacrificing accuracy. Secondly, the improvement of storage capacity and the progressively more sophisticated software have played a key role in the increased development of video in professional practice analysis. The chosen self-tracking video software and cloud storage facility employed in this study attest to the views expressed by Gaudin and Chaliès and Welsch and Devlin. 2.9. THE IMPORTANCE OF TEACHER REFLECTION Teachers are required to reflect on their practices regularly, to be critical about their delivery of content and their pedagogical understandings, as stated in the Department of Education’s Focus 2017 directions (Department of Education, 2016). Using a video-cued approach allows educators to revisit classroom interactions and interpret the data, and to stop and reflect on what is most significant and how to bring about continuous improvements (Raingruber, 2003). Additionally, Brophy (2003) highlights the advantage of using video cued reflection by pointing out that educators can stop, replay, or otherwise manipulate the footage to facilitate a focus on particular aspects of teaching and professional reflection. Videotaping becomes particularly empowering, as it enables participants to observe aspects of their response and feedback that had been lived rather than understood in an explicit way. Feedback is often given in non-verbal ways, so by being able to look back at recorded interactions, the researcher was able to identify body language or changes in the voice to evaluate the way the feedback had been given, and immediately observe the response from the student receiving the feedback. Raingruber notes that through the use of video, it was possible to identify regular patterns and types of communication, that highlighted otherwise taken-for-granted lived experiences, which was realised in this study also. The ideas expressed by Raingruber (2003) and Brophy (2003) were significant in relation to video cued reflection because they showed that some interactions might not be noticed if they are not being captured on videotape, and therefore the associated meanings may not be immediately visible to the teacher in real time. According to Raingruber, “Everyone reads body language; it’s just that no one thinks about it” (p. 116). Collins, Cook-Cottone, Robinson and Sullivan (2004) highlight that digital video could possibly be used to conduct remote supervision and feedback sessions, enabling teachers to critique their own interpersonal interactions and responses. Additionally, Mccullagh (2012) notes the relevance for teachers to reflect not only on their own pedagogies, but also on how they are being perceived by their students. He interviewed a teacher about his experience of being filmed, who noted: It was really useful to see the lesson from the pupils’ point of view; how it came across to them and it made me think a lot more about what they might have made of it. I could see much more than when I was back there teaching it. (p. 140) 2.10. WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF VIDEO CUED REFLECTION? Research has shown that reviewing video excerpts of a teacher’s own practices enables him or her to observe it from a new perspective and to identify aspects he or she did not perceive during the lesson (Marsh & Mitchell, 2014). Furthermore, external video footage enables teachers to see their colleagues’ instructional strategies and relate their own pedagogical practices to their observations (Seidel, Stürmer, Blomberg, Kobarg & Schwindt, 2011). McConnell et al. (2008) found that teachers who use video are more likely to base their reflections on evidence rather than memory or inferences, confirming that the use of video cued reflection is an effective tool to promote teachers’ reflective practice (Finn, 2002; Sherin & van Es, 2005) because of its ability to help teachers become aware of and bring to mind events not necessarily observed during the teaching period. Trip and Rich (2012) comment that: Most studies reported that using video to reflect was beneficial for helping teachers to evaluate their teaching. After using video to reflect, teachers were able to: (a) Identify gaps between their beliefs about good teaching and their actual teaching practices (b) articulate their tacit assumptions and purposes about teaching and learning, (c) notice things about their teaching that they did not remember, (d) focus their reflections on multiple aspects of classroom teaching, and (e) assess the strengths and weaknesses of their teaching. (p.729) Collectively, the ideas from researchers mentioned above informed the study, and reinforced the benefits that could be gained by the teacher by engaging in video cued reflection to improve the feedback practices that were used in the classroom. 2.11. WHAT ARE SOME OF THE CHALLENGES OF USING VIDEO IN THE CLASSROOM, AND HOW CAN THESE BE MITIGATED? Whilst the use of video technology has been identified as an effective tool for reflection and professional development, Lane (2014) notes that video usage in schools can be challenging and therefore careful protocols must be followed in order to obtain departmental permission. Furthermore, researchers must also be aware that teachers can find it confronting at first to see themselves on video (Armstrong & Curran, 2006; Lane). This can potentially affect their reflection and willingness to openly engage in the process. This notion is supported by Raingruber (2003), who cautions that a problem with videotaping any form of interaction is, that it may subtly change the nature of the experience in some cases, especially when it is carried out in a classroom, where children might feel the need to perform for the camera or feel intimidated by it. As with every learning experience however, new learning will only take place when the learner is discontented with their current understanding or beliefs and have access to an alternative or better ideas which are intelligible, plausible and fruitful (Mccullagh, 2012). This can pose a challenge for the use of video in the classroom, as it requires the teacher to be willing to identify shortcomings and areas of improvement in their own teaching, which was unproblematic in this study as the teacher embraced the use of video in the classroom willingly. 2.12. WHAT NEW TECHNOLOGIES ARE AVAILABLE TO SUPPORT UNOBTURSIVE USE OF VIDEO IN THE CLASSROOM, FOR THE PURPOSE OF TEACHER REFLECTION? Previous video research required teachers partnering up to film, or obtaining outside assistance (Armstrong & Curran, 2006; Harford, MacRuaric & McCartan, 2010) to record their classroom teaching. For the purpose of this research, self-tracking video technology through the use of the SWIVL device and an iPad allowed the teacher to unobtrusively record her classroom teaching, without any external assistance. Whilst most educators agree that reflecting on their professional practice and reviewing classroom discourse would be important, it is not yet common practice. This research aimed to investigate and show the possible benefits of utilising video footage, in particular through the use of self-tracking video devices to explore and potentially demonstrate its effectiveness and debunk the image of it being confronting for teachers. Rather than perceiving it as an intrusion, the researcher endeavoured to show that it can be a valuable and personal reflection tool. 2.13. SUMMARY The literature identified feedback as a communication tool for teachers and students to interact. Through feedback students acquire new knowledge, improve their skills and communicate their needs and understandings (Voerman et al., 2012). Analysing and understanding the intricacies of communication and its varied occurrences in classroom interactions provides important insights into how feedback is communicated and how it can impact on student learning. Contemporary research (e.g., Hattie & Yates, 2014) found that most feedback given in classrooms, is feedback which is not process oriented, but instead grade oriented which consequently does not promote grit, perseverance and critical thinking skills. This poses a danger to effective teaching, as research by Hattie (2014) and Nuthall et al. (2017) showed, it is not the quantity of feedback, but the quality and type of feedback, that has a positive impact on student learning. As Brookhart (2008) states, effective feedback is about its timeliness and giving students access to information they need to understand where they are in their learning and which direction to head next. After examining the literature, it still remains unclear, if non-specific feedback, when given in a timely manner and fit for the specific circumstances, is in fact less meaningful and therefore detrimental to students’ learning or if it is effective as a type of feedback for classroom management, which can be interpreted as giving students’ direction. There is limited literature that discusses the effects of non-specific, but contextually appropriate feedback, which is used to positively manage behaviour in the classroom. Gamlem and Smith (2013) however noted that feedback can, at times, be given to foster a positive relationship with students. Koka and Hein (2005), further found, that some non-specific feedback, even when given non-verbally, can have a large effect on student motivation. This gave the teacher reason to investigate the circumstances in which feedback was given to students and if it could be understood as a tool to assist students to acquire new learning and to reflect on their performance (Brookhart, 2008). Kluger and DeNisi’s (1996) study on feedback found that over one-third of feedback interventions decreased students’ performance. They explain this occurrence by saying that the effectiveness of feedback decreases if the feedback is aimed at the individual student, as opposed to the task. In addition, these researchers found that both positive and negative feedback can enhance learning, provided the feedback contains enough information to allow the student to acknowledge what is right or wrong in their performance or understanding. Examples for positive feedback are types of feedback containing specific, positive information about the performance or level of understanding. In contrast, examples for negative feedback are those types of feedback containing specific, but negative information about the performance or level of understanding, or non-specific types of feedback, including utterances like ‘Well done’ or ‘Good job’ (Voerman, Meijer, Korthagen, & Simons, 2012). Richards (1995) notes that one method for teachers to move towards a greater pedagogical understanding, is by questioning their own teaching, using observation and reflection as a way of developing their instructional practices. Raingruber (2003) discusses video cued reflection, and identifies it to be especially valuable for educators, as it allows a neutral insight into their everyday practices. Using video cued reflection, allows teachers to analyse their recorded interactions and to observe their instructional practices from a new perspective, to identify aspects he or she did not perceive during the lesson (Marsh & Mitchell, 2014). Raingruber adds that through video cued reflection, teachers are able to identify regular patterns and types of communication. While the current literature discusses the use of written reflections during the video-cued reflective process (Tripp & Rich, 2012) as allowing teachers opportunities to view interactions in their classroom, and notice specific behaviours, there are only few studies discussing how the note taking was used afterwards to develop teachers’ growth and reflection. Furthermore, the benefits of video to foster a collaborative peer review process, without the need for the reviewer to be present in the classroom, has been discussed in the current literature (Baecher, McCormack & Kung, 2014; Tripp and Rich, 2012), however, little research can be found about the tools used to take notes and make annotations. This study explored the effectiveness of using a checklist to facilitate ‘noticing’ and then guiding reflective process, individually and collaboratively. Raingruber’s (2003) idea on gaining an unbiased insight into the teacher’s use of feedback strategies by using video provided a strong motivation for using video cued reflection in this study. 3. METHODOLOGY The goal of conducting any research study, regardless of the field of study is to review existing practices, to gain new knowledge, generate a better-informed understanding of a particular issue or to improve existing circumstances. This chapter introduces the theoretical and conceptual framework that formed the basis for this thesis. It is organised into six main sections, describing the research paradigm, the theoretical framework, the conceptual framework, and the data collection methods, and explains how the data has been analysed. Issues of reliability, validity, bias concerns, and the potential limitations of the study are also discussed. 3.1. THE RESEARCH PARADIGM The research was conducted to investigate the impact of video as a self-reflective tool for improvement of teacher feedback practices. A self-tracking video tool was used to record the researcher-as-teacher, and the recorded footage focusing on feedback techniques was reflectively analysed. To accommodate the research-as-teacher role in this study, a quasi-ethnographic research paradigm was deemed appropriate. Kervin, Vialle, Herrington and Okely, (2006) describe the process of conducting an ethnographic study in an educational setting as the researcher being placed in a classroom, taking notes to inform the research. Silverman (2006) describes ethnography and participant observation as the researcher conducting observations within the classroom setting and also as a participant in the research. Ethnographers recognize that social research is inevitably embedded in social relationships (Dilger, Pels & Sleeboom-Faulkner, 2019), a process, in which the establishment of trust and the interpretation of data continue to evolve throughout the duration of the research. Characteristics described by both Silverman and Dilger et al. were applicable to the study, in so far as the researcher-as-teacher was actively engaged in the phenomenon under observation, and with an appreciation that the classroom represents a socio-cultural context and that teacher-student relationships are continually evolving in this context. Hammersley (1990) refers to ethnography as social research which includes the following features. Ethnographic research involves observation of people's behaviour in everyday situations, rather than under experimental circumstances created the researcher. Data is collected from a range of sources, with observation and/or informal conversations being the main ones. The research participants are often located in a single setting and usually constitute a group, of relatively small scale. The analysis of data seeks to uncover the meanings and functions of interpersonal actions and mainly takes the form of verbal descriptions and explanations. These features characterised the present study: teacher behaviour (i.e. feedback) was observed in a natural setting (i.e., classroom interaction with students) utilising multiple data sources, which was analysed to improve effectiveness in the feedback practices employed by the teacher. This type of research is often not based on a pre-existing hypothesis, but rather begins with a theoretical framework, allowing the researcher to gradually narrow their focus (Hammersley, 1990). In this qualitative study, the researcher employed certain theoretical assumptions that guided the description of the phenomenon under investigation rather than providing specific explanations. To describe this strategy, Bogdan and Biklen (2007) analogise the qualitative researcher as “the loosely scheduled traveller” (p. 54) who has a general plan about how they will proceed, but the plan evolves as they learn about the participants, their setting and other sources of data through direct examination. Addressing this idea, Kervin et al. (2006) note that in qualitative research, the design evolves during the study and is therefore inductive rather than deductive, as it aims to generate explanation instead of test a theory. The present study evolved through use of a general plan and inductive analysis that sought to describe and analyse the feedback practices that were used by the teacher. Ethnography and observational methods can include interviews, checklists or audio-visual recording, observation, and documents (Genzuk, 2003). Employing these data collection techniques enables the researcher to observe roles, responses, interactions and influences from all participants including self. The present study utilised a number of these techniques to collect and analyse data, in particular checklists (Appendix A), video recordings and observations. The research approach adopted in the present study aligns well with Gray’s (2018) description of qualitative research as a process which is “inherently interpretative” (p. 58). Such an interpretive approach according to Pope, Ziebland and Mays (2000) is highly dependent on the quality of the data analysis; it is strongly dependent on the integrity, vision and skill of the researcher. “In much qualitative research the analytical process begins during data collection as the data already gathered are analysed and shape the ongoing data collection” (p. 114). In this vein, the researcher adopted an iterative process of data collection and analysis, with each stage further informing the next. Although the study adopted many facets of ethnographic research, it is characterised as ‘quasi ethnographic’, for the reason that the focus remained on the teacher. Although the teacher’s actions occurred in the classroom context of student-teacher interaction, the student perspective was not explored as part of this study. ### 3.2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The theoretical framework informing this study is Activity Theory. Activity Theory has been identified as one of the most commonly used theoretical frameworks in contemporary educational investigations (Gedera & Williams, 2016), providing a conceptual lens to investigate the nature and development of complex dynamic systems and how they change over time. The classroom is representative of complex and dynamic social system. The iterative process of analysing a series of lessons and identifying and implementing specific change processes suited the use of this theoretical framework. Activity Theory emerged from Vygotsky’s (1987) theory of socio-cultural learning during the 1930s and 1940s, alongside the work of Leontiev, Luria and Engeström (Gedera & Williams, 2016). It provides a model that explains how learning occurs. The first generation model of Activity Theory (Figure 2, adapted from Engeström, 2001) identifies a triangular relationship between the subject (the phenomenon / group being studied), the object (intended learning outcome) and mediating artefact (the tool used by the subject to achieve the object) (Hashim & Jones, 2014). It can be understood as a methodological foundation from which to observe the relations between “societal, institutional and personal dimensions of human development” (Hedegaard, 2012, as cited in Gedera & Williams). ![Diagram](image) **Figure 2.** Vygotsky’s first generation model of a mediated act For the purpose of this study, the subject was the teacher who implemented the mediating artefact, the video cued reflection of the feedback strategies used, working towards the object: improving learning outcomes and feedback strategies. Activity Theory was adopted as the theoretical framework, as it presented a suitable structure for the teacher (subject) to observe, review, monitor and reflect on the teacher’s use of verbal, written and embodied feedback in lessons, which were recorded using self-tracking video technology (tool), to improve the effect of feedback on student learning. This application of Activity Theory fits with Hashim and Jones’ (2007) description of Activity Theory as the “integration of technology as tools which mediate social action. These tools, or artefacts, include instruments, signs, language, machines and computers” (p. 6). These researchers elaborate that whilst it may at times be difficult to analyse why people do things in a particular way, it can provide deeper insight to the more implicit elements of an action. Hashim and Jones argue that with the assistance of technology or “sophisticated tools” (p. 13), researchers are able to study “the elements of activities (how people do things) and the relationships between them (togetherness)” (p. 13). Therefore, in this study Activity Theory was deemed an appropriate theoretical lens for studying the elements of feedback practices and their influence on student learning, with the use of video footage to guide the teacher’s reflective analysis. The theoretical framework of Activity Theory allows a researcher to investigate components within complex social systems, and bounded structures or elements. In this study, feedback by the teacher was positioned as a bounded structure, or system element that is integral to and contributes to the functioning of the system. This theory further provided a framework for the researcher to study how the influences of society, the school, and the personal motives and demands on the teacher are constantly interacting in the classroom system (Gedera & Williams, 2016). Also providing a structure, activity theory provides insight about how student engagement is impacted by the frequency and nature of feedback given by the teacher, and the relationship between this and the development of the system as a whole (i.e., feedback and learning in this classroom setting). This facilitates analysis of complex systems, revealing contradictions that characterise such systems. In this study, activity theory is considered a suitable theoretical framework in this study as it was focused on an investigation that encompassed a classroom intervention in which the teacher sought to enhance student engagement by exercising transformative agency (Engeström, Sannino, & Virkkunen, 2014), to reveal the deeply embedded ways in which the system operates, sometimes through contradictions. Activity Theory also offers a methodological framework that can guide researchers in their investigations. This framework espouses Vygotsky’s (1997) idea of holistic research to understand how a system develops and transforms itself. When undertaking methodological analysis of a system it is essential for the researcher to specify what is being developed, which in this study refers to effective and meaningful feedback practices by the teacher. The four components critical to holistic research as described by Vygotsky are: unit, historical development, theoretical robustness, and the role of the researcher (Gedera & Williams, 2016). The system ‘unit’ studied in the present study was teacher feedback. Vygotsky (1987) defined “unit” as a product of analyses that possesses all the basic characteristics of the ‘whole’ (p. 46). Vygotsky (1987) identified two methods of analyses. The first is designed to study the elements within a system. In this study, this involved an atomistic approach where feedback practices as a ‘whole’ was broken down into “the simplest components or elements” (Gedera & Williams, 2016, pp. 8-9). Although this approach helps to dismantle the ‘whole,’ doing so has the effect of losing the properties of the ‘whole’ in the elements. The second method occurs when the researcher breaks down the whole into units that retain the properties of the whole. This helps to retain the dynamic and relational qualities of the ‘whole.’ In using the checklist, the researcher sought to address the second method, but system level contradictions sometimes meant that atomistic approach resulted in the analysis. Historical development is the concept Vygotsky (1987) used to articulate the complexity of ‘whole’ systems that are in continuous change. When researchers study a phenomenon historically, Vygotsky believed they are studying it in motion. Hence, this method foregrounds how systems change over time, the past is always present in how a system currently functions. Thus, the past is inseparable, embedded and merged into the present. In this study, it was apparent that the teacher’s development of feedback techniques was historically constructed, as were students’ classroom engagement; both system elements affected the change processes that occurred. Theoretical robustness, explained Vygotsky (1987) is always demonstrated in how data is generated in social research. This is an important aspect in Activity Theory research because it relates to validity and reliability. Validity is enhanced when the researcher makes visible the concepts used in the interpretation of the data, including his/her conception of the development that has taken place, and the themes that emerged (Gedera & Williams, 2016). Reliability is enhanced in Activity Theory research when the researcher is clear about the object of the research. Both these aspects were given careful attention during data collection and analysis in the present study. Finally, the role of the researcher that Vygotsky (1987) advocated was one of “fullness” (p. 36) in data gathering. He stressed the importance of showing how the research context was established as well as the ongoing role of the researcher during data collection, as he argued this gives greater insights into the process of development. The sections that follow (including Chapter 4) provide a detailed description of how the research context was established, and the role the researcher took throughout the data collection and analyses, which clarifies the conclusions that were drawn about feedback practices in the classroom, and the effects of the targeted developments. In mapping out the theoretical framework for the study, the researcher has outlined how Activity Theory was employed theoretically and methodologically. Activity Theory it was shown, provided a lens to identify *what* was being developed (i.e. feedback practices), and *how* this development was studied (i.e., through video-cued reflection). The holistic approach provided a means to identify contradictions or tensions present in the activity system (classroom feedback), and to show the characteristics of feedback and the ways in which elements of the object system (different feedback techniques) function within the classroom context. ### 3.3. THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK A conceptual framework is designed to give direction to a study. It shows the relationships between the different concepts the researcher wishes to investigate and is constructed by the researcher within a research paradigm (Maxwell, 2005). The conceptual framework arising from the previously discussed investigation of current research and literature (in Chapter 2). Figure 3 illustrates the cycle of giving feedback to the students and reviewing that feedback for its effectiveness to make improvements and changes. 3.4. PARTICIPANTS The research was undertaken at a Department of Education Independent Public School in the southern suburbs of Perth, Western Australia which is also the school the researcher works at as a specialist teacher. The participants in the research were invited from a Year two cohort of 26 students. The students were of a range of abilities with different ethnic backgrounds. All students have English as their first language. After ethics approval for the study to proceed was granted by Edith Cowan University’s Research Ethics Committee, approvals were obtained from the Department of Education and the selected school. An information and consent letter (Appendices B and C) were sent to the principal of the school, outlining the relevance of the research project and how the research will be conducted, posing no interruptions to the delivery of the curriculum content. The research process and protocols complied with Department of Education guidelines. An information letter and consent form was sent to both the parents and students in the class (Appendices D, E, F, and G), outlining the nature of the research, as well as giving information about the safety measures in place to protect the students. A parent information session was conducted (Appendix H) to answer any questions arising. Signed consent forms were obtained from all parents, guardians and students who had agreed to participate in the research, including consent to be captured on video-recording of normal classroom teaching and learning activities over a period of six weeks. The data collection commenced in August 2018. The focus of the research was the teacher and the feedback she gave to her students in the course of normal curriculum-based classroom teaching and learning, with the aim of assessing the type, nature and frequency of the feedback provided. Students were filmed throughout the study however they were not the focus of the research, therefore the impact of the feedback on student learning or behaviour was not be considered in the discussion of the findings of this study. Students were filmed in the context of usual classroom experiences during normal classroom routines, with a camera located at the back of the classroom so that the camera was targeted at the teacher, rather than the students. This camera position reduced the likelihood of capturing students' faces on camera. Any student who did not consent to participate in the research remained in the classroom and participated in regular classroom activities, but was seated in a position where he/she was out of range of the self-tracking video capture system, and has not been included in any footage. 3.5. THE DATA COLLECTION METHOD The data for this research has been collected by using the following techniques: - Video footage of the use of feedback in the classroom. This was obtained with the use of a non-invasive self-tracking video device placed in the classroom. - Annotated notes, entered directly onto the video footage. This was done when the researcher viewed and reflected on the video footage using the SWIVL technology. The reflections included comments that were focused on the nature and the frequency of the feedback given. An independent reviewer was invited to view the footage and add annotated notes directly onto the recorded video material. - Feedback checklist (Appendix A) – The focus of the checklist was not only on the verbal teacher-to-student feedback, but additionally, attention was paid to the embodied feedback the teacher gave to students. This checklist fits in within the quasi-ethnographic and qualitative research approach, as it allowed the researcher to objectively reflect on her feedback in a structured manner. These data collection techniques were targeted to address specific research questions, as shown in Table 1 below. Table 1 Data collection techniques relating to the corresponding research questions | Research questions | Data collection | |---------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Which types of feedback strategies are used by this teacher? | Video footage, Teacher reflective comments and annotations entered into the SWIVL portal, as well as the Feedback checklist. | | How does video cued reflection enhance teacher feedback practices? | Video footage, Teacher reflective comments and annotations entered into the SWIVL portal, as well as the Feedback checklist. | 3.5.2. VIDEO FOOTAGE, USING A SELF-TRACKING VIDEO DEVICE Video footage of the classroom interactions was collected over the six-week research period. As stated by Cunningham (2002), access to digital filming allows teachers to review, reflect, and edit their videos with more flexibility. Whilst this approach of data collection may have limitations regarding the rigor of a quantitative research review, Blomberg et al. (2013) identified the fact that many studies in this field are based on qualitative approaches, but do provide empirical data that fits the purpose of this study. The self-tracking device captured classroom interactions, both verbal and embodied, without being invasive and distracting. The video data collected within the classroom environment, allowed the researcher to identify implicit and explicit communications, including embodied responses in the classroom environment that may not have been identified using other data collection techniques (Raingruber, 2003). The researcher recorded a total of six lessons for, covering the entire 60-minute duration of individual lessons. Table 2 Video recording time for each Health lesson | Lesson # | Time recorded | |----------|---------------| | Lesson 1 | 52.01 minutes | | Lesson 2 | 50.50 minutes | | Lesson 3 | 52.31 minutes | | Lesson 4 | 49.44 minutes | | Lesson 5 | 40.36 minutes | | Lesson 6 | 28.42 + 25.29 | Following collection of the data, the researcher viewed each video recording. The purpose was to enter annotations directly onto the SWIVL portal, to identify specific segments within the video data that the researcher deemed useful for self-reflection. 3.5.3. TEACHER REFLECTIVE COMMENTS AND ANNOTATIONS Following the collection of the video footage, the researcher viewed the footage using a reflective process to identify what feedback strategies were being utilised by the teacher, and evaluate their effectiveness in fostering student learning. Bell (2014) advises to take notes during the course of an observation and then transfer them to a summary chart. She further suggests comparing notes with an independent reviewer afterwards to see if both observers noted the same incidents. The use of self-tracking video technologies in the classroom enabled video cued reflection on action by the teacher, providing an account of the actual events, and an opportunity to revisit this later. The self-reflection process guided the teacher’s awareness of the feedback strategies she was using and through self and collaborative reflective evaluations she was able to adjust her feedback strategies over time. 3.5.4. CHECKLIST Checklists have played an important role in presenting respectability in qualitative research and in convincing critics of its thoroughness (Barbour, 2001). A checklist (see Appendix A) to compile and categorise the video footage collected over the research period, adapted from the checklist developed by Voerman et al. (2012) was used to monitor teacher feedback. This checklist was used to record the types and frequency of feedback given by the teacher. It facilitated ‘noticing’ a range of verbal and non-verbal behaviours associated with feedback practices. Within the checklist, the focus has not only been on the verbal teacher-to-student feedback, but additionally, attention has been paid to the embodied feedback that the teacher gave to students. This checklist fits within the quasi-ethnographic and qualitative research approach, as it allowed the participating teacher to identify and focus on specific elements in the feedback system, and then use these to objectively reflect on her practice and identify goals for further development. 3.5.5. INDEPENDENT REVIEWER-FEEDBACK Peer-feedback was provided by the schools’ Deputy Principal who had consented to taking the role of an independent reviewer for this study. The researcher shared the collected video footage with the independent reviewer via the secure SWIVL portal, allowing him to view and tag the video footage and enter annotations. In addition to making annotations, he used the checklist completed by the researcher to discuss differing interpretations of the viewed material. Coffey (2014) notes that viewing and reflecting on a teaching episode through video review, together with written or verbal peer or tutor comment, is significant in scaffolding the growth of skills in reflection. 3.6. DATA ANALYSIS The goal of conducting any research study, regardless of the field of study is to review existing practices, to gain new knowledge, generate a better-informed understanding of a particular issue or to improve existing circumstances. All data collected has been analysed using qualitative methods, where analysis begins as data first becomes apparent and this analysis then shapes further data collection (Bell, 2014, Pope et al. 2000). The use of multiple data collection techniques enables a researcher to apply a more comprehensive analysis of themes (Bell, 2014). For the purpose of this study, annotated notes as well as video footage were reviewed not only by the researcher, but also an independent reviewer, to ensure validity of the data. After the collection of data, it was analysed and, organised using the categories from the feedback checklist. Emerging themes were identified and interpreted, and finally, the research and findings were used to construct the conclusions and recommendations. This systematic process follows that presented by Creswell (2006). Data collected in this study has been analysed according to Yin’s method of five stages of qualitative data analysis (Yin, 2015), consisting of compiling, disassembling, reassembling, interpreting and concluding, as outlined in Table 3. This process enabled the researcher to proceed to analyse the data and to “revisit and refine questions, develop hypotheses, and pursue emerging avenues of inquiry in further depth” (Pope et al., 2000 p. 114). Table 3 Implementing Yin’s Five Stages of Qualitative analysis | Stage | Activities | |----------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Compiling | Gather and compile footage of verbal feedback | | | Gather and compile data from embodied feedback | | | Gather and compile data from field notes | | Disassembling | Tag and annotate the video footage | | Reassembling | Determine emerging themes | | Interpreting | Develop an understanding of the data | | | Explain the meaning of the data | 4.6.1 COMPILED The first stage of Yin’s (2015) method of qualitative data analysis, was to gather and assemble video data, over a period of six weeks. The data was compiled by filming six consecutive Health lessons in the same Year 2 class. The analysis began with filming and then compiling the video footage collected. 3.6.2. DISASSEMBLING This second stage of Yin’s (2015) qualitative data analysis involved tagging and annotating the video footage, as this stage calls for breaking down the collected data into smaller fragments or pieces. The second phase of the procedure may (but does not have to) be accompanied by allocating new labels, to the fragments or pieces. The disassembling procedure can, and in this study was, repeated many times as part of the process of applying codes. A checklist (Appendix A), previously described was used to disassemble the data into predefined categories, noting verbal and nonverbal feedback techniques that were used. According to Yin (2015), this second phase, can involve a formal coding procedure but does not need to. For this research, coding was undertaken by means of the observation checklist instead. The video footage was reviewed and annotated independently by both the researcher and an independent reviewer to ensure reliability and validity. Disassembling the data allowed the researcher to identify broader patterns in the data. 3.6.3. REASSEMBLING The second phase of Yin’s (2015) qualitative data analysis was followed by the reassembling stage, using themes to reorganize the previously disassembled elements of the data collected into different groupings and sequences. Here, substantive themes were being identified through the reorganization and disassembling. The researcher identified patterns in the types and frequencies of the feedback given by the teacher. These patterns were analysed by viewing the video footage multiple times to find commonalities or inconsistencies in the patterns. This data analysis, in combination with the annotations by both the teacher and the independent reviewer, allowed the researcher to reassemble the data into themes. 3.6.4. INTERPRETING The fourth phase, interpreting (Yin, 2015), involves using the reassembled material to create a new understanding of the data. The review of the initial interpretations of the types and frequencies of feedback given by the teacher, prompted the researcher to recompile the data in a different way, or to disassemble or reassemble the data differently. The researcher used the newly created themes in conjunction with the annotated notes from the teacher and the reviewer to interpret how feedback can be affected by environmental factors and discussed how progress feedback may not always be the best type of feedback, depending on the circumstances of the lesson. The fifth and final phase is the concluding stage (Yin, 2015). The researcher analysed the video footage and its relationship with the annotations from both the teacher and the independent reviewer and drew conclusions, considering all the data. 3.7. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY Bell (2014) cautions researchers to be aware that when collecting any form of data, reliability and validity of the methods used to collect and interpret the data, needs to be assessed carefully. For this research, reliability and validity were addressed by having an independent reviewer analyse and interpret the video footage before discussing the findings with the researcher. An information letter, as well as a Guarantee of Confidentiality letter (Appendices I and J) were sent to the Deputy Principal of the school, who agreed to act as an independent reviewer of the annotated video footage. After reviewing the video footage, the researcher sent the feedback checklist as well as the video footage to the reviewer to ensure reliable data collection. Bias as defined by Pannucci and Wilkins (2010) is “any tendency which prevents unprejudiced consideration of a question” (Definition and Scope of Bias, para. 1). The danger of bias needs to be considered when conducting any qualitative study. Pope et al. (2000) state “at its heart, good qualitative analysis relies on the skill, vision and integrity of the researcher doing that analysis” (p. 116) and Bell cautions that a researcher must be “… wise and vigilant, critical of [their] interpretation of the data, regularly question [their] practice and wherever possible triangulate” (Bell, 2014, p. 170). Acting on the ideas from Pope et al. and Bell, the researcher reviewed all data multiple times, and similarly checked and cross checked against different data sources when developing the themes and categories. These practices were reflected on to ensure that all data collected presented was truthfully represented and free of bias by the researcher. As noted by Dilger at al. (2019), one essential condition for ethnographic research is that the researcher must be accountable for the integrity, conservation and protection of the data gathered during their research project. 3.8. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS The ethical conduct of this research was directed by approval obtained from Edith Cowan University Research Ethics Committee and the System and School Performance Directorate of the Department of Education. The research procedures guaranteed informed consent and that the privacy of each participant was preserved. Where required, details in the data were modified without altering the original meaning of the data, to ensure participant privacy. The research data and records were kept in a confidential and secure manner. 3.9. DATA MANAGEMENT Notes that were used when annotating the video footage were stored in a locked drawer for the duration of the research project. After deidentifying and transferring notes to electronic copies, any paper copies of the annotations were shredded. The video data collected has been stored safely on the password protected SWIVL portal hosted on a secure server. Only the researcher, independent reviewer and the supervisor had access to observe the video data. 3.10. LIMITATIONS There were a number of limitations the researcher was confronted with when conducting this study: - The researcher and the teacher are the same person. - The length of the research study was limited to six weeks. - The findings of the research are confined to one classroom in one school and cannot be generalised. These limitations might result in doubt as to the generalisability of the findings from the study. However, as Bell (2014) states, if the study refrains from making assertions which cannot be validated, it may be relatable in a way that will let members of similar groups recognise problems and, possibly, to see ways of solving similar problems in their own groups (p. 15). These limitations are addressed further in the analysis and discussion of the findings. 3.11. SUMMARY The purpose of this research was to evaluate the impact of video as a self-reflective tool for improvement of teacher feedback practices. The theoretical framework informing this study was Activity Theory, which is one of the most commonly used theoretical frameworks in educational investigations. The quasi-ethnographic data collection approach allowed the researcher to analyse data found in a situational activity, located in its natural setting, and consequently the results are interpretive of the teacher *in situ*. The data was analysed using qualitative research techniques, which, according to Neuman and Robson (2014) enables a stronger focus on depth rather than breadth. In this study, the researcher drew upon qualitative methods because the goal was to “develop a deep understanding of a phenomenon as it is experienced in a particular setting rather than to draw broad conclusions about a particular aspect of human behaviour” (Neuman & Robson, p.71) The researcher used self-tracking video footage of classroom practice, a checklist as well as annotation of the video footage (by the researcher and an independent reviewer) as data sources. Twenty five students, participated in the research. Lessons were videoed without interrupting the curriculum delivery and reviewed by both the researcher and the independent reviewer afterwards, and data was analysed using the five techniques presented by Yin (2015). Throughout the research ethics and approval protocols were adhered to, to ensure participants’ privacy and safety was protected at all times. In the following chapters, the researcher draws meaning from the data, and this is reported, displayed and discussed. Chapter Four presents the findings of the research. 4. ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 4.1. INTRODUCTION The aim of this chapter is to analyse the data collected from multiple sources over a period of six weeks. Firstly, an overview of the study context and the physical setting in which the research took place will be given. This is followed by a presentation of the data collection and analysis techniques. The data will be presented as a summary with links to identified themes. This will be followed by a discussion of the emerging themes, connecting them to pertinent literature. Finally, a summary will conclude the chapter, providing an insight into the following chapter where conclusions from the study will be drawn and implications presented. The goal of this research was to use video cued reflection to identify and improve teacher feedback strategies in a primary classroom and to assess whether video cued reflection enhanced teacher feedback. This overarching goal connects to the research literature which claims that despite an abundance of research on feedback strategies, there is limited evidence to identify the most effective feedback strategies (Askew, 2000; Dean & Marzano, 2012; Harks et al., 2014; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). Likewise, there is limited research that has explored how video technology can be used as a tool for reflection on teaching practice. This study sought to address these identified gaps in the research literature, within a specialist primary classroom context. 4.2. STUDY CONTEXT As previously stated, the research was undertaken at a Department of Education Independent Public School in Perth, Western Australia which is also the school the researcher works at as a specialist teacher. All except one of the 26 students in the Year two classroom consented to participate in the study, and most students attended all six lessons identified for data collection. The 13 girls and 13 boys ranged in age from eight to nine years. The students were of a range of abilities with different ethnic backgrounds represented in the cohort. All students have English as their first language. There were no students with special needs or additional learning needs in the class. The teacher delivered one Health lesson per week of one-hour duration. The school adopts a whole-of-school approach to classroom management, which was followed by the specialist teacher in the study setting. 4.3. PHYSICAL SETTING The classroom is located in the Year two block at the rear of the school. Figure 4 provides a representation of the classroom layout. Figure 4. The layout of the Year 2 classroom in which Health lessons were conducted The students’ desks were arranged in a U-shape, facing the front of the room where the Interactive Whiteboard is located. At the front of the room is a mat area where students are seated during the instructional parts of the lesson as shown in the screen capture below (Figure 5). *Figure 5. Screenshot of Video recording, showing the Year 2 students seated on the mat (own photo)* The SWIVL camera and the iPad were placed at the back of the room to ensure minimal disturbances and distractions, whilst allowing it to rotate freely and capture the entire classroom. This camera position also reduced the likelihood of capturing students' faces on camera as can be seen in the below image (Figure 6). 4.4. VIDEO RECORDINGS The data collection occurred during six consecutive weekly one-hour Health lessons in Term Three. The researcher intended to capture the entire 60 minutes of each lesson to ensure maximal data collection, but found that transitioning from one room to another and setting the device up at the start of the lesson, and some technical issues impacted on both the recording time and the quality of data collected. The SWIVL device was turned on at the start of the lesson, and recorded the full duration of the lesson, except for intermittent pausing/muting when the teacher interacted with the non-participating student. This maximised the data collection. Table 4 presents an overview of the technical problems occurring during the recording process. Table 4 List of technical problems during the recording process for each Health lesson | Lesson # | Technical issues | Time recorded | |----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------| | Lesson 1 | Slight obstruction of the camera by an object | 52.01 minutes | | Lesson 2 | No technical problems | 50.50 minutes | | Lesson 3 | No technical problems | 52.31 minutes | | Lesson 4 | Half of the lesson had audio, but no visual image. | 49.44 minutes | | Lesson 5 | No technical problems with the recording, however, the Whiteboard in the class did not work, so the students had to be moved to a different room | 40.36 minutes | | Lesson 6 | The recording stopped and had to be resumed, resulting in two videos for this lesson | 28.42 + 25.29 | The video data collected was saved on the password protected iPad and immediately uploaded to the secure, password protected SWIVL portal, with the recording on the iPad then deleted. The SWIVL portal was then accessed to view, analyse and annotate the video footage by both the researcher and the independent reviewer. The researcher and the independent reviewer added brief annotations into the SWIVL portal, but, upon reflection on the process, found it to be more beneficial and timely to meet in person for collaborative peer discussions, rather than communicating through the portal alone. This also facilitated interpretation of specific behaviours in different contexts, enabling a more nuanced use of the Checklist, as it became evident that it was possible to code a specific feedback strategy differently depending on the context in which it had occurred. The opportunity for discussion added consensus to the process of coding the observed strategies. 4.5. DATA ANALYSIS Within this quasi ethnographic study, the three sources of data were integrated throughout the analysis process. Table 5 provides an overview of the rich interconnections made across different data during the five stages (Yin, 2015) that guided the analysis. | Research questions | Data sources | Analysis process | Key themes | |--------------------|--------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Which types of feedback strategies are used by this teacher? | Video footage Feedback checklist Teacher reflection and annotations entered into the SWIVL portal Independent reviewer comments | Stage 1: Compiling (i.e., Managing and organising the data, viewing video footage and making notes after each lesson, reflecting and summarising the notes) Stage 2: Disassembling (i.e., tagging and annotating the video footage to identify feedback strategies, identifying codes for the various feedback strategies) Stage 3: Reassembling (i.e., viewing the footage again noticing context and checking and rechecking the assigned codes, reading and re-reading reviewer annotations, counting frequency of codes, transferring the frequencies onto the checklist, reflecting) Stage 4: Interpreting (i.e., reducing the codes to themes, creating categories, relating categories, reconfirming by revisiting the footage, further annotating the footage and reviewing checklist data, identifying patterns, Revisiting stages 1-4 once all data collection was completed, relating categories to the literature, developing a point of view, displaying the data. Stage 5: Concluding (i.e., condensing the data to construct an answer to the research question, identifying implications) | Feedback and classroom management in a Specialist classroom Progression of lesson content in Specialist classrooms Feedback must be viewed in context Specificity of feedback Amount of feedback | | How does video cued reflection enhance | | Stage 1: Compiling (i.e., reflecting and distilling ideas and goals following each lesson, building a composite checklist) Stage 2: Disassembling (i.e., coding reflections, notes, and identified goals) | Revisiting classroom interactions ‘Seeing’ ones practice | | teacher feedback practices? | Stage 3: Reassembling (revisiting the video footage and coded material, reducing the codes, identifying themes and categories) Stage 4: Interpreting (i.e., combining and reducing themes and categories, relating categories to the literature, developing a point of view, displaying the data. Stage 5: Concluding (i.e., Condensing the data to construct an answer to the research question, identifying implications) | Reflective annotations Authentic professional learning Collaborative reflection process | The analysis process identified in Table 5 demonstrates the multiple and iterative cycles of data collection and interpretation that was adopted in this qualitative study. In the following discussion data relating to each lesson will be discussed, allowing for the perspective of the teacher to emerge ethnographically. 4.5.1. LESSON 1 The content of Lesson 1 focused on the safe use and storage of medicines. All 25 students were present for the duration of the lesson. The teacher had introduced the device previously to familiarise students with the SWIVL device and the video recording process and to avoid distractions to learning during data collection. The equipment was set up and recording began without interruption. The researcher later viewed the video footage multiple times, repeatedly, stopping and starting the recording in order to log the various feedback strategies used at specific stages of the lesson. Table 6 provides a sample of the video data log that was collated from Lesson 1. | 1. Non-specific positive feedback | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | |----------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------| | | 0:17- Well done x | | | 1:08 – Well done, good idea x | | | 1:22- Well done (teacher paraphrase what was said), good job | | | 1:37- Beautiful | | | 2:07- (Teacher paraphrase what was said), beautiful) | | 2. Non-specific negative feedback | Non-specific utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | |----------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------| | | No examples observed | | 3. Specific positive feedback | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | |----------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | 6:01- Wow, what a great idea, thank you | | | 7:25- Good question | | | 10:37- x has already started, x has finished it, well done | | | 12:31- Thank you x, I love that you are sitting Super 6 | | 3a. Discrepancy feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | |----------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | No examples observed | | 3b. Progress feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | |----------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | 3:30 – I love that you remember buddy | | | 11:30- x, 3 times you did it, well done | | | 23:57- x, I love how you are thinking | This process was followed for the length of the video recording, resulting in a collation of the feedback strategies the teacher used throughout the lesson (see Appendix K). This data was coded and categorized to collate the frequency of specific feedback strategies. Table 7 provides a summary showing the frequency of different types of feedback the teacher used in Lesson 1 (see Appendix K). Table 7 Checklist for Lesson 1 showing frequencies of the observed feedback strategies | Feedback Category | What would this look / sound like? | Frequency | |-------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | 1. Specific positive | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 6 | | | **Discrepancy:** | | | | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | 0 | | | **Progress:** | | | | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 3 | | | **Other:** | | | | Other ‘positive’ feedback not included above | 1 | | 2. Specific negative | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 2 | | | **Discrepancy:** | | | | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. | 4 | | | **Progress:** | | | | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 0 | | | **Other:** | | | | Other ‘negative’ feedback not included above | 3 | | | Category | Description | Frequency | |---|---------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | 3 | Non-specific positive | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 20 | | 4 | Non-specific negative | Non-specific negative utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | 0 | | 5 | Non-verbal | Communicative expressions without the use of words (e.g., proximity, smiling, eye contact) | 2 | | 6 | Body language | Communicative gestures using body without the use of words (e.g., proximity, nodding, head shaking, pointing to work, hand signals). | 26 | | 7 | Other | May include questions, brief instructions, and the like that do not fit into any of the above | 55 | Table 7 shows the three most extensively used feedback strategies occurring in Lesson 1 were: Non-specific positive feedback, other interventions, and body language. Phrases such as: ‘Well done x’, ‘Well done, good idea’ and ‘Beautiful’ are examples of non-specific feedback strategies that the teacher used. Other feedback strategies categorised as classroom management, consisted of utterances such as ‘Sshhh . . . ” for students to be quiet and instructions like ‘Eyes to me’ or ‘Sit on your bottom please’. These strategies were aligned with the whole school classroom management approach. Hattie (1999) and Pauli (2010) note that the overall occurrence of feedback is low in most classroom interactions and that the most frequent feedback given is nonspecific. Progress feedback was identified as another category. This included negative and positive progress feedback that compared the performance of a student or their level of understanding with earlier performance or level of understanding. Progress feedback was given only three times throughout this lesson as seen in Table 8 below. Table 8 Total amount of progress feedback given in Lesson 1 | 3b. Progress feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | |-----------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | 3:30 – I love that you remember buddy 11:30- x, 3 times you did it, well done 23:57- x, I love how you are thinking | | 4b. Progress feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | |-----------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | No negative progress feedback was given | After viewing the recording of Lesson 1 a number of times and thus confirming the accuracy of the findings, the teacher sought feedback from the independent reviewer, who also identified greater amounts of non-specific feedback, other interventions and feedback given by body language. Interestingly, the independent reviewer did not identify the presence of progress feedback in Lesson 1, which raised awareness of context in which feedback occurred, rather than the ‘type’. These unexpected feedback findings from the independent reviewer promoted further teacher reflection. A reflective comment recorded by the teacher in the annotations follows: Having extensively researched the importance of progress feedback, I thought my lesson delivery would show more of the meaningful and targeted feedback and less of the non-specific, potentially detrimental feedback. Through further review and data reassembling the teacher extracted a sample of non-specific feedback that was used in Lesson 1. In total, non-specific feedback was used 20 times. This data set was coded to differentiate non-specific positive and non-specific negative feedback; an excerpt is shown in Table 9. Interpretation of this data facilitated sense-making of what was going on during Lesson 1. The teacher was not using targeted feedback, but instead using feedback to keep the students in high spirits and on task by praising them often and in quick succession. As shown in Table 9, there were eight occurrences of non-specific feedback given in the duration of just over six minutes. It is likely that a contributory factor was to keep students’ attention away from the SWIVL device and directed towards the teacher. The researcher drew further insights about the use of non-specific feedback in this context, by referring to Zahorik, et al. (2003), who state that, in order to manage classes, teachers will often “handle student infractions quickly, not allowing them to distract the class” (p. 76). Table 9 *Example of succession of non-specific feedback over 6 minutes during Lesson 1* | 1. Non-specific positive feedback | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 11:05- Good job, well done 11:17- Well done 12:12- Well done 12:50- Beautiful, x, x, x, x, x, x, x, x 13:24- Well done 14:00- Well done 14:48- Well done, good job 17:35- Absolutely | |---|---|---| After drawing the above-mentioned conclusions, the goal the teacher identified for Lesson 2 was to decrease the amount of non-specific feedback and increase the amount of specific feedback in order to make the learning interactions more meaningful and targeted. 4.5.2. LESSON 2 The content of Lesson 2 focused on assertive behaviours in relation to Protective Behaviour. There were two students absent from the lesson and one student arrived late, returning to school from an appointment, which caused brief disruption during the lesson. It must also be noted that the teacher was unwell during the lesson and this might have contributed to the classroom interactions. As for the previous lesson, the observation process began with the researcher viewing the video repeatedly, stopping and starting to log the different feedback strategies used at particular stages of the lesson. This time, specific attention was given to the frequencies and differences of non-specific and specific feedback. Table 10 provides a collation of the frequency different feedback strategies were used in Lesson 2. This data enabled the researcher to scan the different categories, focusing especially on non-specific and specific feedback and their differentiation into positive and negative sub-categories within this lesson (see Appendix K). Table 10 Checklist for Lesson 2 showing frequencies of the observed feedback strategies | Feedback Category | What would this look / sound like? | Frequency | |-------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | Specific positive | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 11 | | | Discrepancy: | | | | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | 3 | | | Progress: | | | | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 1 | | | Other: | | | | Other ‘positive’ feedback not included above | 10 | | Specific negative | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 2 | | | Discrepancy: | | | | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. | 2 | | Category | Description | Frequency | |---------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | Progress | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 6 | | Other | Other ‘negative’ feedback not included above | 37 | | Non-specific positive | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 20 | | Non-specific negative | Non-specific negative utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | 0 | | Non-verbal | Communicative expressions without the use of words (e.g., proximity, smiling, eye contact) | 14 | | Body language | Communicative gestures using body without the use of words (e.g., proximity, nodding, head shaking, pointing to work, hand signals). | 39 | | Other | May include questions, brief instructions, and the like that do not fit into any of the above | 10 | Table 10 shows that while non-specific feedback was used with the same frequency as that which occurred in Lesson 1, specific feedback had significantly increased. This result was confirmed by the independent reviewer, who had identified one additional time when specific feedback was given in Lesson 2. Through the peer review discussion, it became evident that the focus and content of Lesson 2 meant there was reduced mat time, and consequently reduced teacher talk, resulting in time dedicated to independent desk work by students. This further had the effect of decreased noise levels throughout Lesson 2, which possibly could explain the increased use of non-verbal feedback within this classroom. climate (e.g., proximity, looks aimed at students), compared to Lesson 1 where greater use of verbal feedback occurred. An annotation made by the independent reviewer in regards to this observation was: The students appear more focused on their independent work when they have a clear task ahead of them. The feedback I observed during this period of quiet work consists mainly of phrases related to students interacting with the task: ‘Wow, what a great idea, thank you’, ‘Good question’ and ‘(Name) has already started, x has finished it, well done’. Following Yin’s (2015) five stages of qualitative analysis the researcher came to the conclusion that the teacher was conscious of reducing the amount of non-specific feedback and was probably less inclined to praise individual students when they were working independently. Contrastingly, the data appears to suggest that an environment where students were working independently created increased opportunities for more one-to-one communication with students, allowing the teacher to give specific feedback like: Thank you boys at the front. You worked so well. You worked the neurons. You were listening. Not interrupting. Very impressed! (Name), awesome. He is already writing his name. The goal for this lesson was to reduce non-specific feedback and incorporate more progress feedback, which Hattie and Timperley (2007) and Kluger and DeNisi (1996) identified as the most meaningful and effective type of feedback. The teacher’s reflective notes and annotations included reminders to self to consciously incorporate progress feedback and thus encourage deeper engagement with the content by students. My goal for the next lesson is to pay greater attention to the feedback I am giving, to ensure that it is focused on the students’ earlier performance or level of understanding. If I just give a ‘Well done’ it is not aiding students to make progress and thus improve their learning. To further guide the teacher towards the goal of reducing non-specific feedback and increasing the use of progress feedback, the independent reviewer noted the following suggestion in his annotations: Get students to really think about their answers. Ask ‘why are you thinking that?’ or ‘can you describe how you got to this idea?’ I used to write myself a reminder to pin at the back of the room, so every time I looked up, I saw it, which kept me on track. Choose one or two students per lesson and draw deep into their thinking. Don’t try to do it with every answer as you need to get through the content (and other students might get bored), but try to identify where you could encourage Aha-moments. Additionally, the independent reviewer identified instances where the teacher had used progress feedback effectively, and drew her attention to this in his annotation, noting: Here, when you said, “(Name) I love how you are participating this term, it’s really great to see that you remember to keep putting your hand up and you keep answering questions. And I love the smile, it makes me so happy!”, you were adopting an effective progress feedback statement to the student. You were comparing what the student didn’t do in the past with what she is doing this term. You made her feel noticed and used the personal relationship you have established with her going. This is a technique you should continue to refine and use more frequently. Van Es and Sherin (2002) identified that teacher education should support teachers in learning to notice, which is facilitated by reviewing the footage multiple times (Baecher et al., 2014). Baecher et al. further identified that teachers, who peer-reviewed their video recordings, were able to reflect more critically about their performance. In this study, the feedback from the independent reviewer acted as guidance for the teacher to reflect deeply on the effectiveness of her use of progress feedback. 4.5.3. LESSON 3 The content of Lesson 3 focused on early warning signs, and safe and unsafe feelings. All students were present; however, there were some disruptions to the lesson by the classroom teacher entering the room a number of occasions. There were no technical issues with the equipment or recording. Following the same process as Lessons 1 and 2, the researcher began the observation by viewing the video a number of times to log the feedback strategies occurring throughout the lesson. As was noted after analysing Lesson 2, the researcher focused her attention on progress feedback and earlier performance or level of understanding of the students, to evaluate if the feedback she gave changed according to the goal she had set for herself. The data from the video recording was entered into the checklist to assemble the feedback strategies and frequency with which they were used by the teacher. This data collated in Table 11, shows ‘other-negative’, ‘non-specific positive,’ and other – non- specific’ as the three most frequently occurring feedback categories in Lesson 3 (see Appendix K). | Feedback Category | What would this look / sound like? | Frequency | |-------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | Specific positive | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 12 | | | Discrepancy: Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | 4 | | | Progress: Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 1 | | | Other: Other ‘positive’ feedback not included above | 4 | | Specific negative | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 2 | | | Discrepancy: Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. | 11 | | | Progress: Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 0 | | Category | Description | Frequency | |---------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | Other | Other ‘negative’ feedback not included above | 41 | | Non-specific positive | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 18 | | Non-specific negative | Non-specific negative utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | 2 | | Non-verbal | Communicative expressions without the use of words (e.g., proximity, smiling, eye contact) | 12 | | Body language | Communicative gestures using body without the use of words (e.g., proximity, nodding, head shaking, pointing to work, hand signals). | 4 | | Other | May include questions, brief instructions, and the like that do not fit into any of the above | 16 | Table 11 further shows in Lesson 3, there were similar frequencies of non-verbal and non-specific feedback in comparison to the previous lessons; however, there was a notable increase in discrepancy feedback, where the teacher was comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. Examples of this type of feedback used within the context of Lesson 3 were drawn from the teacher’s annotations, as follows: Stay where you are, put your hand up and ask to move. That would be the right thing to do. (Name), I am getting tired to talk to you about sitting Super 6. You are nearly in Year 3. These examples of discrepancy feedback show this type of feedback is directed at the individual student’s behaviour, rather than their learning and progress. The researcher confirmed her findings with annotations supplied by the independent reviewer, who identified a similar increase in discrepancy feedback in Lesson 3. Some comments made by the independent reviewer on this point are: The use of discrepancy feedback is not effective at this point. Using a phrase like: ‘Awesome Year 2s, that’s nice and quiet’ does not give your students clear directions. It is a blanket statement, which may, or may not include all students. Maybe you could phrase it differently, saying: The noise level we agreed to work best with, is quiet. I like that we are all working towards being quiet? How could we all make sure that we keep the noise levels low to help each other? Reflecting further on the independent reviewer’s comments, the researcher viewed Video 3 again, focusing on the amount of discrepancy feedback while paying particular attention to the timing of the occurrences throughout Lesson 3. It was noted that the class appeared restless and often off task, which peaked during the disruptions when the classroom teacher entered and exited the room. This lead the researcher to the conclusion, that feedback given in a classroom environment must be viewed in the context of the lesson. Even after actively planning to have a greater focus on progress feedback, the circumstances during the lesson required the teacher to respond to behavioural issues as they occurred, which accounted for the notable spike in discrepancy feedback. Voerman et al. (2012) note that when teachers tend to pay attention to what is wrong they give greater discrepancy feedback and neglect providing feedback on what is right. In this instance, the teacher focused on the negative behaviour of the students and therefore gave discrepancy feedback instead of progress feedback, which is task oriented. Based on the conclusion drawn from analysis of Lesson 3, the teacher’s goal for Lesson 4 was to ensure that feedback, even when addressing students’ behaviour, should include specific instructions for the student to understand how to change the behaviour in order to make the feedback purposeful, targeted and directed. 4.5.4. LESSON 4 The content of Lesson 4 focused on students’ safe networks and assertiveness. Limited amount of the class time was spent on the mat giving instructions by the teacher. There was a significant amount of partner work and work at the students’ desks. Four of the 26 students were absent, including the student who had not given consent to participate in the research. The researcher viewed the recorded video footage, annotating the feedback strategies given by the teacher over the 60-minute period of the lesson. The researcher noted a technical problem with the footage, as half of the lesson had audio, but no visual image, making it impossible at times to identify body language, as well, sound quality was affected depending on the positioning of the teacher in the room. As noted earlier, analysis of Lesson 3 led to identifying the goal of increasing feedback that provided purposeful, targeted and directed instructions in order to more effectively assist the students in understanding how to change their behaviour, which aligns with ideas expressed by Brookhart (2008), who says that, ‘Good feedback gives students information they need so they can understand where they are in their learning and what to do next ....” (p. 2). The video data from Lesson 4 was collated and transferred onto the feedback checklist with Table 12 showing the frequency of the various feedback strategies observed during Lesson 4. The three most frequently used feedback strategies were non-specific positive feedback, specific positive feedback and, surprisingly, even after only being able to view half of the lesson, the use of body language was noted as occurring frequently (see Appendix K). Table 12 Checklist for Lesson 4 showing frequencies of the observed feedback strategies | Feedback Category | What would this look / sound like? | Frequency | |-------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | Specific positive | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 12 | | | Discrepancy: Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | 2 | | | Progress: | 4 | | Category | Description | Count | |---------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | Positive feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | | | Other | Other ‘positive’ feedback not included above | 0 | | Specific negative | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 6 | | Discrepancy | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. | 0 | | Progress | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 0 | | Other | Other ‘negative’ feedback not included above | 8 | | Non-specific positive | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 19 | | Non-specific negative | Non-specific negative utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | 0 | | Non-verbal | Communicative expressions without the use of words (e.g., proximity, smiling, eye contact) | 2 | | Body language | Communicative gestures using body without the use of words (e.g., proximity, nodding, head shaking, pointing to work, hand signals). | 10 | Upon further analysis of the video data and the checklist, the researcher noted that the pattern of feedback frequency had changed. There was a smaller amount of feedback given overall and the feedback that was given was mostly positive and specific. Although non-specific feedback was still the most frequently used type of feedback, the amount had decreased since Lesson 1. After comparing the checklist data, the specific examples drawn from the video annotations by the teacher, and the independent reviewer’s comments, it emerged that the feedback statements made by the teacher, had been categorised differently by the independent reviewer. For example, the following feedback statement was categorised by the teacher as progress feedback, whilst the independent reviewer categorised it as discrepancy feedback. Love that. It shows me that you are interested in what we are learning. Give yourself another tick. This discrepancy in categorisation prompted the researcher to revisit previous checklists to crosscheck the classification of various feedback strategies, but found that only a few entries were disparate. Interestingly, all of them were placed in the category of either progress or discrepancy feedback, possibly suggesting their definitions were slightly arbitrary. Following a discussion between the teacher and independent reviewer, the next goal was established. The goal for Lesson 5 was to accurately formulate progress feedback to allow for a distinct differentiation between progress and discrepancy feedback. 4.5.5. LESSON 5 The content of Lesson 5 focused on the safety continuum in Protective Behaviours, identifying the differences of feeling safe, fun to be scared and feeling unsafe. One student was absent, and another student left early to attend a medical appointment. The interactive whiteboard in this classroom was not working properly on this day, so the students were moved to a different room. For Lesson 5 students were relocated to the German specialist classroom which was unfamiliar to them. This resulted in some off task behaviour and a much shorter recording time of only 40.36 minutes (see Table 2), due to the move. There were no technical problems with the recording device. As with all of the previous lessons, the observation process for Lesson 5 began with the researcher viewing the video recording multiple times to log the feedback strategies the teacher used throughout the lesson. Table 13 presents a collation of the feedback strategies the teacher used, including the frequency of each strategy (See Appendix K). Table 13 Checklist for Lesson 5 showing frequencies of the observed feedback strategies | Feedback Category | What would this look / sound like? | Frequency | |-------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | Specific positive | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 14 | | | Discrepancy: Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | 2 | | | Progress: Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 0 | | | Other: Other ‘positive’ feedback not included above | 1 | | Category | Description | Count | |---------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | Specific negative | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 1 | | Discrepancy | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. | 3 | | Progress | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 0 | | Other | Other ‘negative’ feedback not included above | 21 | | Non-specific positive | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 12 | | Non-specific negative | Non-specific negative utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | 1 | | Non-verbal | Communicative expressions without the use of words (e.g., proximity, smiling, eye contact) | 8 | | Body language | Communicative gestures using body without the use of words (e.g., proximity, nodding, head shaking, pointing to work, hand signals). | 42 | | Other | May include questions, brief instructions, and the like that do not fit into any of the above | 22 | Analysis of data from Lesson 4 led the teacher to identify the area of Progress Feedback as an improvement goal for Lesson 5. This involved giving attention to accurately phrased progress feedback, concentrating on comparing the students’ current performance or level of understanding. with their earlier understanding, rather than comparing the students’ performance or level of understanding to some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. Surprisingly, data presented in Table 13 reveals that no progress feedback was given at all during Lesson 5. This was confirmed with the findings from the independent reviewer. A closer analysis of the data showed there was a marked increase in the teacher’s use of Body Language and Non Verbal types of feedback during this Lesson 5. Reviewing the footage repeatedly and reflecting on the lesson, the closest proximate to Progress Feedback was the following types of statements by the teacher, made a number of times during the lesson. Year 2’s, I am not sure what is happening today, but this . . . I am not sure if you need a break because you have been working hard this morning, but this is not the class I am used to And: I find it distracting when lots of people talk. I can’t concentrate These types of statements had been logged and categorized as discrepancy feedback. As this was confounding, the teacher raised the issue with the independent reviewer to clarify whether it demonstrated Progress Feedback at all. Both the researcher and the independent reviewer agreed that there was no room for the teacher to demonstrate progress feedback as the move from one classroom to another influenced the dynamics of the class and the students’ focus. A reflective note made by the teacher states: The class was intrigued by the new surroundings. They knew that they were going to learn German in Year Three and were excited to share thoughts with their peers. Attempts by me to teach Health were in vain, all I could do is manage the behaviour. After discussing the data, the researcher considered that the movement to the alternate classroom and the change in established routines, contributed to the significant increase in the use of body language and non-verbal feedback. This variation in routine meant that a greater amount of time was used for classroom management feedback, like counting students and gestures to indicate to students where to sit. The change of circumstances prioritised management of students’ behaviour and engagement which limited the opportunities for the use of feedback strategies designed to further students’ thinking and learning, in the form of progress feedback. DiGennaro, Martens and Kleinmann (2007) found increase in appropriate student behaviour is related to the number of praise statements provided by the teacher. This lead to the conclusion, that the intervention by the teacher was an acceptable strategy in this situation. As part of the reflective process, the teacher also made the following annotations when considering influencing factors. The teacher moved the class to a new room. Transitioning through the school, when it is unexpected, often unsettles classes. The classroom was unfamiliar to the students. Anchor charts are in a different language. There were hands-on materials in the class, ready for the next German class, which were interesting to look at. The students were excited to be in the German class as most of them were looking forward to beginning German lessons when they are in Year Three. In exploring these observations during discussion with the independent reviewer, he concurred that these factors were influencing students’ behaviour and engagement, and consequently had an impact on the type of feedback the teacher utilised. To synthesise the ideas that emerged from this collaborative peer discussion, the teacher entered the following annotation at the end of Video 5. The type and frequency of feedback that occurs during a lesson is directly influenced by the environment and the context of the lesson. Feedback cannot be viewed in isolation. During Lesson 5, this limited the opportunity for me to improve the way I use progress feedback. The sentiments expressed by the teacher shown above, can be understood in line with the following ideas expressed by researchers McClowry et al. (2013), who observed that teachers who managed difficult behaviours, were more likely to provide negative feedback to their students compared to those who were industrious. With input from the independent reviewer, the goal set by the teacher for the final lesson was to pay closer attention to the classroom environment to better understand if there are particular circumstances or triggers that promote the use of particular types of feedback, and how the teacher can more effectively manage and integrate different feedback strategies to foster student engagement and learning during a lesson. The content of Lesson 6 focused on safe and unsafe secrets. All of the students were present. The content of the lesson was very interactive and the students were encouraged to work in small groups and moved around the room. Following the same process as for all the previous lessons, the observation process for the final lesson began with viewing the video a number of times, stopping and starting to record the different types of feedback the teacher used throughout the lesson. The data collected from the video footage was then entered into the checklist table to categorize the frequencies and types of feedback given (Table 14) (see Appendix K). **Table 14** *Checklist for Lesson 6 showing frequencies of the observed feedback strategies* | Feedback Category | What would this look / sound like? | Frequency | |-------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | Specific positive | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 13 | | | Discrepancy: | | | | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | 7 | | | Progress: | | | | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 2 | | | Other: | | | | Other ‘positive’ feedback not included above | 1 | | Specific negative | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 5 | | Category | Description | Frequency | |---------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------| | Discrepancy | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. | 5 | | Progress | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 0 | | Other | Other ‘negative’ feedback not included above | 17 | | Non-specific positive | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 27 | | Non-specific negative | Non-specific negative utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | 2 | | Non-verbal | Communicative expressions without the use of words (e.g., proximity, smiling, eye contact) | 7 | | Body language | Communicative gestures using body without the use of words (e.g., proximity, nodding, head shaking, pointing to work, hand signals). | 26 | | Other | May include questions, brief instructions, and the like that do not fit into any of the above | 55 | As Lesson 5 had been disrupted by circumstances out of the teacher’s control, influencing students’ behaviour and engagement, and impacting the feedback the teacher gave. The goal set for Lesson 6 was for the teacher to be attuned to how and to what extent her feedback strategies were being influenced by environmental conditions and students’ behaviour, and to explore how this related to the frequency of different techniques. The three most frequently given types of feedback in this lesson, much like the previous ones, were other interventions, non-specific positive feedback, and body language. The observed examples included: - [Other interventions] Can you move somewhere else please? Just move here, at the front’, ‘Eyes to me’, ‘Come and sit down please’ and ‘Put your hand down’ - [Non-specific positive feedback] ‘Fantastic’, ‘Good, well done’, ‘Absolutely’ and ‘Fabulous, (Name), good stuff’ - [Body language]-raising a finger to the teacher’s mouth to signal silence, the teacher shaking her head to signal disapproval of the displayed behaviour, approval of the displayed behaviour, and giving the ‘Thumbs up’ to signal approval of the displayed behaviour. The independent reviewer’s annotations confirmed the patterns in feedback presented in Table 14. The collaborative peer review discussion explored the likely benefits of the feedback interventions used by the teacher for managing behaviour and improving student engagement. This gave the teacher reassurance that the non-specific (other intervention) feedback strategies she had used were contextually appropriate and had a positive effect on managing behaviour in the classroom. This relates well to comments from researchers, such as Gamlem and Smith (2013) who identified the use of feedback to foster a positive relationship with students. Upon reviewing the video footage again, the teacher made the following annotations related to the use of non-specific other intervention feedback types. Using the whole school classroom management strategy of counting a student when they are being disruptive or non-compliant allows me to briefly, without spending too much time or energy on it, address the student’s behaviour. The language is familiar to the students and no discussion is necessary. This adds to efficiency in communicating feedback on behaviour. In a similar vein the independent reviewer had made the following annotation, which affirmed the benefits of the teacher’s use of brief instructions directed at managing the classroom. By using short instructions, which align with the whole school approach, you ensure that the students know what to do. Using short instructions like: ‘(Name) move here’, ‘Super 6 (Name)’ and a signal to begin are familiar to the class. You don’t bring emotions into the instruction and don’t waste important teaching time. This feedback from the independent reviewer reassured the teacher and validated the effectiveness of techniques she had employed. Further support can be drawn from the literature by Koka and Hein (2005), who found that some non-specific feedback, even when given non-verbally, can have a large effect on student motivation. Once again, in Lesson 6 the teacher’s use of non-specific positive feedback was prominent, as shown through the typical feedback comments provided above. To explore this feedback type further, the teacher revisited the video footage, making the following annotations. I noticed that I used non-specific feedback frequently this lesson. I called individual students’ name and gave non-specific praise like: ‘You are being on fire, good stuff’ and ‘Great idea’, followed by the student’s name. The nature of the lesson was pretty ‘messy’ so using this type of feedback allowed me to appeal to other students’ eagerness to do the right thing too, to maximise peer modelling of desired behaviours. I got ‘swamped’ a few times when students wanted to show me their work or needed clarification. Using non-specific feedback like: ‘Well done’ and ‘What a good idea’, I was able to move through students’ work quite quickly, assuring them that they were on the right track. The independent reviewer’s annotations provided further insights about how the teacher was using non-specific positive feedback, how it related to the classroom environment, and students’ behaviour and engagement. I noticed that towards the end of the lesson, the frequency of your non-specific feedback increased. By then, the lesson content had moved to small group work and there was a lot of movement in the room. You are spending limited amounts of time on each interaction, which enables you to attend to all students in the room. Through observation, focused reflection, and collaborative peer discussion the teacher gained a deeper understanding of the situatedness of feedback, and felt that for feedback to have a positive effect on students’ engagement and learning, the teacher must be attuned to how students are engaging with the lesson content, the learning activity, the resources, the instructions, their peers, and the general environment (e.g., classroom layout, noise levels, interruptions, etc.). Thus, what is going on within the learning environment provides triggers for what feedback strategies the teacher uses, as well as how frequently different strategies are used, an idea that is shown in views expressed by Kluger and DeNisi (1996) who found that both positive and negative feedback can enhance learning, provided the feedback contains sufficient information to allow the student to identify what is right or wrong in their performance or understanding. Similarly, van Es and Sherin (2002) identified that teachers need to apply what they know about their own teaching context to reason about a given situation. This is conveyed in the following annotation by the teacher: I can see during this lesson, how much feedback depends on the situation and the context. Being able to give feedback on small group work, allows me to target a behaviour that is either desired or discouraged. Saying: ‘Well done Year 2’s. That is possibly the quietest pairing that I have seen in a long, long time’ communicates a sense of pride to them, which will, hopefully, encourage them to continue doing the right thing. ‘(Name), (Name) eyes to me. It doesn’t really matter what they are doing over there. You should be focusing on your own group’. Giving this feedback, especially in a small group situation directs the students’ attention back to their own task, while focusing on the behaviour, not on the person. When comparing Lesson 2, which included a great amount of independent desk work, with Lesson 6, where a large amount of time was spent in group work and therefore included more movement and noise, a difference in feedback types and frequencies can be noted. The lessons where interruptions occurred also showed a greater amount of classroom management feedback rather than learning content related feedback. It can be reasoned that when students are off task, the teacher felt the need to control the class, rather than focusing on content learning and thus fewer amounts of progress feedback occurred. 4.6. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The preceding sections of this chapter have presented the findings. Here the researcher synthesises the key findings thematically, and explores sub-themes that emerged from the data. 4.6.1. FEEDBACK STRATEGIES USED BY THE TEACHER A teacher’s ability for providing effective feedback is essential to supporting Western Australia’s educational goals as stated by the Department of Education (2016). Within an educational setting, feedback can be understood to be a tool to assist students to acquire new learning and to reflect on their performance (Brookhart, 2008). Using the data from the checklist and the conversations between the researcher and the independent reviewer, patterns in the frequencies and types of the observed feedback given by the teacher, became evident. However, as identified by Van den Bergh et al. (2013), whilst feedback is one of the most effective tools teachers can use to develop students’ learning, it is often challenging for teachers to give qualitatively good feedback, especially during active learning. The above-mentioned observation by Van den Bergh et al. (2013) draws attention to the first key finding of the study related to the challenges that impact teachers’ capacity to consistently give qualitatively good feedback. A consistent change in the pattern of qualitatively good feedback did not emerge over the six-week duration. In spite of teacher knowledge and reflective goal setting that targeted qualitative improvements in feedback techniques, a continued pattern of improvement was not observed. This suggests that factors emergent within the classroom can often challenge teachers’ efforts to give qualitatively good feedback. Second, whilst teacher knowledge and reflection concurred with the research literature (Askew, 2000; Brookhart, 2008; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Hattie & Yates, 2014) on the point that specific feedback was qualitatively more effective for developing students’ learning, observation of classroom practice over the six week period in fact showed that the teacher consistently used non-specific feedback frequently. Focused attention on reducing the use of non-specific feedback techniques did result in its reduced frequency, but only marginally. Again, this suggests that classroom factors (e.g., behaviour, disruptions) challenged the teacher’s goals to give qualitatively good feedback, and can be related to Eraut’s (1995) explanation that during a lesson, many things happen simultaneously and there is a continuous pressure on the teacher to act. A further finding relates more broadly to what guides teacher behaviour. Whilst it seems a logical argument that once teachers have the right insights and beliefs about qualitatively good feedback practices to improve student learning (as was the case in this study), they could change their behaviour / practice in the right direction. Korthagen (2017) claims this is a rather primitive view of teacher learning. Further support for this view can be drawn from earlier work by Clark and Yinger (1979) who stated that it is impossible for a teacher to be consciously aware of all that happens in a classroom. Thus, these researchers assert that teachers make relatively few conscious decisions while teaching, and as a result their behaviour is only partly influenced by thinking, let alone by the theories they have learnt. A frequently occurring instructional issue Hoekstra, Beijaard, Brekelmans and Korthagen (2007) claim is that experienced teachers continue with some behaviours, although from their reflective assessment of a lesson, something appears to be going wrong. They explain, “it is remarkable that research on teacher learning is mostly concerned with teachers’ change in cognition, as if behavioural change automatically follows from a change in cognition” (Hoekstra et al. p. 116). It is therefore important to acknowledge that multiple sources actually guide teachers’ behaviour. In this study, it became apparent that the teacher’s behaviour was the result of a complex mix of cognitive, affective and motivational sources that influenced her behaviour related to feedback, concurring with ideas proposed by Day and Gu (2009) and Schutz and Zembylas (2009). Such influences are partly implicit and are often not deeply reflected on. It can be argued that in this study the teacher was immersed within the experiential system of the classroom, and was operating in the realm of physical responses and automatic processes (i.e., unconscious routines). This presents challenges when attempting to interpret the teacher’s feedback in isolation, as feedback is embedded within the holistic system of the classroom, as shown within an Activity Theory model. Finally, it was found that the teacher used brief instructions and body language more frequently than progressive or discrepancy feedback, although the latter types of feedback are known to be the most effective types of feedback (Brookhart, 2008; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996), as they address the learning and understanding of the student. It is surmised that despite the teacher’s knowledge of which feedback practices are more effective (i.e., the cognitive dimension), affective and motivational dimensions in classroom practice also had a powerful influence on the teacher’s behaviour. Added to this, the social context of the classroom also characterises the classroom climate. and the instructional processes. Hoekstra et al.’s (2007) ideas are relevant here too; she argues that teaching is a profession in which feelings and motivation play an essential role. It is likely that these changing dimensions within the various lessons cast the teacher’s use of feedback techniques as a rather unpredictable aspect of classroom learning and teaching, once again alerting one to how system contradictions that can act to change and develop the system in particular ways, through the lens of Activity Theory. The above-mentioned findings are addressed in greater depth within the following sub-themes. 18.104.22.168. FEEDBACK AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT IN A SPECIALIST CLASSROOM Classroom management concerns in a specialist class cannot be neglected. According to Behets (1996), specialist teachers provide students with significantly more feedback in their corrective categories. This could be explained with the fact that classroom management takes significant amounts of class time, with many students spending up to one-half of instructional time engaged in tasks not associated to learning, such as classroom procedural matters, transitions between activities and classrooms, discipline situations, and off-task activities (Codding & Smyth, 2008); these factors could be exponentially greater in specialist classes. The feedback practice observed in this study aligns with the research by Codding and Smyth, in so far as the teacher spent large amounts of class time managing behaviour. Behets further notes that classroom management requires observation of events and the learning process, but added that silent and passive monitoring of the behaviour is not very efficient. In line with this, the teacher in this study sought to manage behaviour, using behaviourally focused feedback strategies which likely resulted in lesser attention on giving feedback focused on progression of learning. Time restrictions during specialist classes mean that very little time is available to build relationships and deliver the content. It is plausible that the teacher’s extensive use of non-specific feedback had the positive effect of making students feel at ease, and thus contributed towards relationship building, which according to Hattie and Timperley (2007) has the biggest effect size on student learning. 22.214.171.124. PROGRESSION OF LESSON CONTENT IN SPECIALIST CLASSROOMS Duijnhouwer (2010, as cited in Voerman et. al, 2012) defines progress feedback as giving students information as to whether their performance has improved compared with the previous performance in a similar task or not. Taking into consideration that the classes observed in this study were one hour-long, once a week specialist Health classes, which did not build upon previous learning content, only limited comparison was possible between the learning derived from the earlier lessons, thereby limiting opportunities to give progress feedback. The content of each of the lessons in this study can be viewed as a new starting point, with weekly gaps between each lesson. Activity Theory presents a temporal perspective on the influence of historical changes; whilst these could be deeply layered within the system, they were not immediately visible through the teacher’s feedback interactions. Consequently, the focus of the feedback was on developing students’ knowledge rather than sustaining and maintaining previously attained knowledge. Additionally, Van den Bergh et al. (2013) noted that whilst half of the interactions between a teacher and their students’ include feedback, the type of the feedback given is usually focused on the task, and only 5% of the feedback is explicitly related to a learning goal. With this in mind, it is surmised that although the teacher provided large amounts of feedback throughout the lessons, most of her feedback was behaviour and task focused, rather than explicitly focused on learning goals. 126.96.36.199. FEEDBACK MUST BE VIEWED IN CONTEXT Feedback cannot be looked at in isolation. Feedback given by a teacher must be analysed in the context of the lesson. Research by Poulos and Mahony (2008) identified that feedback has various functions according to the particular learning environment in which it is examined. In various lessons, it became apparent that feedback given by the teacher was a lever used to respond to the specific socio-emotional and physical circumstances and classroom context. This was observed in the teacher’s annotations, pointing to such things as ‘the students seemed restless’ and ‘were curious about the specialist German language classroom’. Again, this is explained using Activity Theory as system components being woven into the fabric of the dynamic system, and when attempts are made to extract individual components, their meaning can be lost. 188.8.131.52. SPECIFICITY OF FEEDBACK Although the principle that specificity in feedback helps to improve students’ learning is an accepted generalization, Goodman, Wood and Hendrickx (2004) claim sufficient evidence to support the argument is still lacking. They state that detail on what the specificity part of feedback means in practice, is inadequately discussed in contemporary literature, although the intention of it appears be that “improvement is best fostered by specific verbal feedback provided by a supervisor or other appraiser, as close in time to the exhibited behaviour as possible, and followed by suggestions on how future performance can be improved” (Bernardin & Beatty, 1984, p. 197, as cited in Goodman et al.). In this study, feedback given was often non-specific, and often directed at the whole class rather than the individual student, and therefore lacked immediacy and a future improvement orientation. Whilst the principle that specific feedback helps student learning is highly valued, in a classroom where the teacher in managing multiple behavioural and engagement issues, the closeness in time to an exhibited behavioural issue, and for future improvement of learning, proved to be fraught with challenges, mainly linked to class size. Once again, this can be viewed through the lens of Activity Theory, suggesting that the socio-historical context influences feedback as one component with a complex, dynamic system. 184.108.40.206. AMOUNT OF FEEDBACK Ackerman and Gross (2010) found that many students will perceive high levels of feedback as more unfair and unhelpful than low levels of feedback, particularly when it is directed to them individually. In this study feedback given by the teacher was often directed at the whole class rather than the individual student, possibly minimising students’ perceptions of unfairness that has been raised by Ackerman and Gross. 4.6.2. ENHANCEMENT OF TEACHER REFLECTION USING VIDEO Richards (1995) identifies the term “Reflective teaching” (p. 1) and notes that one method for teachers to progress towards a greater pedagogical awareness, is by reflecting on their own teaching, using observation and reflection as a way of developing their instructional practices. This study found that reflection based on observation enhanced the teacher’s pedagogical awareness, and provided directions for further developing effective instructional practices. To foster and grow teacher capacity, Liang (2015) reasons that teachers’ professional development is crucial and that it should involve a process of identifying weaknesses and in turn, taking actions for improvement. This study found that video cued reflection accompanied by reviewer feedback provided a collaborative and objective basis for identifying areas of strength and areas for further development. Thus, video cued reflection provided a robust process for taking actions to improve teaching practices, which fits within an Activity Theory perspective. The mutually influencing interactions of system components (subject-object-tool) has a transformative capacity as tensions arise and become resolved or persist. Evidently both the above-mentioned findings (i.e., reflective practice and professional development) are directly linked to the Department of Education’s goals, as stated in High Performance-High Care goals (Department of Education, 2016) and Classroom First Strategy (Department of Education, 2017b). The techniques used to guide the reflective process in this study, contributed practical ways in which this teacher could work towards the quality enhancement goals for professional teachers, as specified by the Department of Education. Attention will now be given to closer examination of the sub-themes related to the findings discussed above. 220.127.116.11. REVISITING CLASSROOM INTERACTIONS Using a video-cued approach enabled the teacher/researcher, to revisit interactions in the classroom and at the same time allowed her to stop and reflect on what is most significant (Raingruber, 2003) when interpreting the data. This is in accordance with Brophy’s (2003), point that video cued reflection offers the benefit of revisiting classroom events multiple times to focus on particular aspects of teaching and their professional reflection. This echoes the methodological aspects of Activity Theory that Vygotsky pointed to. The opportunity to revisit what had occurred during a lesson or series of lessons allowed scope for reflection to occur temporally, and provided an accurate record of what had occurred (i.e., revisiting the data objectively). This allowed the teacher time to process her thoughts, and revisiting recordings also provided nuanced insights about classroom interactions and feedback given by the teacher. Importantly, this process was not impacted by memory fading (e.g., retrospective gloss), which is likely to occur with time in the absence of a video recording. 18.104.22.168. ‘SEEING’ ONE’S PRACTICE The video recordings served as a trigger to create greater awareness of the teacher’s classroom practice, similar to what Tripp and Rich (2012) describe as an opportunity for “teachers to more effectively ‘see’ their practice” (p. 679). The use of video reflection in this study enabled this objective process of “seeing” one’s practice, which was further supported with the triadic Activity Theory model (Vygotsky, 1987, 1997). It became evident that the teacher recognised that sometimes there are differences between what one knows, perceives what is happening, and actually ‘seeing’ what is happening, and developed a deeper understanding of the mutually influencing relationships between subject, object, and tool. Pellegrino and Gerber (2012) found that participants, who used video-recording for self-analysis expressed that engaging in this reflective activity, brought a greater awareness of their teaching strengths and weaknesses. Baecher et al. (2014) identified that engaging teachers in the metacognitive task of evaluating their own performance, lead to a more active and self-reliant role in their learning. According to Seidel et al. (2011), individuals who watched their own teaching, experienced a stronger sense of immersion, resonance, authenticity and motivation, views that also resonate through an Activity Theory lens. Collectively, the views expressed by the afore-mentioned researchers was confirmed in this study, as the researcher felt a greater awareness of her teaching strengths and weaknesses; increased metacognitive understanding of her feedback practices, with increased capacity for self-directed improvements; and heightened motivation, engagement, authenticity, and situatedness of her professional learning, and in so doing accessed the theoretical and practical insights via an Activity Theory framework. 22.214.171.124. REFLECTIVE ANNOTATIONS The use of the annotation and check listing while observing the video footage provided opportunities to become more targeted or specific in the reflective process. As Tripp and Rich (2012) note, written reflections allow teachers to view interactions in their classroom at a slower pace, and enable them to identify things they may not have noticed when they reflected purely from memory. The checklist assisted in differentiation of feedback techniques, but also highlighted that context can influence how specific techniques are classified. Being able to view and annotate the footage allowed the teacher to directly link her thought processes with tangible evidence, and provided space for the teacher to immerse herself in things that went unnoticed in the moment (Marsh & Mitchell, 2014). 126.96.36.199. COLLABORATIVE REFLECTION PROCESS The use of video enabled a collaborative peer review process, without the need for the reviewer to be present in the classroom. This not only made the process more efficient from a human resource perspective, but also reduced the possibility that having an observer in the classroom could be a confounding factor affecting the classroom climate. The cloud-based portal added ease, with the teacher and the reviewer being able to access and annotate recordings at times and locations that suited them. It improved the process in practical ways. These benefits further heightened an observation by Tripp and Rich (2012), who found that contributions made by others were often perceived as the most influential element in helping teachers reflect effectively on their practice. Studies by Thompson (1992, as cited in Tripp & Rich, 2012) showed that it was beneficial for teachers to discuss their teaching videos with others, and many teachers stated that analysing and discussing their videos resulted in greater learning. Baecher et al. (2014) also confirm this finding, stating that a number of researchers have suggested that with the guidance of a peer or a facilitator, teachers are better equipped to utilize the power of video to “notice, revisit, and investigate” (p. 4). Evidently, the use of video in this study enabled and strengthened the benefits of a collaborative peer reflection process identified by the above-mentioned researchers. 4.7. SUMMARY The findings of this study show that a change in the patterns towards increased qualitatively good feedback did not emerge over the six-week duration. Although the teacher had informed knowledge of targeted qualitative feedback which enabled her to set goals to improve her feedback techniques, these goals were not achieved. The review of the goal setting and reflective process, lead the researcher to the conclusion that classroom factors, such as behaviour and lesson disruptions weakened the teacher’s ability to give qualitatively good feedback, which can be related to research by Eraut (1995) who found that during a lesson, a multitude of things happen concurrently, putting constant pressure on the teacher to act. The data analysis further lead the researcher to consider what guides teacher behaviour. Whilst it is common belief that once teachers have the right insights and beliefs about qualitative good feedback practices to improve student learning, as the teacher in this study did, they could adapt their behaviour and thus instructional practice, in the right direction. This idea has been rejected by Clark and Yinger (1979) who stated that it is not possible for a teacher to be consciously aware of all that happens in a classroom all the times. The researcher identifies that multiple sources guide teachers’ behaviour. In this research, it became evident that the teacher’s instructional practice was the consequence of a combination of cognitive, affective and motivational sources that influenced her feedback, aligning with research by Day and Gu (2009). As the teacher in this study was immersed in the experiential structure of the classroom, and was working routinely, attempting to interpret the teacher’s feedback in isolation is difficult, since feedback is embedded within the all-encompassing system of the classroom. Finally, the researcher found that the teacher used succinct instructions and feedback in the form of body language more often than the expected progressive or discrepancy feedback, despite the fact that those types of feedback are known to be the more effective types of feedback (Brookhart, 2008; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). Affective and motivational dimensions in classroom setting had a powerful impact on the teacher’s behaviour, regardless of the teacher’s knowledge of which feedback practices are more effective. Hoekstra et al.’s (2007) findings are pertinent in this discussion as she states that teaching is a profession in which feelings and motivation play a fundamental role. The final chapter of this thesis will discuss conclusions of the findings and implications for future research and practice. 5. RESULTS 5.1. INTRODUCTION The research study aimed to answer the following research question: How does the use of video as a self-reflective tool impact on the quality of teacher to student feedback? The following subsidiary questions gave added focus: - Which types of strategies are used by the teacher to give feedback? - How does video cued reflection enhance teacher feedback practices? Assessing the effects of video use on teaching practice and teacher professional learning is complex. As noted by LeFevre (2003), “... video is not a curriculum. Video is rather a medium, which can be developed into a resource and used in specific ways to enhance learning” (p. 235). 5.2. OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY The goal of this research was to use video cued reflection to categorize and improve teacher feedback strategies in a primary classroom and to evaluate the effectiveness of video cued reflection in relation to enhanced teacher feedback. This links to current literature which claims that despite an abundance of research on feedback strategies, there is limited evidence to identify the most effective feedback strategies (Askew, 2000; Dean & Marzano, 2012; Harks et al., 2014; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). Additionally, there is limited research that has explored how video technology can be used as a tool for reflection on teaching practice. The research was undertaken at a Department of Education Independent Public School in a southern suburb of Perth, Western Australia which is also the school the researcher works at as a specialist Health teacher. Twenty-six students in a Year two classroom consented to participate in the study, which occurred over a six-week period. 5.3. CONCLUSIONS The researcher drew four conclusions from analyses of the data, in an attempt to answer the above-mentioned subsidiary research questions: Subsidiary research question 1 Which types of feedback strategies are used by this teacher? In this study, the teacher used a variety of feedback strategies during the six lessons that were observed. The most frequently occurring feedback strategies were non-specific positive feedback, body language and other interventions, like questions or brief instructions. The moderately occurring feedback strategies were specific positive feedback, positive progress feedback and negative discrepancy feedback. The most infrequently occurring feedback strategies were non-specific negative feedback and negative progress feedback. Although the teacher had set goals to increase the use of specific types of feedback strategies in each lesson, these were not realised. Deeper analyses of the reasons why this was the case lead the researcher to conclude that a wide range of feedback types were used within the lessons to respond to individual learners and the class as a whole, within a specific set of circumstances. On this point, the researcher also concluded that feedback must be viewed in the context in which it occurs, and therefore specific types of feedback can sometimes be viewed differently in the context in which they occur. Subsidiary research question 2 How does video cued reflection enhance teacher feedback practices? In this study, video served as a tool for the teacher to deeply reflect on her classroom practice, in particular the effectiveness of the feedback strategies she used. Video cued reflection provided a means to revisit a lesson with accuracy, and to focus on micro teaching events in detail, which would not have been possible without the use of video. Rich examples of practice and subtle changes in practice could be studied intensively, with the use of video. Above all, it would not have been possible for the teacher to log the frequency of different feedback types in a checklist format, without the use of video. This information critically focused the reflective process and goal setting. The features of the video technology used in this study streamlined the viewing and annotating processes, allowing the teacher to directly enter her reflective notes on the video data. This cataloguing feature added ease in making rich comparisons across different video segments, which allowed the teacher to gain depth of understanding how she was using specific techniques whilst noticing the contexts in which they were located. The video technology also enabled the added dimension of peer review and collaborative reflection, making these processes more efficient. 5.3.1. CONCLUSION 1: A WIDE RANGE OF FEEDBACK TYPES ARE USED WITHIN A LESSON In this study, the amount of non-specific feedback given by the teacher was greater than the amount of specific feedback, or progress oriented learning, and therefore did not provide opportunities for future improvement of learning. Although the notion that specific feedback assists students in their learning is highly valued, it is important to acknowledge that teachers are under pressure to manage multiple behavioural and engagement issues in the course of a lesson, and conditions in specialist primary classrooms can be different from the general primary classroom. These combined factors can impact when, what and how feedback is given by the teacher. Prioritising effective classroom management within a specialist classroom, the teacher used positive non-specific feedback, body language and non-verbal gestures frequently. Kluger and DeNisi (1996) advise that the effectiveness of feedback decreases, when feedback draws attention closer to the self, and away from the task. When negative non-specific feedback was given in this study, the teacher mainly addressed the whole class, rather than the individual student, potentially minimising the effect of drawing attention away from the task. Related to the use of body language and non-verbal gestures, a study by Koka and Hein (2005) found that feedback, even when given non-verbally, can have a large effect on student motivation. They identified that when students received positive non-verbal feedback, like smiling, patting on the shoulder and clapping hands, their satisfaction with the teacher improved, which lead to an increase in students’ intrinsic motivation. Koka and Hein’s work gives support to what occurred in this study; non-specific feedback is not necessarily always ineffective, it can be beneficial for improving student motivation. In this study, the researcher surmises that the frequent use of body language and non-verbal gestures enhanced the teacher-student relationship and fostered student motivation in doing the learning tasks. A further point related to using feedback to foster a positive relationship with students comes from a study conducted by Gamlem and Smith (2013). These researchers described corrective feedback as either positive or negative, depending on the teacher’s practice and their relationship with the students. Although the teacher’s feedback was classified as non-specific, it included instances of corrective feedback directed at the whole class, with the effect of maintaining a positive relationship with all of the students, as opposed to singling out individuals. Teachers need to be able to recognize the feedback strategies they use in the classroom and how their feedback is given to students, in order for it to be meaningful and valuable. In this study, the teacher’s feedback practices improved when focused attention was given to the types of feedback that was occurring. This aligns with research by Van Es and Sherin (2002), who state that a change in teachers occurs when they pay attention to what is important for students’ learning and consider how theoretical and research-based ideas might be occurring within their own teaching practice. The teacher in this study gained increased awareness and understanding of the feedback practices she employed, including the effect this was having on students’ learning and engagement within the context of a specialist classroom. Through critical reflection she was able to accurately monitor the feedback types that were being used, set goals and evaluate her decisions and practices contextually. As much as theoretical and research-based knowledge guided the improvements sought by the teacher in this study and will continue to do so, her practical knowledge in the given situation remains an invaluable guide for being ‘present’ and attuned to what is going on in *her* classroom, with *her* students, at any specific time. This possibly explains why the feedback improvement goals set by the teacher commonly did not materialise. Although she was using theoretical knowledge to guide her improvements in the classroom, she was paying attention to what was important in the classroom at the time, and this was reflected in the feedback strategies she used. 5.3.2. CONCLUSION 2: FEEDBACK MUST BE VIEWED IN CONTEXT After examining the video footage and analysing the checklist for types and frequencies of feedback, the researcher identified that the majority of feedback given was non-specific feedback, feedback in the form of body language and other feedback, mostly in the form of questions and brief instructions. Many researchers deem these forms of feedback as non-effective and therefore as not supporting students’ learning (Hattie & Yates, 2014; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Van den Bergh et al., 2013; Voerman et al., 2012). They argue that, feedback missing specificity may be understood by students to be worthless. However, in this study, the researcher found, that feedback must be viewed in context and cannot be evaluated without examining the environment in which it is given, or without taking the relationship between the teacher and the students into consideration. The environmental factors influencing the teacher’s feedback in this study, namely student behaviour, duration of the lesson, lesson content and disruptions of classroom routines, often limited the teacher’s ability to use feedback strategies that is commonly understood as being ‘effective feedback’. However, Poulos and Mahony (2008) claim, for feedback to be effective, it must be timely and appropriate to the needs of the situation. Hattie and Timperley (2007) note that at times, an interactive effect between feedback aimed at improving the strategies and processes, and feedback targeted at the more surface task information, can be found assisting in improving task confidence and self-efficacy. In this study, the researcher believes feedback was timely and appropriate, and further that the interactive effect between improvement oriented feedback and task information was present. These combined effects contributed towards improved learner confidence in doing the tasks and learner self-efficacy, based on the observed student behaviours during lessons. Interpretation the findings in the context in which they occurred leads the researcher to conclude that classification of some types of feedback is arbitrary, as the context can influence the intention of the feedback. In this study, the types of feedback used by the teacher was influenced by multiple environmental factors and was the consequence of a combination of cognitive, emotional and motivational aspects. Whilst the predominant types of feedback given by the teacher was classified as ‘non-specific’, and therefore deemed ineffective by many researchers (Hattie & Yates, 2014; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Van den Bergh et al., 2013; Voerman et al., 2012), they were effective for the needs of the teacher and the students within the contexts in which they occurred in this study. This conclusion finds support in Poulos and Mahony’s (2008) work, which suggests that for many students, feedback goes further than simply providing information on how to improve assessment marks. This conclusion concurs with Poulos and Mahony’s argument that ‘effective feedback’ is that which provides emotional support. The researcher argues that it is especially poignant when considering the socio-emotional and intellectual developmental stage of students in a Year 2 class, and the important effect teacher reassurance can have on students’ socio-emotional well-being and self-efficacy. 5.3.3. CONCLUSION 3: VIDEO OBSERVATION ENHANCED TEACHER REFLECTION The research was conducted using a self-tracking video device, which allowed the researcher to record classroom interactions, and observe both verbal and non-verbal feedback, without being invasive and distracting. Pellegrino and Gerber (2012) found that teachers, who used video-recording for self-reflection purposes, identified a greater awareness of their teaching strengths and weaknesses. Reflective teaching, as identified by Richards (1995) requires teachers to ruminate on their own teaching practices, by means of observation and deep and structured contemplation with an improvement focus. In this study, it became evident that through the use video cued reflection, the teacher was provided with a tool to objectively identify areas of strength and areas for further development. It enabled the teacher to recognise what happens in the classroom, without having to rely on her memory alone. Tripp and Rich (2012) described this as a way for teachers to gain insight into their practice, and in turn to be able to reflect on the differences between theoretical knowledge, a perception of what is occurring, and actually observe what is happening. Using video to assist with the reflective process generated opportunities for the researcher to revisit and observe several incidents in the classroom, while, at the same time being able to stop and reflect on specific interactions when interpreting the data, identifying patterns and types of communication. This, according to Raingruber (2003) allows researchers to identify interactions which otherwise would have been overlooked and not noticed were they not captured on video. This enabled the teacher to develop reflective thoughts and make annotations, which allowed her to gain deeper insights about the feedback given and the environmental impacts on her teaching. In this way, the teacher was also able to monitor and evaluate patterns and changes that were occurring over a period of time. In Gaudin and Chaliès’ (2015) words this was like “holding up a mirror from which . . . teachers [the teacher] could actually see the reality of their [her] practice” (p. 65). Using the secure SWIVL portal allowed the researcher to safely share the video footage with an independent reviewer without having the reviewer physically in the classroom, which would have required him to be present for significant periods of time. Baecher et al. (2014) found that having a peer observe the video as well, can bring the teacher’s attention to aspects of practice that otherwise may have gone unnoticed. They further identified that co-viewing generated more detailed annotations about the teacher and their students’ behaviours, and that peer observers helped teachers to be more critical about their teaching practices. Indeed, in this study, the researcher found that the independent reviewer’s comments brought the teacher’s attention to aspects of her feedback practices that had gone unnoticed. Peer discussions during co-viewing deepened the reflections as was revealed by some of the annotations made by the teacher and independent reviewer. This contributed to critical reflection, whilst also valuing things that had worked well. Video observations purposefully directed the teacher’s professional development towards specific pedagogical improvements. As stated by Gaudin and Chaliès (2015), the objective of video observation as a reflective tool, is not to “characterize ‘good’ and ‘bad’ teaching practices” (p. 48), but to provide teachers with video footage of teaching examples, which can be utilized for discussions and reflections, to clarify and refine teacher’s theories on teaching and learning. It enables teachers to test their theories, and to develop new understandings about teaching and learning. In this study, the video footage enhanced teacher reflection through a process of independently and collaboratively viewing a range of rich examples of her classroom teaching, and to illuminate and sharpen her understanding of the complexities of feedback. She was able to test her theoretical knowledge practically and ways that were meaningful within her classroom setting. 5.3.4. CONCLUSION 4: THE VIDEO TECHNOLOGY FEATURES ENHANCED THE INDIVIDUAL AND COLLABORATIVE REFLECTIVE PROCESSES. The use of video observation greatly assisted the process of individual and collaborative reflection. Having an independent reviewer assist with the process of viewing, annotating, discussing and recommending changes, to overcome the gap between theory and practice (Gaudin & Chaliès, 2015), proved exceptionally valuable in this study. Harford et al. (2010) found that peer reviewed video reflection “facilitated . . . teachers to move from a focus on the technical aspects of their practice towards a closer examination of their theoretical constructs underpinning their practice” (p. 58). In this study, the ease of sharing videos through the secure cloud based portal, strengthened the peer review process; viewing, annotating and discussing videos was made highly efficient through the portal and the tools available with the SWIVL technology, allowing the teacher to move from the technical aspects to achieve a closer study of the theoretical underpinnings of her practice. Gaudin and Chaliès (2015) further found in their research that human support is more effective than video feedback alone, even if not face to face but online or via correspondence. This idea was affirmed in this study, as feedback from the independent reviewer through annotated comments on the video portal, as well as face to face discussions provided guidance and direction throughout the teacher’s critical reflection on practice. Sherin and Van Es (2005) also identified the important role of the support, which occurred in this study by the independent reviewer encouraging and reassuring the teacher, whilst also suggesting areas for further consideration. The video portal and the accompanying collaborative reflective process created a collaborative space for personalised professional development, in which academic, professional and practical discourse occurred (Youens, Smethem, & Sullivan, 2014). 5.4. IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND PRACTICE Student involvement: Carless (2006) and Higgins et al. (2002) found that feedback viewed as helpful by teachers was often perceived as not helpful by students. Their studies found students interpreted feedback as being too general or vague, too detailed, not comprehensive enough, too reliant on scholarly language, or biased or subjective. Future research into the quality of teacher to student feedback could include asking the students’ input as well. A questionnaire about the students’ perception of the quality and frequency of the teacher’s feedback would give additional information and strengthen teacher reflection and goal setting. Technical problems: A further consideration for future research relates to the use of the recording device. It is important that researchers who might choose to use video recording technology in the classroom check the quality of the recording throughout the lesson, in order to avoid technical problems which can impact significantly on the data collection. The recording device should be introduced a number of times before the commencement of recording for data collection purposes, in order to desensitise the students to seeing themselves on video, and to avoid unnecessary distractions when recording commences. In situations where teachers are recording primarily for reflective purposes, problems arising due to technical failure can be rectified by doing further recordings. In both research and practice related situations, using multiple recording devices simultaneously can mitigate against loss of data due to technical failure. Checklist: If future researchers are going to adopt the checklist used in this study, it would be recommended to include a section to address feedback which is reactive to environmental disruptions, such as announcements over the PA, teachers or students entering or exiting the room etc. This would make it considerably easier to identify and categorize the feedback. If feedback checklists are used to monitor everyday classroom practices, then teachers should exercise flexibility to further contextualise conventionally used feedback types so they become meaningful within specific settings. Including a number of classes over an extended period of time: Future research will benefit from extending the scale of the study to include more than one class and a number of teachers as this will address issues of different situational context as well as different feedback strategies and different teaching styles. 5.5. SUMMARY The findings of this study confirmed the value of video used by the teacher to reflect on her teaching practices, as giving many opportunities to raise the teacher’s quality of feedback and to extend her opportunity for professional development. However, simply viewing recorded video footage does not ensure teacher learning. Collaborative peer review strengthened the teacher reflection and improved the professional development that occurred during this study. In future research as well as for purposes of observing everyday classroom practices, teachers can benefit from the use of self-tracking as an efficient tool with many affordances. 6. 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Teaching practices for smaller classes. *Educational Leadership, 61*(1), ## APPENDICES ### APPENDIX A Feedback Checklist | Feedback type | What could this look/sound like | Observed behaviour (Notes from the independent reviewer) | |-------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------| | 1. Non-specific positive feedback | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | | | 2. Non-specific negative feedback | Non-specific utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | | | 3. Specific positive feedback | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | | | 3a. Discrepancy feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | | | 3b. Progress feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | | | 3c. Otherwise | Other specific positive feedback. | | | 4. Specific negative feedback | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | | | 4a. Discrepancy feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. | | | 4b. Progress feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | | | 4c. Otherwise | Other specific negative feedback | | | | | |---|---| | 5. Other interventions: | Example: questions, brief instructions. | | 6. Body language | Examples: smiling, nodding, head shaking. | | 7. Non-verbal feedback | Examples: Proximity, using hand signals, pointing to work. | | 8. Other, non-specified feedback | Other interventions and or embodied feedback not included above | APPENDIX B Information letter to the Principal Julia Mueller Edith Cowan University School of Education 2 Bradford Street Mount Lawley WA 6050 Phone: [redacted] Email: firstname.lastname@example.org Dear . . . I am a Masters student currently undertaking my Master of Education by Research at Edith Cowan University. I am undertaking research titled, ‘The impact of video as a self-reflective tool for improvement of teacher feedback practices’. As the researcher I will also be the teacher in focus within this study. The research project The reason for this research project is to promote excellence in teaching and learning in our school through reflection on individual teaching practice. While there are numerous articles on feedback strategies, there is little research on which is most effective, and if feedback does indeed change the students’ willingness to attempt more challenging tasks. Research by Hattie and Yates (2014), shows that feedback should be timely, targeted and not simply praise for effort. They found that feedback which only provides praise may have little value to the students and potentially makes them feel less empowered in their learning. Consequently, it may impact on students’ willingness to engage with their learning and therefore decrease their willingness to attempt challenging tasks. This project aims to observe and reflect the various feedback strategies I use as a teacher in the classroom. Self-tracking video technology will be used to video my feedback strategies in the classroom. This video will be analysed to see how and if the feedback strategies used by the teacher impacts on student learning outcomes. There is limited research on the use of video as a tool for teacher reflection. This project incorporates the use of a cloud portal to house the video and provide a facility to record the video cued reflections. The data contained in the portal will be examined to see how this cloud based facility can be used to enhance the use of the video as a reflective tool. **Context** Communication between students and teachers can affect various aspects of student learning in the classroom. When effective feedback is given to students, it is understood to be a key driver of behavioural adaptation, and although feedback has a positive impact, not all types and only the right amount off feedback are equally effective. For teachers to be effective, they need to have a greater understanding of the feedback they give, to ensure students’ previously mentioned deep and meaningful engagement with the content. Research shows however, that teachers still give feedback which is not process oriented, but instead grade oriented which consequently does not promote grit, perseverance and critical thinking skills. The proposed study will be a qualitative research approach, involving approximately 26 students, and one teacher-researcher and one experienced teacher as an independent observer. I am planning to engage in video cued reflection as I review the videos of myself teaching one hour a week over a period of six weeks, and will seek to refine the strategies I use in giving feedback to the students. **Timeline** Application for ethics approval from both Edith Cowan University and the Department of Education has been submitted. Once these approvals have been obtained, it is envisaged that the research will commence in Term 1, 2018. Data collection will occur for a period of six weeks (one hour per week), during usual curriculum-based classroom activities. Data analysis and preparation of the thesis will occur in the following months and the study will reach completion in Term 4, 2018. Research team I will be the researcher in this study, however, in order to minimize bias, an independent third party, who has no involvement in the study, will be engaged to review the data together with the researcher to verify categorisation and coding of the data. The reviewer will be invited to analyse the annotated video footage and add his observations and comments as a direct response to the researcher’s comments and annotations, using the SWIVL cloud portal (the system that supports the self-tracking video technology used in this study). This will ensure that the data is being interpreted objectively. Participant consent The proposed research will comply with Department of Education policy requirements and the university standards for ethical conduct of research. Care will be taken when videoing in classrooms ensuring participant confidentiality and secure data management. Students participating in the proposed study will have given their consent, and who’s parents will have given consent, to participate. Parents will be supplied with a detailed Information Letter and a Consent Form to be signed by both individual students and their parents. The research processes as outlined in the aforementioned documentation will be compliant with ethical requirements for human research and approved by the ECU Research Ethics Committee, and will be administered prior to the data collection phase. Participation in the proposed research is voluntary and there will be no adverse consequences relating to any decision by an individual or the school regarding participation / non-participation. The information Letter will explicitly state that decisions made as part of the research study will not affect the student-teacher relationship and . . . PS. All data collected will be kept confidential to ensure students’ privacy. Students who choose to participate will have the right to withdraw at any time without providing an explanation. Research procedures Following all formal approvals for the study to proceed, parents will be invited to an information session where the researcher-teacher will explain what the study is about and answer any questions that might arise. Parents will then be invited to give their written consent for their child to participate. Data collection will commence after the consent process has been undertaken. Data collection will take two forms: - Video evidence of the use of feedback in the classroom filmed with the use of a non-invasive self-tracking device located unobtrusively at the rear of the classroom to maximize footage of the teacher. - Field Notes created by the researcher-teacher The above-mentioned data will be securely stored in the SWIVL cloud portal, with access limited to the researcher-teacher and the independent reviewer, using a unique password. The independent reviewer will be supplied with the Information Letter and additional notes outlining the aims of the research, the desired outcome, the specific role of the reviewer, and ethical considerations to be adhered to. The reviewer will be required to sign a confidentiality agreement in accordance with the ethical standards specified for this study. A summary of the research findings will be made available to the participating site and the Department of Education, and this will be available to parents of participating students on request. This summary report will be available in Term 4, 2018. What does participation involve? Participating students will be asked to: - Undertake usual classroom activities. - A self-tracking video device fitted onto an iPad will be used to record short video clips that will be uploaded to a password protected secure cloud based network. - The camera will be positioned at the rear of the classroom in order to minimise the likelihood of capturing students’ faces on camera. Should faces of students who have not given consent be captured on film, they will be rendered unrecognizable using software tools, thus ensuring protection of privacy. Students for whom consent has been obtained will be captured on video footage to record their learning interactions using self-tracking video technology as they interact with the teacher while undertaking these activities. On the secure network, the video clips will be reviewed by the researcher-teacher as well as the independent reviewer, with the focus being on the feedback strategies used by the teacher. Importantly, it is noted that the focus of the proposed research is teacher feedback that is given to students. Although student interactions will be captured on video, these will not be the subject of the analysis in this research. There will be no disruption of the normal classroom routines during the filming, as the students will continue to work to complete tasks aligned with the West Australian Curriculum. **What will happen to the information collected?** The identity of participants and the school will not be disclosed at any time, except in circumstances that require reporting under the Department of Education Child Protection policy, or where the researcher is legally required to disclose that information. Participant privacy, and the confidentiality of information disclosed by participants, is assured at all other times. The findings of the research will be used to improve professional learning for teachers and school leaders regarding teacher feedback strategies, and the use of self-tracking video for video-cued reflection. The Department of Education, the school and study participants will receive a summary of the findings of the study. Some exemplar video clips may be selected for use in professional learning for teachers or for use in educational contexts to demonstrate best practice. Before they are used in this way, separate written authorization for the use of each specific clip will be obtained from the school principal or site manager. The data will be used only for this project, and will not be used in any extended or future research without first obtaining explicit written consent from participants. The data will be retained for 25 years after project completion or publication (whichever is the latter) Has the research been approved? The research has been approved by the ECU Human Research Ethics Committee, Project Number 18348, and has met the policy requirements of the Department of Education as indicated in the attached letter. Who do I contact if I wish to discuss the project further? If you would like to discuss any aspect of this study please contact me on [redacted]. If you have any concerns about the research project and wish to talk to an independent person, you may contact: Research Ethics Officer Edith Cowan University 270 Joondalup Drive JOONDALUP WA 6027 Phone: (08) 6304 2170 Email: email@example.com How do I indicate my willingness for the school to be involved? If you have had all questions about the project answered to your satisfaction, and are willing for the school to participate, please complete the Consent Form on the following page. This information letter is for you to keep. Thank you for your participation Best Regards Julia Mueller Teacher Masters of Research Candidate Edith Cowan University, Western Australia CONSENT DOCUMENT THE PRINCIPAL The impact of video as a self-reflective tool for improvement of teacher feedback practices • I have read this document and understand the aims, procedures, and risks of this project, as described within it. • For any questions I may have had, I have taken up the invitation to ask those questions, and I am satisfied with the answers I received. • I am willing for this school to become involved in the research project, as described. • I understand that participation in the project is entirely voluntarily. • I understand that the school is free to withdraw its participation at any time, without affecting the relationship with the research team or Edith Cowan University. • I understand that I am free to withdraw from further participation at any time, without explanation or penalty but that data already collected will remain part of the project. • I give permission for the research finding from this study to be reported at academic conferences, published in reports and journal articles, provided that the participants and school are not identified. • I understand that the school will be provided with a copy of the findings from this research upon its completion. • I understand that I will be asked to authorise the use some exemplar video clips which may be selected for use in professional learning for pre-service teachers and teachers. .......................................................................................................... Name of the school .......................................................................................................... Name of the Principal .......................................................................................................... Signature .......................................................................................................... Date INFORMATION LETTER FOR PARENTS The impact of video as a self-reflective tool for improvement of teacher feedback practices Dear Parents In addition to being the Health teacher at :::: Primary School, I am also a Master of Education by Research student from Edith Cowan University, under the supervision of Dr Kuki Singh. I am inviting the students in Room 23 to participate in a study of the different feedback strategies teachers give and to assess the type, nature and frequency of the feedback the teacher uses as well as their effectiveness. Research shows that feedback should be timely, targeted and not simply praise for effort. Feedback that is not effective may have little value to the students and potentially make them feel less empowered in their learning. Consequently, it may impact on students’ willingness to engage with their learning and therefore decrease their willingness to attempt challenging tasks. This project aims to help the teacher observe and reflect on the various feedback strategies she uses in the classroom to improve student learning outcomes. **What does the project look like?** The research will take place in your child/ward’s Health Lessons at the school. During Term 3, 2018 I will use video footage to evaluate if the feedback I am giving to students is meaningful and process oriented. I will be using self-tracking video technology as a tool for teacher reflection and development. The purpose of the recordings are to capture real-time footage of how the nature and frequency of the feedback I give to students. Non-participating students will complete all classroom activities but will be seated away from the camera. The video footage will be uploaded to SWIVL, a password protected secure network, where it will be analysed. Once uploaded, the footage will be deleted from the recording device. Mr :::: and my University Supervisor, Mrs Kuki Singh, will be asked to view the annotated video footage to ensure results are not biased during the analysis stage of the research project. **What does participation involve?** - Agreeing to be filmed as part of weekly Health lessons for six weeks - Students will be informed when filming is occurring. During the filming the students in the class will work to complete tasks aligned with the Western Australian Curriculum. This will be part of the normal work they do in class. The following measures will be in place to protect the rights of the participating students: - The camera will be placed at the back of the room to ensure limited disturbance throughout the lesson and to minimise the occurrence of capturing the students’ faces. It is likely that students’ faces could be captured, due to movement in the room. - All identifying information will be removed from the summary reports and publications. - Any student who does not consent to participate in the research will remain in the classroom and participate in regular classroom activities, but will be seated in a position where he/she will be out of range of the self-tracking video capture system, and will not be included in any footage. Should any students who do not consent to participate incidentally end up on video footage, this footage will be deleted and not used for the research project. - Those students who do not consent to participate will not be disadvantaged in any way, nor will any marking or grading reflect their choice to not participate. Some exemplar video clips may be selected for use in professional learning for teachers or for use in educational contexts to demonstrate best practice. Before they are used in this way, separate written authorisation for the use of each specific clip will be obtained from the school principal, Mrs :::::. **Voluntary participation and right to withdraw** Students, with their own and their parent’s consent, will be invited to participate in the research. Participation in this research project is voluntary and there will be no consequences relating to any decision by an individual or the school regarding participation, other than those described in this letter. Decisions made will not affect the relationship with the research team or Makybe Rise PS. Participants will have the right to withdraw from the project at any stage. If they withdraw from the project no further data will be collected, however data that has already been collated will remain part of the research project. A decision to not participate or to withdraw from the study will not have any impact on students’ grades or their relationship with me as their teacher. What will happen to the information collected and is privacy and confidentiality assured? The identity of participants and the school will not be disclosed at any time, except in circumstances that require reporting under the Department of Education Child Protection policy, or where the research team is legally required to disclose that information. Participant privacy, and the confidentiality of information disclosed by participants, is assured at all other times. Should any incidents occur in the video recorded lessons that might cause embarrassment to the teacher, students or school these will be erased from the video tapes by the researchers with the exception of incidents that are likely to be the subject of disciplinary or legal action. All data collected will be anonymous. The names of the participants will not be recorded. All information will be strictly confidential. Information that identifies anyone will be removed from the data collected. The findings of the research will be used to strengthen the quality of teaching in the school. They will enable me to reflect on my pedagogy to improve my teaching practice and serve as a foundation for considerations in improving teaching practice more broadly. Reports written on this project will help teachers learn how to give effective and meaningful feedback and to meet professional standards. The findings will be used for professional publications. A summary report will be written and you can request a copy of this report. The data will be used only for this project, and will not be used in any extended or future research without first obtaining explicit written consent from participants. Has the research been approved? The research has been approved by the Office of Research Edith Cowan University Project 18348, and has met the policy requirements of the Department of Education. Who do I contact if I wish to discuss the project further? If you would like to discuss any aspect of this study, please contact me. If you have any concerns about the research project and wish to talk to an independent person, you may contact: Research Ethics Officer Edith Cowan University 270 Joondalup Drive JOONDALUP WA 6027 Phone: (08) 6304 2170 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org **How do I indicate my willingness for my child to be involved?** If you have had all questions about the project answered to your satisfaction, and are willing for your child to participate, please complete the **Consent Form** on the following page. Your child has also been given a letter and consent form to complete to indicate their willingness to participate. This information letter is for you to keep. Thank you for your participation Kind Regards Julia Mueller Health teacher :::::: Primary School Consent Form for Parents – Child Participation RESEARCH PROJECT: The impact of video as a self-reflective tool for improvement of teacher feedback practices • I have read and understood the information letter about the project, or have had it explained to me in language I understand. • I have taken up the invitation to ask any questions I may have had and am satisfied with the answers I received. • I understand that participation in the project is entirely voluntarily. • I am willing for my child to become involved in the project, as described. • I have discussed with my child what it means to participate in this project. He/she has explicitly indicated a willingness to take part, as indicated by his/her completion of the child consent form. • I understand that both my child and I are free to withdraw that participation at any time without affecting the family’s relationship with my child’s teacher or my child’s school. • I understand that data collected up to the point of my child’s withdrawal from the study may still be used in the research study. • I give permission for the contribution that my child makes to this research to be used in professional learning for teachers and pre-service and teachers at the school, or for use in educational contexts. I further give permission for my child’s contribution to be used in academic publications, provided that my child or the school is not identified in any way. • I understand that I can request a summary of findings after the research has been completed. Name of Child (printed): Name of Parent/Carer (printed): ________________________________ Signature of Parent: _________________________________________ Date: / / INFORMATION LETTER FOR STUDENTS Dear Students My name is Ms Mueller and as well as being your Health teacher, I am also from Edith Cowan University. I would like to invite you to take part in a research project that I am doing. It is about what feedback I give to you to improve your learning. What would you be asked to do? If you take part, you would be asked to: - Be videoed during classes so that I can look back to see when and how I give feedback. Do you have to take part? No. You are completely free to say yes or no. I will respect your decision whichever choice you make. What if you wanted to change my mind? If you say no, but then change your mind and want to take part, just let me, or mum, or dad (or the person who looks after you) know, and they will tell me. If you do stop, I will make sure that you will no longer get filmed when I take video footage. Video footage that I have already collected from you will stay with the research project. **What if you say something during the project that you don’t want anyone else to know?** I may have to tell someone if you tell me that you have been hurt by someone. But for all other things you tell me, I won’t repeat them to anyone else. **What will happen do with the information you give me?** I collect video footage about myself and the feedback I give to students, and then I will write a report on what I find out. When I do this, I won’t write or tell anyone your name, or the names of any other students or your school. All video footage will be stored on a secure server managed by Edith Cowan University. **How do you get involved?** You have already talked with your mum or dad, or the person who looks after you, about what it means to take part in the project. If you choose to take part, then please read the next page and write your name in space to say that you agree to take part in the research. If you **do** want to be a part of the project, please read the next page and write your name in the space provided, to state that you do not agree to participate. This letter is for you to keep. Kind Regards Ms Julia Mueller Consent Form Primary School Children RESEARCH PROJECT: The impact of video as a self-reflective tool for improvement of teacher feedback practices • I know that I don’t have to be involved in this project, but I would like to be. • I know that I will be filmed whilst doing my usual classroom tasks. • I know that I can stop when I want to at any time of the project. • I understand that I need to write my name in the space below, before I can be a part of the project. Your name: ___________________________ Today’s Date: / / Dear Families of Room X. I would like to invite you to an information session next Wednesday, 20th June at 3.15 in your child’s room. As you may have heard from your child, in addition to being their Health teacher at :::: Primary School, I am also a Master of Education by Research student from Edith Cowan University, under the supervision of Dr Kuki Singh. I am inviting the students in Room X to participate in a study of the different feedback strategies teachers give and to assess the type, nature and frequency of the feedback the teacher uses as well as their effectiveness. The research will take place in your child/ward’s Health Lessons at the school. During Term 3, 2018 I will use video footage to evaluate if the feedback I am giving to students is meaningful and process oriented. The purpose of the recordings are to capture real-time footage of how the nature and frequency of the feedback I give to students. During the information session, I will give detailed information about the purpose of the research, and will be able to answer any question you may have. I am looking forward to seeing you next week. Kind regards, Julia Mueller Health teacher :::::: Primary School APPENDIX I Information letter to the Independent reviewer Julia Mueller Edith Cowan University School of Education 2 Bradford Street Mount Lawley WA 6050 Phone: [redacted] Email: email@example.com Dear Mr . . . I am a Masters student currently undertaking my Master of Education by Research at Edith Cowan University. I am undertaking research titled, ‘The impact of video as a self-reflective tool for improvement of teacher feedback practices’. As the researcher I will also be the teacher in focus within this study. The research project The reason for this research project is to promote excellence in teaching and learning in our school through reflection on individual teaching practice. Research by Hattie and Yates (2014), shows that feedback should be timely, targeted and not simply praise for effort. They found that feedback which only provides praise may have little value to the students and potentially make them feel less empowered in their learning. Consequently, it may impact on students’ willingness to engage with their learning and therefore decrease their willingness to attempt challenging tasks. This project aims to observe and reflect the various feedback strategies I use as a teacher in the classroom. Self-tracking video technology will be used to video my feedback strategies in the classroom. This video will be analysed to see how and if the feedback strategies used by the teacher impacts on student learning outcomes. **Context** Communication between students and teachers can affect various aspects of student learning in the classroom. When effective feedback is given to students, it is understood to be a key driver of behavioural adaptation, and although feedback has a positive impact, not all types and only the right amount off feedback are equally effective. For teachers to be effective, they need to have a greater understanding of the feedback they give, to ensure students’ previously mentioned deep and meaningful engagement with the content. The proposed study will be a qualitative research approach, involving approximately 26 students, and one teacher-researcher and one experienced teacher as an independent observer. I am planning to engage in video cued reflection as I review the videos of myself teaching one hour a week over a period of six weeks, and will seek to refine the strategies I use in giving feedback to the students. **Research team** I will be the researcher in this study, however, in order to minimize bias, I would like to ask, if you would agree to being the independent reviewer in this study. Your role would be to analyse the annotated video footage and add your observations and comments as a direct response to my comments and annotations, using the SWIVL cloud portal (the system that supports the self-tracking video technology used in this study). This will ensure that the data is being interpreted objectively. **Participant consent** The proposed research will comply with Department of Education policy requirements and the university standards for ethical conduct of research. Care will be taken when videoing in classrooms ensuring participant confidentiality and secure data management. Parents and students will be supplied with a detailed information letter and a consent form to be signed by both individual students and their parents. The research processes as outlined in the aforementioned documentation will be compliant with ethical requirements for human research and approved by the ECU Research Ethics Committee, and will be administered prior to the data collection phase. **Research procedures** Following all formal approvals for the study to proceed, parents will be invited to an information session where the researcher-teacher will explain what the study is about and answer any questions that might arise. Data collection will commence after the consent process has been undertaken. Data collection will take two forms: - Video evidence of the use of feedback in the classroom filmed with the use of a non-invasive self-tracking device located unobtrusively at the rear of the classroom to maximize footage of the teacher. - Anecdotal Notes, entered directly into the video footage, using the SWIVL technology, in relation to the nature and the frequency of the feedback given, created by the researcher-teacher. - A Feedback checklist will be used by both the researcher and you to code the video footage collected throughout the research. These codes will enable the researcher to explicitly look for, tag and annotate feedback strategies identified during the video cued reflective process. - At the completion of the data collection, you will be given a structured tool to supply an overall summary of his findings throughout the study, to add to the report. This will enhance the accuracy of the reported outcomes. As well as viewing and tagging the data using the predetermined categories from the feedback checklist as a guide, focus questions for you will be used, enabling you to exactly look for what the research study aims to investigate, and concentrate on the feedback strategies used in the classroom. All video data will be uploaded immediately to the secured SWIVL cloud portal, with access limited to the researcher-teacher. I will share short clips of my practice with my Supervisor, Dr Kuki Singh our Principal, Mrs. :::::, as well you, ensuring objective analysis of the data. The focus of the video analysis will be my use of feedback strategies. **What will happen to the information collected?** The identity of participants and the school will not be disclosed at any time, except in circumstances that require reporting under the Department of Education Child Protection policy, or where the researcher is legally required to disclose that information. Participant privacy, and the confidentiality of information disclosed by participants, is assured at all other times. The findings of the research will be used to improve professional learning for teachers and school leaders regarding teacher feedback strategies, and the use of self-tracking video for video-cued reflection. The Department of Education, the school and study participants will receive a summary of the findings of the study. The findings of the research might be used to improve professional learning for teachers and school leaders regarding teacher feedback strategies, and the use of self-tracking video for video-cued reflection. Some exemplar video clips may be selected for use in professional learning for teachers at ::::::: Primary School or for use in educational contexts to demonstrate best practice. Before any video images are being used, separate written authorization for the use of each specific clip will be obtained from the Principal, Mrs. ::::::::, to ensure that only children with parental consent are included and that they show all children and myself in a positive light. At the conclusion of the study, all electronic data will be transferred into a university approved secure cloud data storage facility available to research students. This service fulfills the requirements for data security and national regulatory compliance. The School of Education and the Office of Research Ethics has oversight of this process. The data will be stored for a period of 7 years, and then will be destroyed under the university procedures for secure data destruction. **Has the research been approved?** The research has been approved by the ECU Human Research Ethics Committee, Project Number 18348, and has met the policy requirements of the Department of Education as indicated in the attached letter. **Who do I contact if I wish to discuss the project further?** If you would like to discuss any aspect of this study please contact me on [redacted]. If you have any concerns about the research project and wish to talk to an independent person, you may contact: Research Ethics Officer Edith Cowan University 270 Joondalup Drive JOONDALUP WA 6027 Phone: (08) 6304 2170 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org How do I indicate my willingness for the school to be involved? If you have had all questions about the project answered to your satisfaction, and are willing for the school to participate, please complete the Consent Form on the following page. This information letter is for you to keep. Thank you for your participation Best Regards Julia Mueller Teacher Masters of Research Candidate Edith Cowan University, Western Australia Guarantee of Confidentiality The impact of video as a self-reflective tool for improvement of teacher feedback practices I declare that I will not reveal any details of the video material I shall be reviewing for the research project being conducted by Julia Mueller who is undertaking this project for the purposes of a Master’s degree. I recognise that to do so would be in breach of participant confidentiality, and of ethical guidelines for research. Further, I will ensure that while data or other materials related to the research project are in my care, they will be kept in a secure location until they can be returned, and will not be accessible to others entering my work place. Name: Business name (if applicable): Postal Address: Phone number: Signature: ___________________________ Date: Researcher: | Feedback type | What could this look/sound like | Observed behaviour (Notes from the researcher) | |---------------|---------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------| | 1. Non-specific positive feedback | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 00:12 - ‘I love that!’ 0:17- Well done x 1:08 – Well done, good idea x 1:22- Well done (teacher paraphrase what was said), good job 1:37- Beautiful 2:07- (Teacher paraphrase what was said), beautiful) 2:20 – ‘What a good idea’ 4:50 – ‘Good stuff, good point’ 5:30 – Paraphrase, then ‘good’ 8:33 – ‘Good’ then repeat the std’s answer 8:38 – ‘Fabulous’, then repeat the stdt’s answer 8:43 – ‘Great idea’, then calling stds name 8:55 – ‘Fantastic’ 9:11 - ‘Good’, then paraphrase 9:19 – ‘Awesome’, then paraphrase 10:16 – ‘Good’ 10:24 – 11:16 – ‘Fantastic’, ‘Good idea’ 11:05 - Good job, well done 11: 17 – Well done 12:12 – Well done 12:50 – Beautiful, x, x, x, x, x, x, x, x, 13: 24 – Well done 14: 00- Well done | | | | | |---|---|---| | | | 14:48 – Well done, good job 17:35- Absolutely 17: 41 – Good 18:24 – ‘Well done, good stuff’ 20:01 – ‘Good, well done x’ 20:45 – ‘x, on to it!’ | | 2. Non-specific negative feedback | Non-specific utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | | | 3. Specific positive feedback | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 00:59 - Calling individual stds’ names for specific praise: ‘Fabulous, beautiful Super Six’ 1:03 - Calling individual std’s name for specific praise: ‘beautiful Super Six’ 2:04 – ‘Fantastic, what a great idea! x’. Then, asking for clarification to explain understanding 6:58 – Name of std ‘beautiful still sitting, Super 6. You are showing a great example to others, I am very impressed’ 16:33 – ‘Fabulous quiet working Yr 2’s’ 17:46 – ‘Thank you x, that is really nice of you’ 20:11 – ‘Yes, that’s awesome. Great spelling too’ 20:30 – Specific feedback: ‘I can see what you are thinking’ | | 3a. Discrepancy feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | 18:20 – ‘Awesome x, she is up to doing her writing’ 18:24 – ‘x is labelling her picture. Well done, what a… Good stuff’ | | 3b. Progress feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | | | 3c. Otherwise | Other ‘positive’ feedback not included above | | | 4. Specific negative feedback | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | |--------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | 5:47 – ‘Put that away please, thank you’ | | | 6:11 – Name of std with a specific information of what they are doing wrong ‘You are not showing me attentive listening right now’ | | | 18:12 – ‘Come on, x, don’t worry about your pencil case’ | | 4a. Discrepancy feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. | |--------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | | | 4b. Progress feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | |--------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | | | 4c. Otherwise | Other ‘negative’ feedback not included above | |--------------------------|---------------------------------------------| | | 1:10 – Calling a std’s name to remind them of the desired behaviour | | | 1:14 – ‘Super six’ and a look to show disapproval | | | 1:27 – Calling a std’s name and a look to show disapproval | | | 3:15 - Calling a std’s name and a look to show disapproval | | | 7:52 – ‘Sshh’ sound. Calling std’s name | | | 10:16 - Calling a std’s name to remind them of the desired behaviour | | | 15:12 – ‘Not impressed’ | | | 16:10 - Calling a std’s name to remind them of the desired behaviour | | 5. Other interventions: | Example: Questions, brief instructions. | |-------------------------|----------------------------------------| | | | | 6. Body language | Examples: Smiling, nodding, head shaking. | |-------------------------|------------------------------------------| | | 00:12 - Moving arms to show excitement | | | 3:10 – Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 4:31 – Nodding | | | 6:11 - Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 7:52 - Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 8:38 - Moving arms to show agreement | | | | | |---|---|---| | 7. Non-verbal feedback | Examples: Proximity, using hand signals, pointing to work. | 10:16 – Nodding 10:24 – 11:16 – Nodding, smiling 19:50 - Finger to mouth to signal silence 20:45 – Clapping hands to show approval and excitement | | | | 4:30 – Scanning the room 4:39 – Proximity for desired behaviour, then model the correct behaviour | | 8. Other, non-specified feedback | Other interventions and or embodied feedback not included above | 00:57 – Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 1:47 – Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 3:39 – ‘Put your hand down’ 10:23 – Physical assistance to help a std into the desired position 11:19 - Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 11:51 - Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 13:07 - Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 15:12 - Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | Feedback type | What could this look/sound like | Observed behaviour (Notes from the researcher) | |-------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1. Non-specific positive feedback | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 2.40 – ‘Good’ 4.41 – ‘Good, I like that’ 4.41 – ‘Absolutely’ 7.30 - ‘Good’ 9.38 – ‘Thanks x’ 16.21 – ‘Well done x, good thinking’ 29.11 – ‘Awesome, awesome, awesome, awesome’ 30.58 – Thank you boys at the front 31.13 - ‘Good’ 40.06 – ‘What a great idea’ 46.39 – ‘Eyes to me. Super impressed, super impressed, well done, well done, well done’ ‘This front her, wonderful’ ‘These people are trying really hard’ 40.07- You worked so well. You worked the neurons. You were listening. Not interrupting. Very impressed! 44.27 – (Name), awesome. He is already writing his name 49.46 – ‘Thank you x, thank you x, thank you’ | | 2. Non-specific negative feedback | Non-specific utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | 47.30- ‘Not now’ | | 3. Specific positive feedback | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 4.41 – Specific feedback about what stds said 9.55 – 10.05 – ‘x, I love how you came inside, got yourself organised and didn’t interrupt’ 17.25 – ‘I like that you are using that word, good x’ 20.20 – 20.47 – ‘Where is the secret? … Yep… I love how you are trying to work out what you are thinking, but I am not sure there is a secret in there.’ ‘I give you more thinking time’ | | | | | |---|---|---| | | | 21.55 – ‘How ist that a secret?’ Asking for clarification 22.54 – ‘x, why not’ Asking for clarification 25.47 – Explaining a misconception 28.06 – ‘x, I love how you are doing the thinking face’ 31.38 - Asking for clarification 46.55 – ‘I can see that you are trying really hard, buddy, but you are also distracting a lot’ 47.59 – ‘Thank you guys for sitting quietly. Thank you for not talking’ | | 3a. Discrepancy feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | 12.08 – ‘x is sitting beautifully x is sitting wonderfully. x, x, wonderful, thank you’ 13.20 – ‘x, still sitting beautifully’ 15.19- Sitting amazingly beautiful , x | | 3b. Progress feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 31.50- That’s what we talked about earlier, you are right 38.22- (Name), I love how you are participating this term, it’s really great to see that you remember to put your hand up and you keep answering questions. And I love the smile, it makes me so happy! | | 3c. Otherwise | Other ‘positive’ feedback not included above | 11.03 – Feedback to encourage deeper thinking | | 4. Specific negative feedback | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 6.28 - ‘You are talking that is a 1’ 50.18- Sit still, that’s a 2 | | 4a. Discrepancy feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. | | | 4b. Progress feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | | | 4c. Otherwise | Other ‘negative’ feedback not included above | |---------------|---------------------------------------------| | | 0.12 – ‘Put that on your desk, on your desk, on your desk’ | | | 0.23 – Look. ‘On your desk’ | | | 2.34 – ‘x, put that away’ | | | 4.40 – ‘Waiting for x. Thank you’ | | | 24.02 – ‘Sshh’- sound | | | 26.40 – ‘So much dobbing. Is that hurting you?’ | | | 27.54 – ‘Sshh’- sound | | | 28.46 – ‘xcuse me x’ | | | 29.20 – ‘Sshh’- sound | | | 29.37 – ‘Sshh’- sound | | | 29.45- 30.40 – Lots of feedback about being quiet (during partner sharing) | | | 30.5 8 - ‘Sshh’- sound | | | 31.42 - ‘xcuse me’, sshh- sound | | | 34.40 - ‘Sshh’- sound | | | 35.17 – ‘Sshh’- sound | | | 47.48 - ‘Sshh’- sound | | | 48.30 - ‘Sshh’- sound, ‘Voices off’ | | | 48.44 - ‘Sshh’- sound | | | 49.20 - ‘Sshh’- sound | | | 49.57 - ‘Sshh’- sound | | | 50.07 - ‘Sshh’- sound | | 5. Other interventions: | Example: Questions, brief instructions. | |-------------------------|----------------------------------------| | | 3.03 – ‘Year 2’s Super 6, eyes to me. Hand up. Eyes to me, Super 6’ + Modelling folded arms | | | 4.40 – Hands down x, x, x. Look | | | 4.41 – 6.06 – ‘If someone is trying to get you off task, what can you do?’ Ask for clarification & deeper thinking. | | | 6.35 – ‘Put your hands down’ | | Time | Command | |-------|----------------------------------------------| | 8.34 | ‘Hands down’ | | 9.30 | x | | 10.25 | ‘x, Hands down’ | | 11.36 | ‘Stop talking or you’ll be in buddy class’ | | 12.21 | ‘Off to buddy class’ | | 13.20 | ‘x, sit down’ | | 13.20 | x, x | | 18.40 | ‘Hands down, thank you’ | | 18.42 | ‘x, hands down, thank you’ | | 22.54 | ‘x, why not’ | | 26.58 | x | | 29.45 | x | | 30.40 | ‘No talking x’ | | 30.40 | Signal to begin | | 33.20 | ‘Stop calling out’ | | 34.20 | ‘x, I need you to sit down’ | | 34.30 | x | | 38.48 | x | | 40.15 | x | | 43.07 | x | | 47.57 | x | | 48.44 | ‘x, please put this away’ | | 48.53 | x, x, x, x | | 49.20 | ‘Sit down, sit down’ | | 50.14 | x | 6. Body language Examples: Smiling, nodding, head shaking. 0.27 - Finger to mouth to signal silence 1.05 - Finger to mouth to signal silence | Time | Gesture Description | |-------|----------------------------------------------------------| | 1.30 | Modelling folded arms | | 2.05 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 4.40 | Hand gesture to put hands down | | 4.41 | Modelling folded arms | | 6.06 | x, Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 6.28 | Hand gesture to stop | | 8.52 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 8.5 | Smile and thumbs up | | 9.31 | Finger to mouth to signal silence, look | | 10.15 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 11.13 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 14.49 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 14.59 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 15.19 | x, Modelling folded arms | | 15.31 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 15.37 | Modelling folded arms | | 16.24 | Hand gesture to stop | | 18.33 | 19.16 - Modelling folded arms, look | | 22.44 | Hand gesture to stop | | 24.04 | Hand gesture to put hands down | | 26.03 | Hand gesture to stop | | 26.24 | Point to sit down | | 27.54 | Hand gesture to stop | | 28.24 | Hand gesture to put hands down | | 28.46 | Hand gesture to stop | | 29.02 | Modelling folded arms | | 29.22 | Thumbs up | | | | | |---|---|---| | | 30.40 - Hand up, Modelling folded arms 31.07 - Hand gesture to stop 33.01 - Hand gesture to put hands up 33.11 - Finger to mouth to signal silence 34.28 – Finger gesture to stop 35.31 - Finger to mouth to signal silence 37.00 – Hand gesture to signal silence 37.36- 37.45 – Look 38.46 - Finger to mouth to signal silence 42.36 - Finger to mouth to signal silence 43.41 - Hand gesture to stop 46.27 - Finger to mouth to signal silence. Hand gesture to stop 46.30 - Modelling folded arms, look | | | 7. Non-verbal feedback | Examples: Proximity, using hand signals, pointing to work. | 0.52 - Proximity for desired behaviour 1.14 - Physical assistance to help a std into the desired position 8.46 - Physical assistance to show a std to stop 28.34 - Physical assistance to help a std look into the desired direction 30.58 - Physical assistance to show a std to stop 34.54 – Fingers in ears to show that it is too loud 36.50 - Physical assistance to help a std into the desired position 42.29 – Point finger to show direction | | | 8. Other, non-specified feedback | Other interventions and or embodied feedback not included above | 1.07- x, Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 2.28 - Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 3.03 - Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 4.40 – x, that’s a 2. Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 6.24 - Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | | Time | Description | |-------|--------------------------------------------------| | 6.28 | ‘You are talking that is a 1’ Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 7.15 | Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 8.20 | Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 10.24 | Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 11.22 | x, 4. Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 11.36 | 5. Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 13.44 | Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 26.05 | x, that’s a 3. Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 26.12 | Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 26.50 | x, Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 28.46 | ‘x, another one, and a one’ Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 35.36 | Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 39.14 | ‘Count, count, count, count, count, count’ Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 44.16 | Count (1, 2, 3 Magic), look | | 45.37 | ‘Count, count’ Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 47.33 | Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 48.53 | Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | Feedback type | What could this look/sound like | Observed behaviour (Notes from the researcher) | |---------------|---------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------| | 1. Non-specific positive feedback | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 2.23 – ‘Fantastic!’ 5.47 - ‘Thank you, so much better’ 9.20 – ‘Well done’ 9.35 – ‘x, beautiful.’ 11.15 – ‘Thank you’ 18.45 – ‘Great!’ 19.18 – ‘Good idea’ 21.26 – 21.33 – ‘Great ideas guys.’ 22.19 – ‘Good thinking face’ 23.23 – ‘Awesome’ 27.39 – ‘Good’ 38.08 – ‘Well spotted x’ 40.03 – ‘Absolutely’ 43.49 – ‘x, superstar, x, superstar, x, x, incredible’ 45.27 - ‘Good’ 47.22 – ‘Well done x’ 49.38 – ‘Ah, good, I like it’ 49.43 – ‘Well done x’ 50.55 – ‘Good’ 51.07 - ‘Awesome, well done’ | | 2. Non-specific negative feedback | Non-specific utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | | 3. Specific positive feedback | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | |--------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | 00.40 - 00.52 – ‘I love how the two girls are sitting next to you, wonderfully Super 6’ ‘I love how the people behind you are sitting Super 6, fantastic Super here’ | | | 5.38 – ‘x, I love how you are sitting Super 6. I love how x is sitting the whole time, no wriggling, no moving around, just sitting Super 6’ | | | 7.11 – ‘Much better x, thank you for sitting Super 6’ | | | 9.15 – 3.35 – ‘Fabulous sitting Super 6 x, thank you.’ ‘x, still sitting Super 6’ | | | 9.36 – ‘Thank you for putting your hand up and not calling out’ | | | 23.47 – ‘x, that is awesome’ Then explaining why the answer is awesome | | | 26.28 – ‘Again, the girls in the middle are doing a wonderful job. Thank you x, x, x.’ | | | 48.10 – ‘x, fabulous. You already have three people’ | | | ‘x has four people already.’ | | 3a. Discrepancy feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | |---------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | 35.36 – ‘I love how quietly you were sitting and listening. That is awesome’ | | | 36:22- ‘Awesome Year 2’s, that is nice and quiet’ | | | 48.20 – 49.38 – (Names), explicit feedback to work | | | 49.43- 50.55 - Explicit feedback to work and suggestions | | 3b. Progress feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | |-----------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | 18.25 – ‘x, I love how you are participating this semester, it’s really great to see that you keep putting your hand up and you keep answering questions. And I love the smile, it makes me so happy!’ | | 3c. Otherwise | Other ‘positive’ feedback not included above | |---------------|---------------------------------------------| | | 3.30 – ‘I love the wide grin on your face, so obviously, thinking about it, makes you happy.’ | | | 5.23 – ‘Just like x was smiling x was smiling when he said it’ | | | 8.08 – ‘I like that answer’ | | | 12.02 – Asking for clarification | | | 12.35 – ‘Can you repeat this please?’ | | | | | |---|---|---| | | 13.08 – Repeat the stds sentence, then: ‘Is that what you are saying?’ 13.23 - Asking for clarification 19.44 – 21.16 – ‘That’s an interesting point.’ Asking for clarification. Question to deepen students understanding. Paraphrase 36.05 – ‘Can you say that again please? Loud’ Asking for deeper thinking 41.36 - Asking for clarification | | | 4. Specific negative feedback | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 00.56 – ‘x, whole body attentive listening. This means arms folded, legs crossed’ 12.52 – ‘x, please stop talking’ | | 4a. Discrepancy feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. | 10.48 – ‘Stay where you are, put your hand up and ask to move. That would be the right thing to do.’ 41.05 – ‘x, I am getting tired to talk to you about sitting Super 6. You are nearly in Year 3’ | | 4b. Progress feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 00.36 – x, I just asked you to sit Super 6. Thank you’ 1.02 – ‘I am still waiting for you to show me attentive listening’ 1.18 – ‘You are still not sitting Super 6’ 3.45 – ‘x I am still waiting’ 9.35- ‘Waiting, waiting, waiting. Waiting for x. Waiting for x’ 17.23 – ‘x, you need to pay attention to the front and sit Super 6 ’ | | 4c. Otherwise | Other ‘negative’ feedback not included above | 00.03 - Sshh- sound 00.04 – ‘Voices off’ 00.11 - Sshh- sound 00.30 – ‘Put your hands down’ 10.18 - Sshh- sound 1.44 – 2.08 - ‘If you have your hands up, you are not listening to what I am saying’, ‘If you are having your hand up, you are not listening to what I am saying, but you are thinking about what you want to say’ ‘So, while I am speaking I would like you to put your hands down. I would like you to put your hands down. Thank you.’ 3.42 - Sshh- sound 4.19- Sshh- sound 5.02 - Sshh- sound 5.32 - Sshh- sound 5.47 – x, look to show disapproval. ‘Thank you’ 6.39 – ‘Excuse me, sshh, not your turn’ 6.55 – ‘Excuse me’ 7.02 – x, Sshh- sound 7.35 – ‘Oh, Sshh- sound, not your turn’ 8.17 – 8.20 - Sshh- sound 8.35 – ‘Excuse me’ 9.15 - Sshh- sound 9.35 - Sshh- sound 10.40 – ‘Ah, excuse me’ Sshh- sound 12.34 – x and x 15.25 - Sshh- sound 21.40 – ‘Thinking is not talking. Thinking is thinking.’ Sshh- sound. ‘Talking is not thinking’ 22.09 – ‘Put your heads down, that is not thinking’ 22.25 - Sshh- sound 22.36 – x 24.39 – x 25.26 - Sshh- sound 26.01 - Sshh- sound 26.11 - Sshh- sound 27.57 - Sshh- sound | | | | |---|---|---| | | 44.44 - Sshh- sound 44.48 - ‘Voices off’ Sshh- sound 45.08- ‘Excuse me’ 45.32 - Sshh- sound 47.50 - Sshh- sound ‘Voices should be switched off’ 52.27- ‘Excuse me. Stop!’ | | | 5. Other interventions: | Example: Questions, brief instructions. | 00.17 – ‘And eyes on me’ 00.17 – x sit somewhere else 1.34 – ‘Put your hand down’ 1.52 – x come over here, pointing to a spot to sit 2.29 - x come over here, pointing to a spot to sit 2.39 - x please sit next to x 2.55 – ‘Put your hand down’ 4.16 – x 9.44 – ‘x, please sit Super 6’ 11.40 – ‘Follow my finger’ 13.14 – ‘x move here’ 26.21- Signal to begin, folded arms to model desired behaviour 26.43 – ‘Super 6’ x’ 27.39 – Signal to begin 31.47 – ‘Put your hand down’ 43.49 - Signal to begin, folded arms to model desired behaviour 47.02 – x 47.11 – ‘x, sit down’ | | | 6. Body language | Examples: Smiling, nodding, head shaking. | 00.25 – Folded arms for desired behaviour 00.33 - Finger to mouth to signal silence 1.32 - Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | Time | Description | |--------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 2.49 | Hand to signal stop. ‘Stay where you are’ | | 6.39 | Hand signal to stop | | 6.51 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 6.55 | Hand signal to stop | | 7.07 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 7.15 – 7.19 | Hand gesture to stop | | 7.35 | Hand gesture to stop | | 7.59 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 8.17 | Hand gesture to stop | | 8.35 | Hand gesture to stop | | 8.48 | x, Hand gesture to stop | | 9.35 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 9.35 | Hand gesture to stop | | 9.57 | Hand to signal stop, finger to mouth to signal silence | | 10.42 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 11.01 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 11.29 | Hand gesture to stop | | 11.40 | Clapping hands to show confusion + facial expression | | 11.45 | Hand gesture to stop | | 12.58 | Hand gesture to stop | | 13.17 | Modelling of desired behaviour | | 13.59 | Hand gesture to stop | | 14.54 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 16.20 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 16.56 | Hand gesture to stop | | 19.09 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 20.08 | Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | | | |---|---|---| | | 22.25 - Finger to mouth to signal silence 24.39 - Hand gesture to stop 25.20 - Finger to mouth to signal silence 26.41 - Finger to mouth to signal silence 27.49 - Hand gesture to stop 28.51 - Hand gesture to put hands down 42.06 - Finger to mouth to signal silence 42.20 - Hand gesture to stop 45.32 - Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 7. Non-verbal feedback | Examples: Proximity, using hand signals, pointing to work. | 00.27 – Point to a spot to sit 3.45 – Modelling folded arms 9.44 – Proximity (private talk) 13.14 – Proximity 15.33 – Proximity + Hand gesture to stop 15.42 – Proximity, then physical assistance to help a std into the desired position 17.33 – Look 20.02 – Proximity 21.26 – Hand signal to put heads down 23.17 – Proximity 26.28 – Look, modelling folded arms 41.50 – Look 45.10 – Look 47.56 – Look | | 8. Other, non-specified feedback | Other interventions and or embodied feedback not included above | 00.03 - Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 7.04 – ‘x That’s a 1’ Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 10.46 - ‘x 2’ Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 12.58 - ‘x 1’ Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | | | |---|---| | 17.01 - Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 24.39 - Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 28.07 - ‘x That’s a 3’ Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 40.37 ‘x, 3’(1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 45.12 - Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) | | 51.20 – ‘x, write your name’ | | Feedback type | What could this look/sound like | Observed behaviour (Notes from the independent reviewer) | |-------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------| | 1. Non-specific positive feedback | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 9:58 – ‘Thank you for sharing that’ | | | | 10:37 – ‘Yeah, good’ | | | | 12:34 - ‘Thank you very much for sharing that’ | | | | 22:40- ‘x, beautiful’ | | | | 22:42- ‘Thank you x, thank you x, thank you x’ | | | | 22:39- ‘Awesome’ | | | | 24:25- ‘Thank you’ | | | | 36:50- ‘Thank you’ | | | | 37:16- ‘x, I am impressed, well done, good job buddy. X, well done’ | | | | 37:50- ‘Thank you’ | | | | 39:30- ‘Good job’ | | | | 39:42- ‘Fantastic’ | | | | 39:53- ‘Thanks x’ | | | | 41:30- ‘x, I love what you are doing’ | | | | 45:19- ‘Beautiful, well done x, well done x, well done x’ | | | | 46:49- ‘Thank you’ | | | | 47:50- ‘Absolutely’ | | | | 50:10- ‘Well done Year 2’s awesome’ | | 2. Non-specific negative feedback | Non-specific utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | 2:20 - ‘Ah, ‘scuse me’ | | | | 49:19- ‘scuse me’ | | 3. Specific positive feedback | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | |--------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 00:19 – Ladies I love how you are sitting with your legs crossed and arms folded. | | 00:24 – I love how X is sitting. Thank you X, thank you X, thank you X | | 1:51 – I love how you explained to me why you came up with this. Thank you | | 4:42 – ‘Thank you for putting your hand up buddy’ | | 6:52 – ‘I love how you’re sitting Super 6, you are sitting beautifully as well, thank you. Thank you X’ | | 16:15- ‘X, I love how you are sitting, I am going to give you a Dojo point’ | | 37:16- ‘x, straight on to working’ | | 39:00- Well done x, you must have thought about it while we were talking about it on the mat. It shows me that you were processing your thoughts’ | | 45:42- ‘Thank you x, I love how you have your arms folded’ | | 46:41- ‘x is doing the right thing. x is waiting until everyone (interrupted speech, counting of a student), is showing attentive listening.’ | | 47:36- ‘I love that. Can you explain that further?’ | | 48:21- ‘That is such a fabulous statement, x’ | | 3a. Discrepancy feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired | |--------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 13:40 – ‘Yes, give yourself another tick, I really love how you put your hand up, thank you’ | | 24:02- ‘Love that. It shows me that you are interested in what we are learning. Give yourself another tick’ | | 45:39- ‘Awesome, x, that’s another tick x, sitting beautifully Super 6’ | | | level of achievement | | |---|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---| | 3b. Progress feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 13:12 – Thumbs up, ‘much better, thank you’ | | 3c. Otherwise | Other specific positive feedback. | 5:21 – Reward tick chart 7:40- Asking for clarification & deeper thinking 10:42 – ‘X, give yourself another tick’ 45:11- “I like your negotiating skills” | | 4. Specific negative feedback | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 3:18 – Confirm expectations for desired behaviour 3:22 – ‘The reason why you didn’t hear me was because you interrupted’ | | 4a. Discrepancy feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired | 2:40 – X, please sit down’ 12:58- Teacher reminding student of expectations 17:25- ‘If you are not having your eyes on me, you are not listening with you whole body’ 20:20- ‘I can see your hand, no need to call out’ | | Time | Action | |-------|------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 5:33 | Hand to signal stop ‘Sorry, I’m going to get a little bit cross now. Don’t talk’, Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 5:33 | Confirm expectations for desired behaviour | | 9:02 | ‘Sh’ - sound | | 9:35 | Calling name | | 10:40 | ‘Sh’ - sound | | 12:15 | Calling name to remind them of the desired behaviour | | 12:58 | Finger, proximity | | | Name, ‘Stop!’ | | 14:52 | ‘Sh’ - sound | | 15:09 | ‘Sh’ - sound | | 5:16- 5:31 | Counting down from 5, signal to begin, ‘Voices are off, thank you’ | | 18:06 | Calling name | | 1:46 | ‘Sh’ - sound | | 6:38 | Sh... Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 19:00 | ‘Sh, Super 6’ | | 20:15 | ‘x, Sh’ | | 20:42 | ‘Sh’ - sound | | 20:50 | ‘Sh’ - sound | | 21:12 | ‘Sh’ - sound | | 21:07 | ‘Sitting up, please’ | | 21:16 | Calling name to remind them of the desired behaviour | | 22:25 | Counting down from 5 | | 4. Verbal interventions: | Example: questions, brief instructions | |--------------------------|--------------------------------------| | | 24:04 – ‘Sh…. I’m still waiting’ | | | 32:07- ‘Sh’- sound | | | 34:38- Counting down from 5 | | | 36:40- ‘Sh’- sound | | | 37:45-‘ Sh’- sound | | | 38:55- -‘ Sh’- sound | | | 43:55– ‘Sh’- sound ,Counting down from 5 | | | 45:13- Counting down from 5 | | | 45:33- ‘Sh’- sound | | | 45:46-‘ Sh’- sound | | 5. Other interventions: | Example: questions, brief instructions | |-------------------------|----------------------------------------| | | 00:33 – ‘Eyes to me’ (paired with a visual prompt) | | | 01:01 – ‘Put your hand down’ (paired with a visual prompt) | | | 13:56- ‘Put your hand down’ (paired with a visual prompt), ‘Put your hands down guys’ | | | 25:24- ‘x, put your hand down please’ | | | 25:27- ‘Please put your hand down. X, too’ | | | 31:12- Put your hand down | | | 38:55- ‘Come on x’ | | | 46:20- ‘Put it down’ | | | 46:24- ‘Sit down’ | | 6. Body language | Examples: smiling, nodding, head shaking. | |-------------------------|-------------------------------------------| | | 3:09 – Look | | | 8:15 – Physical contact to move a std | | | 9:05 – Model Super 6 | | | 14:25- Name, then model Super 6, thumbs up | | 7. Non-verbal feedback | Examples: Proximity, using hand signals, pointing to work. | |------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------| | | 00:12 - Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 00:32 - Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 2:03 – Hand to signal -stop, then, finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 2:20 - Hand to signal- stop | | | 2:43 - Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 3:32 - Hand to signal- stop | | | 9:08 - Finger to mouth to signal silence, shaking head | | | 10: 31 - Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 13:55 - Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 34:51- Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 40:45- Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 41:23- Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 8. Other, non-specified feedback | Other interventions and or embodied feedback not included above | |----------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------| | | 6:11 – Count | | | 8:45 – Calling a name and finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 10:05- ‘x, that’s a 1’ | | | 11:45 – Physical contact to encourage std to sit up | | | 16:35- ‘x, 1’ | | | 17:01- ‘x, 2’ | | | 17:33- ‘x, that’s a 1, x that’s a 2, x that’s a 1’ | | | 18:04- ‘x, move’ | | | 21:26- ‘x, that’s a 1’ | | | 22:20- ‘x, that’s a 3’ | | | 31:57- ‘That’s a 1’ | | | 32:34 -‘That’s a 4’ | | | 32:38 - ‘That’s a 4’ | | Feedback type | What could this look/sound like | Observed behaviour (Notes from the researcher/independent reviewer) | |-------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1. Non-specific positive feedback | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 0:17- Well done x 1:08 – Well done, good idea x 1:22- Well done (teacher paraphrase what was said), good job 1:37- Beautiful 2:07- (Teacher paraphrase what was said), beautiful 2:28- Good 3:25- Fantastic 3:42- Great, good stuff 5:40- Fantastic (teacher paraphrase what was said) 11:05- Good job, well done 11:17- Well done 12:12- Well done 12:50- Beautiful, x, x, x, x, x, x, x 13:24- Well done 14:00- Well done 14:48- Well done, good job 17:35- Absolutely 24:14- Thank you x 31:16 – Well done, sssh 31:22 – Good job | | 2. Non-specific negative feedback | Non-specific utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | | | 3. Specific positive feedback | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of | 6:01- Wow, what a great idea, thank you 7:25- Good question | | | | | |---|---|---| | | understanding of the student. | 10:37- x has already started, x has finished it, well done 12:31- Thank you x, I love that you are sitting Super 6 12:42- x, sitting Super 6. Well done 12:45- Thank you x, sitting Super 6 | | 3a. Discrepancy feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | | | 3b. Progress feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 3:30 – I love that you remember buddy 11:30- x, 3 times you did it, well done 23:57- x, I love how you are thinking | | 3c. Otherwise | Other ‘positive’ feedback not included above | 16:37- Positive gesture | | 4. Specific negative feedback | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 15:35- 15:46- If you are fiddling you are not thinking. If you are fiddling you are not thinking, hands down. ‘Cause right now you are thinking about what you want to say 29:44- x, if you continue to talk, you’re out straight away | | 4a. Discrepancy feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. | 11:17- Have another look (teacher checking spelling) 13:04- x, waiting for you to sit Super 6, waiting for x to sit Super 6, waiting for x 20:39- Look, ‘I am not sure what you are doing, but you are not showing me attentive listening’ 24:00- If you are watching x, then you are not thinking | | 4b. Progress feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of | 3.16 - 4.40 – ‘I am not impressed. Not happy. Hands down. I am not impressed with (state undesirable behaviour). This is not acceptable. | | | Understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | We are going to sit (hand movement) Super 6, stay Super 6, show attentive listening. That is what we do, that is the Tribes agreements’ 11:36 – 12.08 – Year 2’s, I am not sure what is happening today, but this… I am not sure if you need a break because you have been working hard this morning, but this is not the class I am used to. 14.36 - I find it distracting when lots of people talk. I can’t concentrate. | |---|---|---| | 4c. Otherwise | Other ‘negative’ feedback not included above | 10:30- Counting down from 5, signal to begin 32:49 - Counting down from 5, signal to begin 38:31 – No need to yell | | 5. Other interventions: | Example: questions, brief instructions. | 0:47- x 2:19- x 2:47- On your bottom, thank you 3:15- x 4:25- x 5:13- x 5:24-5:30- x 6:55- x, sit on your bottom please 7:05- x 7:17-Sshh- sound 7:46- x, eyes to me 8:12- x, sit on your bottom please 8:24-Put your hands down 10:17-Sshh’- sound 10:47-x, Sshh- sound 12:06- x, Sshh- sound 12:49- x, eyes to me, x, eyes to me 15:09- x, put it in the bin | | Time | Action | |-------|------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 15:20 | x, Sshh- sound | | 15:50 | x, put that on my desk please | | 17:44 | x, x, then model desired behaviour | | 18:55 | Sshh- sound, finger to mouth to signal silence | | 19:03 | x | | 21:21 | x, stop calling out | | 2:11 | x | | 22:32 | x, move somewhere else please buddy | | 23:26 | x | | 24:00 | Put your hands down, - Sshh- sound | | 24:34 | x, that’s a 1 | | 24:41 | x | | 25:26 | Leave it | | 25:29 | 1 | | 25:50 | x, you need to top being silly | | 27:50 | Look, 1 | | 28:21 | x, Super 6 | | 28:42 | Sshh- sound, that’s a 2 | | 28:52 | Sshh- sound | | 29:11 | Look | | 29:55 | Sshh- sound, waiting | | 30:31 | Sshh- sound, 2 | | 30:54 | 3 | | 33:11 | Sshh- sound | | 33:16 | Sshh- sound | | 33:20 | Sshh- sound, need to be quiet | | 35:09 | Sshh’- sound | | 6. Body language | Examples: smiling, nodding, head shaking. | |------------------|------------------------------------------| | | 1:05- Hand gesture to signal to sit down | | | 4:21- Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 5:24-5:30- Look, x | | | 8:40- Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 11:17- Thumbs up | | | 13:24- Thumbs up | | | 14:48- High five | | | 16:39- Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 16:59- Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 17:22- Nodding | | | 17:35- Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 21:41- model desired behaviour | | | 22:16- model desired behaviour | | | 22:19 - model desired behaviour | | | 24:10- Finger to mouth to signal silence | | | 25:14-Look | | | 25:21- Head shake | 35:47- Sshh- sound 36:07- Sshh- sound, finger to mouth to signal silence 36:27- Sshh- sound, finger to mouth to signal silence 36:45- Sshh- sound 37:16- Can you sit up 39:06- Look 39:15-x 39:20- Look 39:58- That’s a 4 and that’s a 1 40:33- Stop calling out | | | | |---|---|---| | | | 25:56- Folded arms, look 26:06- Finger to mouth to signal silence, stop calling out 29:19- Finger to mouth to signal silence 30:04- Finger to mouth to signal silence 31:46 - Finger to mouth to signal silence 32:49- Arms folded 33:37 - Finger to mouth to signal silence 38:48- Gesture to move, gesture to sit Super 6 39:20- Look | | 7. Non-verbal feedback | Examples: Proximity, using hand signals, pointing to work. | 22:16- Proximity 22:19- Proximity | | 8. Other, non-specified feedback | Other interventions and or embodied feedback not included above | | | Feedback type | What could this look/sound like | Observed behaviour (Notes from the researcher/independent reviewer) | |-------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1. Non-specific positive feedback | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 0:50- Thank you 2:36- Fabulous 3:03 – Thank you 4:08 – Fabulous, thank you 4:44- Good 4:54- Good 5:21- Good 5:33- Awesome 5:59- Awesome 6:15- Awesome 6:18- Well done 7:16- Good, awesome 9:04- Fabulous 13:02- Fantastic 15:57- Good, well done 16:47- Absolutely 28:10- x, fabulous, x, good stuff | | 2. Non-specific negative feedback | Non-specific utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | 12:02- ‘scuse me 28:04- ‘scuse me | | 3. Specific positive feedback | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 1:12- Thank you for putting your hand up 7:47 – I love how x us siting, fabulous. X, sitting beautifully, so is x and x. Thank you 11:35- Fabulous, good thinking | | | | | |---|---|---| | | | 11:55- Well done those people who have used their context clues and read the screen already 13:45- Asking for clarification 18:48- x, fabulous sitting Super 6. X, awesome Super 6 19:22- Good question 20:33- I love that you have your hand up and not calling out, thank you buddy | | 3a. Discrepancy feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | 10:12- I am really impressed Year 2’s how quietly you are sitting, how you are showing attentive listening 26:47- Well done Year 2’. That is possibly the quietest pairing that I have seen in a long, long time | | 3b. Progress feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | 17:28- Thank you for keeping your hand up buddy 17:49- Thank you, much better, not calling out | | 3c. Otherwise | Other ‘positive’ feedback not included above | 24:10- That is a super good point, x | | 4. Specific negative feedback | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 6:30- x, can you stop that please, thank you 12:22- You can stop calling out 15:01- I need you to sit Super 6 and stop playing around. Thank you | | 4a. Discrepancy feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or | 11:19- x, Super 6. That is twice now that I had to interrupt x, because people are not sitting Super 6. Thank you, x 24:55 – Ssh, when you are thinking, you are not talking 25:25- 25:28 – Hands down, we’re thinking, followed by gesture to put hands down | | | desired level of achievement. | 27:00- Guys, x, not talking | |---|--------------------------------|-----------------------------| | 4b. Progress feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | | | 4c. Otherwise | Other ‘negative’ feedback not included above | 0:07- ‘Sh’- sound 4:19- Who’s humming? Please stop 6:51- x, leave your shoes please 9:23- x, have you listened to anything anyone has said? 12:02- Counting down from 5 17:24- Sshh- sound, finger to mouth to signal silence 20:30- Please don’t call out 28:00- Counting down from 5 | | 5. Other interventions: | Example: questions, brief instructions. | 0:18- Look 0:45- x, can you move somewhere else please? Just move here, at the front 3:03- x, x, eyes to me. It doesn’t really matter 4:05- Come and sit down please 4:13- Put your hand down 4:29- Please come and sit down 4:36- On your bottom 4:40- On your bottom 5:30- Put your hand down 5:45- x, sit Super 6 6:05- Put it on your wrist | | Time | Instruction | |-------|--------------------------------------------------| | 7:37 | Can you please not sit next to x | | 7:42 | x, x, finger to mouth to signal silence, Super 6, eyes to me | | 8:57 | Super 6 | | 9:07 | x | | 9:50 | x | | 10:01 | Stop moving around please | | 11:15 | x | | 11:48 | (Name), (Name) eyes to me. It doesn’t really matter what they are doing over there. You should be focusing on your own group. | | 12:02 | Finger to mouth to signal silence, Super 6, eyes to me | | 12:38 | x | | 13:12 | Sit down | | 17:30 | x | | 17:54 | x | | 19:01 | x, gesture eyes to me | | 21:14 | Sshh- sound, finger to mouth to signal silence | | 22:11 | x | | 25:15 | Put your head down | | 25:51 | x, please put your hand down | | 26:02 | Hand down | | | | | |---|---|---| | 6. Body language | Examples: smiling, nodding, head shaking. | 0:10- Finger to mouth to signal silence 2:30- Look, Head shake 7:24- Shaking head 9:07- Finger to mouth to signal silence 10:11- Look, x 10:44- Finger to mouth to signal silence 12:11- x and x, look 12:14- Hand gesture to put hands down 14:12- Finger to mouth to signal silence 14:22- Hand gesture to stop 16:03- Finger to mouth to signal silence 18:52- Thumbs up 20:30- Finger to mouth to signal silence, hand gesture to put hands up 23:56- Finger to mouth to signal silence 24:48- Hand gesture to put hands down 28:00- Hand gesture for silence | | 7. Non-verbal feedback | Examples: Proximity, using hand signals, pointing to work. | 5:49- Physical assistance to help a std into the desired position 6:05- Visual prompt | | 8. Other, non-specified feedback | Other interventions and or embodied feedback not included above | 13:09- That’s a 1 25:35- That’s a 1 | | Feedback type | What could this look/sound like | Observed behaviour (Notes from the researcher/ independent reviewer) | |-------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1. Non-specific positive feedback | Non-specific positive utterances, such as: “Well done!” and, “Great!” | 0:12- I love that, followed by paraphrasing the thought 0:59- You are on fire, x. Good stuff Well done, x 4:59- God stuff 5:08- Good point 8:26-8:45- Good, fabulous, great idea 8:52- Fantastic 9:11- Yes, good 18:31- Good stuff, I am impressed year 2’s 20:001- Good, well done x 20:42- Awesome x, onto it | | 2. Non-specific negative feedback | Non-specific utterances, such as: “Wrong!” and, “Not quite!” | | | 3. Specific positive feedback | Positive feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 0:59 - x, beautiful, x, fabulous, x, beautiful Super 6, thank you 17:02- Good 14:45- Thank you, x, that’s really nice of you 20:12- That is awesome. Great spelling too 20:29- Fabulous. I can really see what you were thinking when you drew that | | 3a. Discrepancy feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement | 2:04- Fantastic. What a great idea. Why would you do that (checking for understanding). What a good idea 6:58- x, beautiful. Even when we are waiting you are still sitting Super 6. That is fantastic. You are showing such a great example to others. I am very impressed 16:31- Fabulous quiet working Year 2’s 18:16- Awesome, x, up to doing her writing 18:23- x is up to labelling her picture, well done | | Category | Description | Examples | |---------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 3b. Progress feedback | Positive feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | | | 3c. Otherwise | Other ‘positive’ feedback not included above | | | 4. Specific negative feedback | Negative feedback containing specific information about the performance or level of understanding of the student. | 6:12- x, you are not showing me attentive listening today 14:05- Sshh- sound, I can’t see you working | | 4a. Discrepancy feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with some predefined goal or desired level of achievement. | 15:05- x, 4, Not very impressed | | 4b. Progress feedback | Negative feedback comparing the performance or level of understanding of the student with their earlier performance or level of understanding. | | | 4c. Otherwise | Other ‘negative’ feedback not included above | 0:51- Counting down from 5 6:39- Sshh- sound 6:50- Sshh- sound, thank you 8:47- Sshh- sound, x 13:02- Sshh- sound 13:33- Sshh- sound 14:38- Sshh- sound | | | | | |---|---|---| | 5. Other interventions: | Example: questions, brief instructions. | 0:59- x, can you sit properly please, Super 6 0:13- Super 6 0:30- x 3:15- x 3:39- Put your hand down 4:46- Sit down 4:47 – Go and sit down 5: 47- I need you to put that away please, thank you 7:50- Sshh- sound, finger to mouth to signal silence 7:54- Put your hand down, listening 10:16- x 11:25- Stop 14:17- Sshh- sound, x, sit down 15:20- x, do your work please | | 6. Body language | Examples: smiling, nodding, head shaking. | 0:23- Finger to mouth to signal silence 3:11- Finger to mouth to signal silence | | 7. Non-verbal feedback | Examples: Proximity, using hand signals, pointing to work. | 12:02- Gesture where to sit | | 8. Other, non-specified feedback | Other interventions and or embodied feedback not included above | 1:47- Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 11:19- Count (1, 2, 3 Magic) 11:51- That’s a 3 13:05- x, 2 18:09- Come on, x |
bece9dbb-f3b6-4e1b-a1e3-2063808aae5f
CC-MAIN-2020-10
https://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3243&context=theses
2020-02-19T06:47:01+00:00
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"Jewish Comment" "JEWISH COMMENT" WORLD JEWISH CONGRESS 330 West 42nd St., New York City, N.Y. April 12, 1944 Mr. John W. Fehle, Director War Refugee Board Washington, D.C. Dear Sir: Enclosed you will find a marked copy of our publication, Jewish Comment, making reference to matters in which you are interested. Sincerely, Ben Halpern, Editor. RESCUE AND RETRIBUTION THE NEW DANGER to European Jewry, arising from the German occupation of Hungary and the measures of control they have taken in other Southeastern European countries, has this time been promptly met by action of the United Nations. Acting with the knowledge and approval of Great Britain and Soviet Russia, President Roosevelt, on March 24, 1944, issued a specific warning of retribution for crimes against the Jews and other endangered groups, and called upon all persons of conscience to help rescue them. In reply to a question in the House of Commons on March 30, British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden declared that "the British Government . . . whole-heartedly associated itself with the United States in this matter." President Roosevelt's statement is composed of two essential parts. The first is a declaration of the United States' purpose to continue its efforts to rescue the "victims of brutality of the Nazis and the Japs" through the medium of the War Refugee Board, and a call to others, specifically to "every German and every man everywhere under Nazi domination," as well as "the free peoples of Europe and Asia," to assist these efforts. The second part of the statement is a pointed, explicit warning to the Nazis and Japanese and their accomplices that they will be held accountable, and punished for crimes they commit. Eden's statement before the Commons goes even further: "There are individuals and even official authorities among the German satellites who have resisted the evil German example and shown toleration and mercy. In the hope of encouraging such good deeds and increasing their number, the British Government has made it plain that those who have followed the right path will also not be forgotten on the day of reckoning. If the time of respite is short, there is still an opportunity for the merciful to multiply their acts of humanity and try to make amends."* Thus, these declarations at the same time attempt to deter Nazis and collaborationists from further atrocities and make an effort to * Italics our. Ed. facilitate the evacuation and rescue of endangered persons to places of safety. * * * Unhappily, that part of the declaration which reiterates the United States' purpose to rescue the victims of brutality is so phrased that it may be seriously doubted whether it can have the desired effect. The statement is directed toward the "free countries of Europe and Asia," that is, evidently, to Switzerland, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, and Turkey, in so far as the Jews of Europe are concerned. It promises to find "havens of refuge" for any fugitives who may escape to those countries, and to find means for their maintenance and support if they cannot be evacuated. But those of the "free countries" from which the evacuation of fugitives to havens of refuge is impossible for geographical reasons, Sweden and Switzerland, have already given evidence of their willingness to extend their hospitality to the fullest degree possible; and, while it will give them reassurance they certainly deserve, the declaration cannot substantially increase the measure of their already great efforts. It is rather for the other countries that the declaration must have been intended. With these (particularly Turkey, the country nearest the danger zone) the main difficulty appears to be the demand that refugees admitted be speedily removed to other havens. Given a satisfactory guarantee on this point, Turkey has shown itself ready to adopt a more liberal policy towards fugitives. The language used in the Roosevelt declaration, however, is hardly likely to convince Turkey that a rapid and large-scale transfer of refugees admitted will be undertaken. Do not the United States and Great Britain already possess such havens, particularly the haven of Palestine, which is so conveniently located for admitting these stricken people? Why, then, is it necessary to find havens? Would it not be more to the point and better calculated to encourage the free countries of Europe and Asia to assist in the work of rescue if the declaration had contained a simple, categorical promise, not to find havens, but to open up the doors of American and other United Nations possessions, and particularly of Palestine, for any number of refugees who may be rescued? Must it not appear to these free countries slightly incongruous that the United States, in the name of the United Nations, should ask them to open their doors to refugees, while the Allied nations have so far failed to make a specific pledge of doing the same with their own, at most half-open, doors? Over a million Jews in Hungary, Rumania, and Bulgaria are still alive; but if we wish to rescue any considerable number of them, then there is no time to lose in remedying the lack in the Roosevelt statement of March 24. Lest these remarks remain merely abstract, we hasten to make the following specific suggestions: Let Great Britain and the United States guarantee to Turkey that any refugee from Nazi Europe admitted to its territory, through whatever channels, will be rapidly syphoned off into Palestine, without any limitations as to numbers. And secondly, we revert to a suggestion we previously made: that Soviet Russia, in view of its historic relationship with Bulgaria and its present continued diplomatic relationship with that country, should intercede with the Sofia regime and press them to cooperate by evacuating their own endangered Jews and permitting the transit to places of safety of others who may escape from Southeastern Europe. * * * In contrast to the first part of the statement of March 24, 1944, the other section (conveying a warning to those committing atrocities of their accountability and future punishment for their crimes) is, at long last, a specific and comprehensive declaration. It repairs many of the omissions which Jews and other groups have pointed out and criticized in earlier statements of this kind. Thus, the first in this series, the joint statement of the St. James Conference on January 13, 1942 (by the governments of seven countries under Axis domination, together with the French National Committee of General de Gaulle), was more specific than later statements by the major Western Allies, as might have been expected in view of the more direct concern of the signatories of the St. James statement with the problems of retribution. It included among those whom it warned of future retribution for their crimes the Germans committing atrocities in occupied countries, as well as their allies and satellites and their accomplices in occupied countries. The major purpose of the declaration was to deter Nazis and collaborationists from further crimes. Yet, the St. James Conference gave no specific warning concerning the consequences of crimes committed against the Jews, whose peril was notoriously the greatest. The theory of this omission was that crimes against the Jews were covered by the general statement concerning all crimes committed in occupied countries. This viewpoint was hardly a valid one. It is clear that the Nazis and the collaborationists themselves do not consider a crime against the Jews to be in the same class as other atrocities, neither in their own nor in other non-Jewish opinion. Consequently, they could not be expected to refrain from such acts because of the deterrent effect of general warnings against crimes in occupied countries not specifically referring to the special category of crimes against Jews. Furthermore, the St. James' warning, referring specifically to crimes committed in occupied countries, could have no deterrent effect with respect to atrocities against Jews committed in Germany itself or in other Axis and satellite countries. Moreover, since it dealt only with crimes committed since the outbreak of war, it gave no guarantee of justice for such crimes, "legal" and extra-legal, as were committed against the Jews, chiefly by the Germans, in the period before September 1, 1939. Jewish groups were not slow to point out the defects of the St. James statement with respect to a program for rescuing Jews, and for doing justice upon their persecutors after the war. On July 21, 1942, therefore, President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill sent parallel notes to a Madison Square Garden meeting in New York City, condemning atrocities against Jews and promising stern retribution. Later, a joint declaration by eleven Allied governments, including the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union, as well as the de Gaulle French National Committee, was issued (on December 17, 1942) specifically condemning the German campaign to exterminate the Jews en masse and "reaffirming their solemn resolution . . . to ensure that those responsible for these crimes should not escape retribution." Even in these warnings, however, no promise was made that justice would be done with regard to crimes committed upon Jews in Axis countries, or before September 1939. Furthermore, although the December 17, 1942 statement promised that the signatory governments would "press on with the necessary measures," the plan for an international commission for the investigation of war crimes has to this day not progressed beyond its initial stages. The next major warning of retribution, the Moscow Declaration of November 1, 1943, once more failed to make any specific mention of crimes against the Jews, even though other special groups were spoken of by name: Italian officers, Cretan peasants, French hostages. Moreover, like previous statements, the Moscow Declaration referred only to crimes committed in occupied countries and, of course, since the war. It also confined its warning of retribution (except for certain "major criminals whose offences have no particular geographical localization"—a description which may fit other Axis leaders as well as the chief Nazis) to crimes committed by "German officers and men and members of the Nazi Party." As compared with the preceding statements of retribution, the President's declaration of March 24, 1944 is a significant improvement. It shows that the lessons of these more than four years of war, during which Jews have been so cruelly persecuted, have, even if tardily, been borne in upon the democratic world. Thus the warning makes specific mention of atrocities against the Jews as well as of other atrocities. It deals with a campaign of extermination which, it specifically states, began with the entry of Hitler into power over a decade ago, which thus preceded the outbreak of international hostilities. The warning promises justice, not only for crimes committed in occupied countries, but also for those perpetrated by the Nazis in their own country. Moreover, it is specific in declaring that functionaries and subordinates of the Nazi leaders in Germany, as well as in occupied countries, will be held accountable for participating in atrocities; and finally, it supplements the warning of retribution with a direct appeal to "Germans and others under Nazi domination" to demonstrate their disavowal of the Nazi crimes—and thus prove their right not to be held accountable for sharing "these insane criminal desires"—by specific acts to aid and rescue the victims of the Nazis. Foreign Secretary Eden's statement supplements this with a promise that, just as criminals will be punished, so the "merciful," including both individuals and governments, will be rewarded. These statements are an epitome of the lessons which have been learned with such difficulty and at such cost since the St. James Conference at the beginning of 1942. Yet even in the improved form the effectiveness of such warnings would be much greater if they were accompanied by concrete demonstrations of preparedness to put them into effect: if the International Commission for the Investigation of War Crimes were shown to be actually investigating them; if indictments were handed down and trials were actually held in time to have a deterrent effect, instead of waiting till the war is over. The President's declaration called upon men in Hitler Europe to "keep watch and to record the evidence that will one day be used to convict the guilty." One wonders whether the United States itself is taking every possible measure to keep such watch and to record such evidence. American diplomats and other citizens are being repatriated. Are they being asked to make depositions on crimes against Jews and others? We are capturing Nazi and other Axis prisoners every day, and no doubt there are among them those who have witnessed such atrocities, or even participated in them. Are our officers under instructions to keep watch for evidence of such crimes and to record it? Do they make it a point to question prisoners specifically about these matters? Do they single out prisoners who are known to be responsible for atrocities, or do they simply give them the same status as other prisoners of war who have committed only such warlike acts as are permissible under international law? One may easily imagine that a vigorous policy on the lines noted might have a much greater effect of deterrence in Germany and the occupied countries than any statement of intention to punish after the war, no matter how specific and how comprehensive. Reports and Documents PRES. ROOSEVELT'S STATEMENT MARCH 24, 1944 The United Nations are fighting to make a world in which tyranny and aggression cannot exist; a world based upon freedom, equality and justice; a world in which all persons regardless of race, color or creed may live in peace, honor and dignity. In the meantime—in most of Europe and in parts of Asia—the systematic torture and murder of civilians—men, women and children—by the Nazis and the Japanese continue unabated. In areas subjugated by the aggressors innocent Poles, Czechs, Norwegians, Dutch Danes, French, Greeks, Russians, Chinese, Filipinos—and many others—are being starved or frozen to death or murdered in cold blood in a campaign of savagery. The slaughters of Warsaw, Lidice, Kharkov and Nanking—of brutal torture and murder by the Japanese, not only of civilians but of our own gallant American soldiers and fliers—these are startling examples of what goes on day by day year in and year out, wherever the Nazis and Japs are in military control—free to follow their barbaric purpose. In one of the blackest crimes of all history—begun by the Nazis in the day of peace and multiplied by them a hundred times in time of war—the wholesale systematic murder of the Jews of Europe goes on unabated every hour. As a result of the events of the last few days hundreds of thousands of Jews who, while living under persecution, have been found to be men from death in Hungary and the Balkans, are now threatened with annihilation as Hitler's forces descend more heavily upon these lands. That these innocent people, who have already survived a decade of Hitler's fury, should perish on the very eve of triumph over the barbarism which their persecution symbolizes, would be a major tragedy. It is therefore fitting that we should again proclaim our determination that none who participate in these acts of savagery shall go unpunished. The United Nations have made it clear that they will pursue the guilty and deliver them up in order that justice be done. That warning applies not only to the leaders but also to their functionaries and subordinates in Germany and in the satellite countries. All who knowingly take part in the deportation of Jews to their death in Poland or Norwegians and French to their death in Germany are equally guilty with the executioner. All who share the guilt shall share the punishment. Hitler is committing these crimes against humanity in the name of the German people. I ask every German and every man everywhere under Nazi domination to show the world by his action that in his heart he does not share these insane criminal desires. Let him hide these pursued victims, help them to get over their borders, and do what he can to save them from the Nazi hangman. I ask him also to keep watch, and to record the evidence that will one day be used to convict the guilty. In the meantime, and until the victory that is now assured is won, the United States will persevere in its effort to rescue the victims of the cruelty of the Nazis and the Japs. In so far as the exigencies of military operations permit this Government will use all means at its command to aid the escape of all intended victims of the Nazi and Jap executioner—regardless of race or religion or color. We call upon the free peoples of Europe and Asia temporarily to open their doors to the victims of oppression. We shall find havens of refuge for them, and we shall find the means for their maintenance and support until the tyrant is driven from their homelands and they may return home. In the name of justice and humanity let all freedom loving people rally to this righteous undertaking. JEWS IN FRENCH UNDERGROUND Radio Paris in its midnight broadcast on February 13, 1944, indulged in words with the radio station of the French Committee of Liberation in Brazzaville (French Equatorial Africa). The Brazzaville radio had referred to posters covering the walls of Paris and showing the identity papers and photographs of ten saboteurs. These men were acclaimed by the radio station of the French Committee of Liberation as real liberators of true Frenchmen. In reply, Radio Paris triumphantly pointed out that a large proportion of these persons had Jewish names. Radio Paris states: "Is Grieswachs, the perpetrator of two outrages, a Frenchman? No, he is a Jew, a Polish Jew. Is Elenk, who was responsible for eight derailments and the death of dozens of people, a Frenchman? No, he is a Hungarian Jew. Is Weissbrod, who derailed three trains, a Frenchman? No, he is a Polish Jew." The other terrorists are also Jews: Lifschitz, Fingerweiss, Schneidik, and Reimann. This is only one of several items from various sources which have indicated the extent to which Jews participate in the French Underground movement. For example, on October 11, 1943, Charles Maurras wrote an article in *L'Action Française*, demanding a change in the procedure of trying suspects charged with Underground activity. Such persons have been turned over to courts-martial *if caught in the act*. Maurras agrees that this may be a natural and logical procedure in the case of "Frenchmen"; but he insists that "any alien, any naturalized foreigner, or any naturalized son of a half-caste, or a Jew, who takes part in a riot," whether or not he is committing a "crime" or not, should be tried, not by the regular courts, but by courts-martial. If charged with "dissidence, the army should immediately apply to them the capital sentence." Further indications of the part which is being played by Jews in the Underground movement in France is provided by the newspaper *Au Pilori*, in the North Zone of France, which, on February 3, 1944, related the crimes of certain men and their agents, including a Jew, Abraham, former *directeur de cabinet* to Jean Zay, now living under the name of Lefoyer." On February 14, 1944, the newspaper *Quoi* told of the arrest of a young Jew called Philippe Chaskiel, of Vienne in Charente, who, together with an 18-year-old accomplice, sent letters to certain farmers asking for contributions to the resistance movement, and called in person in an attempt to collect such contributions. On February 19, 1944, both *Radio Paris* and the German news agency announced the trial, before a German courts-martial, of a number of "dangerous terrorists," including 24 who were said to be responsible for "38 outrages and 14 derailments." Nine of the persons accused, according to *Radio Paris*, were Jews. Published by the WORLD JEWISH CONGRESS 330 WEST 42ND STREET, NEW YORK 18, N. Y. Material contained herein may be used freely, provided that three copies of any such items are sent to JEWISH COMMENT at the above address. FEB 25 1944 Dear Mr. Halpern: Thank you for your letters of February 21, 1944, to Secretary Morgenthau and to me, enclosing copies of the February 18, 1944, issue of "Jewish Comment". Very truly yours, (Signed) J. W. Pehle J. W. Pehle Acting Executive Director Mr. Ben Halpern, Editor, "Jewish Comment", World Jewish Congress, 330 West 42nd Street, New York, New York. MBHutchison:agr 2-24-44 WRB DIRECTOR APPOINTED Less than two weeks after the establishment of the War Refugee Board, the announcement was made, on February 4, 1944, of the appointment of its executive director. Mr. John W. Pehle, Assistant to Secretary of the Treasury Morgenthau, has been granted a leave of absence from his Treasury post to undertake the functions of acting executive director of the Board. That an acting executive director was appointed can only mean that the members of the War Refugee Board were unwilling to hold up its organization for the performance of its vital functions until full agreement had been obtained on a director of such international fame as would be consistent with the importance of the post. Under Mr. Pehle, whose Treasury post as director of foreign funds control brought him into close contact with organizations responsible for such rescue work as has been done, we may expect that the Board's organization will be speedily built up and set in motion with no loss of time. At his first press conference, the new director of the War Refugee Board expressed the view that the rescue project with which the Board has been entrusted "must be done within months, or there may be no job to do at all." The necessary conclusions are unquestionably being drawn and put into effect. Reports and Documents ABOUT TRANSNISTRIA Confirmation of reports that the Rumanian Government has agreed to allow the evacuation of Jews from Transnistria comes from two Swedish newspapers, the Stockholm Dagens Nyheter and Stockholms-Tidningen, of January 2, 1944. The former paper reports that the withdrawal of Jewish forced laborers from front zones was now to be permitted, thanks to the intercession of Mme. Antonescu and Mme. Veturia Goga, wives of prominent Rumanian officials and anti-Semites. Clothes, says the report, would have to be procured for these people before their return, since their rags were so deplorable that it would create a bad impression at home. 50 per cent of those sent to the front zone had perished, owing to the lack of medical care and the scarcity of food and clothing. The Hungarian correspondent of the Stockholms-Tidningen also writes that epidemics were ravaging Jewish camps in Transnistria, and that the Rumanian Government, which had hitherto denied that Jews were being treated inhumanely, had now admitted such conditions in Transnistrian camps. Both papers corroborate reports of the extortionate demands made by the Rumanian Government upon the Jewish community for the return of these internees, and for their maintenance, etc. The counterpart to this story is provided by accounts in German-language newspapers of southeastern Europe late in October, upon the second anniversary of the fall of Odessa, after which event Transnistria passed over to the Rumanian administration. According to the Belgrade Donauzeitung (October 19, 1943) in a report from the Rumanian capital Bucharest, "Transnistria today not only supports its own population, but provides abundant surplus." The Snedoi-Deutsche Tageszeitung of Timisoara, Rumania, on October 24, 1943, contained a long article entitled "The Rich Land across the Dniester," describing the wealth and fertility of the Transnistrian area, which is pictured as the richest granary in the world, next to the Mississippi Valley, and on a par with the Ukraine. In a long statistical account of its cereal and other crops, its orchards and pasture lands, its Californian fruits, and its 130,000 Volksdeutsche, the author comes to the conclusion that Transnistria is "a virgin territory whose development is under way, and . . . has enormous possibilities for future exploitation. Already the area was supplying one-half of its products to the administration of the territory, the remainder being retained by the peasants for free marketing. If the facts were truly described in these accounts, and there is no reason to doubt their general accuracy, the notorious perversion and systematic neglect of the Jews in Transnistria becomes an even more damning testimony against Rumanian administration. "THE PURGE OF SPLIT" The Belgrade Donauzeitung on October 8, 1943, contained an article by war correspondent Dr. Walter Gubert that is worth quoting, if only for the background in which it describes the fate of civilian refugees fleeing that city before the Nazi forces. We have not often been favored by German correspondents with an unvarnished statement concerning the machine-gunning of refugees by Stukas. Gubert writes: "Until recently Jews who emigrated from former Yugoslav territory to Split (Spalato) and had purchased Italian passes or at least permission to remain in this ancient Croatian city were able to work relatively unimpeded against the German undertaking to reorganize the southeastern area. "Following the treacherous capitulation of Badoglio, all Italian forces in Split and vicinity surrendered their arms and encampments to Communist bands; and the Jews and their ilk emerged as the real masters of the city. Persons suspected of sympathy for the German Reich, as well as Croat Nationalists, were imprisoned, and those not transferred elsewhere were immediately shot. However, when the German troops came closer to the city, these Jews were the first to flee, and they tried to attempt to escape. Part of them tried to flee in boats, and others who attempted to disguise themselves, by hastily undertaken baptism, as Italians or Croats were immediately apprehended. But even the fugitives will not escape their merited fate; and some of them were already given their deserts by our Stukas which pursued their boats." THE SEARCH FOR REFUGEES IN ROME The following order by the German Commander in Rome was broadcast to the Italian people by Rome radio on December 22, 1943, indicating a determined effort on the part of the Nazis to round up fugitive and pro-Allied elements: "1. Any change of residence is forbidden in the city of Rome, and exceptions are only permissible with the authorization of the police. "2. House-holders or persons acting for them, as well as the proprietors of boarding houses and similar establishments, must make a list of the names of the residents therein, and the list must be put up in a prominent position at the entrance of each building. The lists must be divided up according to the various floors in the house. "3. Whoever gives lodging to persons who are not registered according to regulations will be punished according to German military law. "4. This order comes into force on publication." CITATIONS FOR LIBERATORS In a recent issue of Jewish Comment (January 21, 1944) we published an account of the participation of the underground movement in bringing about the Allied occupation of Algeria, from which the outstanding share of Algerian Jews was apparent. One of the Jews who took part in this feat of daring, Lieutenant Jean Dreyfus, died on the night of November 8, 1942, and was posthumously decorated for his share in the exploit. We now learn from the Tunisian Jewish newspaper, La Voix Juive, of November 12, 1943, that other leading figures of the local resistance were also granted citations of the Order of the Army, in a ceremony one year after the Allied landings. The citations read as follows: Dr. Abouker, Henri: "A magnificent soldier severely wounded during the war of 1914-1918, he was the counselor and guide of those who organized resistance in Algiers. Possessor of a courage and devotion which never failed, he hid arms in his apartment and established there, during the night of November 7-8, the staff headquarters for the resistance groups which issued the first orders for the liberation of the soil of Africa. "He reported at his post in the Algiers radio station, which had just been occupied, and broadcast the Order of the Day of the Commander-in-Chief. He conducted the struggle for resistance in North Africa against the German-Italian armistice commission and the clandestine spy organization, thus using hidden arms. He prevented the arrest of patriots, providing effective protection for those who were planning the coup. On November 8, 1942, he thoroughly paralyzed any possible police action. At the moment when the resistance groups were most desperate on their own account he reported to the Central Commissariat of Police and directed from that spot the operations and liaison of occupation forces." **Lieutenant (Dr.) Aboulker, Raphael:** "Chief of an important civil group of Algerian patriots, he prepared the landings in North Africa, conducted himself during the operations as a chief who led his men without a moment of weakness up to the night of November 7-8, giving them an admirable example of devotion to duty, of bravery, and tenacity." **Aboulker, Jose,** Medical Reserve: "Showed a remarkable capacity for organization and demonstrated great courage at all times as chief of the civil groups in Algiers preparing for the Allied landings in North Africa, although sought by the police, he carried on his mission to the end, disdaining the perils which threatened him during the night of November 7-8 he gave an example of courage and magnificent bravery. He personally directed the patriot action from the Central Police Commissariat of Algiers." **Second Lieutenant Karsenty, Bernard:** "A young volunteer to the resistance groups, accompanied his chief, Henri Tatin de la Vigerie to Cherchell, assisted in the debarkation of American officers. At a moment when the arrival of the police was imminent, he helped by his self-possession to bring about the reembarkation of the American representatives, wading into the sea to launch their boat." **First Lieutenant Libine, Benjamin:** "During the preparation for November 8, 1942, he was arrested and interrogated several times, but he never ceased to participate in the struggle. During the night of November 7-8 he was chief of a group assigned to a delicate mission, and led his men in such a way that, by the example of his assurance and decision, he was able to avoid bloodshed." --- *Published by the WORLD JEWISH CONGRESS* 330 West 42nd Street, New York 18, N.Y. Material contained herein may be used freely, provided that three copies of any such items are sent to Jewish Comment at the above address. February 21, 1944. Hon. Henry Morgenthau, Jr. Treasury Department Washington, D.C. Dear Sir: Enclosed you will find a marked copy of our publication, Jewish Comment, making reference to matters in which you are interested. Sincerely, Ben Halpern Editor. WRB DIRECTOR APPOINTED Less than two weeks after the establishment of the War Refugee Board, the announcement was made, on February 4, 1944, of the appointment of its executive director. Mr. John W. Pehle, Assistant to Secretary of the Treasury Morgenthau, has been granted a leave of absence from his Treasury post to undertake the functions of acting executive director of the Board. That an acting executive director was appointed can only mean that the members of the War Refugee Board were unwilling to hold up its organization for the performance of its vital functions until full agreement had been obtained on a director of such international fame as would be consistent with the importance of the post. Under Mr. Pehle, whose Treasury post as director of foreign funds control brought him into close contact with organizations responsible for such rescue work as has been done, we may expect that the Board's organization will be speedily built up and set in motion with no loss of time. At his first press conference, the new director of the War Refugee Board expressed the view that the rescue project with which the Board has been entrusted "must be done within months, or there may be no job to do at all." The necessary conclusions are unquestionably being drawn and put into effect. Reports and Documents ABOUT TRANSNISTRIA Confirmation of reports that the Rumanian Government has agreed to allow the evacuation of Jews from Transnistria comes from two Swedish newspapers, the Stockholm Dagens Nyheter and Stockholms-Tidningen, of January 2, 1944. The report states that reports that the withdrawal of Jewish forced laborers from front zones was now to be permitted, thanks to the intercession of Mme. Antonescu and Mme. Victoria Goga, wives of prominent Rumanian officials and anti-Semites. Clothes, says the report, would have to be procured for these people before their return, since their rags were so deplorable that it would create a bad impression at home. 50 per cent of those sent to the front zone had perished, owing to the lack of medical care and the scarcity of food and clothing. The Hungarian correspondent of the *Stockholms-Tidningen* also writes that epidemics were ravaging Jewish camps in Transnistria, and that the Rumanian Government, which had hitherto denied that Jews were being treated inhumanely, had now admitted conditions in Transnistrian camps. Both papers contain reports of the extortionate demands made by the Rumanian Government upon the Jewish community for the return of these internees, and for their maintenance, etc. The complement to this story is provided by accounts in German-language newspapers of southeastern Europe late in October, upon the second anniversary of the fall of Odessa, after which event Transnistria passed over to the Rumanian administration. According to the Belgrade *Donaueitung* (October 19, 1943) in a report from the Rumanian capital Bucharest, "Transnistria today not only supports its own population, but provides abundant surplus." The *Suedost-Deutsche Tageszeitung*, of Timisoara, Rumania, on October 24, 1943, contained a long article entitled "Richt und Land an der Dniester," describing the wealth and fertility of the Transnistria area, which is pictured as the richest granary in the world, next to the Mississippi Valley, and on a par with the Ukraine. In a long statistical account of its cereal and oil crops, its orchards and pastures, its cattle and horses, and its 130,000 Volksdeutsche, the author comes to the conclusion that Transnistria is "a virgin territory whose development is under way, and... has enormous possibilities for future exploitation. Already the area was supplying one-half of its products to the administration of the territory, the remainder being retained by the peasants for free marketing. If the facts were truly described in these accounts, and there is no reason to doubt their general accuracy, the notorious starvation and systematic neglect of the Jews in Transnistria becomes an even more damning testimony against Rumanian administration. **"THE PURGE OF SPLIT"** The Belgrade *Donaueitung* on October 8, 1943, contained an article by war correspondent Dr. Walter Gruber that is worth quoting, if only for the frankness with which he describes the fate of civilian refugees fleeing that city before the Nazi forces. We have not often been favored by German correspondents with an unvarnished statement concerning the machine-gunning of refugees by Stukas. Gruber says: "Until recently Jews who emigrated from former Yugoslav territory to Split (Spalato) and had purchased Italian passes or at least permission to remain in this ancient Croatian city were able to work relatively unimpeded against the German undertaking to reorganize the southwestern area. "Following the dishonorable capitulation of Badoglio, all Italian forces in Split and vicinity surrendered their arms and encampments to Communist bands; and the Jews and their ill-wishers as the real masters of the city. Persons suspected of sympathy for the German Reich, as well as Croat Nationalists, were imprisoned, and those not transferred elsewhere were immediately shot. However, when the enemy troops came closer to the city, these Jews were the first to use every means in an attempt to escape. Part of them tried to flee in boats, and others who attempted to disguise themselves, by hastily undertaken baptism, as Italians or Croats were immediately apprehended. But even the fugitives will not escape their merited fate; and some of them were already given their deserts by our Stukas which pursued their boats." **THE SEARCH FOR REFUGEES IN ROME** The following order by the German Commander in Rome was broadcast to the Italian people by Rome radio on December 22, 1943, indicating a determined effort on the part of the Nazis to round up fugitive and anti-Axis elements: "1. Any change of residence is forbidden in the city of Rome, and exceptions are only permissible with the authorization of the police. "2. House-holders or persons acting for them, as well as the proprietors of boarding houses and similar establishments, must make a list of the names of the residents therein, and the list must be put up in a prominent position at the entrance of each building. The lists must be divided up according to the various floors in the house. "3. Whoever gives lodging to persons who are not registered according to regulations will be punished according to German military law. "4. This order comes into force on publication." **CITATIONS FOR LIBERATORS** In a recent issue of *Jewish Comment* (January 21, 1944) we published an account of the participation in the underground movement in bringing about the Allied occupation of Algiers, from which the outstanding share of Algerian Jews was apparent. One of the Jews who took part in this feat of daring, Lieutenant Jean Dreyfus, died on the night of November 8, 1942, and was posthumously decorated for his share in the exploit. We now learn from the Tunisian Jewish newspaper, *La Voix Juive*, of November 12, 1943, that other leading figures of the local resistance were also granted citations of the Order of the Army, in a ceremony one year after the Allied landings. The citations read as follows: Dr. Aboulker, Henri: "A magnificent soldier, severely wounded during the war of 1914-1918, he was the counselor and guide of those who organized resistance in Algiers. Possessed of a courage and devotion which never failed, he hid arms in his apartment and established there, during the night of November 7-8, the staff headquarters for the resistance groups which issued the first orders for the liberation of the soil of Africa. "He reported at his post in the Algiers radio station, which had just been seized, and broadcast the Order of the Day of the Commander-in-Chief. He conducted the struggle for resistance in North Africa against the German-Italian armistice commission and the clandestine spy organization, thus saving hidden arms. He prevented the arrest of patriots, providing effective protection for those who were preparing the coup. On November 8, 1942, he successfully paralyzed any possible police action. At the moment when the resistance groups were being despatched on their assignments he repaired to the Central Commissariat of Police and directed from that spot the operations and liaison of occupation forces." LIEUTENANT (Dr.) ABOULKER, RAPHAEL: "Chief of an important civil group of Algerian patriots, he prepared the landings in North Africa, conducted himself during the operations as a chief who led his men without a moment of weakness up to the night of November 7-8, giving them an admirable example of devotion to duty, of bravery, and tenacity." ABOULKER, JOSÉ, Medical Reserve: "Showed a remarkable capacity for organization and demonstrated great courage at all times as chief of the civil groups in Algiers preparing for the Allied landings in North Africa; although sought by the police, he carried on his mission to the end, disdaining the perils which threatened him; during the night of November 7-8 he gave an example of courage and magnificent bravery. He personally directed the patriot action from the Central Police Commissariat of Algiers." SECOND LIEUTENANT KARSENTY, BENJAMIN: "A young volunteer to the resistance groups; accompanied his chief, Henri d'Astier de la Vigerie, to Cherchell, assisted in the disembarkation of American officers. At a moment when the arrival of the police was imminent, he helped by his self-possession to learn about the reembarkation of the American representatives, wading into the sea to launch their boat." FIRST LIEUTENANT LIBINE, BENJAMIN: "During the preparation for November 8, 1942, he was arrested and interrogated several times, but he never ceased to participate in the struggle. During the night of November 7-8 he was chief of a group of patriots who were arrested and led his men in such a way that, by the example of his assurance and decision he was able to avoid bloodshed." Published by the WORLD JEWISH CONGRESS 330 WEST 42ND STREET, NEW YORK 18, N. Y. Material contained herein may be used freely, provided that three copies of any such items are sent to JEWISH COMMENT at the above address. February 21, 1944. Mr. J. W. Pehle, Acting Executive Director War Refugee Board Executive Office of the President Washington 25, D.C. Dear Mr. Pehle: Enclosed you will find a marked copy of our publication, Jewish Comment, making reference to matters in which you are interested. Sincerely, Ben Halpern Editor. THE WAR REFUGEE BOARD President Roosevelt's Executive Order establishing a War Refugee Board consisting of three important Cabinet members has been hailed by Jewish communities throughout the world as an historic act of statesmanship which marks a turning point in the attitude of Western democracies to the problems created by Hitler's extermination policy. Military victory of itself cannot save the Jewish people in Europe; it is their tragic fate to be the only people threatened with total destruction as a prelude to the overthrow of their enemies. If they are to be saved in substantial numbers, the means and procedures at the disposal of the United Nations must be used to the full and used at once. The provisions of the Order make it clear that the United States Government is resolved to use all available means and resources to deny victory to Hitler on this front. The Order meets the objection which the World Jewish Congress, among other bodies, had raised to the policy hitherto outlined by the United States, in common with Great Britain. It establishes clearly that it is the policy of the United States Government not only to extend relief to refugees who have escaped from Axis and occupied countries, but also to participate in assisting such escape, as well as to extend relief to persons in danger of death at the hands of the enemy in any other way possible. This is stated distinctly in the preamble of the Order, which declares that "it is the policy of this Government to take all measures within its power to rescue the victims of enemy oppression who are in imminent danger of death and otherwise to afford such victims all possible relief and assistance consistent with the successful prosecution of the war" and, later in the preamble, "in order to effectuate with all possible speed the rescue and relief of such victims of enemy oppression, it is hereby ordered, etc."; similarly, in the second, fourth, *Italics ours. fifth and sixth clauses of the Order reference is made to the rescue and relief of all refugees. The way has thus been cleared for a determined attempt to apply, within the limits consistent with the successful prosecution of the war, all those measures which have been advocated by the World Jewish Congress and other bodies for the rescue and relief of endangered groups in Europe: negotiation, through available channels, with governments for the evacuation of such groups, or at least for better treatment; assistance to Underground circles in defending and, wherever possible, aiding in the escape of such groups; shipment of supplies for relief such as food and medicaments. The President's Order establishes not only the principle that the rescue and relief of Hitler's victims in Europe is an immediate aim of the United States, and an aim which it intends to pursue in common with the other United Nations (see clause 4 in the Order below), but it establishes the necessary machinery for an effective realization of these aims by the United States. The War Refugee Board consists of the heads of the diplomatic, financial and military services of this country, disposing of all the means necessary for the prosecution of rescue and relief work. By the establishment of the Board it is ensured that these means will be utilized most effectively and with the highest degree of coordination. The constitution of the Board as a body "directly responsible to the President" and the instructions given to appoint its own executive director clearly focus responsibility for this vital task, and the various clauses of the Order (1, 2, 3, and 5 especially) provide it with the necessary authority in detail for carrying out its assigned functions. Of particular importance is the clause instructed the State Department to appoint, on the recommendation of the Board, "special attaches with diplomatic status . . . to be stationed abroad in places where it is likely that assistance can be rendered to war refugees," and to work under the supervision of the executive director of the Board. In this way the Board is endowed with sufficient authority at the top. Its functions are clearly and adequately defined, and it is provided with the necessary power to implement these functions, both within the governmental structure in Washington and through operating officials stationed in strategic places as close as possible to the areas with which the Board is concerned. One provision of the Order (clause 4) authorizes the Board and the several Departments chiefly concerned in its activities to accept the "services or contributions of private persons, private organiza- FEBRUARY 4, 1944 tions, etc." This, naturally, is of particular interest to the World Jewish Congress, which has been in constant consultation with all the three Departments, State, Treasury, and War, for a long time past. These Departments know of the facilities of which the World Jewish Congress disposes in places strategically situated for the purposes of rescue and relief. Those facilities are now, as they have always been, at the disposal of the Board and the several Departments, and we may hope that, through the establishment of the Board, these will prove of much greater practical value than they have already shown themselves to be. Reports and Documents Executive Order No. 19417 — January 23, 1944 WHEREAS it is the policy of this Government to take all measures within its power to rescue the victims of enemy oppression who are in imminent danger of death and otherwise to afford such victims all possible relief and assistance consistent with the successful prosecution of the war. Now, THEREFORE, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and the statutes of the United States as President of the United States and as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy, and in order to effectuate with all possible speed the rescue and relief of such victims of enemy oppression, it is hereby ordered as follows: 1. There is established in the Executive Office of the President a war refugee board. The Board shall consist of the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Secretary of War. The board may request the heads of other agencies or departments to participate in its deliberations whenever matters specially affecting such agencies or departments come under consideration. 2. The board shall be charged with the responsibility for seeing that the policy of the Government, as stated in the preamble, is carried out. The functions of the board shall include, without limitation, the development of plans and programs and the inauguration of effective measures for the rescue, transportation and maintenance and relief of the victims of enemy oppression, and the establishment of havens of temporary refuge for such victims. To this end the board through appropriate channels shall take the necessary steps to enlist the cooperation of foreign governments and obtain their participation in the execution of such plans and programs. 3. It shall be the duty of the State, Treasury and War Departments within their respective spheres, to execute at the request of the board, the plans and programs so developed and the measures so inaugurated. It shall be the duty of the heads of such agencies and departments to supply or obtain for the board such information and to extend to the board such supplies, shipping and other specified assistance and facilities, as the board may require in carrying out the provisions of this order. The State Department shall appoint special attaches with diplomatic status, on the recommendation of the board, to be stationed abroad in places where it is likely that assistance can be rendered to war refugees, the duties and responsibilities of such attaches to be defined by the board in consultation with the State Department. 4. The board and the State, Treasury and War Departments are authorized to accept the services or contributions of any private persons, private organizations, State agencies, or agencies of foreign governments in carrying out the purposes of this order. The board shall cooperate with all existing and future international organizations concerned with the problems of refugee rescue, maintenance, transportation, relief, rehabilitation and resettlement. 5. To the extent possible the board shall utilize the personnel, supplies, facilities and services of the State, Treasury and War Departments. In addition the board, within the limits of funds which may be made available, may employ necessary personnel without regard for the Civil Service laws and regulations and the classification act of 1923 as amended, and make provisions for supplies, facilities and services necessary to discharge its responsibilities. The board shall select an executive director who shall serve as its principal executive officer. It shall be the duty of the executive director to arrange for the prompt execution of the plans and programs developed and the measures inaugurated by the board, to supervise the activities of the special attaches and to submit frequent reports to the board on the steps taken for the rescue and relief of war refugees. 6. The board shall be directly responsible to the President in carrying out the policy of this Government as stated in the preamble, and the board shall report to him at frequent intervals concerning the steps taken for the rescue and relief of war refugees and shall make such recommendations as the board may deem appropriate for further action to overcome any difficulties encountered in the rescue and relief of war refugees. THE DANISH CASE: A SUMMARY At this time, four months after the rescue of the Danish Jews during the High Holidays at the beginning of October, a final summary of what results were achieved is possible. The Jews in Denmark numbered about 6,000 nationals and some 2,000 refugees. Of these, according to a statement on October 23 by Henrik de Kauffmann, Danish Ambassador to the United States, some 3,000 Jews had escaped to Sweden. There are now about 10,000 refugees from Denmark, Jewish and non-Jewish, in Sweden. Funds for the support of these refugees have been provided in the main, incidentally, by the Danish Government and also by Swedish charitable institutions and by Jewish organizations in various countries of the world. A growing proportion of the refugees are being placed at work in Sweden. A number of Danish professors, for example, are now teaching in Swedish universities. At the very beginning of the persecution it was reported by the Danish Press Service (October 4) that nearly 3,000 Gestapo and Elite Guard men had succeeded in apprehending 1,000 Jews. On October 16, the same source reported that about 1,000 Jews had been shipped from Copenhagen. On October 30, Svenska Morgenbladet told of 1,500 deportees. The arrests and deportations continued on a smaller scale thereafter, as the Germans rounded down remaining Jews in hiding. They were applied against all of "Jewish race" including some who had been promised exemption, such as half-Jews and citizens of neutral or other foreign countries. Thus Dagens Nyheter, Stockholm, reported on November 30, 1943 that thirty Jews detained in the Horserød internment camp after unsuccessful attempts to escape to Sweden had been released owing to foreign diplomatic intervention. The Swedish paper, Ny Dag, on December 2, 1943, identified and named one hundred Jews who had been deported from the Horserød internment camp to Terezin ("Theresienstadt"), a German prison town for Jews. It is understood that this is the destination to which all the Danish Jews who were seized have been sent. As late as December 19 it was reported that 52 children were sent from the Vestre prison in Copenhagen to their parents in Terezin. The last Jews in the internment camp of Horserød had been deported on December 14, according to the Danish Press Service. Public Reaction in Denmark The whole story of the Danish effort to rescue the Jews in their country cannot be told until after the war. But the public record of overwhelming sympathy voiced by all sections of the Danish people is one of the most remarkable manifestations of conscience in this war. According to a Dagens Nyheter report on October 13, 1943, the Danish Foreign Office realized what was happening in Denmark on the afternoon of October 1 and attempted to intercede at an appointment scheduled for that evening at 6 P.M. The appointment was cancelled on half an hour's notice, and all telephone lines were disconnected, including those to the Ministry. At 9:15 the Danish Foreign Office was informed that "elements hostile to the State" were being arrested. At 9:30 Danish officials met the German representative, Best, learned officially that by "elements hostile to the State" meant Jews, communicated the King's protest, and attempted to persuade Best at least to intern the Jews in Denmark instead of deporting them. Best agreed to refer this suggestion to Berlin, and made various other promises: that only fully fit Jews would be interned; that only those suitable for work would be sent to Germany while others would go to Bohemia, where they would "be looked after in a suitable manner," even being permitted to correspond with their Danish relatives; that (though plundering had already occurred) the property of the deported Jews would not be confiscated. These promises were repeated to the Danish Foreign Office on the following days, both orally and in writing, but most of them were not kept. The wave of protest which swept Denmark after the German deportations got under way spread to all sections of the population. On October 3 (according to Svenska Morgonbladet, October 6, 1943), the following pastoral letter of the Danish bishops was read in all churches: "Everywhere where the Jews are persecuted it is the duty of Christian congregations to protest, in the first place because we will never forget that Christ was born of the Virgin Mary according to God's promise, to the distress of the Israelites. In the history of the Jews before the birth of Christ there is to be found the preparation for the salvation which God had prepared for all human beings. This is shown by the fact that the Old Testament is part of our Bible. Secondly, because the persecution of the Jews conflicts with the humanitarian precepts and the altruism of the preachings of the Church. Christ said that every individual is dear to God. In the third place, because the persecution of the Jews conflicts with the sense of justice of the Danish people traditional in Danish culture through the centuries. According to the Constitution all Danish citizens have secured equal rights and a responsibility towards the law. We interpret religious liberty as the right to exercise our worship according to our vocation and conscience, and so that race and religion will never mean that a human being is deprived of his rights, liberty, or property. Regardless of differing religious views, we wish to do in order that our Jewish brothers and sisters may secure the same liberty as ourselves, which we consider more precious than life itself. "We, the leaders of the Danish Church, fully realize that it is our duty to be law-abiding citizens, who must undoubtedly oppose those who exercise authority but at the same time our conscience compels us to support justice and to protest against every violation of it. Therefore we will, on all occasions, clearly confess to the world that we shall obey God rather than man." One of the inducements offered to the Danes in the attempt to gain their sympathy or at least acquiescence was the release of prominent interned Danish officers on the occasion of the deportation of the Jews. The bribe, according to Dagens Nyheder, October 8, 1943, was scornfully rejected and as a protest the officers refused to accept their release. On October 12, 1943 the chairmen of twenty-one youth organizations, the Academic Architects' Association, the Danish Agricultural Association, the Danish Engineers' Association, the Danish Medical Association, the Danish Veterinarians' Association, the Danish Dentists' Association, the Lawyers' Union, the Danish Chemists' Association, and the Danish Teachers' Association sent Dr. Best a note of protest, declaring: "The Danish population regards the Jews as fellow citizens on an equal footing with any other Danish citizens, and no antagonism exists between them and the Jews. The action against the Jews is therefore regarded as an action against the entire people, and only hampers the endeavors of our Associations to maintain quiet and order during present conditions. The undersigned Associations therefore earnestly request you to discontinue the action which is being taken against the Jews in this country." The Danish Government Officials' Joint Committee, representing thirty civil service organizations, requested the Foreign Office to forward to the German authorities the joint Committee's protest against the internment and the deportation of Danish citizens by the Germans. Such measures, declared their statement, absolutely conflict with the principles of justice traditional in Denmark, and have provoked so much indignation and bitterness among the entire Danish people that the great continuation of the work of the functionaries is at stake (Dagens Nyheter, October 12, 1943.) Other groups which protested included the Associations Der Frisk Nyt, the Industrial Council, the Danish Employers' Association, the Industrial Council of the Workers' Movement, the Danish Trade Union Council, the provisional Chamber of Commerce, the Shipowners' Association, and the Agricultural Council. (Danish Press Service, October 11, 1943.) Danish Jews in Terezin The old fortress town of Terezin in Czechoslovakia has long been used by the Germans as a dungeon specially intended for Czech, German, Austrian, and Western European Jews. Although conditions there are bad enough (upwards of 50,000 Jews, most of them elderly, are now living there in quarters made available by clearing out 7,000 Germans), Terezin is apparently being administered on conditions which will allow the Germans to present it as an exhibit to prove they treated Jews humanely—that is, its inhabitants are not being killed off. The Germans have even permitted food packages to be sent in, as well as mail. Possibly because of the strong attitude of protest taken by the Danes, it seems that the Germans have kept at least a part of Best's promises; they permit the Danish Jews to write home. Svenska Dagbladet on November 23, 1943, stated that 500 post cards had reached the Copenhagen municipal authorities from Terezin and were being distributed all over Denmark. After negotiations with the German authorities, the Danes obtained permission to send a limited supply of clothing to the internees. TOTALITARIAN SCIENCE Academic readers of Jewish Comment will be interested in hearing of the assignments to which Nazi psychologists are currently devoting themselves. The German News Agency (November 8, 1943) reports from Berlin: At the annual meeting of the German Society for Psychology in Weimar, a number of papers by well-known German research workers on the psychological problems of the peoples of the Eastern Area were discussed. Research was directed to three points: First, examinations to determine the subjects' inherent expressive and creative forces and standard of performance; second, to extensive racial-biological records; and third, to serial comparative examinations of nations living in the same or very similar areas, from a cultural point of view. The comparison of the results, we are told, assures a high degree of objective truth. The examinations carried out during the past few years not only yielded fresh evidence of the profound differences in the mental make-up of the Eastern peoples, but led to other very important discoveries. Conclusions with highly significant implications were reached as to the possibility of a co-existence of Central and West European peoples with those of the East. The psychological effects of mixing several of the Eastern nations were also investigated. Such a step, it appears, would entail far-reaching disturbances of psychological harmony, such as a reduction of vitality, a marked prevalence of exhibitionism, a mentality of social seclusion and a drop in the standard of efficiency. The realization, everywhere confirmed, that nationalities and racial groups in the East in no way correspond to linguistic distribution, but differ fundamentally in most of the area examined, is said to be of the utmost importance. Published by the WORLD JEWISH CONGRESS 330 WEST 42ND STREET, NEW YORK 18, N. Y. Material contained herein may be used freely, provided that three copies of any such items are sent to JEWISH COMMENT at the above address. In reply please refer to: 132 FEB 18 1944 Dear Mr. Halpern: Thank you for your letter of February 10, 1944, enclosing a copy of your publication, "Jewish Comment". Very truly yours, [Signature] J. W. Pehle Acting Executive Director Mr. Ben Halpern, Editor, World Jewish Congress, 330 West 42nd Street, New York, New York. RDButchisonagr 2-16-44 February 10, 1944. Mr. John .. Pehle, Actg. Exec. Director War Refugee Board Washington, D.C. Dear Sir: Enclosed you will find a marked copy of our publication, Jewish Comment, making reference to matters in which you are interested. Sincerely, Ben Haipner, Editor.
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Thanks for downloading! This flipbook is part of a series of flipbooks. Each book is full of different themed activities for kids. Visit Hands-On Teaching Ideas to SHOP Activities and Products on the Blog Click image to view. TERMS OF USE Thank you for purchasing! By downloading this resource, you are agreeing that the contents are the property of Hands-On Teaching Ideas and licensed to you only for personal/classroom use as a single user. I retain the copyright and reserve all rights to this product. YOU MAY: - Use free and purchased items for your own personal or classroom use for your children/students. - Reference this product in blog posts, at seminars, professional development, workshops, or other such venues, ONLY if both credit is given to myself as the author, and a link back to my blog at teachingideas.ca. - Purchase licenses at a great discount for other people to use this resource. YOU MAY NOT: - Claim this work as your own, alter the files in any way, or remove copyright / watermarks. - Sell the files or combine them into another unit for sale / free. - Post this document for sale / free elsewhere on the internet (this includes Google Doc links on blogs). - Making copies of purchased items to share with others is strictly forbidden and is a violation of the TOU / law. Thank you for abiding by universally accepted codes of professional ethics while using this product. If you encounter an issue with your file, notice an error, or are in any way experiencing a problem, please contact me and I will be more than happy to help sort it out. You can message me at email@example.com Clipart and Fonts Created by EduClips Clipart APL fonts A Primary Kind of Life Creating4 the CLASSROOM Mrs. Castellanos Creating4 The Classroom How To Use This Product This activity booklet is easy to put together! Just follow the steps below to create the booklet. *The example below is for the Fall Activity Booklet, however all ©Hands On Teaching Ideas activity booklets are put together using the same steps.* Print all pages you need (color or black and white). Cut on the dashed line below the page title. i.e. cut below “Fall Math” and “Crossword Puzzle” etc. Once all pages have been cut, stack pages together so that all “Previous Page Here” on the top of the pages are lined up. Staple front cover to the rest of the activity pages or glue pages together along the top. Your booklet is complete! First Days Of School Activity Book Name: ________________ On my first day of school I felt ________________ Draw your face to show how you felt on your first day. First Day Feelings First Weeks of School My name is ____________________________ My teacher’s name is _______________________ My school is ______________________________ I am in grade _____________________________ My self portrait All About Me My favorite things we have done so far in school are... Draw pictures to show 2 of your favorite things. Favorite Things A few things I hope to learn are... Print or draw 4 different things you hope to learn. Learning Goals My Classroom Draw a map of your classroom. Black And White Copies First Days Of School Activity Book Name: ________________ On my first day of school I felt ________________ Draw your face to show how you felt on your first day. First Day Feelings First Weeks of School My name is ____________________________ My teacher’s name is _______________________ My school is ______________________________ I am in grade _____________________________ My self portrait All About Me My favorite things we have done so far in school are... Draw pictures to show 2 of your favorite things. Favorite Things A few things I hope to learn are... Print or draw 4 different things you hope to learn. Learning Goals My Classroom Draw a map of your classroom.
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Pamela Friedman & Ronald Bailey present Virginia Premiere FIREFLIES By Donja R. Love Sponsored by The City of Charlottesville Department of Social Equity Directed by Ti Ames STUDY GUIDE FIREFLIES Written by Donja R. Love March 29–April 20, 2024, in the Founders Theater Presented by Pamela Friedman and Ronald Bailey Sponsored by the Office of Social Equity of the City of Charlottesville Directed By Ti Ames The play runs for approximately 1 hour and 40 minutes with a 15-minute intermission. "This is language as lush catharsis, language as endurance, language as empowerment ... It feels like going to church—the kind of church where the minister thunders and rhapsodizes, aiming both to appall and exalt." – New York Magazine/Vulture "A jaw-dropping and explosively dramatic two-hander. Love crafts an intimate story that comes to feel cosmic in its enormity." – Theatermania.com "Using an artful mix of naturalism and expressionism, playwright Donja R. Love weaves (many) themes into a compelling 95 minutes that ... beautifully express the psychological weight on those who seek to sustain people's optimism and hope amid relentless violence and grief." — Chicago Sun Times Study Guide compiled for Live Arts by Education Director Ti Ames Promotional photo by Will Kerner featuring Arianna Jones. Study Guide / Table of Contents Plot Summary .................................................................................................................. 4 Time & Setting ................................................................................................................. 4 Characters ....................................................................................................................... 5 About the Playwright ...................................................................................................... 6 Performance History ....................................................................................................... 7 About the Director .......................................................................................................... 8 The 16th Street Baptist Church Bombing of 1963 ........................................................... 9 Emmett, the “Firefly”: Racialized Violence Against Black Youth in the 20th Century ............................................................................................................................................. 14 From Selma to Birmingham: Stained Glass Memories of the Civil Rights Movement ............................................................................................................................................. 19 Talkback Information ....................................................................................................... 21 Additional Resources ....................................................................................................... 22 Works Cited ..................................................................................................................... 23 Somewhere in the Jim Crow South, the sky is on fire. A pregnant Olivia’s fierce speechwriting is the true force behind her charismatic husband, Charles, and his successful Movement, galvanizing people to march toward freedom. When four little girls are bombed in a church, Olivia and Charles’ marriage is threatened—as this tragedy and years of civil unrest leave Olivia believing that “this world ain’t no place to raise a colored child.” Note from the script: FIREFLIES is part 2 of a trilogy, *The Love* Plays, that explores Queer love through Black History (slavery, the Civil Rights Movement, the Black Lives Matter movement). Part 1 is *Sugar In Our Wounds*. Part 3 is *In The Middle*. **Time & Setting** Fall, 1963 Somewhere down South, where the sky is on fire **Characters** - **OLIVIA**: Woman, Black, early 30s; she’s weary—it’s as if she’s carrying the weight of this fiery world. She writes a lot, she smokes a lot, she stares off a lot, she hears bombs a lot. - **CHARLES**: Man, Black, early 30s; Olivia’s husband, he’s a preacher. Though he drinks a lot, it’s something about him that we like—that makes us feel like he’s the type of man that can lead people through the smoke and into the promised land. Rehearsal photo by Madison Patterson, featuring (l-r) Simeon Brown and Arianna Jones. About the Playwright DONJA R. LOVE (he/him/his) is Black, Queer, HIV-Positive, and thriving. A Philly native, he and his work examine the forced absurdity of life for those who identify as Black, Queer, and HIV-Positive—a diverse intersection filled with eloquent stories that challenge the white supremacist, heteronormative structures that exist in American culture. He’s the recipient of the Antonyo’s inaugural Langston Hughes Award, the Helen Merrill Award, the Laurents/Hatcher Award and the Princess Grace Playwriting Award. Other honors include The Lark’s Van Lier New Voices Fellowship, The Playwrights Realm’s Writing Fellowship, and the Philadelphia Adult Grand Slam Poetry Champion. He’s the co-founder of The Each-Other Project, an organization that helps build community and provide visibility, through art and advocacy, for LGBTQ+ People of Color. He’s a graduate of the Lila Acheson Wallace American Playwrights Program at The Juilliard School. Select stage-plays include: *The Love* Plays, *Soft*, *The Trade*, *The North Star*, *A Ugandan Family*, and *One in Two* (Terrence McNally Award winner). Select film work: *Modern Day Black Gay* (web series), and *Once A Star* (short film). 8 Performance History The world premiere of FIREFLIES was presented by Atlantic Theater Company. FIREFLIES was developed in part with the support of Rising Circle Theater Collective at the INKtank Play Development Lab for Emerging Artists of Color. Rehearsal photo by Madison Patterson featuring (foreground-rear): Simeon Brown and Arianna Jones. About the Director TI AMES (they/them) is an educator, singer, and theater maker with ancestral roots in Charlottesville. A graduate of Oberlin College, Ti is the education director at Live Arts and has taught theater and African-American history at the Renaissance School. When not working, they can be found directing, writing, and adapting plays at Live Arts and with the Charlottesville Players Guild or performing gigs with Richelle Claiborne, Leslie Scott Jones, and Vibe Riot. Ti is most passionate about their work with children and young adults, specifically teaching the importance of consent, healthy boundaries, and self/community care. Directing credits include: *The Brothers Size*, *Olympus* (Oberlin College); *She Kills Monsters: Virtual Realms* (Renaissance School); *Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom* (Charlottesville Players Guild); *RENT*; *CRUMBS FROM THE TABLE OF JOY*; and *YOU DON’T KNOW JACKSH*T ABOUT THE MOTHMAN* (Live Arts). The 16th Street Baptist Church Bombing of 1963 Although FIREFLIES is loosely based on the private lives of Civil Rights leaders of the later ‘50s and ‘60s, the play begins on September 15, 1963—the same day as the historic 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham, Alabama. In the play, Olivia constantly hears and sees bombs going off in her head, alluding to the 16th St Baptist church bombing and other racially motivated attacks on Black communities at the time. The following article details the fatal attack, which killed and injured many Black church congregants, including four Black girls who are mentioned by name in FIREFLIES: Addie Mae Collins, Denise McNair, Carole Robertson, and Cynthia Wesley. This article was originally published by the National Park Service. It was last updated on November 22, 2023. The 16th Street Baptist was a large and prominent church located downtown, just blocks from Birmingham's commercial district and City Hall. Just before 11 o'clock on September 15, 1963, instead of rising to begin prayers, the congregation was knocked to the ground. As a bomb exploded under the steps of the church, they sought safety under the pews and shielded each other from falling debris. On September 15, 1963, the congregation of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama, greeted each other before the start of Sunday service. In the basement of the church, five young girls, two of them sisters, gathered in the ladies room in their best dresses, happily chatting about the first days of the new school year. It was Youth Day and excitement filled the air; they were going to take part in the Sunday adult service. Just before 11 o'clock, instead of rising to begin prayers the congregation was knocked to the ground. As a bomb exploded under the steps of the church, they sought safety under the pews and shielded each other from falling debris. In the basement, four little girls were killed—14-year-olds Addie Mae Collins, Denise McNair, Carole Robertson, and 11-year-old Cynthia Wesley. Addie's sister Sarah survived, but lost her right eye. In the moments after the explosion, questions hung in the air—"Where is my loved one?" "Are they ok?" "How much longer can this violence last?" They did not ask if this was an accident, they knew that this was a bomb that had exploded as it had dozens of times before in "Bombingham." **The Aftermath** Upon learning of the bombing at the Church, Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., sent a telegram to Alabama Governor George Wallace, a staunch and vocal segregationist, stating bluntly: 'The blood of our little children is on your hands." The brutal attack and the deaths of the four little girls shocked the nation and drew international attention to the violent struggle for civil rights in Birmingham. Many whites were as outraged by the incident as Blacks and offered services and condolences to the families. Over 8,000 people attended the girls' funeral service at Reverend John Porter's Sixth Avenue Baptist Church. The deaths of the four girls was followed two months later by the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, causing an outpouring of national grief, galvanizing the civil rights movement and ensuring the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. **Why This Church?** 16th Street Baptist was a large and prominent church located downtown, just blocks from Birmingham's commercial district and City Hall. Since its construction in 1911, the church had served as the centerpiece of the city's African American community, functioning as a meeting place, social center, and lecture hall. Because of its size, location, and importance to the community, the church served as headquarters for civil rights mass meetings and rallies in the early 1960s. Birmingham was the most segregated city in the United States, and in April 1963, after an invitation by Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth to come help desegregate Birmingham, the city became the focus of Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The desegregation campaign conceived by Shuttleworth was known as "Project C" and was to be a series of nonviolent protests and boycotts. Despite resistance from some of the church's leadership and members of the congregation, the 16th Street Baptist Church joined the SCLC in their campaign. The church became the departure point for many of the demonstrations that took place in the city. On May 2, 1963, students ranging in age from eight to 18 gathered at the church to march downtown and talk to the new mayor about segregation. After leaving the church they were met by police and many were jailed. By the time the "Children's Crusade" and the ensuing demonstrations ended on May 10, thousands of children and adults had been injured by fire hoses and attack dogs and incarcerated by order of Commissioner of Public Safety "Bull" Connor. The church came to be viewed by many as a symbol and a rallying place for civil rights activists; and it became the focal point for racial tensions and white hostility toward the civil rights movement in Birmingham. **Why Then?** Due to the success of the Birmingham Campaign, the city agreed on May 10, 1963, to desegregate lunch counters, restrooms, drinking fountains, and fitting rooms, to hire African Americans in stores as salesmen and clerks, and to release the jailed demonstrators. White segregationists opposed desegregation, however, and violence continued to plague the city. On May 11, a bomb destroyed the Gaston Motel where Martin Luther King, Jr., had been staying, and another damaged the house of King's brother, A. D. King. NAACP attorney Arthur Shores' house was firebombed on August 20 and September 4 in retaliation for his attempts to help integrate the Birmingham public schools. On September 9, President John F. Kennedy took control of the Alabama National Guard, which Governor George Wallace was using to block court-ordered desegregation of public schools in Birmingham. Around that time, Robert Chambliss, who would later be named as a suspect in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing, foreshadowed the violence to come when he told his niece, "Just wait until Sunday morning and they'll beg us to let them segregate." **Eventual Justice** The FBI office in Birmingham launched an immediate investigation. In a 1965 memo to J. Edgar Hoover, FBI agents named four men as primary suspects for the bombing—Thomas Blanton, Robert Chambliss, Bobby Frank Cherry, and Herman Cash. All four men were members of Birmingham's Cahaba River Group, a splinter group of the Eastview Klavern #13 chapter of the Ku Klux Klan. Eastview Klavern #13 was considered one of the most violent groups in the South and was responsible for the 1961 attacks on the Freedom Riders at the Trailways bus station in Birmingham. --- *Martin Luther King Jr. at the Lincoln Memorial for his “I Have a Dream” speech during the March on Washington, D.C., Aug. 28, 1963.* *Photo credit: Talking Points Memo* The investigation ended in 1968 with no indictments. According to the FBI, although they had identified the four suspects, witnesses were reluctant to talk and physical evidence was lacking. In addition, information from FBI surveillances was not admissible in court. Hoover chose not to approve arrests, stating, "The chance of prosecution in state or federal court is remote." Although Chambliss was convicted on an explosives charge, no charges were filed in the 1960s for the bombing of the church. In 1971, Alabama Attorney General Bill Baxley reopened the case, requesting evidence from the FBI and building trust with witnesses who had been reluctant to testify. Investigators discovered that, while the FBI had accumulated evidence against the bombers, under orders from Hoover, they had not disclosed the evidence to county prosecutors. Robert Chambliss was convicted of murder on November 14, 1977; however, it would be decades before the other suspects were tried for their crimes. In 2000, the FBI assisted Alabama state authorities in bringing charges against the remaining suspects. On May 1, 2001, Thomas Blanton was convicted and sentenced to life in prison. In 2002, Bobby Frank Cherry was convicted as well. His boasts that he was the one who planted the bomb next to the church wall helped send Cherry to prison for life. Herman Cash died in 1994 having never been prosecuted for the murders of the four girls. A project through the African American Civil Rights Grant Program, which works to document, interpret, and preserve the sites and stories related to the African American struggle to gain equal rights, is funding ongoing rehabilitation work at the 16th Street Baptist Church. Emmett, the "Firefly": Racialized violence Against Black Youth in the 20th Century In Scenes 2 and 3 of FIREFLIES, Olivia and Charles discuss a young Black boy, James Tilbert, in Charlotte, North Carolina who was accused of touching a white woman and thrown in jail because of it. James' mother, Francine, calls Olivia to ask Charles to come to Charlotte and speak with James and his family. Before Charles is able to make it to Charlotte, Olivia receives a call from Francine that James was found dead in his jail cell, most likely for nefarious reasons. Even if James Tilbert is a fictional character, his story is not unheard of in 20th century America, especially in the Jim Crow South. Black people, young and old, men and women, were constantly accused of disrespect and abuse toward their white counterparts; these accusations were often baseless, but because of the political and racial climate at the time, Black people were incarcerated unjustly. It can be argued that the most infamous case that parallels James' in FIREFLIES is that of Emmett Till. The following article tells his story, and how his community rallied behind him and his memory to fight injustice, even today. African American History & Culture. It is entitled, “Emmett Till’s Death Inspired a Movement.” *Emmett Till and his mother, Mamie Till Mobley* *Photo credit: Smithsonian* The alleged teasing of white store clerk Carolyn Bryant by the 14 year-old African American Emmett Till led to his brutal murder at the hands of Bryant’s husband Roy and his half-brother J.W. Milam, forcing the American public to grapple with the menace of violence in the Jim Crow South. According to court documents, Till, who was visiting family for the summer in Money, Mississippi, from Chicago, purchased two-cents worth of bubble gum from the Bryant Grocery store and said, “Bye, baby” over his shoulder to Carolyn Bryant as he exited the store. That night, Roy Bryant and J.W. Milam ran into Emmett’s uncle’s home, where he was staying, dragged Till from his bed, beat him to the point of disfigurement, and shot him before tossing his body into the Tallahatchie River with a cotton-gin fan attached with barbed wire laced to his neck to weigh him down. Bryant and Milam maintained their innocence and would eventually be acquitted of the murder by an all-white, all male jury. They later sold their story for $4,000 to *Look* magazine—bragging about the murder as a form of Southern justice implemented to protect white womanhood. For African Americans, the murder of Till was evidence of the decades-old codes of violence exacted upon Black men and women for breaking the rules of white supremacy in the Deep South. Particularly for Black males, who found themselves under constant threat of attack or death for mostly imagined sexual advances toward white women, Till’s murder reverberated a need for immediate change. Carolyn Bryant testified in court that Till had grabbed her hand, and after she pulled away, he followed her behind the counter, clasped her waist, and using vulgar language, told her that he had been with white women before. At 82, some 60 years later, Bryant, confessed to Duke University professor Timothy B. Tyson that she had lied about this entire event. Members of Citizens’ Councils (white supremacist civic organizations that used public policy and electoral power to reinforce Jim Crow), celebrated the acquittal, further threatening those who had testified against Bryant and Milam and members of the local NAACP. But rather than bending to the intimidation and psychic horror caused by the savage murder, Till’s family, along with national newspapers and civil rights organizations—including the NAACP—used his death to strike a blow against racial injustice and terrorism. A boycott of the Bryant Grocery caused its closure shortly after the trial, and the Bryants and Milam moved to Texas. Till’s mother, Mamie Till Mobley insisted on an open casket at his funeral services, which were attended by more than 50,000 people and chronicled by *Jet* magazine. The photo of Till with his mother earlier that year alongside *Jet’s* photo of his mutilated corpse horrified the nation and became a catalyst for the burgeoning civil rights movement. One hundred days after Till’s murder, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white passenger on a Montgomery city bus and was arrested for violating Alabama’s bus segregation laws. Reverend Jesse Jackson told *Vanity Fair* (1988) that “Rosa said she thought about going to the back of the bus. But then she thought about Emmett Till and she couldn’t do it.” *Martin Luther King Jr. and Rosa Parks* *Photo credit: Smithsonian* The Women’s Democratic Council, under Jo Ann Robinson, called for a citywide bus boycott and asked a young, 26-year-old minister to help. His name was Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. King was deeply impacted by Till’s abduction and murder, delivering a sermon just days after Bryant and Milam’s acquittal (“Pride Versus Humility: The Parable of the Pharisee and the Publican,” at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church), in which he lamented Till and the lack of moral piety among violent segregationists. “The white men who lynch Negroes worship Christ. That jury in Mississippi, which a few days ago in the Emmett Till case, freed two white men from what might be considered one of the most brutal and inhuman crimes of the 20th century, worships Christ. The perpetrators of many of the greatest evils in our society worship Christ. This trouble is that all people, like the Pharisee, go to church regularly, they pay their tithes and offerings, and observe religiously the various ceremonial requirements. The trouble with these people, however, is that they worship Christ emotionally and not morally. They cast his ethical and moral insights behind the gushing smoke of emotional adoration and ceremonial piety,” King said. Dr. King would use the momentum of outrage to galvanize the nation against social and racial injustice, invoking Till’s murder when talking about “the evil of racial injustice” in several speeches, as well as “the crying voice of a little Emmett C. Till, screaming from the rushing waters in Mississippi” in a 1963 Mother’s Day sermon. Eight years later, on the anniversary of Emmett Till’s murder, Dr. King delivered his iconic “I Have a Dream” speech at the March on Washington. For more information on this article, please see Emmett Till’s Death Inspired a Movement | National Museum of African American History and Culture. From Selma to Birmingham: Stained Glass Memories of the Civil Rights Movement Scenic Designer Bee Smith designed a beautiful set for FIREFLIES. After many talks with FIREFLIES Director Ti Ames, Bee decided to include several surrealist elements into the scenic design to give the illusion that the set itself had been affected by the bombings that Olivia hears in her head. For example, the walls of the set are old and worn, sooted and weathered by explosions and decay. The set itself sits on cement blocks, commonly used to provide stability to structures that have been destroyed. The doorways that lead into the kitchen and into the bedroom of the Grace household were designed to look like church door archways, tying together Olivia and Charles’ connection with the church. The set is built away from any supporting wall, creating a “floating island” effect that illustrates Olivia’s mental state. Bee also chose to include an homage to 20th century Baptist churches by designing a stained glass window that hangs over the sink in the kitchen. The window is slightly askew, a nod to the surrealist aspects to the scenic design. The stained glass pattern itself is directly inspired by a stained glass window found at the Green Street Baptist Church in Selma, Alabama. According to Middle Tennessee State University’s Center for Historic Preservation, the window was originally constructed in 1922. The featured window pane design features, “an abstracted, art nouveau-style flower motif extending up the center of both panes.” Here is an excerpt from the historical notes from MTSU’s Digital Collection regarding the Green Street Baptist Church: “During the 1960s, the church enjoyed a thriving congregation, and its kitchen was used to prepare meals for marchers in the Selma to Montgomery March in 1965. The considerable space in both the education wing and the main sanctuary were also used to provide temporary housing for civil rights workers. On June 5, 1964, the church hosted a mass meeting featuring Ralph Abernathy of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Following the meeting, someone threw a rock at some of the deputized possemen who had surrounded the church during the meeting. The possemen responded by attacking the crowd as it tried to exit the church, using night sticks and tear gas. The riot continued in the neighborhood, injuring many of the Black residents and putting some in the hospital. Homes up to a block and a half away from the church were damaged, with broken windows and porch lights. Two white journalists were targeted and their cameras destroyed by possemen.” In Bee’s FIREFLIES scenic design, the stained glass window has a warmer color palette to match with the set. The stained glass design itself is a replica of the original window at Green Street Baptist Church. The window is a beautiful homage to the churches of the Civil Rights Movement which were integral in supporting Black communities fighting for equity in the 20th century. Promotional photo by Will Kerner featuring Arianna Jones and Simeon Brown. Talkback Information The audience talkback with members of the cast and crew of FIREFLIES is scheduled for 9:30pm on Thursday, April 11, in the Founders Theater (123 E. Water Street, 3rd floor), facilitated by Education Director Ti Ames. You do not need to purchase a ticket to the April 11 show to attend the talkback. This program is provided free of charge to the Charlottesville community. Please email firstname.lastname@example.org with questions about the event. Rehearsal photo by Madison Patterson featuring Simeon Brown. **Additional Resources** - Donja R. Love's intense and intimate play 'Fireflies' has its Virginia premiere in Charlottesville Friday - Director Mikael Burke in conversation with Playwright Donja R. Love | FIREFLIES • Dorie Ladner, Unheralded Civil Rights Heroine, Dies at 81 – The New York Times • Addie Mae Collins, Denise McNair, Carole Robertson, & Cynthia Wesley | Learning for Justice • Opinion: She admitted that her story was a lie. Now Emmett Till’s accuser will never be brought to justice | CNN Works Cited • Donja R. Love. • Donja R. Love – Curious Theatre Company • 16th Street Baptist Church Bombing (1963) (U.S. National Park Service) • Emmett Till’s Death Inspired a Movement | National Museum of African American History and Culture • Green Street Baptist Church: interior view of stained glass window 12 – Southern Places – Middle Tennessee State University Digital Collections Promotional photo by Will Kerner featuring Arianna Jones and Simeon Brown. The following is a list of the most common types of data breaches and their causes: 1. **Phishing Attacks**: These occur when an attacker sends a fraudulent email or message that appears to be from a legitimate source, such as a bank or online retailer. The goal is to trick the recipient into clicking on a link or downloading malware. 2. **Malware**: This refers to any software designed to harm or disrupt a computer system. Malware can be delivered through emails, websites, or other sources and can cause a wide range of problems, including data theft and destruction. 3. **Ransomware**: This type of malware encrypts a victim's files and demands payment in exchange for the decryption key. Ransomware attacks have become increasingly common in recent years and can cause significant damage to businesses and individuals alike. 4. **Insider Threats**: These occur when an employee or former employee uses their access to sensitive information to steal or leak data. Insider threats can be difficult to detect and prevent, but they can have devastating consequences for organizations. 5. **Physical Attacks**: These include theft of physical devices, such as laptops or smartphones, which contain sensitive data. Physical attacks can also involve tampering with servers or other hardware to gain unauthorized access to data. 6. **Social Engineering**: This involves manipulating people into revealing confidential information or performing actions that could lead to a breach. Social engineering attacks can be highly effective because they take advantage of human psychology and trust. 7. **Data Loss**: This occurs when data is accidentally deleted, corrupted, or lost due to technical issues or human error. Data loss can be difficult to recover and can result in significant financial losses for organizations. 8. **Third-Party Breaches**: These occur when a third-party vendor or service provider experiences a data breach, resulting in exposure of customer data. 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Learning and Teaching Policy ## Contents 1. What is this policy about? ................................................................. 4 2. What is the rationale behind this policy? ........................................... 4 3. Who should read and respond to this policy? .................................... 5 4. What are the aims and objectives of our Teaching & Learning Policy? .... 5 5. What are our curriculum intentions at Sporting Chance CIC? ............... 6 6. How is the curriculum implemented at Sporting Chance CIC? ............... 6 6.1 What does our curriculum give exposure to? .................................. 6 6.2 What are the 6 Areas of Learning and Experience: .......................... 6 6.3 How to we respond to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child? .. 7 6.4.1 The law .................................................................................. 7 6.4.2 Understanding terminology .................................................. 7 6.4.3 Identifying political issues ..................................................... 8 6.4.4 Balance in teaching ............................................................... 9 6.4.5 Age-appropriate teaching ...................................................... 11 6.4.6 Choosing resources ............................................................ 12 6.4.7 Sensitive political issues ....................................................... 13 6.4.8 Expressing personal opinions .............................................. 15 6.4.9 Using external agencies ....................................................... 16 6.4.10 Choosing external agencies ............................................... 17 6.4.11 External agencies with extreme political positions ................. 18 6.4.12 Hosting external agencies .................................................. 19 6.4.13 Discussing political issues .................................................. 21 6.4.14 Political activity by pupils .................................................. 21 6.4.15 During political events ....................................................... 23 6.4.16 Public displays and communications ................................. 24 6.4.17 Role of local authorities, school proprietors, academy trusts and headteachers .......................... 25 6.4.18 Concerns about political impartiality .................................. 25 7. What is the approach/overview of our curriculum? ............................ 26 8. What does a typical daily/weekly timetable look like? .......................... 28 9. What hidden learning takes place? .................................................. 30 10. What do learning sessions at Sporting Chance CIC look like? .............. 30 11. How are learning sessions planned at Sporting Chance CIC? ........................................... 30 12. How is assessment used in Sporting Chance CIC? .......................................................... 32 13. Adult Led Assessment ..................................................................................................... 33 13.2 Target setting .............................................................................................................. 33 13.3 Reporting to parents .................................................................................................... 33 13.4 Feedback to pupils ...................................................................................................... 33 14. Pupil Tracking .................................................................................................................. 34 15. Implementation and Feedback ....................................................................................... 34 16. Young learners’ response to task and feedback ............................................................. 35 17. Equal Opportunities ......................................................................................................... 35 18. Monitoring and Review ................................................................................................... 35 19. Appendix 1 - Core practice expectations for colleagues ............................................. 36 | Policy Owner: | Gareth Brenton | |---------------|----------------| | Queries to be directed to: | Gareth Brenton | | Signed: | [Signature] | This policy will be reviewed annually. Sporting Chance Newport CIC reserves the right to amend this policy, following consultation, where appropriate. | Date created: | November 2024 | |---------------|---------------| | Date of next review: | November 2025 | 1. What is this policy about? This learning and teaching curriculum policy sets out the intention of our curriculum approach, how it is implemented in our learning sessions and how we measure the impact of our curriculum for our students. This policy has been created to align our approach to feedback, marking and assessment alongside our curriculum content and delivery. At key moments throughout the learning and teaching process at Sporting Chance CIC, other essential policies related to learning and teaching should be referenced, this includes: ALN Qualifications Exams 2. What is the rationale behind this policy? At Sporting Chance CIC we believe effective assessment provides information to improve learning and teaching, particularly the planning. We give our learners regular feedback on their learning so that they understand what it is that they need to do better. The efficiency of our assessment comes from our approach to effective verbal, written and typed marking and feedback. Sector leading marking and feedback encourages, motivates and provides steps to the next stage of learning; forms part of the assessment for the learning process, and is an assessment of a learner’s progress. Sporting Chance CIC aims to provide consistently effective feedback to learners in order to progress their learning. Our lesson plans are crafted using detailed knowledge of assessment of our learner and we give parents regular reports on progress so that staff, learners, parents, carers and/or guardians are all working together to raise standards and outcomes. Our mission is to enable young learners to progress and succeed in sustained education, employment and training. We do this by engaging young learners positively with their purpose through learning and future life aspirations. Our learners achieve positive outcomes, thrive and enjoy a quality education that is delivered by skilled passionate people with high expectations in a place that is safe, of a high quality and appropriate. To do this, we intend to give young learners a broad and rich curriculum that gives them both the academic skills and qualifications needed to move successfully to the next stage of their lives, and the personal development skills to ensure a fulfilling future. We have set a curriculum in line with the National Curriculum alongside a school structure which supports our young people to overcome their barriers to learning ensuring our young learners have bright futures both in their personal and professional lives. We believe that effective assessment provides information to improve learning and teaching. To do this in our school we see two main types of assessment: assessment for learning and assessment of learning. Assessment for learning (formative assessment) involves the use of assessment in the classroom to raise achievement. It is based on the idea that young learners will improve most if they understand the aim of their learning, where they are in relation to this aim, and how they can achieve this aim (i.e. to close the gap in their knowledge). 3. Who should read and respond to this policy The Curriculum Policy is for all Sporting Chance Newport CIC colleagues, Commissioners, Parents/Carers, young learners and Inspectors. 4. What are the aims and objectives of our Teaching & Learning Policy? • Equip learners with key knowledge and skills to be successful now and in future life. • Improve the literacy and numeracy of our students with embedded opportunities to develop and practice skills. • Provide an ambitious curriculum includes exposure to a variety of new experiences. • Provide a clearly designed curriculum showing progression of skills and knowledge. • Effectively encourage, support and praise learners • Celebrate success, boost learner’s confidence, drive and self-esteem. • Provide a structure to what we define as positive feedback. • Ensure, as a school, we focus on specific success criteria of a learning intention to monitor progress and inform next steps. • Ensure we encourage self and peer assessment as part of the marking and assessment process. • Allow our learners opportunities to respond to the marking and feedback (age & level appropriate). • Enable our learners to demonstrate what they know, understand and can do in their work. • Help our learners understand what they need to do next to improve their work. • Allow colleagues to plan work that accurately reflects the needs of each young learner. • Provide information for parents/guardians/carers that enables them to support their young learners’ learning. • To provide the Headteacher with information that allows them to make judgements about the effectiveness of the school. • Allow effective assessment for learning to happen all the time in the classroom by: o Sharing learning goals with young learners o Helping young learners know and recognise the standards to aim for • Providing feedback that helps pupils to identify how to improve • Believing that every young learner can improve in comparison with previous achievements • Ensure both the teacher and learners review and reflect on learners performance and progress • Learners to develop self-assessment techniques to discover areas they need to improve • Believe that every young learner can improve in comparison with previous achievements • Recognise that both motivation and self-esteem, crucial for effective learning and progress, can be increased by effective assessment techniques. 5. What are our curriculum intentions at Sporting Chance CIC? To provide opportunities and experiences for learners’ personal development and support them with their personal aspirations. To provide a flexible approach to the curriculum that meets the varying needs of our students through the use of an academic and vocational curriculum alongside working with outside agencies to give a holistic, wrap around and personalised timetable. 6. How is the curriculum implemented at Sporting Chance CIC? At Sporting Chance Newport CIC we meet our intentions using curriculum for Wales to underpin our learning and teaching. The 4 purposes are at the heart of our curriculum. They are the starting point for all decisions on the content and experiences developed as part of the curriculum to support our children and young people to be: ambitious, capable learners ready to learn throughout their lives enterprising, creative contributors, ready to play a full part in life and work ethical, informed citizens of Wales and the world healthy, confident individuals, ready to lead fulfilling lives as valued members of society. 6.1 What does our curriculum give exposure to? • 6 Areas of Learning and Experience • 3 cross-curriculum responsibilities: literacy, numeracy and digital competence • progression reference points and achievement outcomes which describe expected achievements at each progression reference point. 6.2 What are the 6 Areas of Learning and Experience: • Expressive arts • Health and well-being • Humanities (RE) • Languages, literacy and communication • Mathematics and numeracy • Science and technology (including computer science). 6.3 How to we respond to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child? We are committed to embedding this through our school curriculum. We inform pupils about their rights and encourage a culture that reflects this, in particular: Article 12 – You have the right to be listened to and taken seriously Article 6 – You have the right to life, to grow up and reach your full potential. Article 12 – You have the right to find out and share information Article 28 – You have the right to an Education Article 29 – You have the right to education which tries to develop your personality and abilities as much as possible and encourages you to respect other people’s rights and values and to respect the environment 6.4.1 The law At Sporting Chance we ensure we • prohibit the promotion of partisan political views • take steps to ensure the balanced presentation of opposing views on political issues when they are brought to the attention of pupils This falls in line with the legal requirements under the: • Equality Act 2010 (including the Public Sector Equality Duty for state-funded schools) • Human Rights Act 1998 • Prevent duty At Sporting Chance we promote the fundamental British values of: • democracy • the rule of law • individual liberty • mutual respect and tolerance of those with different faiths and beliefs Our receptionist, leaders, teachers, coaches, higher level teaching assistants and learning support assistants ensure that personal beliefs are not expressed in ways which exploit pupils’ vulnerability or might lead them to break the law. Teachers are subject to a prohibition order if their actions or behaviours undermine fundamental British values. 6.4.2 Understanding terminology “Partisan” is ‘one-sided’ and suggested that ‘political views’ are those expressed with a political purpose, such as to further the interests of a particular partisan group, change the law or change government policy. This could be on a wide range of matters such as economic and social issues at a local, national, or international level. At Sporting Chance we do not promote partisan political views to pupils. This means we do not encourage their support for, or the adoption of, these views. Sporting Chance staff do not promote partisan political views or encourage pupils to support a particular political party or candidate in an election. We also do not present partisan political views as undisputed factual accounts and failing to explain their contested nature, where this is not obvious to pupils. Some issues are clearly political, such as those relating to ongoing government activity or on which the main political parties have different views. Some political issues do not relate directly to government policy at all, for example, campaigns for companies and other organisations, education settings or individuals to change their own policies, practices, and behaviours. Not all areas of ethical debate are political issues. There are some concepts and views that can be considered as shared principles that underpin our society and not political issues in this context. Examples include a belief in upholding certain rights, such as freedom of speech and protection from violence and criminal activity - or challenging discrimination and prejudice, including racism. Many ongoing ethical debates and topics will constitute a political issue. This can be the case even when the main political parties and other partisan groups agree on a view, but there is not a wider consensus in public opinion. Instead, there is continued debate, where different legitimate views are expressed. At Sporting Chance we use reasonable judgement to determine what is and is not a ‘political issue’. We ensure we give a balanced factual account of the topic, in line with the legal duties on political impartiality. We take a ‘fair and dispassionate’ approach and ensure balance is reasonable and proportionate. 6.4.3 Identifying political issues Decisions on what to teach will be driven by what we feel should be covered in order to teach the subject properly. Identifying political issues in teaching when planning a curriculum or specific lessons, helps us ensure these are taught effectively and appropriately. Political issues are particularly important to cover in certain subjects, for example, citizenship and history. 6.4.4 Balance in teaching At Sporting Chance we ensure pupils receive a balanced presentation of opposing views, where political issues are brought to their attention. We consider how: - meaningful political balance across the whole curriculum and during pupils’ time at school can be achieved - to ensure pupils are taught about a diverse range of views and ideas We interpret our legal duties relating to balance, using reasonable judgement. We do not take a mechanistic approach to ensuring a balanced presentation of opposing views but present pupils with a reasonable range of views on a political issue in the interest of balance and effective teaching. We ensure at least 2 significantly different perspectives, rather than several views that are only marginally different. At Sporting Chance we see it more important that teaching about contested views on political issues remains fair and dispassionate and pupils are presented a range of views over time, to ensure balance. At Sporting Chance we do not teach about every possible resolution to every crisis that has ever been proposed or considered but we do avoid presenting only various versions of arguments in favour of (or various arguments against) military intervention, instead of exploring the more significant fundamental difference in opinion on the issue. Sporting Chance approaches teaching with “balance” if issues are clearly inappropriate or would undermine effective teaching. For example, we do not present views which are not relevant or apply the same principles when teaching about topics that are not political issues. This includes those where there is a factual consensus which pupils should be aware of. This is particularly important when we teach about historical events, including those which may have constituted political issues at the time they happened. Such topics are only considered as political issues - and in scope of legal duties on balance - where relevant to current political issues and debate. **Scenario C** When teaching about political events from previous historical periods, such as the renaissance and reformation, legal duties on political impartiality are unlikely to be relevant. Teachers are not required to provide a balanced presentation of opposing views on these issues, although they may wish to teach about different historic and current perspectives as part of a broad and balanced curriculum. For more recent historical events including those which are particularly contentious and disputed, political issues may be presented to pupils. This includes many topics relating to empire and imperialism, on which there are differing partisan political views, and which should be taught in a balanced manner. Where teaching focuses on a single view on a political issue for an extended period of time - for example, where a political ideology is a core part of the curriculum - teachers should simply avoid promoting this view, present it without bias and ensure pupils understand its contested nature. **Scenario D** Where this is part of a subject curriculum, teachers may spend several lessons teaching exclusively about a single political ideology, such as socialism or conservatism, covering political issues and partisan political views. It is likely that critical analysis, including elements of other political ideologies, will be needed to explain and illustrate the views being focused on. To meet the legal duties on political impartiality, teachers should simply ensure they are not presenting these ideologies as fact or promoting the partisan political views being covered. In presenting a balanced account of opposing views, schools are not required to teach about unsubstantiated theories and conspiracies. Pupils may raise these views, particularly where there is widespread misinformation online. Teachers should be prepared to challenge factually inaccurate claims if they deem this appropriate and necessary. Teachers may also wish to proactively warn pupils about common misinformation relevant to the political issues being taught. Teaching about political issues might cover the factual basis and validity of claims made. Teachers may wish to present the arguments and supporting evidence made by proponents of each of the political views being considered. This would not undermine a balanced presentation of opposing views provided that, when doing this, teachers give a factual account, supporting pupils to build their understanding and make their own judgement. **Scenario D** Where this is part of a subject curriculum, teachers may spend several lessons teaching exclusively about a single political ideology, such as socialism or conservatism, covering political issues and partisan political views. It is likely that critical analysis, including elements of other political ideologies, will be needed to explain and illustrate the views being focused on. To meet the legal duties on political impartiality, teachers should simply ensure they are not presenting these ideologies as fact or promoting the partisan political views being covered. In presenting a balanced account of opposing views, schools are not required to teach about unsubstantiated theories and conspiracies. Pupils may raise these views, particularly where there is widespread misinformation online. Teachers should be prepared to challenge factually inaccurate claims if they deem this appropriate and necessary. Teachers may also wish to proactively warn pupils about common misinformation relevant to the political issues being taught. Teaching about political issues might cover the factual basis and validity of claims made. Teachers may wish to present the arguments and supporting evidence made by proponents of each of the political views being considered. This would not undermine a balanced presentation of opposing views provided that, when doing this, teachers give a factual account, supporting pupils to build their understanding and make their own judgement. **Scenario E** Pupils might be taught about an upcoming general election and key policies in political parties’ manifestos. This teaching might cover different partisan political views on specific plans and policies. Teachers can explore how claims made by supporters and opponents of the policies are supported by evidence, including in economic theory, academic studies, and other sources. Teachers should not draw pupils to a single conclusion but should correct factual inaccuracies in pupils’ understanding. This support can help pupils to form their own reasoned views on the issue, based on the available evidence. Legal duties on political impartiality should not impede methods of teaching that involve pupils adopting and arguing in favour, or against, partisan political views, such as mock and parallel elections or debates, hustings events or visits from local candidates or political party representatives. Teachers should seek to manage these activities to ensure that all pupils receive a balanced account of the political issues being covered. **6.4.5 Age-appropriate teaching** Decisions about how to teach about a political issue in line with legal duties on political impartiality should consider the age, developmental stage, and existing knowledge of pupils. It may not be possible to offer a balanced presentation of opposing views or avoid inadvertently promoting partisan political views, where pupils are not old enough to understand the distinction between relevant contested views and facts. In these instances, it is important for schools to use their reasonable judgement as to whether teaching would be age-appropriate. This does not mean that schools cannot teach younger pupils about political issues. Most can and will be taught in a balanced manner for pupils of all ages. Where political issues are covered with younger pupils, it may be advisable to consider how they might be taught differently compared to older age groups. This could include teaching younger pupils about more general factual content, whilst older pupils could be presented with a more comprehensive overview, including contested partisan political views and claims – with both being taught in a balanced manner. **Scenario F** Schools are free to teach younger pupils about significant political figures, including those who have controversial and contested legacies. However, it may be advisable to focus on teaching about what these figures are most renowned for and factual information about them if teachers think pupils may not be able to understand the contested nature of more complex analyses of their lives, beliefs and actions. Discussions about these matters might be reserved for older pupils who are more likely to be able to understand and engage in this debate and develop a balanced understanding of opposing views. The need to cover political issues in more depth, including ideas which are particularly challenging and controversial, is likely to increase as pupils progress to more advanced levels of study. See the section on sensitive political issues for more information. ### 6.4.6 Choosing resources Schools and teachers should choose the resources they use when teaching about political issues carefully. Before using any resources in teaching, teachers should review these thoroughly. They should consider whether, without specific additional context, the resource may undermine a balanced presentation or promote partisan political views. Schools should be conscious of resources from external agencies that might initially appear appropriate but may contain bias and undermine a balanced account of the political issues being taught. See the section on using external agencies for more information. **Scenario G** A teacher finds a resource online designed to support teaching about the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which is a political issue. It is hosted by an external organisation which does not seem to have an obvious partisan political affiliation. The resource appears to be helpful as it provides both factual content, and excerpts from statements by significant political figures from both sides of the conflict. However, on closer inspection, it does not provide a balanced account of the conflict. For instance, the apparently factual content includes partisan political views on both historical events in the region, presented without additional context that would make clear that these are contested views. Several quotes from political figures have been inappropriately abridged to present an inaccurate version of what was really said, and important contextual information about these quotes has been omitted. Given that it might not be clear to pupils that the resource promotes a contested partisan political view in this way, rather than providing a balanced account of the political issue in question, it may be advisable to avoid its use. Schools may need to use resources that are politically biased or promote partisan political views, as part of effective teaching about political issues – particularly with older pupils. This is appropriate when done for illustrative purposes and when pupils understand the nature of these materials, and that they promote partisan political views. As part of building pupils’ awareness about specific political issues and political figures, it may be helpful to display political materials in the school or classroom. This is unlikely to breach legal duties on political impartiality, particularly where pupils are being actively taught, in a balanced manner, about these political issues. 6.4.7 Sensitive political issues Some political issues will be more sensitive than others. It is important to remember that schools are free to include a full range of issues, ideas, and appropriate materials including where they are challenging and controversial. Schools should focus on the needs of their pupils when deciding how to teach about controversial subjects. They should also be mindful of their responsibility to promote respect and tolerance, including actively promoting fundamental British values such as democracy, the rule of law, individual liberty and mutual respect and tolerance for those of different faiths and beliefs. Schools should consider the age-appropriateness of such issues and any materials used to support teaching, as well as any requisite information pupils will need to understand them properly. For pupils further along in their education, it is increasingly likely that it will be appropriate and necessary to explore complex issues due to their advanced level of study, and in some cases, the specific course of study for qualifications. This includes those which are challenging and controversial. Schools also play an important role in supporting all pupils to understand the society in which they are growing up and in teaching them about respect for other people. This can be done in many ways through the curriculum, including in teaching subjects like relationships, sex and health education, and citizenship. Some concepts and views are shared principles that underpin our society and should be reinforced by schools. This includes fundamental rights, tolerance and challenging discrimination and prejudice. Teachers should not present dangerous and discriminatory views unchallenged, and this is not a necessary part of a balanced presentation of opposing views. They should be clear about the facts including laws in place to protect groups targeted by such views, as well as risks and harms of such views. They should also be clear that they have no place in our society. The same principles also apply to historical examples of discrimination and persecution, which are relevant to current political issues. However, teachers should also consider how best to place these topics in the appropriate historical context. **Scenario H** When teaching about the decriminalisation of homosexuality in the UK, including the Sexual Offences Act 1967, it may be important to teach about the prejudicial views held by those that opposed the change. Teachers are not required to present these discriminatory beliefs uncritically or as acceptable in our society today. They can and should be clear with pupils on the dangers of present-day sexist views and practices, including the facts and laws about discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. When teaching about sensitive political issues relating to discrimination, teachers should still be mindful to avoid promoting partisan political views or presenting contested theories as fact. A distinction should be drawn between the shared principle that discrimination and prejudice are wrong, and partisan political views that go beyond this or advocate political reform. **Scenario I** When teaching pupils about racism, teachers should be clear that racism has no place in our society and help pupils to understand facts about this and the law. Where schools wish to teach about specific campaigning organisations, such as some of those associated with the Black Lives Matter movement, they should be aware that this may cover partisan political views. These are views which go beyond the basic shared principle that racism is unacceptable, which is a view schools should reinforce. Examples of such partisan political views include advocating specific views on how government resources should be used to address social issues, including withdrawing funding from the police. Schools should ensure this content is taught appropriately taking steps to offer pupils a balanced account of opposing views on these points. Partisan political views must not be promoted to pupils, including by encouraging pupils to support campaign groups advocating such views. Schools should continue to take steps to tackle racist and discriminatory attitudes or incidents - and condemn racism within the school and wider society. Challenging intolerant, racist or discriminatory views where these are shared at school should be seen as part of schools’ wider anti-bullying and safeguarding duties. Schools and other specified authorities are also subject to the Prevent duty under Section 26 of the Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015. Schools should provide a safe space in which children, young people and staff can understand and discuss sensitive topics, including terrorism and the extremist ideas that are part of terrorist ideology. Schools can build pupils’ resilience to radicalisation by providing an environment for debating controversial and sensitive issues, whilst adhering to requirements on political impartiality. This includes helping pupils understand how they can influence and participate in decision-making. Further guidance is available on protecting children from radicalisation. Where there are concerns that a pupil is expressing extremist views and is vulnerable to being drawn into terrorism, staff should follow their safeguarding policies and procedures. **6.4.8 Expressing personal opinions** Teachers and other staff have a responsibility to ensure that they act appropriately particularly in the political views they express. There is no blanket prohibition on teachers and staff expressing their own views on political issues that are being taught to pupils. However, there is a risk that doing so could sometimes amount to promoting a partisan political view or compromise the balanced presentation of opposing views. Teachers and staff are in a position of authority and will typically be respected and trusted by the pupils they teach, giving their personal opinions greater weight and credibility. As a general principle, they should avoid expressing their own personal political views to pupils unless they are confident this will not amount to promoting that view to pupils. Where staff do share their personal political views, they should ensure that this is not presented as fact and note that there are opposing views which pupils may wish to consider. School leaders and employers will need to judge whether it is necessary or helpful to have a school wide policy on teachers expressing personal opinions on political issues in the classroom, or whether this is best left to teachers’ own judgement on a case-by-case basis. 6.4.9 Using external agencies External agencies, including charitable organisations, can help to enhance and supplement both the delivery of the curriculum and wider school activity. Particular care should be taken to ensure that the external agencies used, as well as any materials and communication with pupils, are appropriate and in line with schools’ legal duties on political impartiality. Whilst the legal duties in question do not apply directly to external agencies themselves, they do apply to any teaching and extra-curricular activity arranged by a school. Ultimately, schools remain responsible for what is said to their pupils. Schools can work with external agencies that hold partisan political views or are engaged in political activity, provided they do not undermine fundamental British values or take extreme political positions. Schools should be aware of this information in advance of any engagement involving pupils. This will allow any necessary steps to be taken to ensure this engagement does not risk breaching schools’ legal duties on political impartiality. Under no circumstances should an external organisation attempt to engage pupils in political activity. Schools should be confident that working with an external agency will not compromise the prohibition on promoting partisan political views to pupils. In some circumstances, it may be appropriate for external agencies to express partisan political views to pupils. Pupils must understand that these are contested views and still receive a balanced account of the political issue in question. This may require additional teaching, ideally in advance of engagement with the external agency. If pupils are unlikely to be able to understand the contested nature of such views, for example, if they are too young or no additional teaching is possible, external agencies should not express them to pupils. Where different external agencies are frequently invited to speak to pupils, schools may wish to consider whether the organisations presented to pupils represent a fair cross-section of different political views. One step which could be taken is to create and implement a clear school policy that sets out how visiting speakers are chosen and how political balance is to be achieved, over a period of time. 6.4.10 Choosing external agencies When considering working with external agencies, either to support the delivery of the curriculum or extra-curricular, schools should thoroughly assess external agencies before agreeing to any work with them. This can involve challenging or asking for evidence of claims made by external agencies about their work and how this interacts with schools’ legal duties on political impartiality. It is important for schools to look at the wider partisan political views held by the organisation, so they are aware of these. They can then judge whether, and how, they might be covered appropriately with pupils. This can be done as part of a basic online search, which schools will most likely do already. Schools should be mindful that some external agencies may hold more contentious and less appropriate partisan political views than may be initially apparent. External agencies may market resources and support to schools as part of popular awareness-raising events, for example, annual history months or historical anniversaries. Schools should continue to be mindful of legal duties on political impartiality during these events and thoroughly assess both the organisations in question and any materials they provide. In line with the guidance on sensitive political issues, a distinction should be drawn between basic shared principles, such as tolerance and opposition to discrimination and prejudice, and contested partisan political views. **Scenario J** An assembly is organised to help pupils understand the importance of taking steps to prevent and eliminate racism in the school and wider society. The school invites an external speaker to attend and use their personal experience to explain the dangers and impact of racist and discriminatory behaviour. The school learns that the speaker has publicly advocated partisan political views on issues related to race and social policy reform, which go further than the aims of the assembly. The school may want to discuss this with the speaker, to ensure that these views are not presented in a way that would constitute the promotion of partisan political issues. If these views are likely to be mentioned, the school should consider steps to ensure that pupils are aware of their contested nature and receive a balanced account of related political issues. The content and materials used in any engagement with pupils should be: - reviewed and agreed in advance of any session - age-appropriate - aligned to the developmental stage of pupils Schools should not hesitate to explicitly request that external agencies avoid covering certain partisan political views, where they are not deemed relevant or appropriate. Where partisan political views are relevant, schools should take practical steps to ensure they are not promoted to pupils and that pupils still receive a balanced account of the political issues in question. **Scenario K** As part of celebrations marking the anniversary of women’s suffrage in the UK, a secondary school asks a women’s group to host a session with pupils to teach them about the history of the British feminist movement. This group also has a live petition on their website calling for companies to implement a mandatory gender balance quota for their executive boards. The school should be clear that it would not be acceptable for the group to have pupils sign this petition during the session. If the general political issue of quotas is deemed relevant to the session, the school should take steps to ensure partisan political views are not promoted to pupils, and that they receive a balanced account of this issue. This could be done either by asking the agency to avoid covering their partisan political views in the session or by the school taking steps to ensure pupils are aware of the contested nature of these views and taught about opposing views. ### 6.4.11 External agencies with extreme political positions Schools are responsible for ensuring that speakers, tools, and resources do not undermine the fundamental British values of: - democracy - the rule of law - individual liberty - mutual respect and tolerance of those with different faiths and beliefs Schools should not under any circumstances work with, or use materials produced by, external agencies that take extreme political positions on these matters. This is the case even if the material itself is not extreme, as the use of it could imply endorsement or support of the organisation. Examples of extreme political positions include, but are not limited to: - promoting the adoption of non-democratic political systems rather than those based on democracy, for any purpose - a publicly stated desire to abolish democracy, to end free and fair elections, or violently overthrow capitalism - opposition to the right of freedom of speech, freedom of association, freedom of assembly or freedom of religion and conscience. engaging in or encouraging active or persistent harassment or intimidation of individuals in support of their cause the use or endorsement of racist language or communications, including antisemitic promoting divisive narratives that seek to justify serious criminal activity, including violent action against people, criminal damage to property, hate crime or terrorism selecting and presenting information, in a biased or unbalanced manner, to make unsubstantiated accusations against state institutions to justify serious criminal activity, including violent action against people, criminal damage to property, hate crime or terrorism the encouragement or endorsement of serious criminal activity, including where organisations fail to condemn criminal actions that have been committed in their name or in support of their cause, including violent action against people, criminal damage to property, hate crime or terrorism Working with such organisations is not compatible with schools’ requirements to actively promote fundamental British values, and such organisations pose a high risk of undermining these values. There are many external agencies that, whilst holding partisan political views and engaging in political activity, do not take extreme political positions. They are more appropriate to work in schools and conducive to a school ethos that promotes tolerance and respect. Schools can still teach about the topics these organisations would cover and the partisan political views they hold. This advice is not intended to limit the effective teaching of historical or current controversial issues and extreme views. These views may be part of the curriculum in many subjects, such as advanced levels of study in history and politics and it may be appropriate and helpful to teach about them in order to build pupils’ resilience to radicalisation. 6.4.12 Hosting external agencies It is good practice for a teacher to be in the room whenever an external agency is presenting. This is so they know what was discussed and can follow up with their pupils. Teachers can intervene during a session, and in extreme cases stop a speaker. In most cases, this will not be necessary, unless the views expressed are dangerous to pupils and pose a safeguarding risk. Where an external speaker has expressed partisan political views or failed to provide a balanced account of a political issue, and this is not made clear to pupils, teachers should use their judgement to determine what reasonable and proportionate steps should be taken to ensure that this is rectified. This might be through further teaching to help them understand other views on the issue. Scenario L To support teaching about global trade, a school invites an external agency to present the economic challenges faced by some countries in the Global South. Despite gaining assurances from the organisation before the session that they would present a balanced account, during the session it becomes clear that this is not the case. This is due to both the biased representation of evidence and the overt promotion of partisan political views in support of free-market economic reforms, such as privatisation and deregulation. It is not necessary to intervene immediately and stop the session, but it may be appropriate to have a follow-up lesson with pupils in which the views expressed are put in the context of other opposing views and they are given a balanced account of the topic. Where external agencies have failed to meet the standards a school expects, for instance by failing to stick to an agreed plan or attempting to engage pupils in political activity, schools should share this information with their local authority, academy trust and any wider school network. This will allow other schools to be alert to these risks and consider carefully whether they wish to work with the agency in question. Schools can also work with charities and civil society organisations that hold partisan political views on wider extra-curricular activities not related to teaching or specific political issues such as charitable activities and volunteering. Not all charities and civil society organisations will hold partisan political views. Schools should be careful to ensure that those that do are not promoting these views to the pupils they are working with or trying to engage them in political activity. Scenario M A school may work with a charity that separately campaigns in favour of partisan political views on welfare, economic and social reform, provided this is on non-partisan activity. This could include charity drives and volunteering in the community. In these circumstances, schools should ensure that the partisan political views in question are not being inadvertently promoted to pupils. This includes through the distribution of materials or the advertisement of events and campaigns. 6.4.13 Discussing political issues Political issues are likely to be raised outside of planned teaching and activities, mainly when pupils raise these themselves or ask and comment about live political issues. Pupils’ engagement and interest in political issues should be encouraged. Schools should not prohibit conversation about these issues, provided the political issues are age-appropriate. Teachers and staff can help support pupils’ understanding of political issues discussed and the different views held, by adhering to similar principles as outlined for teaching about these issues. This includes avoiding endorsing any partisan political views put forward. Teachers may also wish to present opposing views to help pupils in the classroom receive a balanced account of the issue. In some cases, this may not be practical, but teachers and staff should be mindful of the risk that some pupils are influenced by the partisan political views expressed by their peers. They should ensure pupils are at least aware of opposing views on political issues that are brought to their attention. Scenario N Pupils begin a conversation about the construction of a new motorway in the local area. This is an issue that political candidates in an upcoming local election have campaigned on, advocating different approaches and views. Teachers and staff can facilitate this discussion, supporting pupils to understand the different arguments on each side of the debate. They should avoid implying that a single view on the issue is correct and should be supported. 6.4.14 Political activity by pupils For maintained schools, there is a direct prohibition on the pursuit of partisan political activity by ‘junior’ pupils (meaning those under the age of 12) within the school and in any activities outside school involving staff members or anyone acting on behalf of the school. Although not explicitly prohibited in the Independent Schools Standards, it is unlikely it would ever be appropriate for pupils of this age to engage in political activity at any school. Given their developmental stage, this would typically be seen as a school promoting partisan political views, in breach of legal duties which apply to all schools. For older pupils in later secondary year groups, who may have more developed opinions and a greater awareness of current affairs, there may be a desire to partake in pupil-led political activity. Interest and engagement with political issues should be encouraged. Schools can help pupils to set up their own networks or clubs to focus on political issues, where they are deemed appropriate. Schools may wish to develop criteria or a policy to support these judgements and ensure they are consistent. It may be helpful for teachers and staff to play an active role in supporting pupils to understand the political issues they are interested in, as well as ways they can make a difference and be more actively involved in political action. However, it is never appropriate for teachers and staff to promote their own partisan political views to pupils or encourage them to engage in specific political activity or join specific partisan groups. **Scenario O** Schools might encourage pupils to think about environmental issues and consider how this impacts them personally. This might involve setting up a group for pupils to discuss these issues and take steps to reduce their own, and the schools', environmental impact. Teachers and staff should support this and can help pupils to act and conduct non-political activities. Legal duties on political impartiality do not prevent initiatives which focus on addressing live and relevant issues like this within the school community. It would not be appropriate for a teacher to suggest that pupils join a certain campaigning group or engage in specific political activity, for example, an upcoming protest. Teachers and staff can, however, explain to pupils how they can get more actively involved outside of school. This might be by: - explaining the different partisan political views campaigning groups advocate - telling pupils where they can find out more about this - providing a balanced account of political issues related to the environment Schools should consider how pupil-led activity feeds into a wider sense of political balance across the school. They should also take steps to ensure all pupils are exposed to a diverse range of views in both the curriculum and wider school activity. School resources, including school-branded social media, should not be used for partisan political purposes. Schools should consider the likelihood of this happening when deciding whether to permit certain pupil-led activities. For instance, it would not be advisable to have a pupil-led society under the banner of a political party, as there would be a high risk of school resources being used for partisan political activity. For other pupil-led activities, schools will have to make reasonable decisions about where the line is drawn between support for personal development and interests, and where school resources are being used inappropriately. In some cases, pupils may have a strong personal interest in political issues and may seek to engage in political activity within school, such as protests or displaying political symbols. Schools should ensure that any pupil-led activity is conducted sensitively, this means that it: - is not targeted at specific groups of pupils or staff - does not create an atmosphere of intimidation or fear for other pupils and staff - avoids pupils feeling that they would be stigmatised for holding or sharing alternative views - is conducted in line with the school’s behaviour policy, avoiding disruption for other pupils and staff When political issues are brought to the attention of pupils, including by the activity and political expression of other pupils, and schools are aware of this, they should offer pupils a balanced account of opposing views. This means that where there is the widespread political activity by pupils, it may be appropriate for schools to proactively address and teach about the issues being raised. This should be done in line with this guidance and requirements on impartiality. 6.4.15 During political events During periods of heightened political activity and sensitivity, including around elections or in the aftermath of significant political events, staff should be mindful to avoid activity within the school that could be construed as promoting a particular partisan view. Teachers and staff can continue to discuss political issues, including political parties, movements, and protests, that may be relevant to pupils. This must be done in a balanced manner and not involve promoting partisan political views on the issue. **Scenario P** Schools might invite local political figures, including MPs, councillors, or former pupils involved in politics, to talk to pupils. This can be an effective way of engaging pupils’ and building their understanding of democracy. There is no reason this should undermine requirements on political impartiality, where organised appropriately. In certain contexts, such as in the run-up to elections, schools should be mindful of the risk and need to take reasonable steps to ensure that pupils are offered a balanced presentation of opposing views. Failing to teach pupils about different views, either by inviting a range of external speakers or by simply teaching about other candidates and political parties, might be interpreted as promoting a particular partisan political view. More information specifically relating to elections can be found in the [pre-election guidance for schools and multi-academy trusts](#). All staff have a responsibility to ensure that they act appropriately in terms of their behaviour, the views they express and the use of school resources. School staff are free to engage in political activity, provided this is outside the school in their own time and at their own expense. Schools should be conscious of the fact that in some instances staff behaviour outside school may become visible to pupils, particularly when social media is used. Most schools will already have policies and advice in place to protect staff and pupils from these risks, and it is important these are applied with sensitivity to political activity. **Scenario Q** Following an international diplomatic incident, protests across the country have been organised and the issue has been raised in the classroom. Teachers may support discussion about the issue which might refer to the protests. However, they must not advocate pupils join these protests or promote partisan political views advocated by the protest movement, or its opponents. Both pupils and teachers can freely attend legal protests outside school. Where protests or other political activity involves criminal activity, schools should actively discourage pupils’ participation. Schools should reinforce the importance of adhering to the law. Teachers and staff may at times need to explain to pupils why this is important, particularly in a democratic state. **6.4.16 Public displays and communications** Schools should consider their requirements on political impartiality in public displays, such as banners and posters in public view and other communications. This includes electronic communications such as school-branded social media. There is no reason that schools cannot have public displays and communications, to mark significant awareness-raising or community events or for other reasons, provided they do not promote partisan political views. **Scenario R** Following their efforts during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, pupils and staff at a school may wish to display a banner showing their appreciation to NHS staff. A message such as ‘Thank You NHS’ or similar would not present a risk to political impartiality as it is unlikely to be perceived as promoting partisan political views or compromising the balanced treatment of political issues. However, if the school were to display a banner demanding reform to the NHS or changes to NHS funding levels, this would not be appropriate and risks breaching their requirements on political impartiality. Whilst legal duties on political impartiality do not extend to schools’ interactions with parents, schools may wish to consider the impact that promoting partisan views to parents, either by public displays or in other communications, may have. Pupils may be inadvertently exposed to this promotion of partisan political views, where this is done. Some parents may also become concerned about the impartiality of teaching where such activity is undertaken by school leaders, teachers, and other staff. If this happens it is important that concerns from parents, carers and others are treated seriously and handled with sensitivity. 6.4.17 Role of local authorities, school proprietors, academy trusts and headteachers Legal requirements on political impartiality in schools fall specifically on: - local authorities - school proprietors - governing bodies - school trusts (including senior managers and academy trustees) - headteachers, in the case of maintained schools and academies This does not mean that other teachers and staff should not be aware of and consider these statutory requirements. However, it is particularly important for local authorities, school proprietors and headteachers to make sure these legal duties are being met and consider what steps can be taken across their schools to ensure political impartiality in teaching. Local authorities, school proprietors, academy trusts and headteachers should actively promote staff awareness of the statutory requirements and relevant information, including this guidance. Where judged to be necessary and helpful, they may wish to arrange training on political impartiality for teachers and staff. This may be particularly helpful for new teachers and staff, as well as those in (or working towards) leadership positions. It is not necessary for local authorities, school proprietors, academy trusts or headteachers to supervise or review every instance of teaching about political issues. However, they should aim to equip teachers and staff with skills to ensure their teaching is balanced and an awareness of commonplace risks to political impartiality. 6.4.18 Concerns about political impartiality Schools will have processes for engaging informally with parents and carers and the wider school community. Where there are concerns about political impartiality at a school, we recommend these are raised in this manner as most issues will be able to be resolved without using formal complaints procedures. We expect all parties to be open to engaging in constructive dialogue and reaching an agreement on a way forward. Local authorities, school proprietors, academy trusts and headteachers should attempt to resolve issues around political impartiality brought to their attention. Often simple steps can be taken to address concerns. This might include clarification about the nature of teaching or assurances about any processes in place to ensure legal duties on political impartiality are being met. In some cases, it may be appropriate for a school to take steps to ensure that pupils, who have been subject to imbalanced teaching, receive a balanced account of any political issues raised, as soon as possible. This may involve further teaching or some form of clarification. **Scenario S** Following a complaint, it becomes clear that during a lesson a teacher suggested to pupils that it is an objective fact that the political system of a certain country is the ‘fairest’ and ‘best’ in the world. It may be advisable and proportionate to ask the teacher to clarify during their next lesson with this group that this is not an uncontested fact and was in fact their own personal partisan political view. Where parents and carers remain dissatisfied, they can raise a formal complaint, in line with the school’s complaints procedure. 7. **What is the approach/overview of our curriculum?** ![Curriculum Overview Diagram](image-url) RSE Curriculum RSE is taught through discreet lessons and cross-cutting themes. Teaching strategies and techniques will vary according to the needs of young learners. The school seeks to give quality education on RSE to all young learners. The school seeks to provide accurate, unbiased information on RSE to young learners as part of our pluralistic approach. This means that where questions of values are concerned, we provide a rate of views on a given subject commonly held within society. As they develop, young learners are encouraged to take increasing responsibility for their own learning. As the school introduces the new Curriculum for Wales, RSE will also be taught through the Health and Wellbeing Area of Learning Experience (AoLE). RSE in the curriculum focuses on three broad strands: • Relationships and identity: helping learners develop the skills they need to develop healthy, safe, and fulfilling relationships with others and helping them to make sense of their thoughts and feelings. • Sexual health and well-being: helping young learners to draw on factual sources regarding their sexual and reproductive health and well-being, allowing them to make informed decisions throughout their lives. Sporting Chance Newport CIC Relationships and Sexuality Education (RSE) Policy • Empowerment, safety and respect: helping to protect young learners from all forms of discrimination, violence, abuse and neglect and enabling them to recognise unsafe or harmful relationships and situations, supporting them to recognise when, how and where to seek support and advice. 8. What does a typical daily/weekly timetable look like? | WEDNESDAY | AOL | S1 | S2 | S3 | LS | L1 | L2 | L3 | L4 | L5 | L6 | L7 | |-----------|-----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| | | MN | LR | DS | MB | C1 | LL | OS | KH | CN | JW | KP | LB | | | OTH | MI | | | CAFE | LD | | | | | | | | | OTH | SL | | | OTH | MC | | | | | | | | | CM | GB | SP | CJ | | | | | | | | | | WEDNESDAY | AOL | S1 | S2 | S3 | LS | L1 | L2 | L3 | L4 | L5 | L6 | L7 | |-----------|-----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| | | HW | MI | DS | SL | P1 | LL | OS | KH | CN | JW | LB | KP | | | MN | CM | | | C1 | LD | MC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | LR | GB | SP | CJ | | | | | | | | | | WEDNESDAY | AOL | S1 | S2 | S3 | LS | L1 | L2 | L3 | L4 | L5 | L6 | L7 | |-----------|-----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| | | LLC | LR | MB | | C1 | LL | OS | KH | CN | JW | LB | KP | | | OTH | CM | | | CAFE | LD | | | | | | | | | OTH | SL | | | OTH | MC | | | | | | | | | MI | DS | GB | CJ | | | | | | | | | | WEDNESDAY | AOL | S1 | S2 | S3 | LS | L1 | L2 | L3 | L4 | L5 | L6 | L7 | |-----------|-----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| | | HW | MI | CM | SL | P1 | LL | OS | KH | CN | JW | LB | KP | | | LLC | LR | MB | | C1 | LD | MC | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | DS | GB | SP | CJ | | | | | | | | | | WEDNESDAY | AOL | S1 | S2 | S3 | LS | L1 | L2 | L3 | L4 | L5 | L6 | L7 | |-----------|-----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| | | HUMS| LR | DS | | C1 | OS | KH | CN | LB | KP | | | | | OTH | SL | | | CAFE | LD | | | | | | | | | OTH | SP | | | OTH | MC | | | | | | | | | MN | GB | | | POD | SJ | | | | | | | | | MB | MI | CM | CJ | | | | | | | | | | WEDNESDAY | AOL | S1 | S2 | S3 | LS | L1 | L2 | L3 | L4 | L5 | L6 | L7 | |-----------|-----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| | | HUMS| MB | DS | | C1 | LD | MC | | | | | | | | HW | MI | SL | | P1 | OS | KH | CN | LB | KP | | | | | LLC | LR | | | POD | SJ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | CM | GB | SP | CJ | | | | | | | | | | Lesson | Monday | Tuesday | Wednesday | Thursday | Friday | |--------|--------|---------|-----------|----------|--------| | 1 | Location of session: Classroom 1 Area of learning: Languages, Literacy and Communication | Location of session: Classroom 1 Area of learning: Mathematics and Numeracy | Location of session: Classroom 1 Area of learning: Languages, Literacy and Communication | Location of session: Classroom 1 Area of learning: Mathematics and Numeracy | Location of session: Classroom 1 Area of learning: Languages, Literacy and Communication | | 2 | Location of session: Pitch 1 Area of learning: Health and Wellbeing-BTEC Sport | Location of session: Pitch 1 Area of learning: Health and Wellbeing-BTEC Sport | Location of session: Pitch 1 Area of learning: Health and Wellbeing-BTEC Sport | Location of session: Pitch 1 Area of learning: Health and Wellbeing-BTEC Sport | Location of session: Pitch 1 Area of learning: Health and Wellbeing-BTEC Sport | | 3 | | | | Location of session: Other - Offsite Area of learning: Other-AQA Unit Award | | | 4 | | | | | | | 5 | Location of session: Classroom 1 Area of learning: Other-Enterprise and Employability | Location of session: Classroom 1 Area of learning: Science and Technology | Location of session: Classroom 1 Area of learning: Humanities | | | | 6 | | | | Location of session: Other-DS to confirm Area of learning: Other-AQA Unit Award | Location of session: Pitch 1 Area of learning: Health and Wellbeing | 9. What hidden learning takes place? Outside of lessons, and the curriculum offered, our original approach to supporting our learners to overcome their barriers to learning is evident. We have advocates on site to work with our students when extra support is needed. We work closely with homes and other services to fully support students both in and out of school. Our school has a supportive and encouraging ethos, where learners have the freedom to express themselves and be listened to, and their successes are celebrated. Staff have high standards and expectations both academically and personally for themselves and our learners. Alongside this broad curriculum offer, our intent is further met with a range of external visits, visiting speakers, focus events and charity days to add to our young learners’ experience. Sporting Chance CIC learners are also given the opportunity to gain vocational qualifications by attending off-site, external vocational providers enhancing their abilities to access, further education, apprenticeships or full-time – employment. 10. What do learning sessions at Sporting Chance CIC look like? In our classrooms, and on our pitches, implementation is demonstrated through our delivery of engaging sessions which allow our learners to succeed. We ensure our learning sessions are fully differentiated by meeting needs identified on IDP and PDPs. We put learning into context for learners and use real-world examples to show why the learning is important both now and in the future. Our learning sessions provide opportunities to further embed literacy, numeracy and digital competency skills as well as other cross-curricular links to ensures learning is holistic and joined up. We use sport as a vehicle for engagement for learning. We provide ample physical activity opportunities for our learners to develop their skills in a practical setting and develop healthy, confident individuals. 11. How are learning sessions planned at Sporting Chance CIC? Lessons are planned to in-line with Curriculum for Wales, the Welsh independent school standards and/or Exam board requirements. Our session are planned by our colleagues to share experiences and expertise. This ensures our learners receive high-quality input. The needs of each individual learner and documented and used to pitch sessions at learners’ working levels. There are opportunities for stretch and challenge and ensure progression for all. We use professional assessment judgement, alongside regular work scrutiny and moderation, to track our student’s progress throughout the year. Mock exams help prepare our learners for their exams and to identify and provide support with any anxiety related issues in preparation for their assessments and exams up to and including GCSEs. Exam-style questions are used in lessons to support learners and to support judgements made by our colleagues. We set formal assessments in exam conditions when we feel this benefits our learners, if and when it makes sound use of learning time. Our learners are supported with personalised approaches, following their PDPs, assessments and learner profiles, alongside the statements of “what matters” for each area of learning experience. Our learners may receive 1:1 support, targeted individual or small group intervention sessions, or technological assistance to overcome their barriers to learning ensuring success for us all. Our learning sessions make use of techniques to revisit learning, to support long-term memory of concepts, not only to further support achievement in current qualifications but also to support learners to see links in learning to provide a holistic view, rather than see learning in isolated episodes. Our short term planning template is shown below. 12. How is assessment used in Sporting Chance CIC? Assessment of learning (summative assessment) involves judging pupils’ performance against national standards. Such judgements are made at the end of each term for reading, spelling and maths. A CAT 4 assessment is completed at the end of term 1 and 3. Research has shown that young learner involvement in the review process raises standards, and that it empowers young learners to take action towards improving their performance. We therefore involve the young learners in creating their PDP target setting and target reviews. A clear distinction is made between assessment of learning for the purpose of grading and reporting, which has its own well-established procedure and assessment for learning, which calls for different priorities, new procedures and new commitment. **Assessment Should:** - Comply with statutory obligations - Be an integral part of learning and teaching - Report progress and achievements to the young learners, parents/carers and others - Enable quality decisions to be made about a young learners achievements - Appraise our own teaching effectiveness - Help each child to develop his/her full potential - Ensure that the achievements of every young learner are equally valued - Enhance opportunities for learning - Provide accurate feedback on which to base future provision - Match learning and teaching provision to needs - Diagnose particular difficulties in order to match activities to individual needs - Secure progress in learning The main types of assessment noted above are supported by: **Diagnostic Assessment:** The detailed analysis of specific aspects of performance in order to determine the precise nature of particular strengths and weaknesses. **Evaluative Assessment:** The use of assessment information to evaluate the effectiveness and appropriateness of learning and teaching. **Self-Assessment:** Involves the young learners in making decisions about their own work and values, their comments and judgments on personal achievements. 13. Adult Led Assessment Adult led assessment lies at the heart of the learning process, in that new learning must be matched to what a young learner already knows, and can do. It is the teacher in the classroom who daily undertakes the vitally important task of formative assessment. Assessment is a continuous process. Effective teaching at all stages depends on knowing what individual young learners have actually learned, and what they haven’t. Such a philosophy/process is at the centre of our support/challenge. We plan our lessons with clear learning objectives. We base these upon the teacher’s detailed knowledge of each young learner. We strive to ensure that all tasks set are appropriate to each young learners’ level of ability. Our lesson plans make clear the expected outcomes for each lesson. We make a note of those individual children who do not achieve at the expected level for the lesson, and we use this information when planning for the next lesson. Not all work is assessed in detail. The quality is more important than the quantity whilst we consider the impact the assessment will have. 13.1 Target setting We set targets for all our children during each academic year. We discuss individual targets where necessary and communicate these to parents. We review the progress of each young learner at start of each term and set revised targets. We encourage the young learners to set targets that are linked to their individual working habits. 13.2 Reporting to parents We have a range of strategies that keep parents fully informed of their child’s progress in school. We encourage parents to contact the school if they have concerns about any aspect of their child’s work. Each year we offer parents the opportunity to meet their child’s teacher. At the meeting we evaluate their child’s progress as measured against set targets. We also have informal phone call conversations with parents throughout the year and more formal face-to-face meetings when necessary. We write termly reports with individual comments in Literacy, numeracy and sport. 13.3 Feedback to pupils We believe that feedback to young learners is very important, as it tells them how well they have done and what they need to do next in order to improve their work. We give young learners lots of verbal feedback on their work. We usually do this when the young learners are working during the lesson although we sometimes give feedback on learning progress at the beginning of the next one. When lesson time does not allow for verbal feedback, we put written comments on learner work on Seesaw. When we give written feedback to a young learner, we relate this to the learning objective for the lesson. By so doing we make clear whether the objective has been met and we produce evidence to support the judgement. If we consider that the objective has not been met, we make clear why this was the case. In both cases we aim to identify what the young learner needs to do next in order to improve future work. 14. Pupil Tracking Pupil tracking, and the use of the information gained through young learner tracking, is central to effective school self-evaluation and target setting. It also provides valuable information for planning learning and teaching. We track pupil progress in numeracy, literacy, digital competency and Sport, particularly progress with accreditation. We track progress to: - Find out and record, on a regular basis, the performance of each pupil and the progress the young learner has made to get to that point. - Find out and record the progress that each young learner has made towards her/his individual targets and to use this information to evaluate the progress towards targets for groups of young learners, classes, year groups or the school as a whole. - Find out if learning and teaching activities are facilitating suitable progress and achievement by young learners, if changes need to be made to the learning experiences planned for individual or groups of young learners, or if intervention is required to challenge and support young learners further. - Find out if changes are needed to young learner targets because of progress that is substantially better or worse than that required to keep on track to achieve the targets. 15. Implementation and Feedback We aim to ensure accuracy and consistency so that it enables our learners to become ‘responsible learners’ and gives clear direction on how to improve. High expectations of achievement are demonstrated in both short-term and long-term targets. All work evidenced should be assessed before the next lesson, preferably via Seesaw and should refer back to the specific Learning Objectives and Success Criteria. The outcomes of assessment must be used by teachers to plan the next steps of learning and pitch work appropriately for the needs of individual young learners. 16. Young learners’ response to task and feedback Young learners are encouraged to self-assess and this is a shared activity which aims to encourage dialogue and develop the self-assessment skills of learners. When provided in written form, time needs to be given to allow young learners to read and respond. Young learners who are experiencing difficulties/exceeding success criteria to talk to the young learner as soon as possible to ensure work is appropriately planned for next steps. Constructive, positive comments are used to help develop the young learner’s learning and understanding. 17. Equal Opportunities Equality of opportunities is always observed with positive attitudes to creative development being developed irrespective of disability, gender, race, ethnic origin, culture, language or religion. 18. Monitoring and Review Monitoring the quality and standards of learning and teaching is the responsibility of SLT. Appendix 1 - Core practice expectations for colleagues Our school is a Safe Place - Verbal and physical communication is always positive. - Staff regulate themselves, or support other adults in achieving this, before regulating learners. - Staff promote a professional culture. Our school has Purposeful Learning Environments - We cover our agreed 4 “ACDC” stages of learning in all our lessons (Activation, Connection, Demonstration, Consolidation). Learning Objectives and Success Criteria are explicitly shared and displayed in the connection stage and referenced throughout. The demonstration stage includes explicit communication of feelings, thought processes, activities and attitudes. - Feedback promoted progress and growth; Learners respond to the feedback. - Recording is timely, particularly registers, class charts and assessments. Our school has Good People - Relationships are valued and colleagues seek to repair, and/or encourage repair of them. - Personalisation involves all interactions. - Staff engage learners, on and off-site, in activities during lesson, break and lunchtimes. www.asportingchance.org.uk
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Theme 1: Bases of Demand and Supply Analyses Purpose of the lecture: definition of the concepts of supply and demand, finding market equilibrium, consumer and producer gains. Keywords: demand, supply, volume of demand, volume of supply, price and non-price factors, equilibrium, gain. Lecture questions: /s. 22 - 36/4/ 1. Supply and demand 2. Market equilibrium 3. Benefit to consumers and producers 1.1. Supply and demand It is assumed that there are many buyers in the market, none of whom can control the price of a good. *Demand* is the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity of it that buyers are willing and able to purchase, i.e. it is of the form \[ Q = Q^D(p), \] where \( p \) is the price of the commodity, \( Q \) is the value of demand, \( Q^D(p) \) is the demand function. The concept of "demand" combines the desire and opportunity to purchase a given commodity. People's desires are, in general, boundless, while opportunities are limited. The law of demand states that the higher the price of a commodity, the lower the value of demand for it, i.e. the dependence \( Q = Q^D(p) \) is inverse. ![Figure 1.1. Demand curve](image) This means that the graph of the demand function has a negative slope (Fig. 1.1). It is called the demand curve \( D \). The inverse relationship of the demand function is expressed by the fact that if the price rises from \( p_1 \) to \( p_2 \), the magnitude of demand falls from \( Q_1 \) to \( Q_2 \). In addition to the price of a good, there are other factors that influence buyers' decisions. They are called *non-price factors*. An increase in the income of buyers usually leads to an increase in demand. Such goods are called *normal goods*. There are also so-called *low-quality* goods, the consumption of which decreases with increasing income. For example, cheap types of sausages, clothes made of synthetic materials. Changes in the prices of related goods. If an increase in the price of one good leads to an increase in demand for another good, they are called *fungible goods*. For example, coffee and tea. And if an increase in the price of one good leads to a decrease in demand for another good, they are *complementary* goods. Examples are petrol and cars, coffee and sugar. Consumers' preferences and tastes significantly influence demand. A change in the price \( p \) leads to a shift along the demand curve \( D \), while a change in other non-price factors shifts the demand curve \( D \) itself (Figure 1.2). A market is considered to have many sellers, none of whom can independently influence the price of a good. *Supply* is the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity that sellers are willing and able to sell. It can be represented as $Q = Q^S(p)$, where $p$ is the price of the good, $Q$ is the quantity of supply. $Q^S(p)$ is the supply function. The concepts of "supply" and "magnitude of supply" should not be confused. According to the law of supply, the higher the price of a good, the greater the value of its supply, i.e. the dependence $Q = Q^S(p)$ is direct. Therefore, the graph of the supply function $Q^S(p)$ has a positive slope (Fig. 1.3). This graph is called the supply curve $S$. If the price increases from $p_1$ to $p_2$, then the volume of supply increases from $Q_1$ to $Q_2$. Supply is also affected by non-price factors such as changes in technology, changes in resource prices. When the price of a commodity $p$ changes, there will be a shift along the supply curve $S$, and when non-price factors change, the supply curve $S$ itself will shift. 1.2. Market equilibrium Let's combine the demand curve $D$ and the supply curve $S$ of some commodity on one graph (Fig. 1.5). Since the slope of one curve is negative and the slope of the other is positive, they intersect at one point $e$. It determines the price $p_e$ and the quantity of the good $Q_e$. Suppose that at some point in time the price of a good on the market turned out to be equal to $p'$, i.e. higher than $p_e$. At this price $p'$, the value of demand $Q^D(p')$ will be less than the value of supply $Q^S(p')$. Sellers want to sell more goods than the quantity that buyers want to buy. There is a surplus of goods in the market. Sellers who cannot sell their goods at the price $p'$ will start lowering the price. At a lower price, the volume of demand will increase and the surplus of goods in the market will decrease. The downward trend in price will continue until it falls to the value $p_e$. At the price $p_e$, the volume of demand $Q^D(p_e)$ equals the volume of supply $Q^S(p_e)$. Similarly, if the price $p''$ is lower than $p_e$, then the volume of demand $Q^D(p'')$ will be greater than the volume of supply $Q^S(p'')$, and there will be a shortage of the good in the market. A part of buyers, who could not buy the goods at the price $p''$, will agree to buy them at a slightly higher price. Seeing this, sellers will start to raise the price. The shortage will be reduced. The process will continue until the price rises to the level of $p_e$. Consequently, the intersection at point $e$ of the demand curves $D$ and $S$ determines the equilibrium at the market of this commodity. Moreover, this equilibrium is stable. If for any reason market price $p$ deviates from the equilibrium price $p_e$, then the interaction of supply and demand brings it back to the level of $p_e$. 1.3. Benefit to consumers and producers The market demand curve $D$ defines the wants and possibilities of all consumers. They differ from each other. Some consumers agree to buy a certain amount of goods at a given price, while others can afford to buy less or not at all at that price. In fact, consumers do not buy the good at the maximum price they agree to pay, but at the equilibrium price $p_e$, which has been established in the market. So, they remain in a win-win situation. What is the total gain of all consumers? The total gain of consumers is equal to the area of the curvilinear rectangle bounded from above by the demand curve $D$, from below by the horizontal line at the level of the equilibrium price $p_e$. And what is the gain to producers equal to? The supply curve shows the minimum price at which producers agree to sell a given volume of a good. Some producers will sell smaller quantities and some will stop production altogether. However, in a competitive market, producers sell their goods at the equilibrium price. The difference $p_e - p$ determines the producers' gain from selling a unit of the good. ![Diagram](image) The total gain of all producers is equal to the area of the curvilinear rectangle bounded from below by the supply curve $S$, from above by the horizontal line at the level of the equilibrium price $p_e$. Self-check questions: 1. Formulate the law of demand. Why does the demand curve have a negative slope? What are the determinants of demand? Explain the difference between a change in demand and a change in the magnitude of demand. Give examples. 2. Formulate the law of supply. Why does the supply curve have a positive slope? What are the determinants of supply? Explain the difference between a change in supply and a change in the magnitude of supply. Give examples. 3. How are equilibrium price and equilibrium sales determined? 4. What is consumer (producer) surplus? Recommended reading: 1. Pindyck R., Rubinfeld D. Microeconomics. - Moscow: Delo, 2001. 2. Hyman D.N. Modern Microeconomics: Analyses and Applications. T. 1,2. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 1992. 3. Simkina L., Korneichuk B. Microeconomics. - S.-P.: Peter, 2002. 4. Mukhamediev B.M. Microeconomics. - Almaty: Kazak University, 2007. Theme 2: THEORY OF ELASTICITY OF DEMAND AND PROPOSITION Purpose of the lecture: definition of the concept of elasticity, calculation of supply and demand elasticity coefficients, establishing the relationship between price elasticity and total income. Keywords: price elasticity, income elasticity, cross elasticity, aggregate income, tax burden. Lecture questions: /p. 46 - 57/4/ 1. Types of elasticities, methods of their calculation and classification. 2. Price elasticity of demand and total revenue. 3. The role of elasticity in the allocation of tax between sellers and buyers. 2.1. Types of elasticities, methods of their calculation and classification The shape of the demand curve determines the amount of change in demand when the price changes. The flatter the demand curve, the more sensitive the demand to changes in the price of goods. A quantitative characteristic of the sensitivity of demand to price changes could be the slope of the demand curve, i.e. the ratio \[ \frac{\Delta Q}{\Delta p} \text{ or in the limit the derivative of } \frac{dQ}{dp}. \] ![Figure 2.1. Steep and sloping demand curves](image) The **price elasticity of demand** is the percentage change in the value of demand per 1 per cent change in price: \[ E_p (D) = \frac{\Delta Q}{Q} \cdot \frac{100\%}{\Delta p} \cdot \frac{100\%}{p} \] This quantity is dimensionless and does not depend on the dimensions \(p\) and \(Q\). For calculations it is convenient to rewrite it differently: \[ E_p (D) = \frac{p}{Q} \cdot \frac{\Delta Q}{\Delta p}. \tag{2.1} \] According to the method of calculation formula (2.1) determine the **point elasticity**. At relatively large \(\Delta p, \Delta Q\) use **arc elasticity**, replacing in formula (2.1) \(p\) and \(Q\) by the mean values \(p = \frac{p + p'}{2}\) and \(Q = \frac{Q + Q'}{2}\) respectively: \[ E_p (D) = \frac{p + p'}{Q + Q'} \cdot \frac{\Delta Q}{\Delta p} . \] (2.2) The price elasticity of demand does not take positive values, because by to the law of demand \( \Delta p \) and \( \Delta Q \) have opposite signs. The following cases are possible. 1) \( E_p (D) = 0 \) - perfectly inelastic demand. A change in price does not lead to a change in the volume of demand. Example - a medicine for diabetes mellitus. 2) \(-1 < E_p (D) < 0\) is inelastic demand. A 1 per cent increase in price reduces the volume of demand by less than 1 per cent. Example: bread, basic necessities. 3) \( E_p (D) = -1 \) - demand with unit elasticity. When the price increases by 1 per cent, the volume of demand also decreases by 1 per cent. 4) \(-\infty < E_p (D) = < -1\) is elastic demand. A 1 per cent increase in price leads to a decrease in the magnitude of demand by more than 1 per cent. 5) \( E_p (D) = -\infty \) is perfectly elastic demand. For example, there is a perfect substitute for a given good. One of the non-price factors of demand is the income of consumers. The *income elasticity of demand* is the percentage change in demand per 1 per cent change in income: \[ E (D) = \frac{\Delta Q}{Q} \cdot 100\% = \frac{I}{\Delta I} \cdot \frac{\Delta Q}{Q} \cdot \frac{\Delta I}{I} \cdot 100\% , \] where \( I \) is the income of consumers, \( Q \) is the value of demand. In the limit at infinitesimal changes in income \( \Delta I \) elasticity can be represented by the derivative of the \[ EI (D) = \frac{I \cdot dQ}{Q \cdot dI} . \] Unlike the price elasticity of demand, the income elasticity of demand can take any value. 1) \( E_I (D) > 0 \) - normal goods. The higher the income of consumers, the more they buy such goods, e.g. clothes, fruit, entertainment. 2) \( E_I (D) = 0 \) - essential goods, such as salt, matches. Their consumption practically does not depend on consumers' income. 3) \( E_I (D) < 0 \) - so-called low-quality goods. As incomes grow, buyers reduce consumption of this good and switch to consumption of higher quality and more expensive goods. Demand is also affected by the prices of other goods. Let \( p_X, p_Y \) prices of goods \( X, Y \) respectively, \( Q_x \) is the value of demand for commodity \( X \). *Cross elasticity of demand* for commodity \( X \) over the price of commodity \( Y \) is the percentage change in the value of demand for commodity \( X \) per 1 per cent change in the price \( p_Y \) of commodity \( Y \): \[ E_{p_Y} (D_X) = \frac{\Delta Q_X / Q_X \cdot 100\%}{\Delta p_Y / p_Y \cdot 100\%} = \frac{p_Y}{Q_X} \cdot \frac{Q_X}{\Delta p_Y} . \] Cross elasticity demand can take following values depending on what \( Y \) is in relation to commodity \( X \), 1) \( E_{p_Y} (D_X) > 0 \) - good \( Y \) is a substitute for good \( X \), e.g. tea and coffee. 2) \( E_{py} (D_x) < 0 \) - good Y is a complementary good for good X, like petrol and cars. 3) \( E_{py} (D_x) = 0 \) - consumption of good X does not depend on the price of good Y. Price elasticity of supply is the percentage change in the value of supply per 1 per cent change in the price of a good: \[ E_p (S) = \frac{\Delta Q / Q}{(\Delta p / p) \times 100\%} = \frac{p}{Q} \cdot \frac{\Delta Q}{\Delta p} \] The classification of the values of the price elasticity of supply is the same as for demand. ### 2.2. Price elasticity and total revenue Let \( p \) be the market price, \( Q \) be the volume of sales of a good at that price, and the total or aggregate income of sellers \( TR = p \cdot Q \). Is it profitable to increase the price? Depending on the price elasticity of demand, the following cases are possible. 1) If demand is elastic, then \( E_p (D) < -1 \), so that when price increases, i.e. \( \Delta p > 0 \), change in total income \( \Delta TR \) is negative, and when the price decreases change in total income \( \Delta TR \) will be positive. 2) If demand is inelastic, then \( -1 < E_p (D) < 0 \), in which case an increase in price, i.e. \( \Delta p > 0 \), leads to an increase in total income, \( \Delta TR \) positively, while a decrease in price, i.e. \( \Delta p < 0 \), entails a decrease in total income, \( \Delta TR \) is negative. 3) If we are dealing with demand with unit elasticity, \( E_p (D) = -1 \), then at small changes in price \( \Delta TR = 0 \), i.e. total income does not change. Thus, price \( p \) and total income \( TR \) change in one direction when demand is inelastic and in opposite directions when demand is elastic. Let us first consider a linear demand function. Its graph is a straight line (Fig. 2.2). The slope of the demand curve in the linear case is constant, and the elasticity is equal to the ratio of \( AC \) and \( CB \) with the sign "minus": \[ E_p (D) = -\frac{AC}{CB}. \] (2.3) Equality (2.3) shows that the elasticity of demand is equal to -1 in the middle of the segment \( AB \), is equal to 0 at point A and equal to \(-\infty\) at point B. ![Figure 2.2. Linear demand function](image-url) For a non-linear demand function the relation (2.3) is also true, i.e. the price elasticity at point $C$ on the demand curve is equal to the ratio with a minus sign, in which this point $C$ divides the segment of the tangent to the demand curve, enclosed between the horizontal and vertical axes. 2.3. The role of elasticity in the allocation of the tax between sellers and the customers There are market forms of taxation. Here we will assume that the tax is imposed on each unit of goods sold on the market. There is a distinction between the scope of the tax, established by law, and the economic scope of the tax. Tax on sellers. For each unit of a good sold, the seller must pay a tax of $t$ monetary units. The supply curve $S$ shows the minimum price at which producers agree to sell a given volume of goods. And since they must pay $t$ tenge or dollars to the government after the tax is imposed, they will now only agree to sell the same volume of goods at a price that is $t$ units higher than the minimum price they originally agreed to. This means that the supply curve rises upwards by $t$ units (Fig. 2.3). ![Figure 2.3. Introduction of a tax on sellers](image) Let us compare the new equilibrium $e'$ with the original $e$. Compared to the previous price $p_e$, the buyer pays the price $p'$, and the seller is left with $p' - t$ after paying the tax. In other words, this means that the part of the tax equal to $p - p_e$ is paid by the buyer and the rest equal to $p_e - (p' - t)$ is paid by the seller. Tax on buyers. The government levies a tax of $t$ on each unit of the goods purchased by the buyer. The demand curve $D$ shows the maximum price that buyers are willing to pay to buy this volume of goods. If they still have to pay tax, they will only agree to buy this volume of goods at a price that is $t$ units less than the previous price, i.e. the demand curve will shift down by $t$ units. (Figure 2.4). In the new equilibrium, after the tax is imposed, sellers will receive $p'$ units and buyers of the total along with the tax will pay $p' + t$ units. So, the tax $t$ distributed as follows: $(p'_e + t) - p_e$ is paid by customers and $p_e - p'_e$ is paid by customers. Thus, regardless of who the tax is imposed on by law, it is actually allocated between sellers and buyers. And who will pay most of the tax: sellers or buyers? This depends on the relationship between the elasticities of supply and demand. The more elastic the supply, the more gentle the curves $S$ and $S'$ in Figure 2.3 will be, and the closer the values of $p'_e - t$ and $p_e$. and hence the less of the tax sellers will have to pay. Conversely, the less elastic supply is, the steeper the $S$ and $S'$, and the lower will be the value $p'_e + t$ received by the seller. Hence, most of the tax is paid by the sellers. Similarly, the more elastic demand is, the more gentle the demand curves $D$ and $D'$ in Fig. 2.4, the less price buyers will pay. Accordingly, they will bear a smaller share of the tax. And the less elastic demand is, the steeper the curves $D$ and $D'$ in Fig. 2.2, and the larger will be the value of $p'_e + t$. So, more and more of the tax will be paid by buyers. **Conclusion:** the higher the elasticity of demand and lower the elasticity of supply, the greater the portion of the tax burden borne by sellers, and conversely, the less elastic demand and more elastic supply, the greater the portion of the tax paid by buyers. **Self-check questions:** 1. What characterises elasticity? What price intervals correspond to elastic demand and inelastic demand? 2. Name three types of elasticity for demand. Define them. 3. On what factors does the value of elasticity depend? 4. Why would the cross elasticity of demand among different types of washing machines be greater than between washing machines and other durable goods? **Recommended reading:** 1. Pindyck R., Rubinfeld D. Microeconomics. - Moscow: Delo. 2001. 2. Hyman D.N. Modern Microeconomics: Analyses and Applications. T. 1,2. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 1992. 3. Simkina L., Korneichuk B. Microeconomics. - S.-P.: Peter, 2002. 4. Mukhamediev B.M. Microeconomics. - Almaty: Kazak University, 2007. Theme 3: THEORY OF CONSUMER SELECTION Objective of the lecture: definition of concept utility, budgetary the consumer’s equilibrium, the essence of the income effect and the substitution effect. Keywords: utility, budget constraint, consumer equilibrium, income effect, substitution effect. Lecture questions: /p. 64 - 84/4/ 1. Utility. Marginal utility. 2. Consumer preferences and indifference curves. 3. Budgetary constraint of the consumer. 4. Consumer equilibrium. 5. The income-consumption curve and the Engel curve. 6. The price-consumption curve and deriving the individual demand curve. 7. The income effect and the substitution effect. The study of consumer behaviour is based on three main points: 1) analysing consumer preferences; 2) analysing the consumer's budget constraint and 3) Analysing consumer equilibrium or consumer optimum. 3.1. Utility. Marginal utility Measuring the magnitude of needs is a very complex problem, since each person has his or her own hierarchy of tastes, requests and preferences, which is generated by his or her biological, social and spiritual needs. But in our analysis we will try to assess the needs of individuals from the point of view of the utility theory. Utility is the ability of a good to satisfy a need, i.e., to bring benefit, pleasure, enjoyment, value. In modern microeconomics, it is simplistically assumed that consumer behaviour is determined by his desire to maximise the utility from the consumption of a certain set of goods. The total satisfaction received by a person from the consumption of a good is called total (total) utility and is denoted by $U$ (utility). The use of an additional good causes an increase in aggregate utility. The increase in aggregate utility obtained in this case is called marginal utility $MU$ (marginal utility). Thus, the marginal utility of a good is the increase in utility caused by the consumption of an additional unit of that good. For commodity $X$, the marginal utility by definition is equal to $$MU_x = \frac{\text{change in total utility}}{\text{change in consumption of product } X} = \frac{\Delta U_x}{\Delta x}.$$ The marginal utility $MU_y$ of commodity $Y$ is determined in a similar manner. The total utility of a consumed good is equal to the sum of the marginal utility of all consumed units of this good. For the utility function $U(x,y)$ the hypothesis of decreasing marginal utility is considered to be true: each next unit of a good increases the total utility, but by a smaller amount than the previous unit. This means that the marginal utility of a good decreases as its consumption increases (Fig. 3.1). As consumption of a good increases, total utility increases, but this occurs up to some level of consumption beyond which the good can become a "anti-benefit". On the graph, when consumption of a good increases, the curve of total utility is increasing, while for the "anti-benefit" it is decreasing (dotted line). For example, excessive consumption of cakes will harm a person's health. Consumers always try to maximise the total utility from consuming a set of goods on a limited budget. 3.2. Preferences and indifference curves A consumer in the market is faced with a choice of many different goods and services. However, in order to understand the essence of the choice problem, let us assume that there are only two goods. The quantities of goods $X$ and $Y$ will be denoted here by $x$ and $y$, respectively. In the plane, each set $(x; y)$ defines a point (Fig. 4.1). For example, if $X$ are oranges and $Y$ are cakes, then the set $a = (3; 2)$ contains 3 oranges and 2 cakes. Let's make some assumptions about consumer behaviour. 1. For any two sets of goods the consumer can definitely say that one of them is preferable to the other, or both sets are equivalent for him, i.e. for sets $a$ and $c$ one of the following three relations is true: "a is preferable to c", or "c is preferable to a", or "a is equivalent to c". Violation of this axiom would mean that consumer behaviour is unpredictable. 2. If "a is preferable to c" and "c is preferable to c", then it follows that "a is preferable to c." If this condition is not fulfilled, then a situation is possible where "a is preferable to c", "c is preferable to a", "c is preferable to a". A consumer with such preferences will always want something else. His behaviour is irrational. 3. If there are two different sets of goods \( a = (x_a; y_a) \) and \( c = (x_c; y_{cc}) \), with \( x_a \geq x_c, y_a \geq y_c \), then "set a is preferable to set c", i.e. a set with larger quantities of goods included in it is preferable. So, sets to the right or above are known to be more favoured, and sets to the left or below are less favoured. The indifference curve is the line on which all possible sets of goods that are equivalent to each other are located. The indifference curve has a negative slope when the unsaturation condition is fulfilled. When moving along the indifference curve, the degree of consumer satisfaction remains unchanged. The slope of the indifference curve determines the ratio in which the consumer can exchange one good for another without gaining or losing anything in terms of his preferences (Fig. 3.3). The marginal rate of substitution MRS of commodity Y for commodity X is the quantity of commodity Y that the consumer would give up in order to get an additional unit of commodity X, i.e., MRS. Figure 3.3. Marginal replacement rate \[ MRS = -\frac{\Delta y}{\Delta x}. \] As we move to the right along the indifference curve, the marginal rate of substitution \( MRS \) decreases because for each successive unit of good \( X \), the consumer agrees to give less of good \( Y \) than for the previous unit of good \( X \). In mathematical terms, a decreasing \( MRS \) means a convexity of the indifference curve. \( MRS \) can be defined differently as: \( MRS_{xy} = \frac{MU_x}{MU_y} \), i.e., the marginal rate of substitution of good \( Y \) for good \( X \) shows how much of good \( X \) is needed to compensate the consumer for giving up a unit of good \( Y \). The totality of the consumer's indifference curves is called his indifference curve map. It fully describes his preferences. The consumer tends to reach the highest possible indifference curve (more distant from the origin). 3.3. Budgetary constraint The natural desire of an individual to consume a set of goods containing the largest number of selected goods is limited by his income. The consumer must weigh his needs against market prices and available budget. Let \( x, y \) - quantities, \( p_x, p_y \) prices of goods \( X, Y \) respectively, and \( I \) - consumer's income for some period. The condition of equality of consumer's expenditures to his income is expressed by the equation \[ p_x x + p_y y = I. \tag{3.1} \] It defines a straight line on the plane called the budget line (Figure 3.4). The budget line shows the potential of a consumer to purchase different combinations of two goods given a limited income and price level in the market. The budget line intersects the \( OX \) axis at \( \frac{I}{p_x} \), and the \( OY \) axis at \( \frac{I}{p_y} \). To determine the slope of the budget line, it is enough to solve equation (3.1) with respect to \( y \), i.e. \[ y = -\frac{p_x}{p_y} x + \frac{I}{p_y}. \] Then \( k = -\frac{p_x}{p_y} \) its angular coefficient, i.e. the slope of the budget line. Let us highlight the following properties of the budget line: 1. The point of intersection of the budget line with the X axis (point A in Fig. 3.4) shows the maximum possible consumption of product X. The point of intersection of the budget line with the Y axis (point B in Fig. 3.4) shows the maximum possible consumption of product Y. 2. The slope of the budget line to the horizontal axis is determined by the ratio of product prices. 3. When the consumer's income increases, the budget line shifts parallel to itself from the origin (to the right), when income decreases - to the origin (to the left). 4. If the price of good X increases, the budget line will rotate clockwise around the point where it intersects the Y axis (point B). At the same time, less of commodity X will be purchased. Similarly, when the price of good Y increases. 5. When the price of good X decreases, the budget line will turn anti-clockwise around point B. At the same time, more of good X will be purchased. Similarly, when the price of commodity Y decreases. ### 3.4. Consumer equilibrium The previous analysis has shown that an individual seeks to consume the set of goods X and Y that will give him the greatest satisfaction. But he cannot buy any number of goods X and Y because his purchasing power is limited by his income. Let us try to find the optimum point of the consumer, in which his desires coincide with his income. In one diagram, let us depict the consumer's budget line and his map of indifference curves (Fig. 3.5). ![Figure 3.5. Consumer equilibrium](image) *The equilibrium (optimal) set of products* is the set on the budget line that provides the consumer with maximum utility. Let us formulate some equivalent consumer equilibrium conditions: 1. \[ MRS = \frac{p_x}{p_y} \] 2. \[ \frac{MU_x}{p_x} = \frac{MU_y}{p_y} \] 3. At the equilibrium point, the budget line touches some indifference curve. ### 3.5. Income-consumption curve and Engel curve Let us analyse the change in the consumer’s equilibrium states when the level of his income changes. Suppose that the individual’s income increases. Each new value of income corresponds to a more distant position of the budget line from the origin. ![Income-consumption curve](image) *Fig. 3.6. Income-consumption curve* Connecting the equilibrium points \( e_1, e_2, e_3, e_4 \) with a smooth line, we obtain the curve “income-consumption”. As can be seen, a higher value of income corresponds to a larger volume of consumption of good \( X \): \( x_1 < x < x_2 < x_4 \). The income-consumption curve contains all the equilibrium points on the consumer’s indifference curve map corresponding to different levels of his income. Using the income-consumption curve it is easy to construct an *Engel curve* showing the relationship between a consumer’s income and the quantity of good \( X \) purchased. If with the growth of income the volume of purchase of goods decreases, such goods are called *low-quality*. This does not mean that the goods are spoilt, unusable. It is just that with increasing income consumers prefer to buy more qualitative and expensive goods. ### 3.6. Price-consumption curve and derivation of the individual demand curve Now consider the consumer’s reaction to a change in the price of good \( X \). When the price \( p_x \) of good \( X \) increases, the budget line rotates clockwise relative to the point of its intersection with the vertical \( Y \) axis. The price-consumption curve connects all equilibrium points on the map of indifference curves corresponding to different prices for commodity $X$ (upper diagram in Fig. 3.7). The equilibrium consumption volumes $x_1$, $x_2$, $x_3$ for prices $p_1$, $p_2$, $p_3$ in the bottom diagram in Fig. 3.7 determine the points $a$, $a$, $a_{123}$, through which the demand curve of this consumer passes. Thus, we can see how the interaction of consumer desires and capabilities results in an individual demand for good $X$. The market demand curve is obtained by horizontally summing the individual demand curves. **Figure 3.7. Output of the individual demand curve** ### 3.5 The substitution effect and income effect An increase in the price of good $X$ has two consequences. On the one hand, the relative price of this good increases. In order to buy its additional unit, the consumer has to give up more other goods (good $Y$) than before. On the other hand, buying a certain amount of good $X$, the consumer can buy a smaller amount of other goods, i.e. his real income is reduced. *The substitution effect* is the change in consumption of a good due to a change in prices, provided that the consumer's income is adjusted to keep him at the same level of welfare. The consumer's welfare level remains unchanged means that he stays on the same indifference curve. His degree of satisfaction does not change. *The income effect* is the change in consumption of a good at new prices due to the failure of the consumer's income to adjust to keep his welfare unchanged. Self-check questions: 1. What are the components of rational consumer choice? 2. How is consumer equilibrium achieved? 3. Which principle is satisfied by the utility function? 4. Can marginal utility increase? 5. What do the law of diminishing marginal utility and the law of demand have in common? 6. If aggregate utility and marginal utility cannot be measured, explain how and why these concepts are used in consumption theory. 7. Why can’t the slope of the budget line be positive? 8. What does the income-consumption curve show? How is it constructed? 9. What does the Engel curve show? How is it constructed? 10. Explain the relationship between the price-consumption curve and the demand curve. 11. How do the income effect and the substitution effect manifest themselves in consumer behaviour? 12. Are the substitution and income effects always the same direction? In what cases are they differently directed? Recommended reading: 1. Pindyck R., Rubinfeld D. Microeconomics. - Moscow: Delo, 2001. 2. Hyman D.N. Modern Microeconomics: Analyses and Applications. T. 1,2. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 1992. 3. Simkina L., Korneichuk B. Microeconomics. - S.-P.: Peter, 2002. 4. Mukhamediev B.M. Microeconomics. - Almaty: Kazak University, 2007. Theme 4: THEORY OF PRODUCTION Purpose of the lecture: to define the production function and its properties, isoquant, technological substitution. Keywords Words: production function, isoquant, average product, marginal product, rate of technological substitution. Lecture questions: /p. 112 - 120/4/ 1. Production function. Isoquants. Cobb-Douglas function. 2. Average product and marginal product of a factor of production (labour, capital). Return on a factor of production. The law of diminishing returns of a factor of production. 3. Economies of scale. 4. Technological substitution rate. 4.1. Production function. Isoquants. Cobb-Douglas function The subject of research in economics is the relationship between the inputs of labour and capital required to produce goods and services, regardless of the physical or chemical characteristics of the processes used. Suppose that a firm produces a homogeneous product. For a given technology, the production possibilities are given by the production function \[ Q = F(L, K), \] where \( L \) - labour inputs, \( K \) - capital inputs, \( Q \) - maximum output at given labour and capital inputs. The type of functional dependence \( F \) is determined by the technology used. The production function can be represented in the form of a table. An isoquant is a curve on which there are all possible combinations of factors of production that provide the same volume of output. It should be noted that isoquant has a negative slope, because if the input of one factor decreases, it is necessary to increase the input of another factor to keep the output unchanged. The isoquants cannot intersect, because at the point of their intersection different outputs would have to be produced. It is possible to represent the production function also in the form of formulas. Cobb-Douglas function: \[ Q = A K^\alpha L^\beta, \] where \( A, \beta \) are positive numbers. 4.2. Average product and marginal product of a factor of production. The return on a factor of production. The law of diminishing returns of a factor of production. The following quantities characterising the production process are used to analyse the behaviour of the firm. Average product of labour \( AP_L = Q/L \) - output of the firm per 1 unit of labour. Similarly, the average product of capital \( AP_K = Q/K \) is determined. The marginal product of labour \( MP_L = \Delta Q/\Delta L \) is the additional output per 1 additional unit of labour. Similarly, the marginal product of capital is determined \( MP_K = \frac{\Delta Q}{\Delta K} \). It is convenient to calculate the marginal product of a factor of production through derivatives when the production function is given analytically. If each next unit of labour brought into production provides an increase in output greater than the previous unit of labour, there is an increasing return on labour. If each successive unit of labour brought into production increases output by the same amount, then there is a constant return on labour. Finally, there is a *diminishing return to labour* if each successive unit of labour brought into production provides a smaller increase in output than the previous unit of labour. ![Graph showing Output, Average and Marginal Products of Labour](image) **Figure 4.1. Output, average and marginal products of labour** In all three cases considered, of course, capital $K$ and technology are assumed to be unchanged. Similarly, these concepts are defined for capital and any other factor of production. Usually, when production starts to develop, there is an increasing return of a factor of production, which is then replaced by a constant and decreasing return of that factor of production. In Fig. 4.1 for labour inputs from $0$ to $L_1$ there is an increasing return, from $L_1$ to $L_2$ there is a constant return and for labour inputs above $L_2$ there is a decreasing return on labour. Starting from the volume of labour input $L_4$ there is a decline in production. For example, workers in one shop begin to interfere with each other. The law of *diminishing returns of a factor of production* states that starting from a certain level of utilisation of a factor of production, other things being equal, its marginal product decreases. Otherwise, it would be profitable to concentrate production at one enterprise. ### 4.3. Economies of scale Does output increase by a factor of two for a similar increase in factor inputs? There are *increasing economies of scale* if a $\lambda$-fold increase in factor inputs results in a more than $\lambda$-fold increase in output, i.e., $\lambda$-fold increase in output. $$F(\lambda L, \lambda K) > \lambda F(L, K).$$ main cause increase output products is the advantages of specialisation. *Declining economies of scale* are observed when an increase in factor inputs by a factor of $\lambda$ leads to an increase in output by less than a factor of $\lambda$, i.e. $$F(\lambda L, \lambda K) < \lambda F(L, K).$$ This is because a very large firm becomes unwieldy, making it difficult to get raw materials and deliver finished products to markets. When $F(\lambda L, \lambda K) = \lambda F(L, K)$, there is a *constant scale effect*. It is easy to determine the scale effect for the Cobb-Douglas function. Let us write $F(\lambda L, \lambda K) = A(\lambda K)^{\alpha} (\lambda L)^{\beta} = \lambda^{\alpha + \beta} F(L, K)$. If $\alpha + \beta > 1$, the scale effect is increasing, if $\alpha + \beta = 1$, the scale effect is constant, and if $\alpha + \beta < 1$, the scale effect is decreasing. ### 4.4. Interchangeability of factors of production At different points of one isoquant, the value of output is the same, but the sets of factors used are different. This means that one factor can be replaced by another factor in a certain ratio, keeping the output unchanged (Figure 4.2). ![Figure 4.2. Interchangeability of resources](image) When moving along the isoquant from point $a$ to point $b$, capital and labour inputs change by $\Delta K$ and $\Delta L$, respectively. The value $MRTS = -\Delta K/\Delta L$ is called the *marginal rate of technological substitution*. It is equal to the additional value of capital inputs to free a unit of labour, assuming that output remains constant. In the limit $$MRTS = -\frac{dK}{dL},$$ i.e. slope isoquant is equal to marginal norm technological of $MRTS$ substitution taken with a minus sign. The following formula for the marginal rate of technological substitution can be written down $$MRTS = -\frac{MPL}{MPK}.$$ **Self-check questions:** 1. What does the production function characterise? 2. What determines the possibility of substituting some production factors for others? 3. When does the value of output reach its maximum? 4. What is the slope of the isoquant? Why? 5. Is there a difference between diminishing returns to labour and diminishing returns to scale? 6. Draw an analogy between an isoquant map and an indifference curve map. Recommended reading: 1. Pindyck R., Rubinfeld D. Microeconomics. - Moscow: Delo, 2001. 2. Hyman D.N. Modern Microeconomics: Analyses and Applications. T. 1,2. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 1992. 3. Simkina L., Korneichuk B. Microeconomics. - S.-P.: Peter, 2002. 4. Mukhamediev B.M. Microeconomics. - Almaty: Kazak University, 2007. Topic 5: Production costs Purpose of the lecture: definition of the concepts of production costs in the short and long run, finding the producer's equilibrium. Keywords Words: short-term period, long-term period, production costs, isocost, producer's equilibrium. Lecture questions: /p. 128 - 141/4/ 1. Types of costs. 2. costs production в short-term period (aggregate, average, marginal). 3. costs production в long-term period. Isocosta и equilibrium of the manufacturer. 5.1. Types of costs A distinction is made between accounting costs and economic costs. Accounting costs do not include the opportunity cost of the factors of production owned by the owners of the enterprise. The opportunity cost of a resource is the income that could be obtained in another best use of the resource. Economic costs are equal to the sum of the revenues that can be obtained in the most favourable way of using all resources expended. The difference between economic and accounting costs is called imputed costs. In making the decision, the firm must, of course, consider economic costs. The firm may decide, depending on the economic environment, to expand or reduce production. To do so, it must change the costs of the factors of production. The period of time during which only one factor of production is variable is called short-run, and the period during which all factors of production are variable is called long-run. Usually in the short run, the variable factor is labour. 5.2. Costs of production in the short run Total costs $TC$ depend on output $Q$, i.e. $TC = TC(Q)$. Some of them cannot be changed in the short run due to changes in output. For example, rent for premises, property tax, insurance payments. Therefore, total costs can be represented as the sum of fixed costs $FC$, which are independent of $Q$, and variable costs, which are dependent on $Q$: $$TC = FC + VC.$$ Let's determine the average total cost $AC = \frac{TC}{Q}$, average fixed costs $AFC = \frac{FC}{Q}$, average variable costs $AVC = \frac{VC}{Q}$. These are the costs attributable to the average per unit of output. The marginal cost (total) $MC$ is the additional total cost of increasing output by one unit, $$i.e. MC = \frac{\Delta TC}{\Delta Q},$$ where $\Delta Q$ is the increase in output, and $\Delta TC = TC(Q + \Delta Q) - TC(Q)$. In the limit at $\Delta Q \to 0$ we obtain $MC = TC'$ - the derivative of the function $TC = TC(Q)$. Average and marginal costs have a determinant role in a firm’s decision on output. 1. The marginal cost curve $MC$ intersects the average cost curve $AC$ at its minimum point. 2. Where the $MC$ curve is above the $AC$ curve, average $AC$ costs increase. 3. Where the $MC$ curve is below the $AC$ curve, the average cost of $AC$ decreases. ![Figure 5.1. Costs in the short run](image) The typical location of the average cost curves $AC$, average variable cost $AVC$, marginal cost $MC$ and average fixed cost $AFC$ in the short run is shown in Figure 5.1. **5.3. Costs of production in the long run. Isocosta and producer's equilibrium** A firm in the long run can vary the costs of all factors of production and hence choose the combination of them that yields the lowest cost of producing a given volume of output. *The isocost* is the line on which all sets of factors of production of the same value are located. Its equation is: $p_L \cdot L + p_K \cdot K = TC_0$, where $TC_0$ is a fixed level of total costs. Such an equation defines a straight line (Fig. 5.2). The isocost has a negative slope. Therefore, changes $\Delta L$, $\Delta K$ at which points $a$, $b$ are on the same isocost have different signs. The slope of the isocost (in absolute value) is equal to $-\Delta K / \Delta L$. *Isocost shifts.* For $TC$ level $I$ total costs we will have isocosta $$p_L \cdot L + p_K \cdot K = TC_1,$$ which is parallel to the isocosta $$p_L \cdot L + p_K \cdot K = TC_0,$$ and is further away from the origin when $TC_I > TC_0$ and closer when $TC_I < TC_0$. When $p_L \uparrow p_L$ will turn clockwise, at $p_K \uparrow p_K$ - against the move clockwise. The firm must produce $Q_0$ units of output at the lowest cost: \[ TC = p_L \cdot L + p_K \cdot K \rightarrow \min, \quad F(L,K) = Q_0. \] Let's consider this problem graphically. Determining the optimal set of factors of production is very similar to consumer choice. However, there the budget constraint was fixed and utility was maximised. At the point where the isocost and the isoquant touch, their slopes must coincide, i.e. the equilibrium condition is fulfilled: \[ \frac{MP_L}{p_L} = \frac{MP_K}{p_K}. \] Thus, for a well-functioning firm, its total costs $TC$ are determined by the volume of production, i.e. $TC = TC(Q)$. **Self-check questions:** 1. What are costs and profits from an economist’s and accountant’s point of view? 2. What do economic costs include? Is economic profit related to costs? 3. Costs of production: fixed, variable, total. Their characterisation, graphic representation, role and importance for the entrepreneur. 4. Explain the appearance of the curves $AC$, $AVC$, $AFC$, $MC$. 5. Marginal cost and marginal revenue: their logical and economic relationship and significance. **Recommended reading:** 1. Pindyck R., Rubinfeld D. Microeconomics. - Moscow: Delo, 2001. 2. Hyman D.N. Modern Microeconomics: Analyses and Applications. T. 1,2. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 1992. 3. Simkina L., Korneichuk B. Microeconomics. - S.-P.: Peter, 2002. 4. Mukhamediev B.M. Microeconomics. - Almaty: Kazak University, 2007. Topic 6: PROPOSAL IN CONDITIONS OF PERFECT CONCURRENCE Purpose of the lecture: to determine the characteristic features of the market of perfect competition, the conditions of equilibrium of a competitive firm in the short and long term. Keywords Words: Perfect competition, revenue, cost, profit maximisation, closure decision, equilibrium. Lecture questions: /p. 150 - 166/4/ 1. Characteristics (conditions) of a perfectly competitive market. 2. Equilibrium of a competitive firm in the short run. The decision to stop or continue production. Supply curve of a firm in the short run. 3. The equilibrium of a competitive firm in the long run. 6.1. Characteristics of the market of perfect competition Under conditions of perfect competition, sellers and buyers accept the prevailing market price as set from the outside (they act as price-takers); they do not take into account the reactions of other sellers and buyers to their actions; firms know exactly their revenue and cost functions, as well as the prices of resources; consumers are well informed about prices and quality of goods; there are no legislative, technological, financial and other barriers to entry and exit from the industry; products are absolutely identical, which makes their advertising useless and inappropriate. Obviously, these attributes hardly occur in real life in pure form. They are some abstract conditions necessary for comparing and analysing the market situation. With a certain degree of assumption absolutely competitive markets can be called the markets of agricultural products and securities. 6.2. Equilibrium of a competitive firm in the short run In a perfectly competitive market, a firm accepts the equilibrium price as a given price. This means that the price $p$ at which a competitive firm sells its output does not depend on the volume $Q$ of its production. Therefore, unlike the market demand curve, the demand curve for the competitive firm’s output is a horizontal line (Figure 6.1). ![Demand curve for the products of a competitive firm](image) *Figure 6.1. Demand curve for the products of a competitive firm* Demand for the output of a competitive firm is perfectly elastic: even a small increase in price will lead to a complete disappearance of demand for its output, since no buyer will be willing to pay more for a good than he would pay for the exact same good to another seller. Reducing the price below the market level $p_0$ will lead to a loss of profit for the firm itself, since it can realise its entire output at the established price $p_0$. Since, under perfect competition, an individual firm does not have the ability to set its own price for a good, the total (gross) $TR$ income of the individual of the firm is equal to the product of the price established on the market and the quantity of goods sold: \( TR = pQ \). Economic profit is obtained by deducting all economic costs of \( TC \) from gross income: \( P = TR - TC \). Average revenue is the revenue per unit of output (average revenue). \[ AR = \frac{TR}{Q} \] The marginal revenue is the income received from the sales of an additional unit of goods, i.e. \[ MR = \frac{\Delta TR}{\Delta Q} \] For competitive firm \( p \), price is independent of output \( Q \). Therefore, marginal revenue \( MR = p \), and average revenue \( AR = p \). The \( MR \) and \( AR \) curves coincide with the demand curve of firm \( D \). To determine the value of maximum profit, it is necessary to construct the curves of total income and total costs, as well as the curves of marginal income, average and marginal costs (Fig. 6.2). The firm seeks to maximise the difference between total revenue \( TR \) and total costs \( TC \) (Figure 6.2a). In the initial stages of production (up to \( Q_1 \)), \( TCs \) exceed \( TR \). The firm incurs losses. Then income starts to cover total costs gradually and at point \( A \) the break-even point or self-sufficiency is reached (\( TR = TC \)). By increasing output, the firm makes a profit in the interval between the output levels \( Q_1 \) and \( Q_3 \) (\( TR > TC \)). Only in this interval is the firm’s activity economically justified. Further continuation of production will lead to the fact that the increase in total costs will exceed the growth rate of income and at point \( B \) the firm’s profit will be equal to zero, and output above the volume \( Q_3 \) will lead to losses (\( TR < TC \)). The firm’s profit maximises at point \( E \) when output \( Q_2 \), because at this point the vertical distance between the \( TR \) and \( TC \) curves is maximised. Let us analyse this situation with the help of marginal revenue and marginal cost curves (Fig. 6.2b). Production of an additional unit of output simultaneously increases total costs \( TC \) by the value of marginal costs \( MC \) and increases total income \( TR \) by the value of marginal revenue \( MR \). In this case, the value of \( MC \) is constantly changing, and \( MR \) is constant and equal to the price of goods (\( MR = p \)). As long as marginal revenue exceeds marginal cost (\( MR > MC \)) for each additional unit of a good, the firm has a positive marginal profit, i.e. it earns more revenue from producing additional output than it spends. Total profit increases as long as \( MR > MC \). As output increases further, marginal costs begin to exceed marginal revenue, i.e. an additional unit of output will reduce total profit. Thus, the firm maximises profit when marginal revenue and marginal cost \( MR = MC \) are equal (point \( E \) at output \( Q_2 \) in Fig. 6.2b). Since the competitive firm takes the market price as given, for it the marginal revenue is equal to the commodity price and the condition of profit maximisation (or loss minimisation) of the competitive firm is written in the form: \[ MR = MC = p. \] (6.1) To find out the volume of maximum aggregate profit from point \( E \) – the point of intersection of \( MR \) and \( MC \) (Fig. 6.2b), let us draw a perpendicular to the curve \( AC \) (since profit is the excess of income over costs). We multiply the resulting height of \( EC \) by the size of optimal output \( 0Q_2 \), corresponding to the distance \( CH \). Thus, the maximum aggregate output of the firm is equal to the area of the rectangle \( FECH \). A firm's decision to continue or cease production in the short run. The market price $p$ is determined by the interaction of market demand $D$ and market supply $S$. Unlike the demand curve for the product of an individual competitive firm, the demand curve for the product of an industry (market) in the short-run period has a negative slope (Fig. 6.3). This is explained by the fact that all firms in the industry producing a certain product will be able to increase their sales volume only by simultaneously setting a lower price. Depending on the level of equilibrium price $p$, different situations can arise for a competitive firm. 1) *The price is above the minimum of average costs.* The condition of maximum profit of the firm is $MC = p$. At optimal output $Q = Q^*$, the area of the quadrilateral $AFOD$ is equal to total income, and the area of the quadrilateral $BFOC$ is equal to $AC \cdot Q^*$, i.e. total costs of production. Their difference is equal to the area of $ABCD$, i.e. profit. In this case it is positive. Deviation of $Q$ from $Q^*$ reduces the firm's profit. 2) *The price is below average costs but above the minimum of average variable costs.* Area $FQ*OD$ is revenue $P \cdot Q^*$, area $BQ*OC$ is total costs $AC \cdot Q^*$. Area $BFDC$ is the firm’s loss because it does not recover its total costs ($p < \text{min } AC$). Should the firm cease production? In the short run, a firm may operate at a loss, expecting to make a profit in the future if price increases. The difference $AC - AVC = AFC$ is average fixed costs. The area $BHSC$ is the full fixed costs. If the firm stops production, it will incur a loss equal to the area $BQ*OC$. And by continuing production, the firm incurs a loss equal to the area $BFDC$, which is less than $BQ*OC$. Thus, the loss from closing the plant would be greater than if production were to continue, since each unit of output generates revenue that covers variable costs and at least some of the fixed costs. 3) The price is below the minimum average variable costs. Area $ABCD$ equals fixed costs, area $BFHC$ is the excess of variable costs over revenue, i.e. in this case the firm’s revenue $OHFQ^*$ does not even cover variable costs $OHFQ^*$. The fixed price is below the minimum of average variable costs ($p < \text{min } AVC$). Continued production is pointless for the firm and it ceases to operate. For a perfectly competitive firm in the short run, there is a direct relationship between output and market price. At the prevailing market price and cost level, the firm sets the output that allows it to either maximise profits or minimise losses. By definition, a supply curve shows the relationship between price and the quantity of a good that a firm is willing and able to sell. For $p < \text{min } AVC$, supply is 0. Since the marginal cost of the firm, which determines the output of additional units of output, increases as $Q$ increases, the supply curve is upward-sloping. Thus, the law of supply is due to the law of diminishing marginal productivity. Graphically, the *supply curve of a competitive firm* in the short run is the portion of the increasing branch of the marginal cost curve $MC$ above the minimum point of the average variable cost curve $AVC$. **6.3. Equilibrium of a competitive firm in the long run** In the long run, a firm is able to change all factors of production, change its business profile, exit or enter an industry. If in the short run an individual firm makes a positive profit, then, since perfect competition is characterised by full information and freedom of entry-exit, the profit made attracts other firms into the industry. The entry of new producers will shift the supply curve to the right and lower the equilibrium price. As a result of an increase in aggregate industry output, the equilibrium market price falls to a level at which a typical firm in the industry earns zero economic profit (Figure 9.8). The disappearance of positive profits (even the emergence of losses if supply increases strongly) causes individual firms to leave the industry, which leads to a reduction in industry output and a shift of the supply curve to the left. The market price rises, the remaining firms have positive profits, and the process starts again. *Figure 6.8. Equilibrium in the long run* At zero economic profit, when $p = LMC = \min LAC$ of a typical firm, there is no incentive for competing producers to enter or exit the industry. Therefore, this situation in the long run can be considered as *equilibrium*. In this case, aggregate market supply equals aggregate market demand. Thus, in competitive markets there is a constant disturbance and automatic restoration of the equilibrium state, which is only observed when all firms functioning in the industry earn zero economic profit and none of them has incentives to change their position. **Self-check questions:** 1. Give the definition of economic profit, gross, average and marginal revenue. 2. Formulate the profit maximisation condition. 3. Why equality marginal income и marginal costs is essential for profit maximisation in all market structures? 4. Why price can be substituted for marginal revenue in the rule $MR = MC$, when the industry is purely competitive? 5. Explain, why curve demand curve for product competitive firm - a horizontal line? 6. Explain why a competitive firm is a "price taker" rather than a "price maker"? **Recommended reading:** 1. Pindyck R., Rubinfeld D. Microeconomics. - Moscow: Delo, 2001. 2. Hyman D.N. Modern Microeconomics: Analyses and Applications. T. 1,2. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 1992. 3. Simkina L., Korneichuk B. Microeconomics. - S.-P.: Peter, 2002. 4. Mukhamediev B.M. Microeconomics. - Almaty: Kazak University, 2007. Theme 7: MONOPOLY Objective of the lecture: To identify characteristic features monopolistic market, conditions for maximising the monopolist's income and profit, goals and methods of price discrimination. Keywords Words: Monopoly, income, maximisation profit maximisation, price discrimination. Lecture questions: /p. 177 - 187/4/ 1. The conditions of a monopoly market. 2. Elasticity, monopoly revenue and demand. 3. Profit maximisation of the monopolist. 4. Behaviour monopolist behaviour short-term и long-term periods. Public costs of monopoly. Natural monopolies. 5. Price discrimination and market segmentation. 7.1. Monopoly market conditions A monopoly is a market structure in which a single seller is the supplier to the market of a good that has no close substitutes, while it can influence the price of its good, entry to the market is closed, and buyers accept the price as a given. A necessary condition for the existence of monopoly is the existence of barriers to entry into the industry. Types of barriers: exclusive rights (patents), ownership of the supply of a commodity (the only deposit in the region), natural monopoly (economies of scale). A firm has monopoly or market power (force) if it can influence the price of its good by changing the volume of its supply. Unlike a competitive firm, the demand curve for a firm's good with market power is sloped. For a monopoly, the demand curve for the monopolist's good coincides with the market demand curve $D$. The monopolist can set his own price, but he cannot set the price as high as he wants, because sometimes the amount of demand is too small. 7.2. Elasticity, monopoly revenue and demand Keeping in mind that total income $TR = p \cdot Q$, we write: $$MR = \frac{d(TR)}{dQ} = p + Q \quad \frac{dp}{dQ} = P1 + \left( \frac{Q}{p} \right) \cdot \left( \frac{dp}{dQ} \right) = p \left( 1 + \left( \frac{1}{\frac{p}{Q}} \cdot \frac{dQ}{dp} \right) \right)$$ magnitude $\frac{p}{Q} \cdot \frac{dQ}{dp}$ is the price elasticity of demand, i.e. $E_p$. Hence, $$MR = P1 + \frac{1}{E_p}. \quad (7.1)$$ Since the price elasticity of demand $E_p$ is always negative, $MR < p$, i.e. the monopolist's marginal revenue curve $MR$ is located below the market demand curve $D$ (Fig.7.1). Further, we note that if demand is inelastic, i.e. $-1 < E_p < 0$, then it follows from formula 7.1 that $MR < 0$. So, by reducing the output $Q$, the monopolist will increase his income $TR$. Therefore, the monopolist always produces in the area of elastic demand where marginal revenue is positive. Let us substitute the expression for marginal revenue $MR$ from (7.1) into the profit maximisation condition $MR = MC$. \[ \Pi + \frac{1}{E_p} = MC. \] **Figure 7.1. Elastic and inelastic demand** From here we find the monopolist's price that maximises his profit: \[ rm = \frac{MC}{1 + \frac{1}{E_p}}. \] (7.2) For elastic demand, \( E_p < -1 \), and the expression \( 1 + 1/E_p \) in the denominator is positive and less than one. So, unlike a competitive firm, the monopolist sets the price above marginal cost: \( p_m > MC \). The higher the price elasticity of demand, the closer the monopolist's price \( p_m \) will be to \( MC \)'s marginal cost. ### 7.3. Profit maximisation of a monopolist The firm's profit \( \Pi = TR - TC \) is a function of output \( Q \). In order for it to reach the maximum, its derivative must be zero: \[ \Pi' = TR' - TC' = 0. \] Since \( TR' = MR, \ TC' = MC \), hence the monopolist's profit maximisation condition is obtained: \[ MR = MC. \] (7.3) So, the optimal output \( Q^* \) must be such that the marginal revenue of the firm is equal to its marginal cost. At the point \( Q^* \) the \( MR \) and \( MC \) curves must intersect. Moreover, at a production volume \( Q < Q^* \) marginal revenue \( MR \) exceeds marginal cost \( MC \), i.e. \( P' = MR - MC > 0 \), and as \( Q \) increases to \( Q^* \) profit \( P \) increases. And when the output \( Q > Q^* \) marginal revenue \( MR \) is lower than marginal cost. So, \( P' = MR - MC < 0 \), and when \( Q \) decreases to \( Q^* \) \( P \)'s profit also increases. ### 7.4. Monopolist behaviour For a competitive firm there is a supply curve. But for a monopoly, it turns out, there is no supply curve, because the monopolist does not react to price changes by adjusting the optimal output under it, but chooses the optimal combination of price \( p \) and output \( Q \), which are related to each other by the law of demand. Depending on the nature of changes in market demand, the monopolist may adopt more of the price of the good and less of the output and vice versa. If the monopolist's price $r_m$ is higher than his average cost $AC$, he makes a positive economic profit (Figure 7.2). This is the area of the rectangle $r_m EFH$. But if demand falls, the curves $D$ and $MR$ fall downwards and profits become negative. The firm will incur a loss. In the long term, it has to stop production. And in the short term, it must weigh all circumstances and future projections. If the firm exits the market, it may not be able to return. Any firm, not necessarily a monopolist, that can influence the price of its product has some monopoly power. Its measure is the Lerner index $$I = \frac{p - MC}{p}.$$ (7.4) For a competitive firm it is zero, since its optimal output is determined by the condition $p = MC$. And for a monopoly, if in (7.4) the price $p$ replace by the price $p_m$ from (7.2), then $I = \frac{1}{E_p}$. The more elastic the demand, the less monopoly power a firm has. A competitive market has been shown to maximise society's gain. Let us compare it with a monopoly (Fig. 7.3). If a competitive market is monopolised, output will decrease from $Q_c$ to $Q_M$, and price will rise from $P_S$ to $P_M$. In this case, the loss of consumer gain will be $A+B$ and the additional gain of producers is $A-C$. Total losses of society due to market monopolisation: $$(A + C) - (A - C) = C + C.$$ Thus, compared to perfect competition, the monopolist produces less, but sets the price higher, and society loses out. Why, then, does society need monopoly? The point is that small firms in conditions of tough competition cannot spend money on R&D. Scientific and technological progress is ensured thanks to developments in large monopolistic firms, such as IBM and Microsoft. Innovations, in particular, reduce production costs. Natural monopoly. Natural monopoly exists in the range of output in which economies of scale are strong. The average cost curve has a negative slope (Fig. 7.4). Usually, natural monopolists are firms that provide public utilities to the population. It is impractical to divide such firms into smaller ones. For example, if a natural monopoly producing $Q_0$ output with average cost $AC_0$ is split into two identical firms with output $Q_1 = Q_0 /2$, each will have average costs $AC_1 > AC_0$. Then the total total costs of both new firms will be: $$TC_1 + TC_2 = 2 \cdot TC_1 = 2 \cdot AC_1 \cdot Q_1 > 2 \cdot AC \cdot Q_{01} = AC_0 \cdot Q_0 = TC_0.$$ If no antitrust regulation is implemented, a natural monopoly will choose its optimal output and price from the condition $MR = MC$ in order to make a small profit. The state can intervene and set a minimum output $Q_L$. If $Q_L$ is chosen too large, as in Fig. 7.5 the firm’s profit will be negative because $P_L < AC(Q_L)$. In such a situation, it may stop production. Therefore, the choice of the firm’s prescribed output should leave the firm with the possibility of some positive profit necessary to develop production. However, it should be borne in mind that no one but the firm itself knows better production and its associated costs. Therefore, taking into account the possibility of intervention States, it may overstate its costs in order to earn higher actual profits. Figure 7.5. Regulation of natural monopoly 7.5. Price discrimination and market segmentation Price discrimination occurs when the same good or service is sold at different prices to different customers. To exercise price discrimination, a firm must have the ability to determine how much a buyer can pay, and buyers must not be able to pass on the purchased good or service to other buyers. Price discrimination is implemented in practice by diversifying prices: by consumer income, by product category, by volume of consumption, by time of sale. Perfect price discrimination means selling each unit of a good or service at the maximum price at which a customer is willing to buy it. For example, it can be carried out by doctors, lawyers. In this case, the entire consumer gain is captured. Suppose that $Q$ units of the product have already been sold. According to the market demand curve $D$, the firm will be able to sell another $\Delta Q$ units of the product at the price $p$ (Fig. 7.6). Figure 7.6. Marginal income and market demand The marginal revenue will be $MR \approx \frac{P \Delta Q}{\Delta Q} = p$. Hence, the marginal revenue curve $MR$ under perfect price discrimination coincides with the market demand curve $D$. It is profitable for a monopolist to increase output until the equality $MR = MC$ is fulfilled. So, the price of the last unit sold is equal to marginal cost, and the firm using perfect price discrimination produces as much output as if it were a competitive firm. And how does the average income curve behave? Each successive unit of a good is sold at a lower price than the previous one. Therefore, the $AR$ curve must be decreasing. For this purpose, the marginal income curve $MR$ must be located below the average income curve, with both curves crossing the vertical axis at the same point (Fig. 7.7). The area of the shaded rectangle is equal to the firm's economic profit. Perfect price discrimination is impossible to implement if the firm cannot know exactly the capabilities and desires of each consumer. ![Figure 7.7. Average income and profit under perfect price discrimination](image) It is usually more acceptable to *segment the market* - dividing customers into several groups based on some characteristic (age, geography, etc.) and assigning to each of them a different price for the same product. For example, setting different prices for entrance tickets to a museum for schoolchildren, adults and pensioners. ![Figure 7.8. Market segmentation](image) In Fig. 7.8 the market is divided into two segments: market 1 and market 2. Horizontal summation of the demand curves $D_1$ and $D_2$ gives the market demand curve $D$. The condition $MR_1 + MR_2 = MC$ (intersection of the corresponding curves) determines the optimal total sales $Q_0 = Q_1 + Q_2$ on both markets. The values $Q_1$ and $Q_2$ are found from the condition $MR_1 = MC$ and $MR_2 = MC$. Then the prices $p_1$ and $p_2$ on the first and second markets are determined accordingly. And the price $p_0$ is the price of a monopolist without market segmentation. If the total profit on market segments (shaded areas) is significantly higher than the profit without segmentation, then it makes sense for the firm to segment the market. Self-check questions: 1. Under what circumstances can a monopoly arise? 2. How does the price at which a monopoly maximises profit relate to output? 3. How is long-run equilibrium achieved under monopoly conditions? 4. At what circumstances will monopoly engage in price discrimination? 5. Why do monopolies use price discrimination? 6. Give examples of market segmentation. 7. In your opinion, what are the disadvantages and advantages of a monopoly market? Recommended reading: 1. Pindyck R., Rubinfeld D. Microeconomics. - Moscow: Delo, 2001. 2. Hyman D.N. Modern Microeconomics: Analyses and Applications. T. 1,2. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 1992. 3. Simkina L., Korneichuk B. Microeconomics. - S.-P.: Peter, 2002. 4. Mukhamediev B.M. Microeconomics. - Almaty: Kazak University, 2007. 8. MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION Objective of the lecture: To identify characteristic features market monopolistic competition, conditions of profit maximisation in the short and long term. Keywords: monopolistic competition, product differentiation, profit maximisation. Lecture questions: /p. 200 - 203/4/ 1. Characteristic features of the market of monopolistic competition. 2. Determinants of price and output in the short run. 3. The equilibrium of a monopolistically competitive firm in the long run. 8.1. Characteristics of the market of monopolistic competition There are markets in which sellers can influence prices but act independently. For example, the shoe market, the men's suit market, the perfume market. A market structure in which sellers influence the price of their goods but do not take into account the actions of other sellers, entry into the market is free, and buyers accept the price of the goods as a given price is called monopolistic competition. In a market of monopolistic competition, products are heterogeneous, there are too many sellers for them to keep the other sellers at bay, and each is small compared to the market. Since entry into the monopolistic competition market is free, the length of the period matters. 8.2. Determinations of price and output in the short run In the short run, the number of sellers in the market is fixed. Each of them has a certain demand for their products and acts as a monopolist (Fig. 8.1). Here $D_I$ is the demand curve for a given firm's output, $p_I$ and $Q_I$ are the optimal price and output, $MC_I$, $AC_I$ and $MR_I$ are the marginal, average cost and marginal revenue curves respectively. The darkened rectangle is the firm's profit. 8.3. Equilibrium of a monopolistically competitive firm in the long run periods The fundamental difference from monopoly is evident in the long run. Let us retain for it the notations introduced for the short-term period. In the situation in Figure 8.1, a typical firm makes a positive profit. This attracts other firms to the industry, since entry is free. Often consumers of a given firm switch to the products of new firms, and the demand curve for its product goes down. If too many new firms enter the industry, the demand for that firm’s product may decrease so much that it will suffer losses. Such firms will start to leave the industry, and the demand curves for the products of the remaining firms will shift upwards as buyers of the products of the closed firms move in (Figure 8.2). Thus, if the demand curve of firm $D_I$ is lower than its average cost curve $AC_I$, then the firm incurs a loss at any level of output $Q$. And if the demand curve of $D_I$ intersects the average cost curve $AC_I$, it makes a positive profit at some output $Q$. Equilibrium in a monopolistically competitive market will be established when the long-run average cost curve $AC_I$ of a typical firm touches the demand curve $D_I$ for its products (Fig. 8.3). At the tangent point $e$, the firm will make zero profit. Any shift along the demand curve $D_I$ will only reduce it. If all firms in the industry are in this situation, the market will be in long-run equilibrium. The question arises about the fulfilment of the maximum profit condition: do the curves $MR_I$ and $MC_I$ intersect at $Q = Q_I$? Let us show that the condition $MR_I = MC_I$ is fulfilled at the optimal output $Q_I$. Indeed, at the point of tangency $e$, the slope of the average cost curve $AC_I$ is equal to the slope of the demand curve $D_I$, i.e., the average income $AR_I$. This means that the derivatives must be equal to each other: where \( TR_I \) is the total revenue, \( TC_I \) is the total costs of the firm under consideration. Let us perform the transformations: \[ \frac{TR'_I}{Q^2} = \frac{TC'_I}{Q^2} \] Since at the point of tangency \( e \) it is true that \( TR_I = AR_I - Q_I = AC_I - Q_I = TC_I \), then from the previous equality we obtain \( TR'_I = TC'_I \), i.e. \( MR_I = MC_I \). So, the condition of maximum profit is fulfilled. **Self-check questions:** 1. Give examples of monopolistically competitive markets. 2. Which are, in your opinion, shortcomings and advantages of a monopolistically competitive market? 3. Can a firm on a monopolistically competitive market make a positive profit in the long run? **OLIGOPOLY** Objective of the lecture: To identify characteristic features of oligopoly market, analyse the main models of oligopoly. Keywords: oligopoly, price wars, strategic behaviour, collusion, cartel, duopoly. Lecture questions: /p. 203 - 207/4/ 1. Characteristics of an oligopolistic market. 2. Price wars. Strategic behaviour and game theory (prisoners' dilemma). 3. Collusion and cartels. 4. Other models of oligopoly. 5. Duopoly: Cournot's model, Bertrand's model. **9.1. Characteristics of an oligopolistic market** A market structure in which sellers can influence the price of their goods, take into account the reaction of other sellers to their actions, market entry is open or closed, and buyers accept the price as a given is called an **oligopoly**. In an oligopoly, there are a small number (2 to 15) of large firms whose output is sufficient to meet consumer demand for the product. The product itself can be either standardised (steel, aluminium, cement, etc.) or differentiated (cars, cigarettes, alcoholic beverages, household appliances, etc.). Products are usually manufactured using advanced technology and at minimal cost. Entry barriers are economies of scale, patent protection, ownership of the source of raw materials or know-how. Since the entire market is divided between a limited number of large producers, their pricing and production policies depend not so much on intrafirm decisions as on the decisions and actions of competitors. A key feature of oligopoly is the **strategic behaviour** of market actors, i.e. a situation in which the actions of one firm directly influence the actions of other firms. Each of the sellers can influence the price of its goods, but necessarily takes into account the reaction of the others. In an oligopolistic market, there should not be many sellers and each of them should account for a significant share of the market. An example is the market for cars of a certain class. 9.2. Price wars. Strategic behaviour and game theory A price war is a cycle of successive price reductions by rival firms. Usually such a price policy is pursued by large firms seeking to drive their competitors out of the market. Weaker firms cannot lower their prices and are forced to leave the industry. But a real war can start among producers of equal potential, in which buyers will be the winners (because the price of goods will be significantly reduced), and both competitors will be the losers, because they will deprive each other of profits. The rivals will successively lower prices until the price falls to the level of average costs. Equilibrium will occur when neither firm can no longer benefit from the lower price. In the equilibrium state, both sellers will set the same price $p = \min AC = MC$. In this case, economic profit will be zero and aggregate output will be the same as in perfect competition. The pricing strategy of oligopolistic firms in practice is investigated with the help of *game theory* (*a classic example of game theory is the prisoners’ dilemma*). 9.3. Collusion and cartels Oligopolists realise the futility of launching a price war and seek to increase their profits through mergers, acquisitions and collusion. An association of firms that are tied together to limit output and raise the market price of a good is called a *cartel*. In many countries, the creation of cartels is prohibited by law. A cartel whose aim is to maximise total profits behaves like a monopolist. Since less output is produced under monopoly conditions than under perfect competition, the cartel sets quotas for its members (Figure 9.1). This is one of the reasons that make a cartel unsustainable, even if it is legal. Exceeding the quota $q_1$, set for a firm to the optimal volume $q^*$, increases its profits at the cartel price $p^*$. However, if other cartel members do the same, an increase in supply in the market will lower the equilibrium price and reduce the profits of all cartel members. ![Cartel and Firm Diagram](image-url) *Figure 9.1. Cartel and firm* Another reason is the entry into the industry of other firms attracted by high profits. This is possible if the cartel does not have the ability to restrict entry into the industry. 9.4. Other models of oligopoly In addition to collusion, oligopolistic firms can co-operate effectively under the following models: price leadership, broken demand curve and pricing that restricts entry into the industry. *Price leadership.* Firms may voluntarily recognise the leadership of one large producer and pursue the same pricing and production policies as it. In this case, the leading firm sets the output volume and price that provide it with the maximum profit, and weak firms accept the leader's price as a given, because they are convinced that the leading firm has more information about market demand and its price will maximise their profit. *A broken demand curve.* Prices in oligopolistic markets tend to be rigid, unchanging. This is because if one firm decides to raise the price of its goods, it is unlikely that any of its competitors will follow suit. But if the price is lowered, all rival firms will be forced to lower their prices to avoid losing customers. Above the point of the initial price, the demand for the firm’s products will be highly elastic, as its customers will prefer to switch to firms that have not raised their prices, and below this point - not elastic, as competitors will also lower their prices and each will remain with its customers. A sharp change in elasticity yields a broken demand curve (Figure 9.2). ![Figure 9.2. Broken demand curve](image) *Pricing that restricts entry into an industry.* Oligopolistic firms may deliberately underprice their products, thereby reducing their profits, so that new potential producers are discouraged from starting their business. The point is that new firms incur higher costs when entering an industry than firms that have been in the industry for a long time. "Old" firms set prices at \( \min LAC \), where \( LAC \) is the long-run average cost of a typical oligopoly firm, thus making zero economic profit. It turns out that they sacrifice current profits to obtain future super-profits. 9.5. Duopoly: Cournot model, Bertrand model An oligopoly in which there are only two sellers is called a *duopoly*. Suppose there are firms $A$ and $B$ in a duopoly and they produce a homogeneous product. If firm $B$ fixes its output at $Q_B = 400$, the curve $D^A (400)$, obtained by shifting the market demand curve $D$ to the left by 400 units, will set the *residual demand* for firm $A$'s output (Figure 9.3). In general, $D^A (Q_B)$ - the residual demand curve for firm $A$'s output if firm $B$ produces $Q_B$ units of production. ![Diagram](image) *Figure 9.3. Optimal choice of firm A depending on the choice of firm B* Figure 9.4 shows the two residual demand curves $D^A (Q'_B)$ and $D^A (Q''_B)$ and their corresponding marginal income curves $MR (Q'^A_B)$ and $MR^A (Q''_B)$ for $Q'_B < Q''_B$. As can be seen, from $Q'_B < Q''_B$ follows $Q'^A > Q''_A$. Hence, the dependence of $Q_A = f^A (Q_B)$ of the optimal choice of firm $A$ on the fixed output $Q_B$ of firm $B$ is inverse. This dependence $Q_A = f^A (Q_B)$ is called the *response function* of firm $A$. The response function of firm $B$ is defined similarly: $$Q_B = f^B (Q)_A$$ In the diagram $Q_A Q_B$ set the response curves (Fig.9.4). ![Diagram](image) *Figure 9.4. Response curves* If initial output determines point $a$, then firm $A$, with firm $B$'s output unchanged, should so change its output $Q_A$, as to move to point $b$ on its response curve and thereby maximise its profit. In turn, it is reasonable for firm $B$ to change its output $Q_B$, to move to point $c$ on the response curve of firm $B$. Such a move will move the duopoly state off the response curve of firm $A$. It will then be forced to change its output $Q_A$ again and move the states to a point on its response curve, and so on. A market is in *Nash equilibrium* if no firm is willing to change its behaviour provided that the other firms keep their behaviour unchanged. If firms compete with each other by changing output, this state is also called *Cournot equilibrium*. At the point $e$ where the response curves intersect, a Cournot equilibrium is reached, as it is not profitable for any firm to exit. In the Bertrand model of oligopoly, firms interact with each other by setting the prices of their goods rather than output. **Self-check questions:** 1. Give examples of oligopolistic markets. 2. How does the interaction of firms in an oligopoly affect price and output setting? 3. What conditions affect the functioning of the market under oligopoly conditions? **Recommended reading:** 1. Pindyck R., Rubinfeld D. Microeconomics. - Moscow: Delo, 2001. 2. Hyman D.N. Modern Microeconomics: Analyses and Applications. T. 1,2. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 1992. 3. Simkina L., Korneichuk B. Microeconomics. - S.-P.: Peter, 2002. 4. Mukhamediev B.M. Microeconomics. - Almaty: Kazak University, 2007. 11. MARKET FAILURE Purpose of the lecture: to examine the causes of market failure and the need for government intervention in the economy. Keywords: market power, asymmetric information, externalities, public goods, stowaways. Lecture questions: /s. 313, 403/5/, /c. 235 - 238/4/ 1. Market power. 2. Incomplete (asymmetric) information. 3. External effects (externalities) 4. Public goods. The problem of "hares". The modern economic system is unthinkable without government intervention, because in its "pure" form it is untenable (inefficient) for four main reasons: 1) market power; 2) incomplete (asymmetric) information; 3) external effects; 4) public goods. 11.1. Market power *Market power* is the ability of a seller or buyer to control the price of a good and the volume of its sales. From the previous analysis we know that if a producer has monopoly power, he will choose the amount of output at which his profit will be maximised when his marginal revenue and marginal cost are equal. In this case, the price of goods will be higher and the quantity offered will be lower than in a competitive market. Without government intervention aimed at regulating monopoly markets, some part of consumers will be deprived of the opportunity to use the products and services of monopolists. First of all, this applies to the products of natural monopolies: electricity, water and gas supply, railway and air transport, notary services, etc. 11.2. Incomplete (asymmetric) information *Incomplete (asymmetric) information* - a situation in which some of the parties to a transaction have more complete information about the characteristics of a good or service than others. Generally, sellers are better informed about the quality of the product being sold than buyers, and workers are better informed about their strengths and weaknesses than employers. In some markets, distorted (asymmetric) information has a great impact on transactions. First of all, this applies to the markets of used cars, secondary housing, construction and repair services, etc. The distorted (asymmetric) information in some markets has a great impact on transactions. Therefore, *reputation* is important when making a purchase decision a salesman or an employee. The state, for its part, seeks to oblige sellers to standardise their goods, to post full information about them, to check the quality of products and the legality of transactions. 11.3. External effects (externalities) *Externalities (externalities)* are impacts on third parties (who are neither buyers nor sellers of a given good) that are not reflected in the prices of goods and services. A distinction is made between positive and negative externalities. A positive externality occurs when the activities of some market participants benefit others. Negative externalities arise when the actions of some market participants cause harm to others. In this case, the government seeks to control negative externalities through taxes and fines, and encourage positive ones through subsidies and grants. 11.4. Public goods. The problem of "hares". Public goods - goods that are consumed collectively by all consumers, regardless of everyone's willingness, ability and readiness to pay for this consumption. All goods that a consumer receives can be divided into private and public goods. A good is called *private* if consumed by one person, it cannot be consumed by another person. For example, an apple, a glass of juice, clothes, a tourist trip. A good is called *public* if, once consumed by one person, it is also available for consumption by others. Examples are street lighting and safety, clean air, national defence, lighthouse light. Public goods have two characteristic features: non-competitiveness and non-excludability. A good is called *non-competitive* if, having been provided to one person, it can be provided to other persons without additional costs. At any given level of its production, the marginal cost of additional consumption is zero. For example, a radio signal. Each owner of a radio receiver can tune it to the frequency of a given radio station and this does not increase the cost of creating a radio transmission and transmitting the signal. A good is called *non-excludable* if no one can be excluded from its consumption. Consumers who are unwilling or unable to pay for the use of a given good cannot be prevented from consuming it, as there are no effective ways of restricting or excluding them from using public goods. The market alone does not produce public goods. For example, all citizens want good roads in their city. Private firms will repair them if the citizens pay for the work. In order to raise the necessary amount of money, a fundraiser can be organised. But there will be a problem of "hares". There will always be people who will say that they are satisfied with the existing roads and refuse to pay. But if, in the end, the roads are repaired, they will enjoy driving on them. This is the failure of the market. Therefore, financing of public goods is to a greater extent assumed by the state. Let's take a closer look at how the demand and supply of a public good are formed. The *marginal utility* $MB$ of a public good is the most that a consumer is willing to pay to obtain an additional unit of that good. The *marginal public utility* $MSB$ of a public good is the sum of the marginal utility of that good for all consumers: $$MSB = \sum_i MB_i.$$ The marginal utility of $MB_i$ individuals decreases as the volume of consumption of the good increases. Figure 11.1 shows the situation for three individuals. Given a volume of consumption of a public good $Q_0$, the first of them is willing to pay $p_1$ dollars more for one more unit of the good, the second - $p_2$, the third - $p_3$. Together, they agree to pay $p_1 + p_2 + p_3$ dollars for a one unit increase in consumption of the public good. Hence, the *MSB* curve is obtained by summing vertically the *MB* curves. ![Graph showing demand for public good](image) *Fig. 11.1 Demand for public good* Each *MB* curve specifies the demand of the i-th individual for the public good, and the curve *The MSB* is society's demand curve for that good. Thus, the demand curve for a public good is the sum of individual demand curves vertically. Recall that for a private good, the summation of individual demand curves is horizontal. ![Graph showing equilibrium of demand and supply of a public good](image) *Fig. 11.2: Equilibrium of demand and supply of a public good* Like a private good, a public good requires a certain cost to create. The marginal public cost *MSC* refers to the additional cost of increasing the volume of a public good by one unit. It is reasonable to increase the consumption of a public good as long as each next unit of it yields more additional public utility than the additional public cost required to create it. The equilibrium will be reached when *MSB = MSC*. For example, residents of a town want to build a dam to protect themselves from flooding. The amount of donations they agree to make depends on the expected size of this structure. Equilibrium will be reached when marginal social utility equals marginal social cost. Self-check questions: 1. How does a pure public good differ from pure private goods? 2. What are the attributes of a public good? 3. Give examples of public goods. 4. From what sources are public goods financed? Why are purely market mechanisms ineffective in creating public goods? 5. What are externalities? How do they affect the price of goods offered on the market? 6. Give examples of positive and negative externalities. Recommended reading: 1. Pindyck R., Rubinfeld D. Microeconomics. - Moscow: Delo, 2001. 2. Hyman D.N. Modern Microeconomics: Analyses and Applications. T. 1,2. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 1992. 3. Simkina L., Korneichuk B. Microeconomics. - S.-P.: Peter, 2002. 4. Mukhamediev B.M. Microeconomics. - Almaty: Kazak University, 2007. 5. Dolan E., Lindsay D. Market. Microeconomic model. - S.-Pb.: Pechatny dvor, 1992.
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ABSTRACT Across the world, policy initiatives are being developed to engage children with computer programming and computational thinking. Diversity and inclusion has been a strong force in this agenda, but children with disabilities have largely been omitted from the conversation. Currently, there are no age appropriate tools for teaching programming concepts and computational thinking to primary school children with visual disabilities. We address this gap through presenting the design and implementation of Torino, a tangible programming language for teaching programming concepts to children age 7-11 regardless of level of vision. In this paper, we: 1) describe the design process done in conjunction with children with visual disabilities; 2) articulate the design decisions made; and 3) report insights generated from an evaluation with 10 children with mixed visual abilities that considers how children are able to trace (read) and create (write) programs with Torino. We discuss key design trade-offs: 1) readability versus extensibility; and 2) size versus liveness. We conclude by reflecting upon how an inclusive design approach shaped the final result. CONTENTS 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 4 2 Literature Review ................................................................................................. 5 2.1 Programming Tools for Visually Disabled Students ..................................... 5 2.2 Initial Learning Environments ....................................................................... 6 2.3 Tangible Programming Languages .................................................................. 7 2.4 Teaching Programming .................................................................................. 8 2.5 Teaching STEM to Visually Disabled Students ............................................ 9 2.6 Summary ........................................................................................................ 10 3 Torino Young Design Team Workshops .............................................................. 11 3.1 Inclusive Design Methodology ....................................................................... 11 3.2 Design Workshop Method ............................................................................. 12 3.3 Workshop 1 .................................................................................................... 13 3.3.1 Materials ................................................................................................. 13 3.3.2 Findings ................................................................................................. 13 3.4 Workshop 2 .................................................................................................... 14 3.4.1 Materials ................................................................................................. 14 3.4.2 Findings ................................................................................................. 14 3.5 Workshop 3 .................................................................................................... 16 3.5.1 Materials ................................................................................................. 16 3.5.2 Findings ................................................................................................. 17 3.6 Workshop 4 .................................................................................................... 18 3.6.1 Materials ................................................................................................. 18 3.6.2 Findings ................................................................................................. 19 4 Torino Design & Implementation ........................................................................ 19 4.1 Bead Design .................................................................................................. 20 4.2 Software and Hardware Implementation ..................................................... 22 4.3 Design Decisions and Trade-Offs .......................................................... 22 4.3.1 Bead Metaphor ........................................................................... 22 4.3.2 Persistent Program Overview ..................................................... 23 4.3.3 Liveness .................................................................................... 23 5 Exploratory Design Evaluation ................................................................. 24 5.1 Method .......................................................................................... 24 5.1.1 Procedure ............................................................................... 24 5.1.2 Participants ........................................................................... 25 5.1.3 Data Capture & Analysis ....................................................... 26 5.2 Findings .............................................................................................. 27 5.2.1 Usability .................................................................................... 27 5.2.2 Tracing Programs ...................................................................... 28 5.2.3 Creating Programs .................................................................... 31 6 Discussion ............................................................................................... 36 7 Conclusion ............................................................................................... 39 9 References ............................................................................................... 40 10 Appendix ............................................................................................... 45 10.1 Cognitive Dimensions and Tangible Correlates Table .................. 45 10.2 Lesson Plan 1 ............................................................................. 46 10.3 Lesson Plan 2 ............................................................................. 47 10.4 Lesson Plan 3 ............................................................................. 48 1 INTRODUCTION Technology now plays a widespread role in our daily lives, necessitating a society literate in the computational aspects of digital media. This has resulted in policy initiatives throughout the world to engage children with computer programming (Langdon, McKittrick, Beede, Khan, & Doms, 2011; Peyton Jones, 2013). To support this educational aim, a range of specialist teaching tools have been designed and developed to encourage the learning process. Scratch (Resnick et al., 2009) is one of the best known, but the momentum continues with the development and uptake of new physical technologies, such as Microbit (Rogers et al., 2017). Diversity and inclusion has been a key part of the movement to encourage children to program. The biggest emphasis has been on getting girls involved (Kelleher, Pausch, & Kiesler, 2007), including the development of specific tools. LilyPad Arduino e-textiles, for example, aim to integrate computing into activities and communities in which women traditionally engage (Buechley, Eisenberg, Catchen, & Crockett, 2008). More general efforts have been made to engage children across underrepresented categories using physical technologies which emphasize making e.g. (Johnson, Shum, Rogers, & Marquardt, 2016). Recent efforts however, have begun to highlight a largely unsupported demographic in computer science education, students with disabilities (Burgstahler & Ladner, 2007). Currently, there is a dearth of tools for teaching programming concepts to young school children ages 7 – 11 with visual disabilities. Common languages used by their sighted peers, such as Scratch (Maloney, Resnick, Rusk, Silverman, & Eastmond, 2010) or Alice (Cooper, Dann, & Pausch, 2000), are visual both in manipulating the code (e.g. drag and drop) and in the effect that the code has (e.g. animation). Although tangible or physical programming languages may be better suited to teaching programming to children with visual disabilities, existing systems also rely heavily on visual properties (Horn & Jacob, 2007). Distinguishing pieces, connecting them correctly, and experiencing the outcome of the program are all visual activities. Addressing this gap, Torino is a tangible programming language for teaching programming concepts to children age 7-11 regardless of level of vision. To create code, children connect physical instruction beads and tune their parameters to create music or stories using the Sonic Pi language as shown in Figure 1. In presenting Torino, we contribute to the HCI research literature the design and implementation of a novel tangible programming language that can be used by children ages 7 -11 regardless of their level of vision. The contribution includes design insights generated from formative workshops with children with visual disabilities as well as reflections on usage of the completed prototype. An overview video is provided in Video Figure 1. We begin with a summary of insights from a broad set of literatures relevant to the design of a new tangible programming language inclusive of children with visual disabilities. We then describe a series of workshops held with children with visual disabilities to explore non-visual approaches to tangible interface design. Building on these insights, we introduce the design and implementation of Torino. Finally, we present a preliminary evaluation of Torino with 10 children who have a range of visual abilities. We conclude with how the inclusive design approach taken fundamentally altered how we thought about tangible programming languages. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Programming Tools for Visually Disabled Students A number of other tools have been developed specifically to support blind programmers. One of the more recent ones is *StructJumper*, which creates a hierarchical tree of the nesting structure of the program to enable programmers using screen readers to more easily get an overview of their code (Baker, Milne, & Ladner, 2015). Other examples focus more specifically on educational settings. *JavaSpeak* (A. C. Smith, Francioni, & Matzek, 2000) provides structural and semantic information for a Java program; *Audio Programming Language* (APL) (Sánchez & Aguayo, 2005) intends to simplify program logic and allows the writing of programs by choosing one of five commands and following step-by-step instructions. *Quorum* is perhaps the most used language among students with visual disabilities, developed as part of a project to develop a blind-centric computing curriculum (Stefik, Hundhausen, & Smith, 2011). All these systems highlight the challenges of getting an overview of a program and understanding scope. A number of researchers have also written on curated teaching experiences for engaging visually disabled students with computer science at the high school level. Kane & Bigham discuss a week long workshop to teach programming to teenagers through writing code to 3d-print tactile graphics visualizing crisis data (Kane & Bigham, 2014). Bigham et al. also documents the use of chat bots to engage students with computer science in a similar week long workshop (Bigham et al., 2008). In both papers, the authors promote the idea of programming from the start. They propose that while programming with a screen reader is challenging, enabling students to program in a supportive environment is more likely to give them the confidence to take a computing class in a mainstream environment during which they will be expected to program. While the majority of systems focus on screen experiences, there are several tangible examples. Jbrick was created to enable the programming of Lego Mindstorm Robots for teenagers. It is compatible with screen readers, refreshable braille displays, and magnification software with additional markers for navigating the code (Ludi, Ellis, & Jordan, 2014). Work has also been done on using 3D printing to enable the teaching of computer science concepts such as data structures (Papazafiropulos, Fanucci, Leporini, Pelagatti, & Roncella, 2016). Both of these try to address engagement of tactile learners as well as accessibility issues. Yet, all of these systems are focused at secondary education (11-16), with no viable alternative for younger children with visual disabilities. 2.2 Initial Learning Environments Young children are more commonly taught with Initial Learning Environments (ILE), designed to teach programming by offering abstractions of important concepts found in conventional languages. They aim to support a child’s understanding of the epistemology of programming languages, introducing new constructs such as data structures and algorithms (D. C. Smith, Cypher, & Schmucker, 1996) in an engaging environment. Scratch, alongside Alice and Greenfoot, is a widely-used example (Fincher, Cooper, Kölling, & Maloney, 2010; Utting, Cooper, Kölling, Maloney, & Resnick, 2010). A recent paper reviewed more than 47 different tools available for children between the ages of 2 to 18 years (Duncan, Bell, & Tanimoto, 2014). The majority of ILEs use block-syntax (i.e. graphical representations) with drag-and-drop program composition rather than text-syntax that is typed. Controlled comparisons between block-syntax editors and text-editing environments demonstrate the value of visual and tangible interaction cues to scaffold syntax learning (Weintrop & Wilensky, 2015). For example, syntax errors, such as synching brackets or type mismatches, are usually prevented by design, such as not allowing blocks of the wrong type to snap together (Fincher et al., 2010). Programs are failsoft; if blocks do click together, they attempt to do something. Although block-based environments are not accessible to visually disabled learners, the thinking behind ILEs can be applied to Torino. One notable characteristic of ILEs is that they exhibit higher levels of liveness (Tanimoto, 1990), the speed at which the program display updates when code is change. More formally, liveness can be defined as a fundamental property of the user experience of programming environments that refers to the temporal and causal relationship between modifications that the programmer makes to the program source code and the changes in the behaviour of the executing program that result from those actions. Enhanced levels of liveness are considered a valuable attribute of educational programming languages (Burg, Kuhn, & Parnin, 2013; Burnard, Florack, Blackwell, Aaron, & Philbin, 2017). 2.3 Tangible Programming Languages Tangible programming languages which use physical objects to represent or interact with programming constructs may be a more obvious choice for children with visual disabilities. A number of tangible programming languages have been explored in the research literature: *Algoblocks* provides large blocks that could be connected to make a command sequence (Suzuki & Kato, 1995); *Tern* consists of puzzle-like pieces containing machine readable patterns that are snapped together to drive a robot (Horn & Jacob, 2007); *Flow blocks* demonstrate causality in complex systems through lighting up blocks that have been magnetically connected to show a chain reaction, e.g. a linear versus probabilistic chain reaction (Zuckerman, Grotzer, & Leahy, 2006). Recently, tangible programming languages have found their way out of research laboratories and are now available commercially. *Osmo Coding* lets children snap together wooden tiles (with some buttons/dials) to manipulate on-screen games (Hu, Zekelman, Horn, & Judd, 2015). *Kibo* is a stand-alone kit that enables children to build a robot with a variety of sensors, and to program it using a set of wooden blocks that can be affixed together. The blocks are read through a camera in the robot (Sullivan, Elkin, & Bers, 2015). There is also *Cubetto* for the pre-literate child, a robot that can follow a course through putting shapes on a board.\(^1\) All these focus on the sequencing aspect of code. The most recent explorations in tangibles is around *making* using Internet of Things (IoT) toolkits. The *ConnectUs Toolkit* encourages children to make cubes that help them understand IoT concepts (Lechelt, Rogers, Marquardt, & Shum, 2016). Other recent work has focused on measuring the role of making in the learning process. (Johnson et al., 2016) showing that making plays a substantial role in children’s later understanding of the functionality of what they made. The authors potentially attribute this to the ability to create appropriate schemas that prepare them for thinking about how technology works. This work starts to flesh out how assembly may be functioning in tangible languages as well as broaden out notions of computing. A key similarity of tangible languages to date is the notion of blocks or buildable pieces, emphasizing that tangible languages enable a clear physical mapping of action to program. Indeed, sometimes a very close mapping can be achieved. For example, in the Tern language, a fork in the road denotes a conditional statement where the robot \(^1\) https://www.primotoys.com/ follows one of two paths; whilst others use analogies such as falling dominos and bicycle chains to explain program behaviours. In taking a strong building metaphor, previous designs have limited the form factor to block-like items that are connected together on a surface. We reconsider this assumption as part of the Torino design process. A key trade-off between tangible systems is whether they use active and passive pieces. Flow blocks are an example of active blocks with embedded electronics that operate as a standalone system. In contrast, Tern has passive pieces, such that the program is constructed, then later executed through the use of a camera scanner. Arguments have been made that active pieces can make the technology responsive in ways that encourages playful and exploratory interaction (Horn, Solovey, & Jacob, 2008). Whereas, a passive approach encourages a design workflow, moving from the initial design to testing and then reflection on, and revision of, the initial program. Passive pieces are more robust and cheaper. We see a range of solutions to the trade-off of active versus passive pieces in commercial systems. Osmo utilizes an iPad to give the experience of active pieces, while reducing the electronics embedded in the tiles. Kibo embeds their electronics in the robot to give an engaging experience without the need for active pieces or a screen-device. Cubetto puts the electronics in the board to which its pieces attach, avoiding either active pieces, or a screen device. These decisions lead to a different balance between the cost of the pieces (ones with electronics being substantially more expensive), the liveness of the interaction as a program or piece responds, and the need for a screen. In Torino, we focus on the liveness of the experience, choosing active pieces. Tangible languages, both in their proposition and evaluation, have highlighted how their use can support human interaction. Across systems, the tangible nature of the languages seems to invite and foster collaborative engagement. The creators of Tern, for example, point to the ability to work on programs away from a computer as a substantial advantage for classroom management and child interaction (Horn & Jacob, 2007). They also highlight how the tangibility of the language draws people into participation in both classroom and museum settings, especially girls (Horn, Solovey, Crouser, & Jacob, 2009). This is in line with a broader literature on tangible technology that suggests that its physical nature invites sharing (Hornecker, Marshall, & Rogers, 2007). This constellation of references suggests that a tangible programming language has the potential to support the kind of collaborative interaction we strived for between visually disabled and sighted children. 2.4 Teaching Programming In imagining a new tangible language it is also necessary to consider what will be taught. The Computing at School initiative in the UK, for example, regards computer science as a discipline; one that “encompasses foundational principles (such as the theory of computation) and widely applicable ideas and concepts (such as the use of relational models to capture structure in data). It suggests incorporating techniques and methods for solving problems and advancing knowledge (such as abstraction and logical reasoning)” (Peyton Jones, 2013). This broad view of computing influenced us to address concepts related to writing code, such as iteration, as well as computing-related problem solving, such as dealing with resource constraints. More specifically, the learning goals of the UK Curricula for primary school children were used to anchor the design of Torino (Department for Education, 2013). To ensure that the design would not be UK specific, learning goals were cross-checked with the Australian curriculum\(^2\), the other major English language curriculum available at the time, and found to be very similar. Learners ages 7 – 11 “design, write and debug programs that accomplish specific goals” and solve problems through decomposition. Learners are expected to do this by using sequence, selection, repetition, variables, and inputs and outputs. There is also a focus on the use of logic to detect and correct errors in algorithms and programs. There is also a growing literature on how children might be taught to program. Along with an increasing understanding of pedagogic strategies for introducing key concepts, some attention has been given to ameliorating misconceptions. This has been discussed in relationship to an inadequate understanding of the ‘notional machine’, and especially to the ‘hidden’ processes that are not directly apparent from the program (Sorva, 2013). Consequently, learners of programming may form an incorrect mental model of how the program works, impeding understanding. This prompted us to consider how we make apparent, and support, an understanding of program execution. A number of strategies have been developed to support understanding of code and its execution that translate well into the classroom. Use-modify-create, suggests that users learn by using and modifying existing programs before creating their own (Lee et al., 2011). Own programs then follow a cycle of testing, analysis, and refinement. Another similar strategy is read-before-you-write (Lister et al., 2004). This technique is based on developing the ability to trace through programs as they execute. A third strategy that is gaining attention from teachers of computing is pair programming (Sentance & Csizmadia, 2016). Students are asked to tackle difficult programming problems together, in line with a constructivist position on how children learn (Williams, Wiebe, Yang, Ferzli, & Miller, 2002). These pedagogical techniques have influenced the design trade-offs that we make in Torino. ### 2.5 Teaching STEM to Visually Disabled Students Not least, we specifically consider teaching practices from Science, Technology, Engineering & Maths (STEM) subjects for students with visual disabilities. A recent literature review covering all disabilities (Moon, Todd, Morton, & Ivey, 2012), distinguishes between two philosophically different approaches: inclusive teaching and assistance (either human or technological). Inclusive teaching uses multiple means of presentation and has been demonstrated as an efficacious method for accommodating students with disabilities. Yet, it can be challenging to implement in STEM subjects as it requires the development of appropriate tools to engage senses other than sight. --- \(^2\) [http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/technologies/digital-technologies/curriculum/f-10?layout=1](http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/technologies/digital-technologies/curriculum/f-10?layout=1) The use of assistants is more common. This may include helpers who do the laboratory work while a disabled student watches. Or, the pairing of disabled and non-disabled students and dividing the work by abilities. This report argues that these kinds of assistance run counter to the culture of STEM education, that treats ‘hands-on’ participation as a key part of the learning. Beyond the challenges of finding assistants with appropriate skill, there remains the issue that these approaches miss the visceral aspects of STEM, and promote ‘partial participation’. As result, research is being put into ways that STEM can be made hands-on to disabled students. It is the explicit approach in designing Torino to focus on inclusive teaching rather than assistance. A recent article has reviewed tactile and auditory teaching materials to support inclusive primary math education (Leuders, 2016). It suggests that much of the math teaching content is represented by spatial structure, such as a number line. While it is possible to gather spatial structure through touch, mathematical manipulatives often require processing of the exact spatial structure. This differs from the perception of outstanding features needed for object identification. This article proposes that children need to learn strategies of active touch: 1) preliminary scanning – deliberate scan of structure before counting; 2) count organizing – learn to follow given structures like dot lines or circles; and 3) partitioning – develop strategies to keep track of elements already counted by moving them aside or by using one hand to indicate a partition. The article emphasises that spatial structure should clearly emphasise features representing mathematical content. The use of auditory information with touch can be particularly beneficial. Technology has been developed to facilitate STEM learning for those with visual disabilities. It has, for the most part, been focused on tactile graphics and more recently 3D models. For example, Petit et al. focus on capturing images that are in school books through the design of specialized hardware that creates a refreshable tactile display (Petit, Dufresne, & Levesque, 2008). Baker et al. (2016) focus on the challenge of the label information that surrounds tactile graphics such as charts, which can be become unwieldy in braille. They propose a solution that uses audio labels provided through QR codes. Most recently, with the growing availability of 3D printing, Shi, Zelzer, Feng, & Azenkot (2016) present a toolkit that enables users to add and access audio labels on 3D printed models. These provide a precedent for developing simple tools to make accessible mainstream learning. Less emphasis is put on creating tools that are inclusive for the whole classroom. 2.6 Summary We’ve drawn upon a diverse range of literatures to inform the design of Torino. The literature review evidenced that despite the large number of programming languages already available for children, there are none that are age appropriate for children 7 – 11 years old with visual disabilities. Both visual and tangible programming languages require vision to manipulate, whether coloured blocks in the world or on the screen, and vision to observe the program output, whether animations, physical movement, or lights. Below we summarise key insights we drew from the literature that directly influenced the design: 1. Address a broad view of programming for children ages 7 – 11 guided by, but not exclusive to, the UK primary computing curriculum. 2. Make apparent and support an understanding of program execution. 3. Reduce syntax errors through prevention by design. 4. Utilise *liveness*, or immediate update of how changes to the code influence the program, to support understandability and engagement. 5. Utilise the physical mapping provided by the tangible technology to reveal structure. 6. Consider in depth the trade-offs between passive and active technology pieces within the language. 7. Acknowledge the different philosophies to inclusion and focus on inclusive teaching. ### 3 TORINO YOUNG DESIGN TEAM WORKSHOPS In addition to the insights we gained from investigating existing research systems and technologies in the market place, the design of Torino has been informed by a series of workshops that involved four children with mixed visual abilities. These were conducted through the lens of inclusive design. In this section, we first describe the inclusive design methodology used, followed by the method, materials, and findings of the workshops. #### 3.1 Inclusive Design Methodology Inclusive design is a design methodology that draws on the full range of human diversity. Many of the voices that have defined this methodology are captured in (Clarkson, Coleman, Keates, & Lebbon, 2013), but we have taken the specific perspective of the Microsoft Inclusive Design toolkit and materials (Shum et al., 2016). This approach emphasises three tenets of inclusive design: 1) recognise exclusion; 2) learn from diversity; and 3) design for one, and extend to many. The first design tenet re-defines disability as something that arises when there is a mismatch between a person’s body and the features of the technology, rather than being something inherent to the person. This puts the onus on designers to be mindful of how they might create disability with their designs. The second tenet emphasizes how working with the constraints of a particular disabled person(s) can help generate unexpected designs by making design constraints explicit rather relying on implicit design ideas shaped by the experiences of the design team. The third tenet suggests that while it is important to maintain consistency of design through designing ‘for one’, designers should actively consider how their designs can be extended to many people. Motivated by the first tenet, we put substantial design effort in Torino towards the second and third. Specifically, we involved children with visual disabilities in our design process to learn from them, first-hand, how they were perceiving and engaging with the world in a tactile manner; and how we could create an experience that might feel exciting to all children. We were mindful however, to not create anything that would be exclusively used by blind children, e.g. using braille labels. Imagining how we might extend our design to many has helped us be inclusive of the very diverse visual abilities that children labelled as disabled have. In the UK, of the 25,000 visually disabled children, less than 1,000 are brailleists who learn exclusively through tactile means\(^3\). Surprisingly, the vast majority of visually disabled children, including those registered blind, and some exclusively tactile learners, can perceive color, and rely heavily on it to orient themselves in a world that they otherwise cannot see. As a result, we wanted a design inspired by tactile learning, but available to those who learn visually. Thinking of the broader population also enabled us to keep a philosophy of inclusion in mainstream classrooms. While the majority of children with a visual disability are in mainstream classrooms, the challenges of inclusion are substantial and rarely achieved well across the board (Metatla, 2017). As a result, children with visual disabilities are often segregated to use tools designed specifically for them. We aimed to create a technology that did not create such a barrier to inclusion. Indeed, we specifically adopted the perspective of inclusive teaching rather than assistance. ### 3.2 Design Workshop Method We formed a Young Design Team, modelled after the cooperative inquiry approach (Yip et al., 2013), to gain the expertise of children with visual disabilities on tactility. Four children with visual disabilities (three girls), ranging in age from 8 – 12 with a wide variety of visual abilities attended four out-of-school workshops over a period of three months. See Figure 6 for details. The children were recruited from attendance at a computing outreach workshop for children with visual disabilities run in conjunction with the local charity for sight loss. They were selected to ensure we captured the perspectives of children with a range of visual abilities and ages. Each workshop was designed to help our Young Design Team articulate, or demonstrate how they interacted with the world through tactile objects. Each workshop further refined this question as we moved from a general understanding of how the Team engaged with objects to a specific focus on how we might design ‘blocks’ that connect together to represent code. The research received ethical approval by our local research board. Informed consent for the children to participate in the research, and for the sessions to be audio and video recorded, was obtained by the parents prior to the workshops. We also asked the children if they were happy to partake in the project and explained to them why we were doing these workshops. The workshops were attended by at least four researchers as well as video recorded. Some of the activities and materials created were also photographed. After each session, the researchers took extensive notes to record their main impressions and observations. One researcher took the lead in prompting team design discussions through the use of salient video clips. For the scope of this paper, we will focus on the learnings from these design sessions which directly impacted the design. For each workshop, we describe the focus and materials used, followed by findings and numbered key learnings. --- \(^3\) [http://www.rnib.org.uk/professionals/knowledge-and-research-hub/key-information-and-statistics](http://www.rnib.org.uk/professionals/knowledge-and-research-hub/key-information-and-statistics) 3.3 Workshop 1 3.3.1 Materials Our first workshop focused on contrasting children’s interactions with a non-tactile approach to coding, such as a screen reader, with a tactile approach using blocks. We augmented Sonic Pi\textsuperscript{4}, a live coding language for digital music, with a screen reader and enlarged text. We also attempted to connect Sonic Pi to the commercially available Cubelets\textsuperscript{5} modular robotics system. As we had difficulty with the robustness of the Bluetooth connection, the workshop was conducting in two halves instead: coding with Sonic Pi and playing with the Cubelets. In the first part of the workshop, each child sat with a researcher at a laptop computer around a large table. The researcher oriented the child to a simple program in Sonic Pi containing play statements and a loop statement which played a catchy tune. First, the child listened to the output of the program, and then was taught how to change the parameters in the statement to get a different tune, using the use-modify-create teaching approach discussed in the literature review. The child could experiment as much as they liked. The researchers were prepared to introduce new types of statements if the child showed interest in developing their program. In the second part of the workshop, the researcher asked the child to build something fun, introducing the different aspects of the Cubelets (such as the motor or light sensor). The researchers answered questions of the child about how to achieve a specific behaviour, but otherwise did not intervene. 3.3.2 Findings The children struggled to interpret the code presented to them through enlarged text or audio (non-tactile). Those children who used enlarged text could see only the line of code they were working on. They had to scroll through the code to see all of the lines, losing a sense of the meaningful groupings, such as code in a loop, which is emphasised visually through indentation. This was only exacerbated for the children who used a screen reader, which read out the lines of code in sequence, giving no impression of their relationship. This is best illustrated by the following instance: One child using the screen reader version of Sonic Pi was trying to identify what a piece of code did by changing any numeric value that he encountered, and then playing the program. He did not realise that the code was in a loop and was unable to interpret how his changes affected the code. Visibly agitated, he started frantically moving through the code to try and get an overview, but he was unable to remember it from beginning-to-end. Eventually, his mother brailled out what she could see on the screen. Only after reading the braille did this child understand the overall shape of the program and which lines of code were in the loop. He continued to use the braille version to maintain his overview of the program while he changed the parameter values. \textsuperscript{4} http://sonic-pi.net/ \textsuperscript{5} https://www.modrobotics.com/cubelets/ In contrast to the constant nudging of the researchers to encourage the children to try different parameters in their Sonic Pi programs, the children engaged immediately with the Cubelets. All of the children took the same approach of grabbing a few blocks, snapping them together, observing what happens, and iterating. While the children were not particularly interested in form, neither commenting or feeling it, they were interested in eliciting different behaviours, such as getting a creation to move, or responding to their hand motion. Soon children started to form groups of two, playing together, using their creations as a central focus for conversation and ideation. We derived the following learnings from this workshop: 1. *To support coding in this age group, children need: 1) a tactile representation of code that helps them understand how code relates; 2) a consistent overview of the code at all times to decrease memory demands.* Typical accessibility approaches, such as enlargement or screen reader, did not work for this age group as they assume conceptual understanding and have substantial memory demands. 2. The *immediacy of the response*, similar to the notion of liveness discussed in the literature review, of Cubelets invited experimentation and manipulation that was central to the engagement with them. ### 3.4 Workshop 2 #### 3.4.1 Materials The first workshop helped identify the need for a tactile way to express code with objects that invited manipulation. In the second workshop, we explored in more depth experiences of tactility around objects. We asked the children to bring in two objects: one that they enjoyed touching, and one that they liked to connect things to, or things with. This distinction was made as we predicted that the eventual design would require both tactile elements that can be touched and are distinguishable, and that can also be connected. The first part of the workshop involved the children introducing and sharing these objects with the rest of the team, passing them around while explaining their liking. The facilitating researcher encouraged the other children to play with them and to also share their thoughts on each object. In the second half of the workshop, the children were given different types of blocks that could be connected in various ways to build, such as Magnuts. All block materials connected together with magnets; something that the children were familiar and needed no instruction with. Straight away, they started to play and make. #### 3.4.2 Findings The children brought four objects that they liked to feel: a small rubber stretchy monkey that stuck to surfaces; a special spoon handle, a “water” ball in which you could hear water when shaken; and a squashed coin. The stretchy monkey was particularly liked by all the children. They repeatedly pulled its limbs in different directions, experiencing the difference between pulling both arms as opposed to pulling an arm and a leg. They tried fast pulls and slow pulls feeling the visceral continuous feedback of the monkey responding to their actions. The special spoon handle had a particularly comfortable grip and was familiar to the child who brought it; the water ball had an engaging sound for all, inviting experimenting with multiple ways of shaking; while the coin had an intricate pattern with a complexity that was interesting to explore for the tactile-learners but not those who learned visually. As for the connector objects, the children referred to the stretchy monkey, Lego bricks, and poppers (a stick with a suction cup on one end). All the connector objects were liked because of the auditory and tactile feedback they provided. The stretchy monkey sticks to surfaces when water is applied, adding another response that the children could explore with different amounts of water or by applying force. The child who had brought that object liked the continuous sensation of it peeling off the table. The Lego bricks were appreciated because they gave a nice click sound when snapped together and did not fall apart easily if knocked. The poppers seemed to make a particularly satisfying noise. The owner said, “I use them to play because it makes a funny sound.” Feedback, both tactile and auditory, were central to the preferences expressed here by the children. In the second activity, the children enjoyed building and quickly set themselves challenges as they did in the first workshop: Can I use all of the pieces? Can I build a vending machine? Figure 2 shows a number of built pieces, including a geometric design, two houses, and a vending machine. The children had no difficulty disambiguating similar pieces, however, in contrast to the objects brought in by the children, these square building pieces did not seem to entice the children to explore their surfaces with their hands, or to experiment with connecting them. Indeed, the magnetic connections proved particularly frustrating as the blind children frequently knock over what they had built accidentally in an attempt to experience the shape they created, or identify what was missing. Further discussion of magnets illustrated a range of challenges for the children, including difficulty moving a creation to show to another child. In summary, we learned that: 1. Tactile elements need to connect securely in a way that provides strong auditory and tactile feedback. Magnetic connectors, so commonly used for building block like structures, are not appropriate. 2. While blocks were distinguishable, they did not invite exploratory play in the same way as the children’s objects or the Cubelets. 3.5 Workshop 3 3.5.1 Materials To identify secure, yet tactile connectors that did not rely on magnets, and easy-to-distinguish shapes that would invite children to pick them up and manipulate them, the third workshop investigated the concept of a bead metaphor: a set of commands in a program represented as interestingly shaped beads along a thread. Following this metaphor, we explored how the children would connect objects with flexible wires, and whether bead like objects would encourage manipulation. The first activity invited children to create a program through connecting 3D printed blocks with wires using 2.5mm audio jacks. The children could change the value of the blocks by placing a piece mounted on a 3.5m audio jack into pre-configured holes at the top of each block. The sounds were then Wizard of Oz-ed by the facilitating researcher typing commands into Sonic Pi and playing the program when requested. The second activity focused on a series of manipulative beads. These were a series of round 3D printed, bead-like shapes. Each piece had a means of physical interaction to invite handling and manipulation. These included: blowing, pushing, twisting, and squeeze clicking as shown in Figure 3. The facilitating researcher introduced the children to each one of these shapes and mechanisms, and then asked them to choose the one they liked most, and least. We were interested to explore if using such physical mechanisms to change parameter values on the beads would invite their handling and iterative play. Pairs of children alternated between the first and second activities, working in separate spaces. ### 3.5.2 Findings The children found it easy to connect the blocks with wires. Those with more vision brought their heads close to the blocks to locate the connectors, while others with less vision used one hand and a finger to locate the jack, using it as a reference for plugging in the wires. They expressed their liking of the feel and click interactions when inserting an audio jack pin into a plug, often smiling and mimicking the sound. One child commented that it was like Lego, “clicks and stays.” We used 2.5mm jacks for the wires and 3.5mm jacks for the top parameter plugs. This distinction was confusing as children could not feel the difference and got frustrated when they tried to connect the wrong pin. The wires also played a role in communicating program flow, enabling the children with the least vision to easily follow the chain of blocks from one side to the other, similar to uses of table edges or a braille line. Interestingly, both groups attempted to connect the wire of one block into the other socket of the same block. In both cases, they surmised that this would lead to repetition (or more formally, iteration). While both groups wondered how they should connect this contraption to their program, they had both unwittingly stumbled on the idea of a loop, before we had introduced the concept. Although the length of the wires made the programs a bit unwieldy, both the concept of a bead metaphor and the use of an audio jack pin as connector for creating programs were well received and understood. In the second activity, the children immediately started to manipulate the beads. The first child started by blowing vigorously into one to get the inner propeller to turn, producing a whistling sound that she liked. The second child was attracted to the accordion mechanism pushing and pulling in a similar way to how the children used the squeezey monkey in the first workshop. While they explored each of the mechanism beads offered, they returned to these as their favorites. The second group of children with less vision, spent much time tapping the beads on the table or bringing them up to the ear to listen to their sounds, such as those made by the squeeze click. They seemed more interested in the auditory response then the tactile one. In both groups, we observed how the ability to manipulate the pieces, and getting an immediate response from this, encouraged repeated exploration, which is reminiscent of the Cubelets in workshop 1. The intensive interaction with these manipulative beads contrasted significantly to the way that the children handled the square blocks. The square blocks were lined up in a row, but rarely handled. In contrast, the roundly-shaped mechanism pieces were constantly held and rotated in their hands. The children spent time feeling them in the palm of their hand and with their fingertips. They felt the sensation of rolling the pieces on the table or brought them up to the ears for listening. While the square blocks had the advantage that they did not roll away out of reach of a blind child who could not find them, they were less interesting in terms of their tactile qualities. Learnings included: 1. Audio jack pins and plugs make excellent connectors, but need refinement to be practical. 2. Rounded shapes invite holding, but need to be designed in a way that would not roll out of reach of a child who may not be able to relocate them. 3. The manipulative beads encourage iterative play and exploration, but need to be robust to substantial handling, and banging against other surfaces. ### 3.6 Workshop 4 #### 3.6.1 Materials In our final workshop, we presented the Young Design Team with a full set of beads. Each bead had a rounded, but distinct shape with a wire at one end, and a dial or push button mechanism to adjust the parameter. The design was a direct outcome of the previous workshop, however, the original mechanisms were adjusted for robustness. This set of beads is very similar to the final shapes of the Torino design, described in depth in Section 4. Here, we wanted to investigate if the design enabled the children to effectively trace their programs, and identify the different bead types. In pairs, the children were invited to create their own programs by connecting the beads. These programs were then Wizard of Oz-ed by the facilitating researcher. 3.6.2 Findings We observed a number of ways in which the children tactiley followed their programs. The children with the least vision frequently kept one hand on the starting bead or hub and followed the wire lines outwards to find the beads. Their hands did not “stop” to feel each bead, but smoothly shifted from wire to bead and then again to wire, recognizing the shape as they moved their hands. The beads were distinct enough such that the children did not have any difficulty naming them as they read out the program instructions: play, play, rest, etc. When asked to add a certain component in between two beads, they could locate the correct bead, and insert it. These children could also identify the bead shapes when following the hand movements of their programming partner, without actually touching the beads. Children with more vision were also able to easily distinguish the beads through touch. When asked to describe the differences, they spoke about shape (e.g. ‘the long one’) or referred to the mechanism on the bead (e.g. ‘this one has buttons’). They had more difficulty distinguishing the beads on the table as their tactile skills were not as developed as those of the children with less vision, and their visual skills could not be utilised as the white 3D printed beads blended into the table without a dark surface to contrast, or colour to support visual distinction. We learned: 1. To support the full spectrum of visual abilities, we needed to include visual elements that mapped to tactile elements, without leading to discrepancies of information provision (e.g. as would happen if visual symbols were used). 4 TORINO DESIGN & IMPLEMENTATION Drawing on the design workshops with the Torino Young Design team, we designed and built a working version of Torino. To create code, the children connect physical instruction beads with wires and tune their parameters using on-bead mechanisms to create music or stories that are rendered to audio using the Sonic Pi language as shown in Figure 1. A key design focus for Torino was a “bead” metaphor. Like bracelets or rosary beads, we wanted to design something that invited a tactile experience, a picking up and exploring with the hands that creates a 3-dimensional experience of form. This stands in contrast to the blocks or bricks metaphor used in other tangible programming languages that are most often experienced flat on a table. 4.1 Bead Design Torino is composed of a central hub and a suite of beads (play, pause, loop, and variable) shown in Figure 4. The hub is the central component of the program to which multiple bead ‘threads’ can be attached. Threads are a series of connected beads which, following the conventional metaphorical terminology of computing, represent a concurrent execution model in terms of threads in the program. The Sonic Pi execution model that underlies Torino is an inherently concurrent language, in which simultaneous musical parts or voices are expressed as concurrent threads. The hub houses a Raspberry Pi which powers all of the beads and carries out the computation to identify the topology of the beads and translate the physical program into Sonic Pi code. It also houses the speaker, which plays the resulting audio program. The start button allows the child to control initiation of the program. Play, pause, and loop act as instruction beads, adding a single instruction, or line of code, to the program. They play a sound, create a pause, or enable iteration of attached beads, respectively. The design of the bead shells is intended to enable rapid tactile distinction, while giving the impression that the beads are part of a single family. For example, they all have a rounded shape, but the pause is almost spherical, whereas the play is oblong, and the loop has flatter sides. Color is also used to distinguish beads for those with some color perception or sight, which is quite common among children with visual disabilities. Interaction mechanisms on the play and pause beads can be used to increment or decrement a parameter value. A dial enables choice of sound, and a two-way button, duration. This provides both an inviting physical interaction and an immediacy of hearing change. Variables (in the loosest sense), plug into loops to set the number of iterations, otherwise an indefinite loop is assumed. Variables could also be used with play and pause beads to set a particular parameter value. To avoid syntax errors, as commonly done within the 2D jigsaw metaphor of many on-screen ILEs, variables’ connections have a square port, in contrast to program flow connections which are round. They also have been left uncolored. Further, we provide caps for the variable plugs as a ‘training wheels’ experience for first-time use to avoid children getting confused about what plugs fulfill which purpose. The beads are connected together with a 5cm long wire which have a 2.5 mm audio headphone jack on the end. Each bead has a wire that extends from it, inviting it to be connected onto an existing chain of beads. Connections give satisfying auditory and tactile feedback. Wires have blue color wraps which match blue circular ports. A ridged wrap is used for the loop to distinguish which wire ‘closes the loop’ and which ‘connects to the program’. The beads each have their own embedded electronics to support liveness embodied as real-time response to bead manipulation. The tangible system is entirely standalone, with no need for a separate host computer. Figure 5 illustrates Torino code alongside pseudocode communicating what the program does. The threads execute concurrently. 4.2 Software and Hardware Implementation Each bead contains a custom-designed circuit board, containing a microcontroller and a number of connectors that provide power and communication to connected beads, allowing them to form a network. When a bead is connected, it becomes powered and transmits data to its neighbours, including details such as the type of bead and its current state. Messages are propagated through the network, keeping track of the route of the message until it reaches a central bead, which is connected to a Raspberry Pi device. From these messages it is possible to construct a graph of the network, where a node is a bead and the edges are the connections between them. A Python script running on the Raspberry Pi translates this graph into Sonic Pi code. Sonic Pi plays an important role in managing the auditory experience, such as synced threads, and provided inspiration for Torino. However, Torino is not an exact copy of Sonic Pi. For example, we automatically included the *Sleep* command into each bead, to ensure that sounds are sequential. While the Sleep command gives important flexibility to the professional user of Sonic Pi, its necessity is not obvious to the student nor is it manageable in a physical programming language which would otherwise become very unwieldy. 4.3 Design Decisions and Trade-Offs Programming languages always have trade-offs that optimise interaction for a certain set of activities. To aid our systematic thinking about these trade-offs, we considered them using the Tangible Correlates (TC) to Cognitive Dimensions (CD) framework (Edge & Blackwell, 2006). This is a heuristic evaluation tool for the analysis and design of physical notations (e.g. tangible user interfaces). The TCs (and selected CDs), their definitions, and their relevance to design trade-offs are presented in Appendix 1. Below we discuss three key design choices and the trade-offs made in achieving these: bead metaphor, persistent program overview, and liveness. 4.3.1 Bead Metaphor Torino is built on a bead metaphor in which beads are strung together to create a program. This stands in contrast to arranging a set of blocks or tactile elements on a table as commonly done in the design of tangible languages. A key advantage is that a string of beads is robust to accidental bumps that may change the semantic meaning (*Shakiness*<sub>TC</sub>) when being read by a tactile learner. It also enables the connected beads to be picked up and experienced in three dimensions, possibly deforming the physical arrangement, while preserving connectivity of the information structure (*Rootedness*<sub>TC</sub>). This is achieved through the use of audio jack and wire connections. Wired connections have a further advantage as they allow for rapid tactile exploration of the program as they are easy to follow, by tracing them with one’s hands. There is a trade-off between shorter connections being faster to follow with fewer tangles, and longer connections allowing clearer arrangement of beads, but potentially leading to overly large programs (*Unwieldy Operations*<sub>TC</sub>). To keep the number of operations manageable, we chose to connect one end of the wire to the bead. In doing so, we defined an intermediate length, meaning a loss of opportunity to use wire length as a source of information that expressed program semantics, such as duration (Structural Correspondence\textsubscript{TC}). A number of our design decisions addressed the trade-offs of using wires. The hub is used to create a beginning, as a string of beads does not have an obvious start point. The hub also helped the children locate where the beads might be on the table given that these could be moved (Rootedness\textsubscript{TC}). While there is an opportunity to move the program around, system state might be modified if the rotary and button controls are unintentionally knocked (Shakiness\textsubscript{TC}). Not least, tangible languages take up more space than virtual ones, often mitigated through flat pieces that can be stacked for storage and laid flat on a table. Our graspable 3D beads take up more storage space (Bulkiness\textsubscript{TC}). 4.3.2 Persistent Program Overview The most important design decision was to ensure that a child could maintain a tactile overview of their program at all times (Permanence\textsubscript{TC}). To create a clear correspondence between the tactile experience of the code and its meaning (Structural Correspondence\textsubscript{TC}), each bead represents one line of code. This was necessary to account for the age range of our target user group, considering the perplexing and negative experience of having access to only one line of code that they had previously with alternatives such as screen readers and enlarged text, which removed the context of the code. However, this design choice limits the complexity that can be achieved with programs, for example, we did not introduce functions, although this is part of the curriculum. Despite an emphasis on a persistent overview, we chose not to make the parameters inspectable on the beads as it could lead to accidental change if the program in knocked (Shakiness\textsubscript{TC}). We considered an additional device, \textit{The Inspector}, as a way to inspect parameters, but thought this unnecessary in the first stage of evaluation. Without such a device it would be challenging to set values over the available eight octaves, incrementing between values 21 and 108. Instead, we provided eight sounds and four durations to the children that would cycle continuously. Duration is made more palpable by providing a marker at the beginning and ending of a duration, enabling pauses to be more easily distinguishable (Hidden Augmentations\textsubscript{TC}). 4.3.3 Liveness The Torino design was intended to be responsive to encourage manipulating the beads in a way that invited iterative exploratory play. To achieve this, the design included electronics in every bead. This had substantial implications for size, complexity and cost of design (Bulkiness\textsubscript{TC}). A minimal set of beads is needed to reduce cost of building and maintaining such a system. We decided on 14 beads: seven plays, two pauses, two loops, and two variables. This number of beads was sufficient to create musically interesting, multi-thread programs. However, to reduce complexity, we omitted the use of an instrument bead which would allow setting the sample or synth used (i.e. sets of sounds or instrument choice). Instead, this choice was implemented and set within a thread. Further, in favour of simplicity of program structure and the size, availability and functional robustness of the beads deliberately did not add electronics that would vibrate into a block to indicate that an instruction was being executed by the program. 5 EXPLORATORY DESIGN EVALUATION We carried out an initial evaluative study with a single prototype to investigate how the overall design worked in practice with children with a range of visual abilities. The motivation for a tactile approach (as opposed to common assistive technologies such as screen readers) emerged from challenges faced by children in the first workshop to get an overview of their code such that they could understand, or ‘read’ it. This is often referred to as tracing in the computer science education literature and considered to be a core skill predictive of the ability to code when teaching undergraduates, e.g. (Lister et al., 2004; Lopez, Whalley, Robbins, & Lister, 2008). As a first step in understanding the effectiveness of the developed “bead metaphor” and related design decisions, we address how Torino supports tracing, or the read-before-you-write educational strategy. We specifically ask the following three research questions: RQ1: Are there any usability issues that stop children from creating code? RQ2: How do children with mixed visual abilities trace their programs using Torino? RQ3: How do children with mixed visual abilities create programs using Torino? At this early stage, we did not assess any of these quantitatively. Instead we took an in-depth qualitative approach to support comparison across a wide variety of potential users to help identify areas for improvement in the design. We use the discussion to reflect upon the design decisions made. Although we touch briefly on the role of collaboration in this process, a detailed analysis of how Torino supports collaboration can be found in (Thieme, Morrison, Villar, Grayson, & Lindley, 2017). 5.1 Method 5.1.1 Procedure Over a two month period, three consecutive sessions were carried out for each participant. Consecutive sessions were chosen to see how usage evolved over time without asking teachers to commit large amounts of teaching time to a new prototype. The first two sessions were attended by the pairs of learners. This mirrors our expected usage of Torino in educational settings and addresses our aim of inclusive teaching which does not segregate disabled learners. In the third session, learners were asked to attend alone with a parent or teacher. This final session gave an appropriate motivational structure for young learners to think aloud while teaching Torino to their parent or teacher, illustrating their understanding of Torino. Think aloud is considered a key approach in assessing conceptual understanding in computer education (Lye & Koh, 2014). The sessions were attended by two researchers. One researcher (CM), who is experienced as a teacher and in working with children with visual disabilities, led the programming activities. The second researcher (AT) oversaw the audio-visual equipment and addressed any prototype failures such that the flow of the session was not interrupted. Parents or teaching staff were present to oversee and assist in the activities. This enabled better tailoring of the sessions to the learners, whose vision levels and academic capabilities were unknown to the researchers. With exception of our meetings with two pairs at their schools, all sessions were held in a meeting room in our research lab. Scheduling issues at the school meant that only two sessions were attended by these children. Sessions were designed to gradually introduce programming concepts: sequences, threads, iteration, and variables; as well as broader programming concepts: debugging, breaking problems down, and dealing with resource constraints. Sessions were comprised of exercises, such as translating code written on paper (in form of large prints or Braille) into Torino, and challenges, in which the children had to create a program to match a particular audio recording. Children were also given time to create their own programs. In early sessions, this was a matter of changing the parameters for a given set of instructional beads following the use-modify-create method. In later sessions, children were invited to record their own sounds and create programs with those. The general lesson plans for the three sessions can be found in Appendix 1. These were adapted depending on age and speed of learning for each pair by researcher CM. 5.1.2 Participants Ten learners age 7 – 12 (5 male) were opportunistically recruited to participate in this study. Four of the children (Cat & Grace2455, Penelope & Reuben) had taken part in the research workshops described above. This meant they had already some experience with the shapes of the play and pause instructions. Yet, as this was the first time that the technology was implemented, they still – like all other children – had to learn and make sense of how to assemble and manipulate these beads into computer programs. We further collaborated with a QTVI (Qualified Teacher of the Visually Impairment), who organized the participation of two blind children at their respective schools. Each of these children chose a sighted peer to attend the sessions with them. A pair of sighted children was recruited through personal contacts. Torino was designed for use across the sight spectrum so that it was inclusive of, rather than exclusive to, a child with visual disabilities. As such, our study involved varying degrees of visual ability. Five participants were users of a white cane. Two of these, *Reuben* and *Penelope*, were ‘tactile learners’, meaning that they were very good at reading Braille; *Grace2455*, who was progressively losing her sight still learnt visually, and *Fin* and *David*, two of our youngest participants, were only beginning to learn to read braille. *Cat* was partially-sighted and learned visually as did all of the sighted children. The details of the learners of captured in the table in Figure 6. We did not try to control for the visual abilities in the pairs that the children chose. We felt strongly that Torino should work in all possible combinations of vision if it was to be an inclusive teaching technique, rather than an assistive one (see literature review). Our study included a strong variety of pairs: one pair of visually disabled visual learners (partial-sight, registered blind); one pair of blind learners; one pair of sighted learners; and two pairs of mixed blind-sighted learners. Such variation is representative of the education of children with visual disabilities and appropriate for edge-case understanding in qualitative analysis. To support understanding in the analysis the use of tactile or visual skills, we have marked four categories of visual ability: 1) blind (B) – tactile learners; 2) registered blind (RB) – predominantly visual learners with some tactile skills; 3) partially-sighted (PS) – visual learners with adaptive techniques; 4) sighted (S) – visual learners. Only two of the sighted children, *Hairy* and *HTBP*, had some prior experiences of programming, using Scratch in school. Appropriate ethical guidance was sought from our internal ethics board and health & safety regulations were met. All parents agreed to the use of photographs and video for research purposes. The study was also explained to the learners. As part of this explanation, we described the writing of research reports. To engage the children in understanding this process, we asked them to provide their own pseudonym names, which are used throughout the analysis. | Pseudonym | Age | Gender | Visual Ability | Mobility aid | Participation in Design | |-------------|-----|--------|---------------------------------------|--------------|-------------------------| | Cat (PS) | 8 | F | Partially sighted | No | Yes | | Grace2455 (RB) | 8 | F | Registered blind | Yes | Yes | | Reuben (B) | 8 | M | Blind from birth (color vision) | Yes | Yes | | Penelope (B)| 12 | F | Blind from birth (no vision) | Yes | Yes | | HTBP (S) | 10 | M | Fully sighted | No | No | | Hairy (S) | 10 | M | Fully sighted | No | No | | Charlotte (S) | 7 | F | Fully sighted | No | No | | David (B) | 7 | M | Blind from birth (no vision) | Yes | No | | Ginny (S) | 7 | F | Fully sighted | No | No | | Fin (B) | 7 | M | Blind from birth (color vision) | Yes | No | *Figure 6: Participant characteristics* ### 5.1.3 Data Capture & Analysis All sessions were video and audio recorded and transferred to secure data storage (17 hours in total). We use qualitative methods to understand usage and its variations, drawing methodologically on discussions presented in *Fieldwork for Design* (Randall, Harper, & Rouncefield, 2007). Episodes of poor usability were coded during review of the video data to answer RQ1. These video snippets were then shared with the wider team for discussion. To address RQ2, we identified episodes of tracing for each pair. Tracing has been noted in the literature as a key skill in developing programming skills. The conclusions of a large multi-national study suggest that “an early emphasis on program comprehension and tracing, with the aim of automating basic skills, might then free the minds of students to concentrate on problem-solving” (Lister et al., 2004). Other work more explicitly makes the link between the ability to trace and the ability to code (Lopez et al., 2008). We defined tracing to be any physical, visual, or verbal way of describing the execution of the program. We considered whether there were any changes in how tracing was executed over time for each pair. We then looked at how tracing differed between pairs. For both RQ2 and RQ3, we coded the data based on observable engagement with computing concepts. A large number of frameworks have been developed to capture what is learned in computing; many of the early ones are reviewed in (Robins, Rountree, & Rountree, 2003). We choose to use (Lye & Koh, 2014) as a more recent piece of work directly oriented towards school children. It presents a framework for computational thinking that we adapted to make appropriate to the activities covered in the lessons. Specifically, we coded for: 1) computational concepts – sequences, loops, threads; and 2) Computational Practices -- being iterative and incremental, testing and debugging. These were then used to address either RQ2 or RQ3 depending on whether activities of tracing (reading) or creating (writing) were involved. The findings section presents descriptions of selected vignettes of observed interactions that exemplify the phenomena coded as per the three research questions. The cases were selected to reflect both common observations of each pair as well as key differences between them. We have found that computational concepts and practices are often intertwined in the data and therefore do not use these as strict categories of presentation. 5.2 Findings 5.2.1 Usability All children were able to distinguish between the beads as well as to connect them together to make a program by the end of the first session. For most, this was mastered in a matter of minutes. However, we also identified a few usability issues that we will describe first to provide an appropriate frame for the more detailed descriptions of use in the following two sections. The most substantial interaction issue related to the hub. While distributing connection ports to the four corners of the hub, made them easy to locate tactiley and to distinguish threads by pushing them in various directions; the children struggled to plug beads into the ports as these were angled downwards, making it particularly difficult for those who needed to feel the connection rather than look at it. Further, there was quite a bit of confusion for the blind children about which end of connected beads to unplug, as both sides – the plug side and the wire side – felt the same when beads were connected to each other. Some tactile indication, such as a ridge, would enable this distinction and protect the beads from being pulled in directions unintended. To make the electrical connection between beads robust presented another challenge. The children, particularly the blind ones, often plugged beads in more slowly, or did so at more of an angle, compared to any technology testing done by the researchers. This led to beads not providing enough of a power surge to be recognised. Moreover, while the sounds for plugging and unplugging beads were helpful in isolation (e.g. one bead being plugged in), the children frequently unplugged and replugged entire threads in another port. The sound feedback, containing all of the connection sounds as well as the sounds of the beads, was cacophonous and confusing. A more nuanced approach to feedback of system state is needed to distinguish more clearly between different kinds of interactions. 5.2.2 Tracing Programs 220.127.116.11 Tracing Sequences We consistently encouraged children to physically trace their programs as they played in order to develop an understanding of how their program was executing. All of the children could correctly trace a sequence by the end of their sessions, but there was substantial diversity in how this was done. Below are three short vignettes, also captured in Video Figure 2 that illustrates the variation that we saw across visual abilities. *Reuben(B)* and *Penelope(B)* are about to trace a sequence with 8 beads that they have created together at the end of their first lesson. Reuben has his right hand on the hub to press play and left hand on the first play bead. Penelope has her right hand resting above Reuben’s hand on the first bead and her left hand of the second bead. When the program starts Penelope immediately grazes her right hand along the wire to the next beads, Reuben catching up. Penelope then lands with hands curled around two beads before her hand darts to the next rest. Reuben then catches her hand and picks up the rest with both hands, stating “and that’s the rest”. They continue to the end, Penelope slightly behind the program as she needs to stand to reach it. She gets confused associating the rest with the last note and then wondering what the last bead should do. *Grace2455(RB)* explains a program to her mother in her last session. Grace2455 hits the play button and then jumps her hand to curl around each bead as it plays. She is slightly hesitant at the rests to make sure she has moved at the right time. She switches hands from left to right to finish the program before looking at her mother. Continuing to rest her right hand on the last bead. She repeats the tracing, singing the program as she goes. Repeating a bit in the middle that she didn’t get quite right. *Ginny(S)* and *Fin(B)* are tracing a program at the end of their first session. Ginny starts the program off and Fin brings his hand to lay on the first bead open and flat. He continues to land on each bead as they quickly play while Ginny points at them from whatever angle she can around Fin. Towards the end, Fin verbalises the instructions, “Oh no. Pause.” When the program finishes, Ginny looks to the teacher and says ‘yeah’, while Fin remains focused on the last bead until the sound stops, nodding his head. We see that visual ability plays a substantial role in how the tracing is physically accomplished. Those with less sight relying more heavily on the wired connections, while those with sight are able to point from afar. We can also surmise that those with intermediate levels of vision (e.g. Grace2455 and Fin) were relying heavily on the colour in conjunction with the tactile experience to follow their program as their hands jumped between beads. Interestingly, verbalisation happened alongside the visual and tactile experience in all three of these accounts regardless of level of vision. Tracing was not immediately achieved by any child. We consistently saw that when first asked to trace, children would randomly run their hands over the beads as the program played without a recognisable relationship between the bead and the program. Unlike the behaviours described above, the hands did not pause on each bead, but ran continuously, usually finishing before or after the program did. As demonstrated to them, all participants, with the exception of one sighted child, physically touched the beads in their initial traces. The time it took to be able to trace a program varied substantially between children, some mastering it after a few run throughs, others taking all of the lessons. There are several coded episodes in the data that are revealing about the learning process while tracing. *David(B)*, our youngest participant, found tracing extremely difficult in the first session. He often started tracing from the end of the program and had to be continuously reminded that ‘all programs start at the hub’. He would often jump between non-adjacent beads, not seemingly making the connection that each bead played in sequence despite his ability to follow the string a beads when the program was not playing. To address this challenge, the facilitator laid the beads out in a line to be read left to right similar to the way in which this child would read braille. This improved the sequential nature of the tracing when each bead was executing. Clarity of execution came when *David*, a very musical child, created a Twinkle, Twinkle program. He was able to apply his understanding of sequence in music to the physical beads on the table. *Cat(PS)*, who quickly learned to trace sequences, found tracing more difficult in her third session when the programs became more complicated. In this session, she was carrying out the challenge of creating a multi-threaded program that played Jingle Bells. On one thread was a bell and on the other thread the words to the song. Each play bead played a sample from the song. Some samples were single words, e.g. ‘jingle’ and others were multiple words, e.g. ‘all the way’. These could be heard by rotating through the dial on the play bead. Cat struggled to move beyond a single sound per bead. Indeed, to achieve tracing in this task required understanding the beads as containers, and not just direct representations of sound. It is an increased level of abstraction to attain as children’s thinking matures. *Penelope(B)*, our oldest and most mathematically advanced child, quickly mastered tracing, but had given it up by the third session. In her third session, Penelope was working on a debugging task. She had created a program herself and then the facilitator had created two bugs that she was asked to find. While creating the program, Penelope would trace the program when prompted. However, when finding bugs, she did not follow the prompts to trace. Yet, she was able to verbally identify where the bug was and quickly find the bead: – ‘it’s the fourth one’ her hands reaching out and finding the fourth bead without error or needing to start from the beginning of the program. Her behaviour suggests that she had both a mental and physical map of the program and had related these to program execution. This indicates the extent to which tracing can be mastered and divorced from the physical. ### 18.104.22.168 Tracing Loops and Threads While tracing loops and threads is similar to tracing sequences, they also present their own challenges. Six of the ten children were introduced to loops and threads. We consistently observed across this cohort that large loops of more than three beads were difficult to trace. *Hairy(S)* and *HTBP(S)* for example, created a loop from a sequence in their first lesson and Hairy chose to follow it while HTBP pressed start. Hairy was uncertain of which was the first bead in the loop, saying ‘is it this way?’ as he chose a direction. Whether right or wrong, he quickly lost track of the different drum beats happening and started running his hand over the loop waiting for it to end. This challenge of tracing demonstrated in this vignette became an opportunity for learning in sessions with multiple children. The facilitator focused children’s attention on how they could work out the behaviour of a loop. One child proposed the use of markers, ie. a high pitch to start the loop. Other children decided to break down the problem, building up the loop one bead at a time in order to understand its behaviour. The direction of the loop, while explicitly taught, seemed particularly challenging for the blind children, who wanted to follow the wire coming out of the end of the loop bead in direction of flow of the program, loop around to the loop bead and then exit the loop continuing their hand in the same direction of travel. This contrasted with the design which required changing the direction of their hand on meeting the loop bead in order to start the loop on the first port reached. Threading posed different challenges for the children. *David(B)* and his father tackled threads in their second lesson. David created a melody line on one thread and a drum line on the other. He began by following the melody line which he mastered, despite the challenge of following sequences in his first lesson. However, he found it very difficult to follow two sequences at once as this requires either being able to hear two independent lines, possible for some blind people but notoriously difficult, or understanding how the threads interact, as one might use the left and right hand on a piano score. Indeed, this difficulty was seen across all of the children. To build up the ability to trace threads, the facilitator suggested to David that he ask his father to follow the second thread. While successful in tracing the program as a pair, David’s lack of vision meant that this two-person approach was not experienced by David in any way. This contrasted to sighted participants Hairy and HTBP, who could watch the other’s movements while following their own thread, understanding how they interacted. To try and achieve the same experience for David, the facilitator suggested that David changes the threads such that only one sound was heard at a time, ie. the melody and the drum did not execute at the same time. This was eventually achieved by David and his father by shortening the threads and then using trial and error. David was then able to follow both threads of the program himself. 22.214.171.124 Tracing to Debugging Tracing was an excellent starting point to support debugging activities. *Penelope(B)*, for example, was creating a sequence as part of an exercise on threads in her second lesson with Reuben. The program did not play as she intended, so she traced it physically. Her hand went across the beads stopping on the forth one as she waited for it to play. Her hand then scooted back to the third bead as she announced, ‘there is a misconnection here’. She unplugged and replugged the forth bead and then her program worked. We observed many such examples across all of our participants. Physically tracing the program meant that their hands were in the right place to fix a program, whether the problem was a connection issue, or most likely, the need to adjust the parameters of a bead through the dials or buttons. In pairs in which there were no sighted children, e.g. *Penelope(B)* and *Reuben(B)* and *Cat(PS)* and *Grace2455(RB)*, the majority of tracing was done hand over hand. That is, both children would physically trace the program together. With Penelope and Reuben, this meant that there was a shared awareness of what the other was doing, enabling talk such as ‘there is a bug here’. For Cat and Grace2455 it led to shared fixing of bugs, one holding the bead while the other adjusted the parameters – a four-handed interaction. This contrasted with pairs with sighted children who often pointed to rather than touched the beads. It was unclear whether this was simply visual preference or whether the intimacy of touching hands was less familiar to those children with sight. 126.96.36.199 Reflections on Design The physical design of rounded beads and wires made it comfortable for blind children to quickly scan their program without the need for careful consideration of the beads’ shape. Those with colour vision made use of the visual cues to locate the beads as evidenced by not touching the wires in between the beads. We did note that a full sequence of eight beads required children either to stand up to reach the end or for it to be wound around in a s-shape, requiring more dedicated attention from the children to follow the wires. If non-connected beads got too close, they could be confused as adjacent by children not meticulously following the wires. The numerous examples in this section suggest that Torino supports tracing of programs, both sequences and more complex programs, by the children across the visual spectrum using both tactile and visual processes. In the read-before-you-write approach to programming (Lister et al., 2004), tracing is the first step in the learning process. The second step is to be able to write, or create, programs. We discuss in the next section, how children created programs. We begin with a focus on how the children engaged with the physical affordances of Torino, before discussing some of the vignettes that relate. 5.2.3 Creating Programs 188.8.131.52 Creating with a physical language Immediately, the children started plugging beads together to create sequences, not requiring any instructions or additional motivation. The children then started pressing the dials and buttons, spinning or clicking them very quickly at first, before recognizing that slow movement allowed them to choose a sound. This process was iterative and incremental, as suggested in the vignettes below. *Reuben(B)* and *Penelope(B)* are being introduced to Torino in their first lesson. The facilitator hands Reuben a play bead and Penelope a pause. They each describe their bead to the other while Reuben impatiently asks several times: “Does it plug into the holes on this [hub]?” The facilitator allows Reuben to plug his bead in and then encourages Penelope to plug hers in, while Reuben hands are rapidly patting the mat to see what else is there. Reuben then starts rapidly spinning the dial while Penelope patiently awaits her turn. *Cat(PS)* and *Grace2455(RB)* are putting together a sequence with all the beads in their second session. The two girls take out all the beads from the tray and split them on the mat in front of them. Cat volunteers to go first, grabbing the hub and quickly plugging in all her beads. She then sets about setting the dials, while Grace2455 comments on whether she likes the sound. Grace2455 decides to hand out her beads to people in the room, including the facilitator and two other observing researchers. She then directs them to plug them in. They have completed their sequence. *David(B)* and *Charlotte(S)* work together to create their first sequence with sounds of their choice at the end of the first lesson. David’s teacher encourages him to go first. Ginny hands David a bead as David gets distracted by the hum of the speaker in the hub and the vibrations that it affords. David finds it very difficult to find the hole on the hub. Ginny lifts the hub up for him to position it in a way that makes David’s plugging successful. Ginny then quickly plugs in the next one. While the children were encouraged to plan their programs during certain exercises, there was a strong preference for plugging in one bead at a time and seeing what happened. Our observations, as captured in the above vignettes, suggest that the affordances of the design encourage interaction with the beads, either plugging or setting the parameters through the dials/buttons. The way the children achieved creation jointly depended on the pair, something we explore in the next several paragraphs. We saw a number of examples of how creating with a physical language facilitated creation between pairs of children. For example, *Penelope(B)* asked *Reuben(B)* to help her identify the type of bead in her hand: ‘*I’m not sure the one I’ve got is a play.*’; reaching out and feeling its shape, Reuben responds: ‘*No, it is not, it’s a pause*’ (see Figure 7 (top)). In pairs with mixed visual ability, handing beads became a way round the complex verbal interactions required when vision is not a shared sense. For example, *Ginny(S)* pointed out to *Fin(B)* that there was another play bead next to him, saying ‘There is one there’. Fin paused but did not respond as he could not interpret ‘there’. Ginny then reached over and handed him the play bead that he needed to add to the program next, avoiding the lengthy (and complicated) description of: there is a play bead at 10 o’clock to your left arm. Audio feedback played another, less expected role, in facilitating collaboration. The hub generated almost in-audible vibrations of its built-in speaker that were immediately noticeable to each of the blind children. While the hub could be repositioned by someone else to be brought closer to a child, each child without sight could quickly locate it on the table by sound. Similarly, the subtle clicks of the mechanisms made it possible for the blind children to locate the bead that their partner was working on. Whilst an unintended side-effect of the hardware set-up, in the absence of vision, these sounds presented a useful design feature. Our sighted pair, *Hairy(S)* and *HTBP(S)* also benefited from the physicality of the language. They spent much time, with some prompting from the facilitator, in ‘laying-out’ their program and discussing it before plugging it in. For example, these boys alternatively grabbed beads and put them in a line, with the other partner rearranging if they felt a mistake had been made. While laying out beads is a highly visual approach to discussion, a contrasting way of using the physicality of the beads in communication was seen with *Cat(PS)* and *Grace2455(RB)*. Debating about what to do about a non-working bead, Grace2455 ‘plugged’ herself in, by attaching her pinky finger to the connector jack, and performed the final note of the program (Figure 7 (bottom)). Figure 7: (top) Checking the bead; (middle) Twiddling; (bottom) Partaking in the program. We also observed most of the children persistently ‘fiddling’ with the program. This came in various guises. *Reuben(B)*, for example, frequently twiddled an unattached bead in his hands (Figure 7 (middle)). His mother referred to this as a useful ‘fiddle thing’, allowing Reuben to engage without the typical ‘fiddle things’ in his pocket, such as magnets. Others fiddled through repeatedly making small adjustments, and experimenting with minor changes to the sounds they were making. *Grace2455(RB)*, had to find the perfect sequence of comedy kiss sounds to make her mother laugh. *Fin(B)*, like many blind children with a love of buttons, engaged repeatedly in moving through the different natural sounds, e.g. ambulance, glass breaking etc. This type of persistent, in-the-moment behaviour is often correlated with ‘flow’ states (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). ### 184.108.40.206 Sequences, Loops and Threads Soon after creating sequences, many of the pairs (unless discouraged by the facilitator) experimented with threads wondering what would happen if beads were plugged into different ports. Here is a short vignette of pair experimenting with threads: **Session 1 (8 minutes):** Grace2455: Can I plug them all into different corners? Facilitator: What do you think would happen if you plugged them into different corners? Cat: All the different ones would go into one. [Cat tries] Facilitator: What is happening? Cat: They are playing at the same time! **Session 1 (22 minutes):** A multi-threaded program has been created after the pair have handed out beads and allowed people to plug them anywhere. Facilitator: What happened? Grace2455: It played at the same time. Facilitator: How do we make them play one after the other? Cat: Put them all into the different plugs. Grace2455: I think we need to join them together. Facilitator: How are we going to do that? Grace2455: …Two more plays … No. Doesn’t work. Can’t connect them. …. Grace2455: We could put them into all one. All piano. In their third sessions, *Grace2455(RB)* and *Cat(PS)* both independently described correctly the behaviour of threads. It is interesting here how much repetition of experimenting with threads was needed before the understanding solidified. Loops, unlike threads, had a specific bead associated with them. However, several of the younger children, e.g. *Charlotte(S)* and *Fin(B)* surmised that bending a sequence into a ‘circle’ would make it repeat before the loop bead was introduced. This was similar to what we saw with the pairs in the design workshops. This suggests that being able to physically represent the loop achieves a useful mapping between form and function. Deeper understanding of loops came through challenges that forced children to use loops to avoid running out of beads. For example, *Cat(PS)* worked in her third session with her mother to recreate a Jingle Bells program (see Video Figure 3). She begins by plugging in all the play beads she has until she runs out. She looks ponderously at her mother who responds, ‘that’s not going to work’. Cat then proposes pauses (rest beads). While this would increase the number of beads, it would not play the program. Her mother responds with the question ‘pauses?’ followed by a question of ‘how many times do you need to say Jingle?’. Cat ponders that she has to say Jingle three times, but doesn’t have enough beads, suddenly realising that she needs to use a loop. This example illustrates how the constraints of a physical language can encourage exploration of new computational concepts. 220.127.116.11 Parameters Torino enables parameters to be physically set on the beads through manipulating dials or buttons. While many children first enjoy the fiddling that these provided, we also observed several examples that suggested a more abstract understanding of parameters as a mechanism to specify state. For example, *Cat(PS)* realised that she could plug her bead into another port to set the state, in this case duration, while her partner was working on their sequence. *Penelope(B)*, for example, counted the number of pitch parameters and duration parameters available and then created her program to be a pattern of these – 1, 5, 8 for pitch, 1, 3, 1 for duration. *Reuben(B)* grasped the idea of how duration parameters related and used it to ensure his threads did not play at the same time by adding up durations. We also saw notions of how children began to understand scope in their programs. *Reuben(B)* for example correctly predicted that nothing would play after an infinite loop, but he did get confused that one loop could be infinite, while another loop, within a separate thread in the program, could have a specified number of iterations. *Grace2455(RB)* realised that while loops could be constructed in the same way, they could have different instruments by plugging them into different ports. Other children struggled with scope as well, some wondered if bits outside the loop will loop, even when they were able to correctly demonstrate their functionality by pointing which bits will loop. These examples show how the children are beginning to grasp abstractions associated with variables, which is described as a significant determinant of success in programming education (Bornat, Dehnadi, & Barton, 2012). 18.104.22.168 Computational Language An important aspect of working with a physical language that does not use text is reinforcing relevant computing language. *Cat(PS)*, for example describes a program to her mother as: “A program is a set of instructions that tells something what to do”. *Grace2455(RB)* began her second session by drawing out the blocks on the whiteboard and describing their function: “A loop repeats something that you play. Play plays a note. Pause makes a break”. *David(B)* was able to get past his initial anger if a bead wasn’t right, by saying: “Oh. It needs debugging”. He could therefore turn what could be a very upsetting moment into a comforting plan of action with language. Putting names to the concepts not only helped solidify them, but gave form to how to think computationally. It wasn’t a matter of plugging things together, but thinking about problems in a particular way, and with specific words. 22.214.171.124 Reflections on Design The children were able to create programs and benefitted from the preservation of state when they were moved about the table to accommodate reach. There were numerous examples that suggested that the form of the program (e.g. loop) usefully gave information about function. The close mapping that we tried to achieve in Torino worked mostly, even if it constrained the complexity of the program. Indeed, we also saw examples, in which the constraints of the physical language could encourage the use of computational concepts, such as loops. Effort was needed, however, to map the physical to appropriate verbal language, such as ‘sequence’ or ‘debug’, as it was not embedded in the code in the same way it would be in a visual- or text-focused language. Most noticeable in the design however, was the amount of fiddling that took place. We saw examples of that fiddling being a way to engage the hands through twiddling knobs as well as a means to iterative and incremental learning through slowly building up a picture of a program through a trying out of different options (Lye & Koh, 2014). Children, for example, plugged beads into multiple ports to see what happened. They also learned about the duration parameter through continuously clicking through the buttons and listening to the outcome. For some children, this experience gave them the concept of an array suggesting how fiddling led to abstract concepts not directly portrayed by the form. We also see examples of collaboration taking place between children utilising the physical nature of the programming language. While this differs depending on the visual abilities present in the pair, it was observed in all pairs. This is discussed in more detail in a different paper (Thieme et al., 2017). 6 DISCUSSION In this paper, we presented the design and implementation of Torino, a novel tangible programming language for teaching computer programming to children ages 7-11 regardless of level of vision. Taking an inclusive design approach, the design is derived from a series of workshops with children with visual disabilities. During these workshops, we learned that common design elements of tangible languages, such as blocks connected by magnets, were problematic for this group. Some issues were practical, such as tactile learning requires information structures to be maintained while being manipulated. Others were more subtle, for example, the ability to pick up and manipulate objects is central to a tactile experience. We developed a design based on the concept of a ‘bead metaphor’ whereby each program command is represented by a different shaped bead on a string, and developed novel hardware to achieve this. To further iterate on this design, we carried out an exploratory evaluation with a small group of children with mixed visual ability to understand how Torino supports key computational thinking and programming practices. Taking inspiration from the read-before-you-write approach (Lister et al., 2004), we considered first how children read or ‘traced’ their programs and then how they created them. Aside from the usability issues identified, we described how all children could trace sequences by the end of the sessions, and the ways that this differed between children depending on their use of visual or tactile skills. In either case, children verbalised their program while tracing its execution. We found that Torino supported an iterative and incremental approach to creating programs which presents an important part of computational learning as identified in an overview of the literature for school aged learners by (Lye & Koh, 2014). We noted that the affordances of the physical language encouraged experimentation, whether it be plugging beads together, turning the dials, or plugging beads into multiple ports on the hub to discover threads. We illustrated a number of ways in which the children were able to collaborate when vision is not a shared sense through the physical language, a topic explored more deeply in (Thieme et al., 2017). Building on the design reflections in Section 5, we now reflect on two major design decisions with substantial trade-offs: 1) Readability versus extensibility; 2) Liveness versus bulkiness. *We put significant emphasis on readability of the program over extensibility.* That is, one of our primary design considerations was that a child has a persistent overview of their program at all times. That meant leaving out functions or more complex notions of variables that would be hidden inside the physical state. Such a choice, while possibly most useful for learning in the early stages, could potentially limit the longevity of Torino in a classroom and hence its viability. This is particularly true given the limited number of beads available and the expense of the hardware to create the ‘liveness’ of the experience. We had created a low floor, but was the ceiling high enough? – to borrow the phrase from (Maloney et al., 2010). While the children were limited in the programming constructs that they were introduced to: sequences, loops, and threads, we found that the limited number of beads and emphasis on tracing opened up opportunity for substantial focus on areas of computational thinking. We showed a number of examples of how children’s understanding of program execution was pushed by exercises with loops and threads in which the ability to trace became part of a larger activity, e.g. figuring out how to identify the first bead in a loop, or being able to follow two threads simultaneously by understanding how they executed together. On reflection, the one programming construct that was missing was conditional statements (or more formally called selection in the UK curriculum). Our analysis also pointed to the importance of only being able to create short programs with Torino. As the computational challenges increased, the limited number of beads was essential in allowing focus on these programming constructs and computational tasks. This focus helped the children to work out the computational challenges without the need for extra support. Further, on reflection, we found that scoping the tracing problem such that children can work it out is more valuable educationally than showing the children how a program executes. This stands in contrast to approaches in ILEs (e.g. (Meerbaum-Salant, Armoni, & Ben-Ari, 2010)) in which children focus on how to make the end product, rather than how to use programming constructs effectively. We further observed how engagement with the parameters prompted an understanding of abstraction in some children, particularly as it related to variables. We described examples of understanding: the maintenance of state, implicit understanding of arrays, as well as concepts of scope. That said, given that grasping abstractions associated with variables is believed to be a determinant of success in programming education (Bornat et al., 2012), more could be done to expand the notion of pegs used to set loop iteration to other kinds of ‘variables’. Moving beyond constants, future work should also include notions of random, infinity, and counters. Increasing the number of variable types coupled with the simplicity of the language could open up many opportunities for exploring computation. For example, using random with a conditional could be used not only to build lessons around probability, but also to enable children to create dynamic stories with different endings. Indeed, functions could be addressed by allowing children to record their own sounds and thereby allowing them to record a program already ‘created’ and to re-use it. While this would cover all aspects of the primary curriculum, our reflections on how important the physical embodiment of the language for tracing would discourage us from actively encouraging children to create functions this way. Another way to ‘raise the ceiling’ is to think about the transitional experience to a text-based language. We touch on this briefly in the discussion of how we encourage appropriate verbal language when using a tangible language. However, the ability to read out, or view in an appropriately adapted way, the code in some form could help children connect the concepts presented tangibly with the way linear code is written. Just as we encouraged children to trace a program as it executes, they could trace the program when listening to the code. The literature suggests that transitioning from block-based coding to text-based coding is challenging and we would expect the same for a tangible language (Weintrop & Wilensky, 2015). Yet, supporting text-based coding literacy may also be a valuable conduit in increasing children’s confidence in their coding abilities (Stead & Blackwell, 2014). The other substantial trade-off considered was the bulkiness of programs versus the liveness of the beads. Including electronics in each bead to make each one individually responsive increased the size of the beads. Even with just eight beads in a program, most children needed to stand to trace to the end or curl their program around, making tracing more difficult. Storage also presents a challenge. We’ve already pointed to the importance of keeping programs simple leaving us to conclude that eight beads might be enough. Despite reservations that the beads were too big, they were a good size for four-handed interactions and much time was spent manipulating or fiddling with them suggesting that size was not an insurmountable problem. More importantly, we regard the liveness of the beads as a key factor in the children’s iterative development of programs, and their understanding of them. The ability to approach the problems from iterative attempts with the materials can be thought to provide positive task feedback, reinforcing satisfaction with new experiences, and motivation to continue experimenting (Nash & Blackwell, 2014). It also has positive educational outcomes, as documented in the literature on ‘tinkering’ in computer science education. Tinkering – technical manipulation that is driven by curiosity rather than a specified goal – is strongly associated with the development of self-efficacy in educational contexts. Design strategies to encourage tinkering result in improved educational outcomes for girls and other groups with low self-efficacy (Beckwith et al., 2006). Taking these observations in line with the literature, suggests that the persistent ‘fiddling’ with Torino could demonstrate longer-term benefits in building self-efficacy and result in higher educational attainments. Last, we reflect upon the role of Torino as a means of inclusive teaching. We demonstrate that creating and tracing programs can be done regardless of level of vision. There is nothing inherent in Torino that requires assistance. That said, facilitation played an important role in the use of Torino. On the one hand, focusing on computational thinking tasks (e.g. where does the loop start) rather than on just getting to an end goal, requires someone with the skills to ask such questions. This suggests that Torino requires a scheme of work to successfully be used by non-specialist teachers. On the other hand, integrating blind and sighted students together is also a challenge in any educational context and requires facilitation (Metatla, 2017). While we saw examples of children using the physical beads to overcome the challenges of interacting when vision is not a shared sense, such skills only come with practice and support from facilitators. However, despite some extremely fast fingers, it is more time consuming to ‘see with your hands’. This often meant that sighted partners needed to wait, or help out. These issues are instantiations of existing challenges of integrating blind children into mainstream environments and cannot be solved by the technology alone. An important next step, following a design iteration based on this initial evaluation, is the evaluation of the technology on a larger scale. Such an evaluation can explore in more depth measures of engagement and learning as well as explore the issues that arise when Torino is being used in a mainstream classroom. 7 CONCLUSION There is a strong diversity agenda behind the push to get more children fluent with computational thinking and able to use it for the benefit of society. This agenda has mainly focused on gender and ethnicity, but disability is an important segment that should not be ignored. To this end, appropriate tools are needed to support learning. While efforts have been made for older blind students, there has been little attention to computing education for blind learners in early years and primary schooling. This is particularly problematic given the recent mandatory introduction of computing for the primary school age group in several countries, including the UK. Torino aims to address this gap by providing a tangible language for teaching programming and computational thinking concepts to children ages 7 – 11 inclusive of those with visual disabilities. Having taken an inclusive design approach to the development of Torino we created a learning tool that is appropriate for use by children with visual disabilities without its design being ‘exclusive to them’. The development of a ‘bead’ metaphor to provide a 3-dimensional experience that prioritises tactile interaction over visual understanding sets Torino apart from many tangible programming languages and interactive blocks available in the research literature, and on the market. Existing designs are all block shaped, relying on the metaphor of puzzle pieces. Working with children with visual disabilities in the Torino Young Design Team helped us reimagine this space and explore novel ways of interactions that would not rely on ‘vision for interpretation’. 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Tickers and Talker: An Accessible Labeling Toolkit for 3D Printed Models. *Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems*, 4896–4907. http://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858507 Shum, A., Holmes, K., Woolery, K., Price, M., Kim, D., Dvorkina, E., ... Malekzadeh, S. (2016). *Inclusive: a Microsoft design toolkit*. Smith, A. C., Francioni, J. M., & Matzek, S. D. (2000). A Java programming tool for students with visual disabilities. In *Proceedings of the fourth international ACM conference on Assistive technologies - Assets '00* (pp. 142–148). New York, New York, USA: ACM Press. Smith, D. C., Cypher, A., & Schmucker, K. (1996). Making Programming Easier for Children. *Interactions*, 3(5), 58–67. http://doi.org/10.1145/234757.234764 Sorva, J. (2013). Notional Machines and Introductory Programming Education. *ACM* Stead, A., & Blackwell, A. F. (2014). Learning Syntax as Notational Expertise when using DrawBridge. 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APPENDIX ### 10.1 Cognitive Dimensions and Tangible Correlates Table | Dimension | Definition | Analysis of Torino Design | |----------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Consistency<CD> | Similar semantics are expressed in similar syntactic forms. | Play and pause beads have the same control mechanism for duration and different port shapes for variables indicates a semantic difference (+), but loop does not have a physical control mechanism (-). | | Provisionality<CD> | Actions or marks can be reversed or removed. | Physical controls support sound experimentation (+), but sounds cannot be unheard and programs must be created and debugged in a shared audio space even before they are 'ready' for sharing (-). | | Secondary Notation<CD> | Information can be expressed outside the formal syntax. | The arrangement of beads on a tabletop surface can be appropriated in meaningful ways (+), but these might not be apparent to collaborators (-). | | Progressive Evaluation<CD> | Progress-to-date can be checked at any time. | The program audio can be played at any time (+) but the program state must otherwise be inferred from handling or inspection (-). | | Premature Commitment<CD> | The order of doing things is unnatural or overly constrained. | Beads can be plugged in any order (+), but the instrument of each thread is fixed and predetermined (-). | | Bulkiness<TC> | Physical objects or representations occupy space in three dimensions. | Beads are palm-sized for easy handling (and large enough for the embedded electronics and physical controls) (+), but their connection to form networks could be constrained by the available workspace (-). | | Permanence<TC> | Physical representations and control mappings can be preserved for future use. | Physical representations are preserved (+), but pressure on scarce beads (which may arise due to cost and sharing requirements) could require disassembly and recycling of parts (-). | | Shakiness<TC> | Physical representations are prone to accidental or irreversible damage. | Snap-lock wired connections are robust (+), but the physical control mechanisms have the potential to be 'knocked' accidentally (-). | | Juxtamodality<TC> | Multiple interaction modalities are coordinated across different physical spaces or objects. | A blind child can simultaneously manipulate bead controls by hand and listen to the resulting sounds (+), but must rely on tactile feedback alone when in the process of connecting beads (-). | | Rigidity<TC> | Manipulation of objects or their arrangement is resisted. | Manipulation of bead controls is fast and direct (+), but inserting or reordering beads requires multiple disconnection and reconnection actions (-). | | Rootedness<TC> | Movement of objects or their arrangement is resisted. | The hub is not physically tied to any particular location (+), but growing bead networks may make it hard to move (as well find, for blind children) (-). | | Automation<TC> | New behavior can be programmed and redefined. | Physical state embodies replayable audio output (+), but playback much be invoked manually (-). | | Adaptability<TC> | New states can be specified and redefined. | Adults can re-program the ports with different sound sets, including children's own sounds (+), but the meanings of beads are fixed (-). | | Purposeful Affordances<TC> | Possible physical actions have a clear and meaningful purpose. | Physical mechanisms have clear affordances (+), but the use of up and down buttons to cycle through four duration options is not obvious (-). | | Hidden Augmentations<TC> | Physical objects are digitally augmented in a non-obvious manner. | Use of connecting wires gives a clear indication of how the physical beads are digitally augmented (+), but injection of variables is less obvious (-). | | Unwieldy Operations<TC> | Demand on physical resources because of the actions required on objects. | Bead controls can be manipulated with the hand holding the bead (+), but holding or manipulating more than one bead per hand is difficult (-). | | Structural Correspondence<TC> | Physical structure matches the underlying digital representation. | Each bead represents a single program instruction (+), but variables have different use syntax (multiple references in code vs actions on objects) (-). | 10.2 Lesson Plan 1 1. Introductions a. Introduce people at the table b. Introduce Torino, a programming language that you can touch c. Introduce the idea of a prototype, it breaks and needs to be restarted often. d. Demonstrate Sonic Pi 2. Introduce the Torino Beads a. Vocabulary: i. Programs are sets of instructions that tell the computer precisely what to do. b. Orientation i. Invite each blind child to physically explore the programming space c. Introduce Beads i. Give a bead to each child and ask them to describe it to their partner d. Make a simple program i. Invite children to plug them together in a program and manipulate the parameters 3. Create a Program a. One child reads out a prepared program from paper and the other puts it together b. Each child takes a turn at reading the program c. The children can then set the parameters to enjoy their program. 4. Race to Program a. Tell children a program (which they memorise) and time them in putting it together b. Discuss strategies for doing it faster. Get them to try at least two strategies and compare which one is faster. 5. Create a scale 6. Create the first line of Twinkle Twinkle 10.3 Lesson Plan 2 1. Sequence Review a. Each child is asked to take 3 plays and a pause bead b. The children decide who will create a melody and who will create a rhythm c. Children make their own thread and listen to the whole program d. Children are challenged to make sure that the piano and drum never play at the same time. 2. Loops a. Introduce loops b. Ask children to create a loop c. Ask children what they think the loop will do and then test their idea d. Ask them to adjust their program to something they like 3. Programming with Loops a. Introduce Iteration b. Provide program on paper and ask children to build it (contains loops, and different entry exits, pauses, threads) c. Follow the program when listening 4. Debugging a. Vocabulary: Debugging is the word we use to describe how we identify and fix a problem with our program b. The children tune the program to something that they like c. Record it. d. Adults make two changes and children must identify verbally and then fix (x2) i. Loop parameter ii. Bead swapping 5. Story Challenge or Jingle Challenge a. Give children a recorded story that can only be created on two threads and see how they try to solve b. Do both if time allows 10.4 Lesson Plan 3 1) Check understanding of basic concepts a) Explain to your parent/teacher what a program is and how to make one with Torino? 2) Can you make a program together? a) What is it that you want to make? b) What instruction beads do you need? 3) Parent Debugging a) Can you explain to your parent what debugging is? b) Parent leaves and child changes two things 4) Challenge
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MOONS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM A PROGRAM FROM THE HOLT PLANETARIUM by Cary I. Schneider and Alan D. Gould revised by Debra Sutter Jointly published by the Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley, California and the New York Hall of Science, Flushing Meadows Corona Park, New York Cover photograph collage of Jupiter with four moons courtesy of NASA. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant Number TPE-8751779. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. Original Edition Copyright © 1990, by The Regents of the University of California. Revised Editions Copyright © 1993, 1999 by The Regents of the University of California. This work may not be reproduced by mechanical or electronic means without written permission from the Lawrence Hall of Science, except for pages to be used in classroom activities and teacher workshops. For permission to copy portions of this material for other purposes, please write to: Planetarium Director, Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720. The first printing of the *Planetarium Activities for Student Success* series was made possible by a grant from Learning Technologies, Inc., manufacturers of the Starlab Portable Planetarium. For latest information, valuable links, and resources relating to the PASS series, visit: http://www.lhs.berkeley.edu/pass Additional copies of the *PASS* Volumes may be purchased from: Learning Technologies, Inc. 40 Cameron Avenue Somerville, MA 02144 800-537-8703 Lawrence Hall of Science website: http://www.lhs.berkeley.edu/ Acknowledgements The following staff members of the Lawrence Hall of Science Astronomy and Physics Education Project tested the first version of this program: Michael Askins, Bryan Bashin, Cynthia Carilli, Cathy Dawson, Lisa Dettloff, Stephen Gee, Mark Gingrich, Alan Gould, Cheryl Jaworowski, Bob Sanders. In 1988, grants from the National Science Foundation and Learning Technologies, Inc. have enabled us to publish *Moons of the Solar System* as part of the *Planetarium Activities for Student Success (PASS)* series. Project Co-Directors were Cary Schneider, Director of Astronomy & Physics Education at the Lawrence Hall of Science in Berkeley, CA, and Alan Friedman, Director of the New York Hall of Science, in Corona, New York. Staff members of the Lawrence Hall of Science who contributed to the series included Lisa Dettloff, John Erickson, Alan Gould, and John-Michael Seltzer, and Michelle Wolfson. Staff members of the New York Hall of Science who contributed to the series included Terry Boykie and Steven Tomecek. The activity in “Explaining the Phases of the Moon” (pp. 9-10) is based on an idea suggested independently by Dennis Schatz of the Pacific Science Center in Seattle, Washington, and Larry Moscotti of the Como Planetarium in St. Paul Minnesota. Andy Fraknoi, Executive Director of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, provided us with bibliographic entries used in “Discover More About Moons of the Solar System” on page 22. Special thanks are due to our Program Officers at the National Science Foundation, Florence Fasanelli and Wayne Sukow. We wish to acknowledge the assistance provided by our Advisory Board, who helped to plan this series, and commented on early drafts: Gerald Mallon, Methacton School District Planetarium, Norristown, PA; Edna DeVore, Independence Planetarium, East Side Union High School District, San Jose, CA; Philip Sadler, Project STAR, Harvard Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Cambridge, MA; Sheldon Schafer, Lakeview Museum of Arts and Sciences Planetarium, Peoria, IL; Robert Riddle, Project Starwalk, Lakeview Museum of Arts and Sciences Planetarium, Peoria, IL; David Cudaback, Astronomy Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA; and Joseph Snider, Department of Physics, Oberlin College, Oberlin, OH. Perhaps most important are the approximately 100 individuals from around the nation who attended leadership workshops in 1978, and an additional 200 educational leaders who attended three-week institutes in astronomy and space science at Lawrence Hall of Science during the summers of 1989, 1990, 1992, and 1993. These educational leaders provided valuable feedback for their final revision. Their names and addresses are listed in the Appendix of *PASS* Volume 1. In addition, we would like to thank the staff of the Astronomy and Space Science Summer Institutes: Joseph Snider, Terry Boykie, John Radzilowicz, John Hammer, Robert Jesberg, Jacqueline Hall, Dayle Brown, Alan Gould, Cary Schneider, Michelle Wolfson, John-Michael Seltzer, John Erickson, Lisa Dettloff, Kevin Cuff, Debra Sutter, Chris Harper, Kevin Charles Yum, John Hewitt, Edna DeVore, and David Cudaback. Debra Sutter provided valuable assistance in preparing this revised edition (1993). **PASS Volume 7 Photos & Illustrations** p.ii, Cassini spacecraft drawing; p. 2, Alan Gould, Sun Simulator diagram; Alan Gould, Tracking Jupiter’s Moons Chart; p.8, Lick Observatories, Gibbous Moon Photo (Age 20.05 days); p.10a, Lick Observatories, Mars photo; p.10b, LHS, Jupiter and 4 moons; p.10c, Galileo’s Notes; pp.10–12, LHS, Tracking Jupiter’s Moons; p.12, Lick Observatories, The Moon; p.13, Clementine Mission, Crater Tycho; pp.13-18, NASA, Mars & Phobos, Phobos, Deimos, Jupiter Montage, Callisto, Ganymede, Europa, Io, Saturn Montage: Mimas, Titan, Iapetus, Saturn’s Rings, Uramis & Miranda, Miranda Cliffs, Neptune, Pluto; p.29, Alan Gould, Throwing Meteoroids; p.36, Alan Gould, Lunar Settlement; p. 42, Alan Gould, Moon Map. If you have access to a planetarium for teaching about astronomy, space science, and other subjects, this series of books is for you. Designed for both experienced planetarium professionals and teachers who will be using a planetarium for the first time, these volumes provide a wealth of field-tested strategies and practical suggestions for presenting entertaining and educationally effective programs for students. The first four books provide a general orientation to astronomy and space science education with applications for both the planetarium and classroom settings. Each of the remaining volumes presents a complete planetarium program and related classroom activities. We hope you will find the materials useful in your work with students and teachers, as well as springboards for your imagination and creativity. **Volume 1: Planetarium Educator’s Workshop Guide** Participatory planetarium programs involve students actively in the planetarium environment. The most effective programs are both entertaining and educational. This guide introduces the theory and practice of developing effective planetarium programs through a series of thought-provoking activities and discussions. **Volume 2: Planetarium Activities for Schools** This volume provides a wealth of effective planetarium activities for elementary and middle school students, as well as ideas for developing new activities for students of any age. **Volume 3: Resources for Teaching Astronomy & Space Science** There is a wide spectrum of resources for teaching astronomy and space science in elementary and middle schools. This annotated resource guide has the best resources that we have found, including school curricula, books, periodicals, films, videos, slides, professional organizations, planetariums, and telescopes. **Volume 4: A Manual for Using Portable Planetariums** Primarily a “how-to” manual for setting up and using a portable planetarium, this guide has many suggestions useful for teaching school programs in any planetarium. **Volume 5: Constellations Tonight** In this participatory version of a classic night sky planetarium program, students receive star maps and have an opportunity to use them to find constellations in the planetarium sky. Classroom activities include creating constellations and using star maps. **Volume 6: Red Planet Mars** Students discover Mars three different ways during this planetarium program. They find the red planet by observing it over a period of several nights as it moves against the background stars. Then they view it through a telescope and try to map its surface. Finally they see Mars via space probes. Classroom activities involve students in modeling the solar system, and creating creatures that could survive under different planetary conditions. Volume 7: Moons of the Solar System This program begins with observations of the Earth’s Moon and a modeling activity that shows why the Moon goes through phases and eclipses. Then the students look at Jupiter’s four major moons on a series of nights and figure out how long it takes each one to circle Jupiter. Finally, the students journey through the Solar System to see many moons through the “eyes” of modern spacecraft. Classroom activities involve students in performing experiments in crater formation, using moon maps, and designing lunar settlements. Volume 8: Colors From Space What can we learn about the stars and planets from their colors? Answering this question requires a fundamental understanding of why we see color. During this program, students deepen their understanding through a series of activities in which they “travel” to an imaginary planet circling a red sun, and experiment with color filters and diffraction gratings. Related classroom activities include making secret messages that can only be decoded with color filters, and then using the same filters to view nebulae and planets. Volume 9: How Big Is the Universe? Based partly on ideas from the short film Powers of Ten, this program surveys distances and sizes of things in the universe. Starting with ordinary things on Earth that students are familiar with, they move to progressively more distant astronomical objects: the Moon, the Sun, the Solar System, nearby stars, the Milky Way galaxy, and clusters of galaxies. Students use various methods to determine distance: parallax, “radar,” and comparing brightness of objects. Classroom activities include students writing their complete galactic address, making a parallax distance finder, finding the distance to the “Moon,” and activities about the expanding universe. Volume 10: Who “Discovered” America? Students ponder the meaning of the word discover in this program. Can one “discover” a land where people are already living? Students learn the reasons and methods by which Columbus navigated to the “New World,” and some of the impacts of his voyages on Native Americans. They also find that certain myths about Columbus are untrue. He was not, for example, alone in believing that the Earth is round. Students also learn about other explorers who “discovered” America long before Columbus’s time. Classroom activities include determining the shape and size of the Earth, using quadrants to determine latitude, and modeling lunar eclipses. Volume 11: Astronomy of the Americas There are hundreds of Native American cultures, each with distinctive views of the heavens. There are also common threads in many of those cultures. In this program students visit five cultures: the Hupa people of Northern California, plains and mountain tribes that have used Medicine Wheel in Northern Wyoming, the Anasazi of Chaco Canyon in New Mexico, the Mayan people in Mexico and Central America, and the Incan people in Peru. Students observe moon cycles and changes in the sunrise and sunset positions on the horizon and learn how solar observations help Native Americans stay in tune with the harmonies of nature. Classroom activities include the Mayan and Aztec number systems, observing changes in real sunset positions, and learning how Venus can appear as either the “Morning Star” or “Evening Star.” Volume 12: Stonehenge In this program, students learn what Stonehenge is and how it could have been used by its builders as a gigantic astronomical calendar. They also learn how astronomer Gerald Hawkins discovered Stonehenge’s probable function, by actively formulating and testing their own hypotheses in the planetarium. Along the way, they learn a lot about apparent solar motion, and the creation of the research field of “archaeoastronomy.” Classroom activities include constructing a special Solar Motion Demonstrator to represent the entire yearly cycle of solar motion. # Moons of the Solar System ## Contents ### PLANETARIUM PROGRAM - Preface .......................................................... 1 - Objectives ...................................................... 1 - Materials ....................................................... 2 - Recommendations for Using the Script .................. 6 - Set-Up ........................................................... 6 - Script ............................................................ 7 - Introduction ................................................. 7 - Observing Phases of the Moon .......................... 7 - Explaining the Phases of the Moon ..................... 8 - The Moon Through a Telescope .......................... 10 - The Galilean Moons of Jupiter .......................... 10 - Tour of Moons ............................................. 12 - Discover More About Moons ............................... 21 ### CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES - The Phases of Jupiter’s Moons ............................ 24 - More on Tracking of Jupiter’s Moons .................... 25 - Meteoroids & Craters ....................................... 27 - Building a Lunar Settlement ............................... 35 - Moon Maps .................................................... 40 Moons of the Solar System Planetarium Program Moons of the Solar System was designed for public audiences and for school children in grades one and above. Presentations for younger age children (grades 1-3) require simplification as noted in the script. The program begins by students observing how the Moon changes position and apparent shape during a two week time period. To better understand their observations, each student models the Earth-Moon-Sun system with a light in the center of the planetarium representing the Sun, a hand held ball as the Moon, and the student’s own head as the Earth. This is the best way we have found for anyone (including adults) to understand why the Moon goes through phases. The model is also used to explain lunar and solar eclipses. In the next activity, students observe the moons of Jupiter. Classes of children in grades 4 and up will be able to plot the Galilean moons’ positions on a data chart. Younger groups will watch the moons’ positions change from night to night and draw conclusions from those observations without attempting to record them. The last part of the program is a tour of the solar system to see the moons of each planet through the eyes of spacecraft that have visited those planets. Viking and Voyager images are featured. We would be very grateful to hear from you about how you used this program, what modifications you made, what worked well and what didn’t work well. Objectives After attending this planetarium program, the students will be able to: 1. Explain the phases of the Moon—why the Moon appears to change shape in a monthly cycle. 2. Explain why we have solar and lunar eclipses. 3. Explain how Galileo was able to measure the periods of Jupiter’s four largest moons. 4. Explain the role of meteoroids in crater formation. 5. Name and describe some of the moons found in the solar system. 6. Differentiate between a “planet” and a “moon” or “satellite.” Primary grade students will be able to: 1. Describe the phases of the Moon. 2. Describe the appearance of the Moon close-up. 3. Explain that other planets have more than one moon, and that these moons look different from Earth’s moon. Materials 1. Your **planetarium** must have the capabilities of diurnal motion and Moon phases with proper position relative to an image of the Sun. 2. **Sun simulator**: Mount in the center of the planetarium a short unfrosted tubular light bulb (about 25 to 40 watts) for simulating the Sun. Such a clear, single filament bulb is necessary to create crisp shadows on the model Moons. Ideally, supply electrical power to the bulb through a dimmer switch. Place a top shade over the bulb to prevent reflection of white light from the dome. (See diagram for one version of Sun simulation light.) In a STARLAB portable planetarium you can simply use the star lamp with the cylinder removed. To protect the main star bulb, put a clear plastic or glass cover (e.g., a jar) over the bulb. A round top cover as shown in Figure 1 can then be supported above the main star bulb. 3. **Light Pointers**: You will need at least two light pointers (one bright and one dim) or a single light pointer with variable brightness. See *Constellations Tonight*, PASS Volume 5, page 2, for more information on light pointers. 4. **Reading lights for the students**. In our permanent planetarium, we have 7-watt night-light orange bulbs under the cove, with shades so they shine down on the audience. This is very convenient, because visitors can see their “Tracking Jupiter’s Moons” charts and look back at the sky freely. The program can also be done by turning up the daylight for people to mark their charts, and then turning down for the next observation. In our STARLAB portable planetarium, we use the reading light system described in PASS Volume 4, pp. 19-21. 5. **Audio cassette tape player** with a tape of a countdown and rocket launch noise is a very exciting touch for beginning the tour of moons. The bigger and deeper the sound, the better the effect. Students can fasten their “safety belts” and imagine they are taking off in a rocket ship. Such an audio segment can be found on sound effects tapes and record albums such as “Authentic Sound Effects, Vol. 3” of Elektra Records. Optional: You can have a tape of “sunset music” to play when you make the sun set near the beginning of the program. 6. For each student, have a pencil and a copy of the **“Tracking Jupiter’s Moons” data sheet** (master on p. 5). 7. **Moon Models.** Make a class set of moon models that can be reused for each program. These can be made with white polystyrene balls, about 2”-3” in diameter, mounted on sticks or pencils. Such balls are made by Plasteel Corp. in Inkster, Michigan and distributed by Molecular Model Enterprises, 116 Swift St., P.O. Box 250, Edgerton, WI 53534, (608) 884-9877. Polystyrene balls are also available at craft and hobby stores. Styrofoam does not work as well, since it is translucent. 8. **Images** for this program are listed on the following page. They have been assembled from several different sources. A complete slide set is available from Learning Technologies, Inc., 59 Walden St., Cambridge, MA 02140, (800) 537-8703. If you have a video system with a laser disc player and the Optical Data Corporation’s “Astronomy Disc” (a.k.a. “Earth Science Sides 3 & 4”), many of the needed images can be programmed from that disc. As an alternative for images in the “Tracking Jupiter’s Moons” activity, you can make posters or hand drawn overhead projector transparencies using Jovian satellite data from *Astronomy* or *Sky & Telescope* magazines. Image 40 in the script is given as “Home,” but since this slide must be produced by each planetarium that presents the show, image 40 in the slide set available from Learning Technologies, Inc. is a full Moon image that can be used for the Moon Map activity on page 38. | Image | Optical Data* | Slide Source* | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------|---------------| | 1. Moon through a telescope | F11626-53, 7336-70 | ASP, Hansen, ... | | 2. Mars through a telescope | F11800, 11801, 11802 | ASP, Hansen, ... | | 3. Jupiter + 4 moons | F12944 | Lawrence Hall of Science | | 4. Galileo's notes | n/a | Lawrence Hall of Science | | 5. Jupiter + moons color code | n/a | Lawrence Hall of Science | | 6-14. Tracking nights 1-9 | n/a | Lawrence Hall of Science | | 15. Moon close-up | F11626-11653 | ASP, Hansen, ... | | 16. Clementine Image | | | | 17. Mars + Phobos | F11811 | ASP, Hansen, Finley Holiday, ... NASA | | 18. Phobos | F11812-11813 | ASP, Hansen, Finley Holiday,... NASA | | 19. Deimos | F11814-11815 | ASP, Hansen, Finley Holiday, ... NASA | | 20. Jupiter + moons | 12917 | ASP, Hansen, Finley Holiday,... NASA | | 21. Calisto Crater Chain | | | | 22. Ganymede w/ close-up inset | | | | 23. Europa | | | | 24. Io Crescent w/ close-up inset | | | | 25. Saturn | 13170 | ASP, Hansen, Finley Holiday,... NASA | | 26. Mimas | 13172 | ASP, Hansen, Finley Holiday,... NASA | | 27. Iapetus | 13186 or 13187 | ASP, Hansen, Finley Holiday,... NASA | | 28. Titan | 13182 or 13183 | ASP, Hansen, Finley Holiday,... NASA | | 29. Cassini Huygens Mission | | | | 30. Saturn's rings w/ "spokes" | | | | 30a. Rotating rings† | 48708-49058 | Finley Holiday, NASA | | 30b. Anim. of ring particles† | 32364-32741 | Finley Holiday, NASA | | 30c. Shepherd moons† | 33705-34130 | Finley Holiday, NASA | | 31. Uranus collage | n/a | ASP, Hansen, Finley Holiday,... NASA | | 31a. Uranus encounter† | 34684-35170 | Finley Holiday, NASA | | 32. Miranda cliffs | n/a | ASP, Hansen, Finley Holiday,... NASA | | 33. Titania | | | | 34. Triton | n/a | ASP, Hansen, Finley Holiday,... NASA | | 35. Voyager leaves Neptune | n/a | Finley Holiday,... NASA | | 36. Pluto and Charon | n/a | ASP, Hubble Space Telescope Center... NASA | | 37. Home | n/a | you | Other laser videodisc movies that can be used for this show are: Discovery Photos of Charon .................................................. F13331-13335 Animations of volcanic eruption on Io and Jupiter’s rings ........... 45526-45865 † Optional motion picture sequences. * Sources: list at the top of page 6. Sources for Images: ASP: Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 390 Ashton Ave., San Francisco, CA 94112 Hansen: Hansen Planetarium, 15 South State St., Salt Lake City, UT 84111 Finley Holiday: Finley-Holiday Film Corp., P.O. Box 619, Whittier, CA 90601 LHS: Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 Tracking Jupiter’s Moons Color code of your moon: [ ] [ ] [ ] Night 1 -2 -1 1 2 Night 2 -2 -1 1 2 Night 3 -2 -1 1 2 Night 4 -2 -1 1 2 Night 5 -2 -1 1 2 Night 6 -2 -1 1 2 Night 7 -2 -1 1 2 Night 8 -2 -1 1 2 Night 9 -2 -1 1 2 © 1999 by the Regents of the University of California Lawrence Hall of Science Set-Up 1. Move diurnal motion until the Sun is above the western horizon, about an hour before sunset. 2. Set the Moon phase so that the Moon is about 3 or 4 days old (narrow crescent to the east of the Sun). 3. Test unfrosted tubular light bulb for Sun simulation in the center of the planetarium. Be sure the top cover is over the bulb to prevent dome reflections. 4. Test light pointer(s) (bright and dim). 5. Cue image sets (slides and/or video). 6. Cue audio tape for rocket launch. Recommendations for Using the Script We don’t expect the script which follows to be memorized (as an actor might memorize a part) but to be used as a guide in learning, rehearsing, and improving presentations. We recommend that you read the script once or twice, then work with it in the planetarium, practicing the projector controls, slides, special effects, and music. You should be able to imagine yourself presenting information, asking questions, and responding to participants. For your first few presentations, you can have the script on hand, using major headings as reminders of what to do next. The script is organized in blocks or sections. The purpose of these separations is only to help you learn and remember what comes next. Once you have begun a section, the slides or special effects and your own train of thought will keep you on track. When beginning a new section, make the transition logically and smoothly. Directions for the instructor are printed in *italics*, the instructor’s narrative is printed in regular type, and directions and questions to which the students are expected to respond are printed in **bold italics**. There is no point in memorizing narration word-for-word since what you need to say will depend upon the students. The language you use and the number and kinds of questions you ask will depend on how old the students are, how willing they are to respond, and how easily they seem to understand what is going on. We believe the most important elements of the program are the questions and the activities since these involve the students in active learning. If you must shorten your presentation, we recommend that you borrow time from the narration. Script Introduction Good afternoon! It is getting close to sunset in our planetarium, but before it gets dark, let’s find both the Sun and Moon in the sky right now. It is a common misconception that the Sun and Moon are never up at the same time, but in fact, they often are. **Can you see the Sun and Moon?** *Let students use the light pointer to point them out.* Please take careful note of where the Moon and Sun are located while I switch on our planetarium “time machine” to accelerate the sunset. *Turn on music and start diurnal on slow for a leisurely sunset. Slowly turn down daylight and cove lights and turn up stars.* Observing Phases of the Moon Even though the Sun is now below the horizon, we know about where it is because we saw where it just set. *Point out place on horizon where the Sun set.* We can still see the Moon. **How would you describe the shape of the Moon right now?** (Crescent, banana, finger nail clipping.) **If we were to watch the sunset from this same spot three days from now, do you think the Moon would look the same?** (No.) **How might it be different?** (Different shape; different location.) The Moon could change its shape in one of two ways, getting fatter or getting thinner. If you think that in three days the Moon will appear narrower, please indicate so by raising your hand. Raise your hand if you think the Moon will appear fuller three days from now. Let’s see if our predictions are correct by moving ahead in time using our time machine. *Turn up daylight. Turn off Sun/Moon. Set Moon ahead about 3 days. For young audiences, have them count the days going by with you. Then turn up the Sun/Moon and turn off the daylight.* Those who thought the Moon would grow fatter are indeed correct. **What shape would you say this Moon is now?** (Half Moon.) Oddly enough, and for reasons that you will learn in a few minutes, astronomers refer to this shape of Moon as a quarter Moon. **Is the Moon in the same place as it was when it was crescent, three days ago?** (No.) **Does it seem closer to or farther from the Sun?** (Farther.) Guess where you think the Moon will be and what shape it will be three days from now. *Turn up daylight. Turn off Sun/Moon. Set Moon ahead 3 more days.* **Was your guess correct?** When the Moon is this shape, bigger than quarter but not yet full, it is called a gibbous Moon. It seems even farther from the Sun than when it was quarter. Let’s step just three more days into the future. Again, try guessing where the Moon will be. The Moon is very nearly full. Remember where the sunset occurred. Note that the Moon is all the way on the other side of the sky from where the Sun is setting. Whenever a full Moon occurs, you can expect it to rise in the eastern part of the sky right around the time of sunset. The different shapes of the Moon that we observe are known as phases of the Moon. *Why does the Moon seem to change shape as we have just observed?* (Accept any answers.) **Explaining the Phases of the Moon** Practically every culture throughout human history has come up with a different explanation in answer to that question. One rather interesting theory was invented by the Egyptians who believed that a new Moon was born each month (literally) and it grew and grew until it was full. At the moment the Moon reached the fullness of maturity, a giant pig attacked it and kept feasting on it for the rest of the month until there was no Moon left, at which time a new Moon was born. *Do you think that’s really how the Moon changes its shape?* Even though we don’t believe this explanation now, in its time this was a perfectly good explanation and accounted for the phases of the Moon quite well. The theory most accepted in modern times has to do with relationships between the Earth, Sun and Moon. To see how this works let’s make a working model. *Will everyone please stand up?* *Turn on the white light (tubular bulb) to about 1/2 brightness; or in STARLAB, set latitude to 90° and remove star cylinder from projector and put protecting cover over the main star bulb, as described in “Materials” section on page 2.* Let’s pretend that this light is the Sun. Pretend that your head is the Earth. All you need to complete the model is the Moon. *Give each student a ball on a stick.* Hold your Moon so that it is directly in front of the Sun. *Does your Moon look dark?* (*Yes.*) At this time of month, in reality, the Moon is so dark you could not see it at all. The Moon doesn’t stay in one place; it orbits (goes around) the Earth. Slowly move your Moon to your left, just beginning the orbit of the Moon around the Earth (your head). Move the Moon until you see a small part of it lit by the sunlight. *Go around and check to see each student understands and is observing the crescent Moon.* *What shape would you call that lit part of the Moon?* (*Crescent.*) *Does it look like the shape of the Moon when we first saw it in the planetarium sky today?* (*Yes.*) Now continue the Moon in its orbit, moving it slowly to the left, until you see a half disc lit up, which you may recall is the “quarter Moon.” Notice that when the Sun is setting, from your point of view, the first quarter Moon is directly overhead. Continue moving your Moon in its orbit until you see the gibbous phase (nearly full). Now try to hold your Moon in a place where it is fully lit and could be called a full Moon. *Let the students discover the shadows of their heads. If necessary, hint that they hold their Moons above those shadows.* We have now modeled the Sun-Moon-Earth system so that we have seen everything that we observed in the planetarium sky. The lit part of the Moon grew from nothing to full and in reality it takes about two weeks for it to do that. However, the Moon does not stop there in its orbit. *What do you think happens as the Moon continues in its orbit? (Appears to get smaller.)* Try slowly moving your Moon the rest of the way in its orbit around its Earth. Try going slowly through a couple more orbits so you can observe the complete cycle of the phases of the Moon. In reality, it takes about one month for the Moon to complete such a cycle (*29.5 days, to be exact; for young students it is fun to refer to this as a “Moonth.”*) While we have this model working, let’s see if we can explain a couple of other kinds of events that have startled and terrified people through the ages. Hold your Moon right in front of the Sun so that it blocks the Sun. *What is the name for the event in which the Moon blocks the Sun? (Solar eclipse.)* While you hold your Moon so that it blocks the Sun, look around the room at the other “Earths” which are other peoples’ heads. *Do you see the shadows of their Moons on them? What phase must the Moon be in for there to be a solar eclipse? (New.)* In the real Sun-Earth-Moon system, that shadow of the Moon on the Earth during a solar eclipse is only about fifty miles (80 km) wide. In comparison, the whole Earth is about 8000 miles (13,000 km) wide.* During a total eclipse of the Sun, only people located in that narrow shadow region can see the eclipse. Now move your Moon around until it moves into the shadow of the Earth (your head). *What is this type of eclipse called? (Lunar eclipse.)* *What phase must the Moon be in for there to be a lunar eclipse? (Full.)* People on the whole night time half of the Earth, the half that points away from the Sun, can observe a total lunar eclipse. *Could people who live on the back of your head see the Moon move into the Earth’s shadow? (No, it’s daytime for them.)* Many more people have seen lunar eclipses than have seen solar eclipses. This is because whenever a lunar eclipse occurs, people on half of the Earth have the opportunity to see it, but to see a solar eclipse, you must be where the comparatively tiny shadow of the Moon sweeps across the Earth. *Collect Moon balls.* *Optional: If your head represents the earth, the shadow of your moon ball should be only about 1/20 inch (1 mm) wide. (In that scale, the light bulb (sun) should be about a mile and a half away and your arm would have to be 20 feet long to hold your moon ball at the proper distance from your head!)* The Moon Through a Telescope So far, we have observed the moon just as our ancestors did, thousands of years ago. About 400 years ago, telescopes were invented and exciting new views of the moon were possible. Let’s see how our moon looks through a telescope. *Image 1: Moon through a telescope* Pretend we are looking through the eyepiece of a telescope. Let’s aim it at the moon. *What features can you see? (Dark areas: light areas, little circles)* The light areas are mountainous regions. *What type of terrain do you think we would find in the darker areas? (Flat.)* The first person to carefully examine objects in the sky through a telescope was a man named Galileo Galilei, an Italian scientist who lived about 400 years ago. He also thought those dark areas were flat, but he called them “maria,” the Italian word for ocean. *Do you think they are really oceans? (There really is no water on the moon.)* Galileo also looked at the planet Mars and saw how it looked different from stars. Stars are much farther away and look like pinpoints of light, while nearby planets such as Mars can be seen as balls through a telescope. *Image 2: Mars through a telescope* The Galilean Moons of Jupiter Galileo also looked at Jupiter. *Image 3: Jupiter + 4 moons* He saw the planet Jupiter with four small objects in a line near it. Galileo thought the objects were stars, but when he observed Jupiter on subsequent nights, those “stars” appeared in different places. This was quite upsetting (and intriguing) since patterns of other stars never change in relation to one another. Galileo kept careful records of the positions of Jupiter’s companion “stars.” *Image 4:* Galileo’s Notes Don’t worry if you can’t read the words. It’s written in Italian. Each night Galileo recorded the positions of Jupiter (*Use arrow to indicate.*) and its 4 companion “stars.” *Do you think they are really stars? (No.) What else could they be? (Moons!)* Galileo determined that they were moons. Let’s see why. Let’s watch Jupiter and its moons for a few nights just as Galileo did. Here is some astronomical note paper for you to note the changing positions. *Hand out a “Tracking Jupiter’s* One sticky problem Galileo had was trying to tell which “star” was which. Let’s make our job easier by doing something Galileo could not: color each moon a different color. **Image 5: Jupiter + moons color coded** Let’s further simplify our task by specializing: look at only one moon at a time. *Divide the class into four groups and assign each group one “star” to keep track of. Point out color, letter, and name of each moon. Point out numbers that indicate distance from Jupiter in millions of miles. For younger classes (grades 1-2), do not hand out paper. Do not divide the class into groups. Have the entire class observe one moon at a time.* **Image 6: Tracking Night 1** Here is our view for our first night’s observation. Please put a mark on your “Night 1” line indicating the position of your moon as you see it in relation to Jupiter. *Go around and check to see that each student understands. Help as needed.* Now we will let one day go by to arrive at “Night 2.” Then we will let a second day go by to arrive at “Night 3.” After eight days have gone by, we will have arrived at “Night 9.” Each night, mark where your moon is with respect to Jupiter on the appropriate line. **Images 7–14. Tracking Nights 2–9** By now, you can see why Galileo concluded that his odd “stars” must really be moons. *How can you tell they are moons, not stars? (They move back and forth, “around” Jupiter.) A moon orbits a planet. These moons seem to move back and forth in a straight line because we see their orbits from the side. If we could see Jupiter from above its North Pole, we would see these moons go around Jupiter. How could you tell how many days it* **Moons of the Solar System** *How long does it take for your moon to orbit Jupiter?* (Count how many days it takes to return to its starting position. Be sure to count just the spaces in between the nights to get a correct answer for the number of days gone by.) *Ask a member of each group to report the orbital period of the moon that s/he tracked.* *Can you see any relationship between the farthest distance each moon gets from Jupiter and the time it takes to orbit Jupiter?* (The more distant moons go around more slowly.) Not all four moons are visible all the time. Sometimes one or more moons are in front of or behind Jupiter and cannot be seen. **Tour of Moons** We are not completely satisfied to look at moons in our solar system through telescopes. Let’s take a spaceship ride to some of the planets in our solar system to get close-up views of their moons. While this is an imaginary spaceship ride, we will view real images transmitted to Earth by Viking and Voyager spacecraft. Please fasten your (imaginary) seatbelts while we prepare to lift-off. *Start rocket launch tape at countdown. At ignition, start blue daylight and orange coveights alternating in intensity. Turn on stars. Start diurnal motion and gradually accelerate while rocket noise gets louder. As rocket noise subsides, gradually bring diurnal motion to zero and dim daylight and coveights to off.* Before we leave the neighborhood of Earth, let’s get a super view of our own Moon. *Image 15: Moon close-up.* *Point out mountains, craters, and maria.* Image 16: Crater (Clementine image of Tycho) Discuss what craters are and how they are formed. See references for latest info on Clementine, Lunar Prospector, and later missions. There is evidence of water ice in polar regions of the Moon! If it’s moons we want to see, there is no point in traveling to the two planets, Mercury and Venus, that are closer to the Sun than Earth. They have no moons at all. Let’s journey outward in the solar system towards Mars. Turn on diurnal and music for journey to Mars. Stop diurnal and lower music on arrival at Mars. Image 17: Mars + Phobos Note the shapes of the illuminated parts of Mars and its moon Phobos. Can you explain those shapes? (Quarter phase.) From which direction is the sun shining? (Have an audience member indicate with battery light pointer.) Phobos is only about 15 miles (10 km) long. It is very small compared to earth’s moon which is 2000 miles (3200 km) across. If you want to play baseball, but can’t find anyone to play, you could still have a good game on Phobos. The gravity on Phobos is so weak that if you stood on its surface, you could throw a baseball into orbit or beyond (just like superman on Earth). So, you could pitch the ball in one direction, then pick up your bat and wait for the ball to come at you from the other direction. Here is a zoom close-up view of Phobos. Image 18: Phobos Mars may have a small moon compared to earth’s moon, but it has an extra moon just for good measure. This moon Deimos is only a bit smaller than Phobos. Image 19: Deimos Let’s head on to the next planet out in the solar system. Anyone know which planet that is? (Jupiter.) Let’s see those four moons we tracked before. They each have unique markings and geology. **Image 20: Jupiter and moons** The Galileo spacecraft arrived at Jupiter on December 7, 1995. Galileo’s atmospheric probe plunged into Jupiter’s atmosphere and relayed information on the structure and composition of the solar system’s largest planet, while the Galileo orbiter studied Jupiter and its moons, encountering one moon during each orbit. **Image 21: Callisto crater chain blowout** What does this intriguing image of Callisto’s surface look like to you? [It’s a portion of a chain of craters believed to result from the impacts of an object such as a comet or asteroid which was ripped asunder by the powerful gravitation of Jupiter, similar to the fragments of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 which smashed into Jupiter’s atmosphere in July of 1994.] Callisto has a very old, heavily cratered crust showing remnant rings of enormous impact craters. The largest craters have apparently been erased by the flow of the icy crust over geologic time. Galileo spacecraft data received in October 1998 suggest that something is hidden below Callisto’s surface, and that something may very well be a salty liquid ocean! **Image 22: Ganymede** Ganymede has frosty polar caps as well as two other types of terrains: bright, grooved terrain and older, dark furrowed areas. The two types of terrain suggest to us that Ganymede’s entire icy crust has been under tension from global tectonic processes. Craters with diameters up to several dozen kilometers are visible. Ganymede is the largest moon in the solar system—5,276 kilometers (3,280 miles) in diameter. **Image 23: Europa** Europa (the “yellow moon” we tracked) is one of the smoothest moons in the solar system, and only slightly smaller than Earth’s Moon. With Europa’s surface temperature of -260° F, we expected to find quartzhard ice like on Ganymede, but the latest, most detailed pictures of the Jupiter moon Europa lend support to the theory that slush or even liquid water is beneath the moon’s surface. The warmth from a tidal tug of war with Jupiter and neighboring moons could be keeping large parts of Europa a liquid ocean. Large plates of ice seem to be sliding over a warm interior on Europa, much like Earth’s continental plates move around on our planet’s partly molten interior. Some recent images show features that have many similarities to new crust formed at mid-ocean ridges on the Earth’s sea floor. Europa may be slushy just beneath the icy crust. There are chunky textured surfaces like icebergs, an area littered with fractured and rotated blocks of crust, and gaps where new icy crust seems to have formed between continent-sized plates of ice. Rough and swirly material between the fractured chunks may have been suspended in slush that froze at the very low surface temperatures. Studies of craters on Europa show that they are relatively young and that subsurface ice is warm enough to collapse and fill them in time periods that are short, geologically speaking. The combination of interior heat, liquid water, and organic material falling onto Europa from comets and meteorites means that Europa has the key ingredients for life, making this moon a laboratory for the study of conditions that might have led to the formation of life in the solar system. Image 24: Io crescent with close-up inset Io (the “red moon” that we tracked) is the closest Galilean moon to Jupiter and is slightly larger than Earth’s Moon. It is quite a startling contrast to other moons we have seen. It is the most volcanically active body in the solar system, sizzling with dozens of molten sulfur and silicate volcanoes. In this color enhanced image, deposits of sulfur dioxide frost appear in white and grey hues while yellowish and brownish hues are probably due to other sulfurous materials. Bright red materials, such as the prominent ring surrounding the volcano named Pele, and “black” spots with low brightness mark areas of recent volcanic activity and are associated with high temperatures and surface changes. Io acts as an electrical generator as it moves through Jupiter’s magnetic field, developing 400,000 volts across its diameter and generating an electric current of 3 million amperes that flows along the magnetic field to the planet’s ionosphere. Most bodies in the solar system do not have radical surface changes that are noticeable over short periods of time. But several such changes have been observed on Io between the times of the Voyager spacecraft visits to Jupiter in 1979, when no less than 9 simultaneously erupting volcanoes were seen, and the Galileo mission of 1995-2000, which captured an image of a 120 kilometer (75 mile) high plume. The extreme volcanic activity is caused by Jupiter’s gravity generating 100 meter high tides in its otherwise solid surface. The last part of the Galileo mission is to glimpse fiery Io with breathtaking details (as small as 6 meters) in kamikaze style, crashing in to Io! The Galileo mission was supposed to end December, 1997, but the spacecraft was in excellent shape so its duties were extended to include eight more encounters with Europa (Dec, 1997 - Feb 1, 1999) and two more encounters with Io on Oct 11, 1999 and Nov 26, 1999. The extra Europa encounters are aimed at possibly confirming that an ocean presently exists on Europa, and locating some areas where the ice is thinnest. This would lead the way to possible future Europa orbiting or ice drilling missions looking into a key question for the 21st century—is there life on Europa? Image 24a: Jupiter rotating (movie) Optional: This is a time lapse movie showing Jupiter rotating. It is constructed from hundreds of images that the Voyager spacecraft transmitted to Earth during the Voyager’s encounter with Jupiter. Jupiter actually rotates about once every 10 hours. If you watch carefully, you can see three moons whiz by. Let’s move on to the next planet out in the solar system, the most beautiful one for many people: Saturn. Image 25: Saturn Saturn has at least 18 known moons orbiting at distances ranging from 84,000 to 8 million miles (134,000 to 13 million km) from Saturn. The planet itself is not as colorful as Jupiter. It does have a similar banded appearance, but the zones are not as obvious, perhaps because they are partly obscured by higher layers of atmosphere. Image 26: Mimas This little moon of Saturn is about 250 miles across and is made of almost solid ice at –300°F. A prominent impact crater can be seen here almost 1/3 the diameter of Mimas. Images of the other side of Mimas show a large rift which could imply that the impact that caused this crater nearly cracked Mimas into two (or more) pieces. Almost all the moons of Saturn are frigid balls of solid ice like this one, but each has a differently engraved surface that contains unique puzzles for planetary geologists. Tethys is one such icy moon of Saturn. Image 27: Iapetus This is Iapetus, one of the outermost moons of Saturn. From your knowledge of phases, which direction is the sunlight coming from in this image? Use pointer to indicate various directions as you poll the audience. This is actually a trick question because the position of the Sun when this image was made would have been behind us. We would thus expect to see Iapetus in a full phase. This and other images made of Iapetus indicate that one side of it has really dark material on it. The dark side happens to be the leading side of Iapetus with respect to its orbital motion. That’s another puzzle for the planetary geologists, as yet unexplained. **Image 28: Titan** Titan is almost as large as Jupiter’s moons Ganymede and Callisto. But unlike those moons, Titan is able to retain an atmosphere. It can hold an atmosphere because it is in a colder part of the solar system. Any gases near Ganymede or Callisto would be warm enough and energetic enough to escape the gravity of those moons. Titan’s cold atmosphere is mostly nitrogen, but is thickly laden with various hydrocarbons that some of the Voyager scientists have jokingly compared with L.A. smog. The atmosphere is so thick and opaque that we are for now denied images of the surface of Titan. Measured temperatures are just about cold enough that when we do send a probe to the surface of Titan, it could encounter pools of liquid ammonia, methane, or liquid nitrogen. The Cassini mission to Saturn which was launched in October of 1997 and arrives at Saturn in July 2004 when it may help to answer some of the unsolved mysteries of Saturn: How did the system of Saturn satellites form? How are they continuing to evolve? What is the relationship between the icy satellites and the rings of Saturn? Why is Iapetus’ surface half dark and half bright? Where does the dark matter originate? **Image 29: Cassini Mission—release of Huygens probe** Cassini also carries the Huygens probe which, in November of 2004, will plunge through the dense atmosphere of Titan and scrutinize the clouds, atmosphere and surface of Titan. The nearly 3 meter (9 foot) diameter probe descends with parachutes, with its instruments measuring the temperature, pressure, density and energy balance in the atmosphere. As it breaks through the cloud deck, a camera will capture pictures of the Titan surface while other instruments directly measure the organic chemistry in Titan’s atmosphere—hopefully revealing secrets that may relate to the origin of life. After the Huygens probe lands on Titan, the Cassini spacecraft will make 30-40 flybys of Titan to study it with radio waves, observe its atmosphere, and map its surface. From the Voyager spacecraft data, some people think Titan may be covered by lakes of methane—liquefied form of the natural gas that we use in gas stoves. This remains a question that the Cassini/Huygens mission should be able to answer. The Cassini mission may also help to answer the mystery of the “spokes” in Saturn’s rings. Through the best Earth telescopes, Saturn appears to have only four rings. But as our spacecraft approaches, we see they are made of dozens, indeed hundreds of narrow “ringlets.” The rings of Saturn are made of particles of ice, dust and rock. The particles range in size from a grain of sand to something larger than this planetarium. They are all orbiting Saturn as if they were each a tiny “moonlet.” **OPTIONAL:** The motion picture you see here is a time-lapse movie from Voyager made the same way as the one we saw from the Voyager-Jupiter encounter. The dark regions that you see moving around are referred to as “spokes” in the rings and present a great mystery because they seem to contradict laws of orbital mechanics. In the theory of orbital mechanics, particles closer to Saturn should take less time to go around in their orbits than the particles that are closer to the edge of the rings, just as we observed Io to take only 2 days to go around Jupiter while Callisto took 18 days to orbit. Since the spokes go around with the same orbital period for the inner rings as the outer ones, we have a serious dilemma. As yet, there is no theory to explain how the spokes can exist. Yet the spokes exist! **Images (Movies)** 30b: Animations of ring particles 30c: Shepherd moons **OPTIONAL:** Small moonlets have been observed orbiting just along the edges of certain rings. A theory has emerged that these moonlets, by means of their gravity, sweep ring particles inwards or outwards (depending on whether the moonlet is at the inner or outer edge of a ring) and keep the edge of the ring well defined. The moonlets have been dubbed “shepherd moons” and if it weren’t for them (if the theory is correct), there would be no well defined boundaries between ringlets as we see in our Voyager images. Now it is time to move on to Uranus. Voyager encountered Uranus on January 26, 1986. Here is an accelerated version of what you might have seen if you had been on board. This is a computer generated simulation of the encounter. Image 31a: Uranus Encounter (animation) Image 31: Uranus collage This is a collage of Uranus and its ring system as if you were standing on Uranus’ moon Miranda. Uranus has a paltry ring system compared with that of Saturn; only ten thin rings were seen. Notice the deep canyon and impact craters in the icy surface of Miranda. (Miranda and Uranus in this slide are Voyager 2 images, while the rings are artist’s conception. The apparent blue color of Uranus is its true color and is a result of the absorption of red light by methane in Uranus’ atmosphere, leaving primarily blue light to reflect back.) Here is a great image of Miranda which is about 300 miles diameter (484 km.). Image 32: MIRANDA, cliffs 6-9 mi. high (10-15 km.) Note how strikingly clear and detailed these images are. Voyager also detected 10 new moons, bringing the total number of Uranian moons to 15. Remember that these images were transmitted across more than a billion miles of space by a spacecraft that had already endured encounters with Jupiter and Saturn in its 9 year odyssey through the solar system. (Voyager was launched in 1977.) Image 33: Titania Five large moons of Uranus were known before the Voyager 2 encounter. In order of increasing size they are Miranda across, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and Oberon. Titania is one of the largest, about 1,600 kilometers (1,000 miles) in diameter, roughly half the size of Earth’s Moon. Titania, for example, is marked by huge fault systems and canyons that indicate some degree of geologic activity in its history. These features may be the result of tectonic movement in its crust. The 10 new moons of Uranus discovered by Voyager brought the total number of known Uranian satellites to 15. As of June 1999, there were 18 known moons of Uranus. Voyager has survived its Uranus encounter in which it performed beyond our wildest dreams. It went past Neptune in an encounter in August of 1989. Image 33a: NEPTUNE ENCOUNTER (animation) Voyager 2, a senior citizen spacecraft having spent 12 years of rigorous journey through space with 3 spectacularly successful encounters under its belt, performed superbly in its encounter with Neptune. It allowed us to discover 6 new Neptunian moons (bringing the total number for Neptune to 8). *Image 34: Triton* Voyager 2 sent us spectacular images of the huge moon Triton, revealing ice volcanoes. Voyager 2, its primary mission complete, is now on its way to exit the solar system, never to return. *Image 35: Voyager leaves Neptune* As exciting as the Voyager images are, we must not forget about important discoveries are made by astronomers with earth-based telescopes. Observations obtained by NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope and ground-based instruments reveal that Triton seems to have heated up significantly since the Voyager spacecraft visited it in—it has been undergoing a period of global warming. The warming trend is causing part of Triton’s frozen nitrogen surface to turn into gas, thus making its thin atmosphere denser. Even with the warming, no one is likely to plan a summer vacation on Triton, even though its temperature has risen about three degrees to a whopping -389 degrees Fahrenheit. If Earth experienced a similar change in global temperature over a comparable period, it could lead to significant climatic changes. By studying the changes on Triton, the scientists hope to gain new insight into Earth’s more complicated environment. *Image 36: Pluto and Charon* Pluto, which is usually the outermost planet in the solar system, was found to have a large moon. Pluto’s moon, discovered in 1979 with the aid of an earth-based telescope, was given the name Charon (in Greek & Roman mythology, the boatman that carried souls across the river Styx to the underworld, in which the god Pluto reigned). We land you now back at ________________Planetarium {insert your home planetarium here}. We hope you enjoyed your tour of the moons of the solar system. You are invited to come back to the our planetarium sometime to see our other planetarium shows. *Image 37: Your planetarium or school* Discover More About Moons of the Solar System Worldwide Web Connections and update information may be found at http://www.lhs.berkeley.edu/pass Books J. Kelly Beatty (Editor), Carolyn Collins Petersen (Editor), andr Chaikin (Editor), Andrew L. Chaikin (Editor), *The New Solar System*. Cambridge Univ Press, Sky Publishing, 1999. A superb series of review articles by noted scientists. Thorough, though somewhat technical. Excellent photos. Cherrington, E. *Exploring the Moon Through Binoculars and Small Telescopes*. Dover, 1984. An observing guide. Cooper, H. *Apollo on the Moon and Moon Rocks*. Dial, 1970. Accounts of the Apollo 11 mission and the material they brought back from the lunar surface; written by a science journalist. Frazier, K. *The Solar System*. Time-Life Books, 1985. A colorful survey by a science journalist. French, B. *The Moon Book*. Penguin, 1977. A basic primer for beginners. Greeley, Ronald & Batson, Raymond (Contributor), Geological Survey. *The NASA Atlas of the Solar System*. Cambridge Univ Press, 1996. Littmann, M. *Planets Beyond*. Wiley, 1988. Mark, K. *Meteorite Craters*. University of Arizona Press, 1987. Miller, R. & Hartmann, W. *The Grand Tour: A Traveler's Guide to the Solar System*. Workman, 1981. A beautiful primer. Miner, Ellis D. *Uranus: The Planet, Rings and Satellites*. John Wiley & Sons, 1998. Moore, P. & Hunt, G. *Atlas of the Solar System*. Rand McNally, 1983. Large illustrated atlas; a nice reference book. Moore, P. *New Guide to the Moon*. Norton, 1976. A basic book for beginners. Morrison, David. *Exploring Planetary Worlds* (Scientific American Library, No 45). W H Freeman & Co., 1993. Morrison, D. & Owen, T. *The Planetary System*. Addison Wesley, 1988. The best introductory textbook about the solar system. Price, F., *The Moon Observer's Handbook*. Cambridge University Press, 1989. Spudis, Paul D. *The Once and Future Moon*. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1998. Paul R. Weissman (Editor), Lucy-Ann McFadden (Editor), *Encyclopedia of the Solar System*. Academic Press, 1998. Discover More About Moons of the Solar System Articles Beatty, J. “Galileo: An Image Gallery III” in *Sky & Telescope*, July, 1999, p. 40. Beatty, J. “Pluto and Charon: The Dance Goes On” in *Sky & Telescope*, Sep. 1987, p. 248; “The Dance Begins,” June 1985, p. 501. Beatty, J. “Welcome to Neptune” in *Sky & Telescope*, Oct. 1989, p. 358. Beatty, J. “Pluto Reconsidered” in *Sky & Telescope*, May 1999, p. 48. Bell, Jim. “Exploring Crater Rays” in *Astronomy*, May 1999, p. 86. Berry, R. “Triumph at Neptune” in *Astronomy*, Nov. 1989, p. 20. Burgess, E. “The New Moon: Scientific Results of 18 Years of Lunar Exploration” in *Mercury*, Nov./Dec. 1977, p. 10. Burnham, R. “The Saturnian Satellites” in *Astronomy*, Dec. 1981, p. 6. Chaikin, A. “A Guided Tour of the Moon” in *Sky & Telescope*, Sep. 1984, p. 211. An observing guide for beginners. Elliot, J. & Kerr, R. *Rings*. MIT Press, 1985. Elliott, J. & Kerr, R. “How Jupiter’s Ring Was Discovered” in *Mercury*, Nov/Dec. 1985, p. 162. Esposito, L. “The Changing Shape of Planetary Rings” in *Astronomy*, Sep. 1987, p. 6. Gore, R. “Saturn: Riddle of the Rings” in *National Geographic*, July 1981. Gore, R. “Voyager Views Jupiter” in *National Geographic*, Jan. 1980. Graham, Rex. “Is Pluto a Planet?” in *Astronomy*. July, 1999, p. 42. Harrington, R. & B. “The Discovery of Pluto’s Moon” in *Mercury*, Jan/Feb 1979, p. 1. Hartmann, W. “Cratering in the Solar System” in *Scientific American*, Jan. 1977. Hartmann, W. “The View from Io” in *Astronomy*, May 1981, p. 17. Hiscock, Philip. “Once in a Blue Moon…” in *Sky & Telescope*, March, 1999, p. 52. Johnson, T. & Soderblom, L. “Io” in *Scientific American*, Dec. 1983. Johnson, T., et al. “The Moons of Uranus” in *Scientific American*, Apr. 1987. Kaufmann, W. “Voyager at Neptune - A Preliminary Report” in *Mercury*, Nov/Dec 1989 Morrison, D. “An Enigma Called Io” in *Sky & Telescope*, Mar. 1985, p. 198. Morrison, D. “Four New Worlds: The Voyager Exploration of Jupiter’s Satellites” in *Mercury*, May/June 1980, p. 53. Morrison, D. “The New Saturn System” in *Mercury*, Nov./Dec. 1981, p. 162. Morrison, N. “A Refined View of Miranda” in *Mercury*, Mar/Apr. 1989, p. 55. Olson, Donald R., Fienberg, Richard T., Sinnot, Roger W. “What’s a Blue Moon?” in *Sky & Telescope*, May, 1999, p. 36. Owen, T. “Titan” in *Scientific American*, Feb. 1982. Schenk, Paul M. “The Mountains of Io” *Astronomy*, January, 1995. Simon, S. “The View from Europa” in *Astronomy*, Nov. 1986, p. 98. Soderblom, L. “The Galilean Moons of Jupiter” in *Scientific American*, Jan. 1980. Soderblom, L. & Johnson, T. “The Moons of Saturn” in *Scientific American*, Jan. 1982. Talcott, Richard. “Hubble Shoots the Moon” in *Astronomy*. July, 1999, p. 60. The issues of *Astronomy* and *Sky & Telescope* published during the late fall and early winter of 1989-90 cover the Voyager 2 Neptune encounter in detail. See also *Planetarium Activities for Student Success, Volume 3, Resources for Teaching Astronomy and Space Science*, section on the solar system. William K. Holt Planetarium, Lawrence Hall of Science University of California, Berkeley, California Moons of the Solar System Classroom Activities The Phases of Jupiter’s Moons If you happened to live on the planet Jupiter and looked up into the beautiful night sky, what might its moons look like? Imagine seeing the full moon of Io rising as the crescent-shaped Ganymede begins to set. To a “Jupiterian,” the Galilean satellites would appear to go through the same phases as does our own Moon from Earth. For a classroom activity version of exploring moon phases, we recommend “Modeling Moon Phases and Eclipses” from the Great Explorations in Math and Science (GEMS) unit, *Earth, Moon, and Stars*. The simple moon phase model used in the planetarium show *Moons of the Solar System* to explain our Moon’s monthly cycle of phases can also be applied to the more complex Jupiter system. Adapt the procedures of that model as follows: 1. Have students work in teams of three. One student plays the role of “Jupiter” while the other two students each hold up two of Jupiter’s four moons. 2. The room is darkened and one bright bulb is turned on, to be the “Sun.” Jupiter slowly turns and the phases of two of its four “moons” can then be observed. 3. The students holding the moons can then move around a little further in their orbits and stop so “Jupiter” can again turn on its axis and students can see how the phases have changed. 4. To add a guessing game element, have students take turns guessing what phases the other students are seeing. Competitively inclined students can have a point system to determine the “winner” of the guessing game. 5. For an even more complex challenge, divide the class into groups of 5 students: one student as Jupiter and the others being each of the four Galilean moons. Then do steps 2-4 again. More on Tracking of Jupiter’s Moons 1. **Comparing Charts.** If you made four overhead transparencies of the data sheets, and had four students traced the data from the four different moons onto them (using different colored pens if possible) you can combine them as follows: Stack the completed transparencies so they are carefully lined up. Punch two holes at the top or side, so paper fasteners can be used to line them up quickly. Stack the four transparencies together, one at a time, on the overhead projector as the students watch. Ask questions about the combined graph such as: *How will Jupiter’s moons appear on night 3? 4? 5?* *On what night does the white moon go from one side of Jupiter to the other?* (6-7) *On what night will most of the moons be on the left side of Jupiter?* (3, 7) *On what night will we see two moons on each side of Jupiter?* (5, 6, 8, 9) *Occasionally, one of the outermost moons (Callisto or Ganymede) appears to be closer to Jupiter than the innermost moons (Io and Europa). On which night does this occur?* (3, 5, 6) 2. **Magazines.** The magazines *Astronomy* and *Sky and Telescope* have a monthly graph of Jupiter’s moons that looks very much like the combined graph above. Show this graph to your students, and ask them further questions, such as: *How many nights are represented on this graph?* (one month, usually 30 or 31 nights) *What does the column down the middle stand for?* (Jupiter) *How many moons are plotted on the graph?* (four) *How will the moons appear on the 15th (or other interesting date) of the month?* *How are the moons labeled on this graph?* (In *Sky & Telescope* they are labeled by Roman numerals.) *Which moon corresponds to which Roman numeral? When will moon III be behind Jupiter?* *Which moon orbits Jupiter the largest number of times? The smallest number of times?* *Can you find a date when three of the moons will be found on the one side of Jupiter? On the other side?* 3. **Galileo.** Have your students read more about Galileo’s life, and the trouble he got into because of his defense of Copernicus’s theory. Plays by Bertolt Brecht and others have been written about Galileo’s life. Your students might want to put on such a play, or make up one of their own. 4. **Arrange an outing** on a night when Jupiter will be visible in the night sky. Using binoculars or telescopes, students will be able to see Jupiter and some of its four largest moons. Contact your local amateur astronomy club to see if they might help your students have a “star party” when Jupiter is visible. 5. **Make a Scale model** of the Jovian system. A detailed description of how to do this as a classroom activity is laid out in Activity 3 of the *Moons of Jupiter* unit of Great Explorations in Math and Science (GEMS). Using the method described there, students can, as homework, make scale models of the moons systems of other planets: Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Mars, and Pluto. 6. **Make a flip book** “movie” of Callisto revolving around Jupiter! Make a copy of page 24 for each student. Have them follow the directions on the page. Ganymede and Callisto: The Movie 1. Make up a color code and color the moons in each box according to your code. 2. Cut out the boxes. 3. Tape them onto successive pages of a notepad or book. Be sure each box is positioned in the same orientation and relative location on each page; upper right unbound corner is best. 4. Flip the pages to “run the movie.” | 1993 Jan 5a | 1993 Jan 11a | 1993 Jan 17a | 1993 Jan 23a | |-------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | | | | | | | | | | | 1993 Jan 5b | 1993 Jan 11b | 1993 Jan 17b | 1993 Jan 23b | |-------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | | | | | | | | | | | 1993 Jan 6a | 1993 Jan 12a | 1993 Jan 18a | 1993 Jan 24a | |-------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | | | | | | | | | | | 1993 Jan 6b | 1993 Jan 12b | 1993 Jan 18b | 1993 Jan 24b | |-------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | | | | | | | | | | | 1993 Jan 7a | 1993 Jan 13a | 1993 Jan 19a | 1993 Jan 25a | |-------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | | | | | | | | | | | 1993 Jan 7b | 1993 Jan 13b | 1993 Jan 19b | 1993 Jan 25b | |-------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | | | | | | | | | | | 1993 Jan 8a | 1993 Jan 14a | 1993 Jan 20a | 1993 Jan 26a | |-------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | | | | | | | | | | | 1993 Jan 8b | 1993 Jan 14b | 1993 Jan 20b | 1993 Jan 26b | |-------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | | | | | | | | | | | 1993 Jan 9a | 1993 Jan 15a | 1993 Jan 21a | 1993 Jan 27a | |-------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | | | | | | | | | | | 1993 Jan 9b | 1993 Jan 15b | 1993 Jan 21b | 1993 Jan 27b | |-------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | | | | | | | | | | | 1993 Jan 10a | 1993 Jan 16a | 1993 Jan 22a | 1993 Jan 28a | |--------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | | | | | | | | | | | 1993 Jan 10b | 1993 Jan 16b | 1993 Jan 22b | 1993 Jan 28b | |--------------|--------------|--------------|--------------| | | | | | | | | | | Copyright © 1998 by The Regents of the University of California Meteoroids & Craters This activity consists of a few simple experiments in which students will create a model of crater formation to determine the effect of (1) size of meteoroid, (2) speed of meteoroid, and (3) angle of approach. In the first two experiments, the outcome is fairly easy for students to predict. The third experiment is a bit more thought-provoking and surprising. Objectives For students who are already familiar with the idea of controlling variables in experiments, this activity will provide a good exercise in addition to providing insights into crater formation. For students in grades 4 and above, identifying variables and performing the controlled experiments should be a reasonable challenge. For younger ages, the activity can take on more of an exploratory approach in which ideas form as the model meteoroid impacts are observed. After this activity, students will be able to: 1. Identify factors that might affect crater formation. 2. Predict the outcome of experiments. 3. Perform simple experiments concerning meteoroid impacts and crater formation. 4. Record their observations. Materials For the class: - 1 slide projector and screen - 1 or more brooms or whisk brooms to clean up spills - 1 pair of scissors or a paper cutter (to cut the centimeter rulers off the student data sheets) - one container instant chocolate milk powder. (Note: Real cocoa has also been used, but it tends to clump and to over-darken the flour too quickly.) - three or four 5-pound packages of white flour - Optional: slides of Earth’s Moon and a close-up view of a large crater For each team of 4 students: - 1 shallow basin (to be filled with about 3 to 5 inches of flour) Examples: a dishpan, a heavy aluminum roasting pan, or cardboard box. To be sure to have enough, you may want to ask a student from each group to bring in a dishpan from home for the day of the activity. They don’t all have to be the same size. - 1 cup or small plastic container (to be filled about one-third full with powdered instant chocolate milk mix) - an old newspaper - three rocks: small, medium, and large with diameters about: .5 cm (¼ inch), 2 cm (¾ inch) and 4 cm (about 1½ inches) - 1 spoon (plastic or metal) Before Class 1. Before the day of the activity, collect and sort the rocks needed for all the groups. 2. Make one copy of the “Craters” data sheet for each student (master on page 32). With scissors or a paper cutter, cut the centimeter rulers from the bottom of the data sheets. 3. Assemble sets of materials for the teams: newspaper, a dishpan filled with flour 3 to 5 inches deep, a cup about one-third full of instant chocolate milk mix, and three different-sized rocks. Have data sheets, paper rulers, and pencils handy, but separate from the other materials. Keep one set of all the materials handy near the place where you will demonstrate the activity. 4. Try the cratering activity yourself—decide whether your students will do the activity indoors or outdoors. 6. Optional: Set up the slide projector with Moon and crater slides In Class Part 1: Introducing Craters 1. The name of Earth’s Moon is Luna. What do you imagine the surface of our Moon is like? What would it feel like to be walking on Luna? What would you see around you? Optional: Show slide of the Moon. This is how our Moon would look if viewed through a small telescope. What do you see on the Moon’s surface? (Light areas, dark areas, craters etc.) If somebody mentions craters, have them point out an example of one for the class. If craters are not mentioned, point out a large one and identify it as a crater. Explain that craters are big “dents” or holes in the Moon’s surface. 2. A meteoroid is a rock in space—it can be any size all the way from microscopic to many meters across; a meteor is the same rock falling through the Earth’s atmosphere, creating a streak of light (sometimes also called a “shooting star”). Fragments of meteors that survive the fiery trip through the atmosphere and land on the Earth’s surface are called meteorites. 3. What causes craters on the Moon? (Meteors, asteroids, big rocks, comets, etc.) 4. Are craters on the Earth? If anybody has visited a crater site, have them share their experience with the class. The Earth has many craters. Some were caused by volcanoes. Others, called impact craters, were made by meteorites. Why do we see very few impact craters on the Earth? (The Earth has rain and wind which erode away the evidence of most craters.) Earth’s atmosphere prevents small meteors from reaching the surface, because when a meteor falls towards a planet with an atmosphere, it “rubs” against the air. **Rub your hands together quickly for several seconds to feel the heat of friction.** If you could rub fast enough you would create enough friction to light a fire. In a similar way, the flash of light you see from a “shooting star” or meteor is a white-hot glow produced by the heat of friction between the meteor and the air. Because the Moon has no air to rub against, meteors do not burn up before hitting the Moon’s surface. This is one reason why the Moon has lots of craters. **Part 2: Making Craters** 1. Let’s investigate what happens when a meteoroid hits a solid surface like that of the Moon. You will use a pan of flour and three different size rocks to investigate meteor craters. The flour will represent the surface of the Moon and the rocks will be the “meteoroids.” 2. Here’s what to do *(Demonstrate for the students)*: - Place an old newspaper and a pan of flour on the floor near your feet. - Sprinkle a light coating of instant chocolate milk mix on the surface of the flour to create a contrast that will help make changes more visible. - Hold out a medium-sized rock at about shoulder level. Don’t actually drop the rock. Drop, **DO NOT THROW**, the rock into the flour. - After you drop the “meteoroid,” observe what happens to the flour. 3. “**What do you think will happen?**” *(Have several students make predictions.)* 4. You will work in groups, and take turns dropping the rocks into the flour. It’s not necessary to smooth the flour and apply chocolate milk mix after each try. *Distribute the materials to the teams and let them freely explore the materials and practice making craters for about five minutes.* 5. **What did you find out? What features did your craters have?** *You may want to have a few volunteers draw what they saw on the chalkboard. As students describe the various features, write some terms on the board. [The impression left on the surface is called a crater basin. Students may have noticed a rim around the edge of the basin and streaks or rays that radiated outward from the crater.]* Part 3: Meteor Experiments 1. There are craters of many different sizes on the Moon. What might affect how big craters will be? (Meteoroid size or weight, speed at impact, direction, or type of surface material.) 2. Our research teams will now conduct experiments to find out how two of those factors affect the size of the craters: the size of the meteoroid and the speed of impact. Hold up a data sheet and explain the two experiments: **Experiment #1: Size of Rock** Make three craters with each of the three rocks (a total of nine craters for Experiment #1). Drop each rock from the same height. Measure the diameter of the crater, using a paper centimeter ruler. Record the crater diameters on the data sheet after each drop. Repeat three times for each rock. Why it will be important to drop all the rocks from the same height? (Then, if the crater size varies, they’ll know it’s because of the size of the rock.) You can use one team member’s shoulder height as a standard for every trial. Remove the rock from the flour very carefully, so you don’t disturb the crater. After each trial, jiggle the container back and forth a few times to level the flour and sprinkle more chocolate milk powder on top if the surface needs it. If the flour becomes very dark from cocoa, or if a team has used up all its chocolate milk powder, sprinkle flour on the surface instead of the powder to create a contrast. You may want to have the students calculate averages, although the results may be evident without it. **Experiment #2: Speed of Impact** This time, use only one rock to make all the craters, but drop the rock from different heights: knee-high, shoulder-high, and as high as they can reach when standing on the floor. A rock gains speed as it falls, so the farther it falls, the faster it will be going when it hits the flour. Make three craters from each of the three heights. (A total of nine craters for Experiment #2.) Record the crater diameters on the data sheet after each drop. Why should we use the same rock when we are experimenting with different speeds of “meteors”? (If we used different rocks and different heights, we won’t know which made the differences in crater sizes.) Knee-high, shoulder-high, and as high as you can reach may vary for different students. **How an you keep the height standard on all three tries?** (Take turns dropping the rock, but use one student’s shoulder height for all tries.) Hand out the data sheets and paper rulers and have them begin. Circulate during the experiment, checking to be sure students are working safely and cooperatively in their teams. If a team finishes early, suggest that they extend their investigations in Experiment #2 by, for example, carefully standing on a chair to drop the rock. (Older students may want to extend their investigation by observing or measuring crater depths created by various sizes or speeds of “meteoroids.” The long “rays” that radiate from their “craters” could also be measured.) As teams finish, have them return their equipment to the materials area and clean up. Have them keep their data sheets for the discussion. 3. Analyze your experiment by looking at your data for Experiment #1, comparing meteor sizes. **Describe what you observed and recorded. Does the size of the meteoroid have anything to do with the size of the crater?** (Your students’ experimental data is likely to vary, but many students will find that crater size increases with the size of the meteoroid.) What can you conclude from Experiment #2, about meteors that have struck with different speeds? (Again, student data will vary, but many students will conclude that the faster the meteor, the bigger the crater.) Real craters caused by actual meteor impacts are about 20 times the diameter of the meteor itself. Optional: Show the slide of Earth’s Moon again. Ask volunteers to point out some of the features of craters on the Moon that they recognize from their experiments. Show the close-up of a Moon crater and ask --- ### Going Further 1. **Angle of Impact** Ask the students to predict the appearance of a crater if the meteoroid strikes the ground at an angle. (Most will assume that the shape of the crater will be different—not round.) Have the students conduct experiments in which they throw identical sized pebble at about the same speed, but at different angles. Instead of recording the diameter of the crater, record the shape of the crater. Is the shape of the crater different? How would you expect the shape of the crater to change as the angle of impact is increased? The results of this test are often surprising. One normally would expect the crater to have an oblong shape on extremely wide angle impacts. In fact, all craters that we have seen on the Moon or on Earth are pretty much circular. The reason is that on impact, an explosion occurs and the forces associated with an explosion are always spherically symmetrical. If your students examine images of many craters, they may notice that they all appear round. No matter the initial shape of the meteor (or the angle of its impact) the resulting explosion will always form a round crater. 2. Craters in Liquids In close-up views of some large craters students may notice the central peaks. Modern scientists have been able to simulate actual meteor impacts with rocks fired from powerful guns (at 30,000 mph). At such speeds the meteor does not stop moving at the moment of impact. Friction rapidly heats the meteor and a tremendous explosion occurs. (Imagine quickly trying to change all the energy of a room-sized meteor traveling at 30,000 mph into heat!) If the meteor is large and fast enough, the ground liquefies, forming a crater with a rim around it. In large impacts the rim collapses, and the liquefied material rushing back into the center of the crater forms a mountain in the middle. Debris thrown out by the explosion forms rays that may extend for hundreds of miles. On Earth, small pieces of a meteor are sometimes found at the impact crater, confirming that the crater was caused by a meteor impact. Your class can observe craters forming in liquids as follows: For each group of four to six students, you’ll need a cup of water, a medicine dropper (optional), and 1 blank sheet of paper. Pour a cup of water into a pie pan. If you are using medicine droppers, hold the dropper about a foot over the pan and allow a drop of water to fall into the pan. Or, dip a finger into the water so that a drop hangs from it, and shake the drop loose so it falls into the water. (Although the drop of water is a little bigger with the dropper, the fingertip method works fine.) Encourage all members of the team to observe what happens from the side and from just above the surface of the water. Have the students take turns releasing drops and observing what happens. Each team should discuss their results and draw what they see on their papers. Here are some possible observations: — As soon as the drop hits, it goes below the surface of the water, making sort of a “crater.” — Ripples come from the center, hit the walls of the pan, and bounce back and forth. — A mound of water forms in the center of the crater, right after the drop is dropped. It may seem as if the drop “bounces” back after it hits the water. What crater features can you see that you have not seen in the experiment with solids? (Concentric circles, ripples, and central peaks.) Very large meteors that have struck the Moon move so fast that they melt the rocks. In these cases, even though the surface may have been solid before the impact of the meteor, we can sometimes see the central peak caused when the Moon’s surface turned to molten rock for a few minutes, then solidified before the peak had a chance to become level again. 3. Making a Model of a Crater As long as you have all that flour, why not use it to make sculptures of craters? Show your students pictures of craters from various places in the solar system. Give each student a square of posterboard or cardboard. Mix flour, salt, and water into a thick paste and have your students use the paste to form craters on their boards. Set the finished craters aside to dry overnight. Most craters in the solar system are various shades of grey in color, so painting of the craters may not be particularly exciting. However, Jupiter’s moon Io has volcanic craters that have striking colors: orange, red, black, yellow. You can discuss with your class the difference between impact craters and volcanic craters and have your students form model volcanic craters such as those on Io which they can then paint in bright colors. Crater Experiments Experiment 1: Size of Meteoroid What can you conclude? Record the Crater Diameters for: - Small - Medium - Large | | Small | Medium | Large | |---|-------|--------|-------| | 1 | | | | | 2 | | | | | 3 | | | | Average Experiment 2: Speed of Meteoroid What can you conclude? Record the Crater Diameters for: - Small - Medium - Large | | Small | Medium | Large | |---|-------|--------|-------| | 1 | | | | | 2 | | | | | 3 | | | | Average Your Name: Centimeters: Building a Lunar Settlement Here is a chance for you to use up some of those interesting scraps and snips of things that most people throw away, but could make perfect components for a model lunar settlement. In this activity, students first think of everything they would need to survive for years on a lunar settlement, and then design and build a model of such a settlement. Objectives This activity can take on different meanings to different age students. For older students (grades 4-8), the question of what is necessary to survive in space can have special significance, since they soon may be candidates for space missions themselves. For younger students (grades 1-3), this activity is more of an open-ended creative process of building a home on the moon. In this activity students will be able to: 1. Recognize (brainstorm) needs for human survival in space. 2. Design and build a model lunar settlement. 3. Communicate their design concepts and ideas with other students. Teacher leaders build a moon settlement in a summer institute of Participatory Oriented Planetariums for Schools (POPS) by Lawrence Hall of Science. Materials For the class ☐ 1 or 2 boxes of raw material or “doo-dads” for settlement building. “Doo-dad” suggestions include: plastic or paper cups, small containers (such as empty yogurt or orange juice containers), packaging material (such as plastic casings on small items, clear “bubble-wrap” and styrofoam “peanuts” and other packing materials), egg cartons, styrofoam meat trays, cardboard tubes, corks, straws, film canisters, scrap wood, colored paper or poster board, assorted stickers—YOU NAME IT! Note: To reduce clean-up time, limit the amount of styrofoam peanuts to about four cups. ☐ 1 or 2 skeins of color yarn or string ☐ 1 or 2 rolls of foil ☐ 1 roll of plastic wrap ☐ 1 box of toothpicks ☐ 1 box of straws ☐ 1 package of blank stick-on labels (masking tape can also be used) ☐ chalk and chalkboard, or overhead projector, unused transparency, and pens ☐ Optional: tools for use by teacher or under direct supervision, such as pliers for bending wire, utility knife for cutting tubes or styrofoam, hand saws, hammers, paper clamps, etc. For each group of 4–5 students: ☐ 1 poster board, about 30 cm x 60 cm (about 1 ft. x 2 ft.) These serve as the base for each team’s settlement (size can be adjusted to your preference) ☐ 1 or 2 glue bottles or glue sticks ☐ 1 or 2 scissors ☐ assorted color marking pens ☐ 1 roll of masking or cellophane tape Before Class 1. Gather a few examples of the “doo-dads” listed above. Before the day of the activity, give the students a list of “doo-dads” so that they can start collecting for their projects. To give them an idea of what may be useful, show them the materials you have collected. Encourage the students to save any small objects that might turn into “space material” with a little imagination. Have them bring in their supplies from home. 2. Cut the poster board into approximately 30 x 60 cm (1 x 2 feet) rectangles to serve as bases for each team’s settlement. On the Day of the Class: 1. For quick distribution, assemble each group’s supplies (glue, scissors, pens, and tape) on a tray or in a container. 2. Place the building materials in an accessible location. Students need to be able to retrieve material easily. Keep the tools such as pliers in a place that you can monitor. You could also wear a “tool belt” or carry a toolbox so you can go from group to group with all the special tools needed to assist students. 3. Arrange desks or tables and chairs so groups of 4-5 students can work together building a settlement for one of Jupiter’s moons. In Class Part 1: Planning a Moon Settlement Imagine that you are to be among the first people to create a community on the Moon or on a moon of Jupiter or Saturn. It would take a spacecraft about two or three YEARS to transport people to or from the Jupiter system. You would need to establish settlements on the moons so you could live there for long periods of time. You will be working in teams to design and build a model of a settlement on a moon somewhere in our solar system. In preparation for this mission, you first need to think about what conditions you will face. Imagine being on one of Jupiter’s moons. How would things be different there? Take several answers and encourage the students to keep in mind such things as: • Low gravity (1/3rd to 1/6th the gravity of Earth) • Bitter cold temperatures: $-100^\circ$C to $-200^\circ$C ($-148$ F to $-328$ F) except on parts of Io • Exposure to cosmic rays and radiation. (There is intense radiation on Io, Europa, and Ganymede, because of the interactions of Jupiter’s gargantuan magnetic field with the solar wind. Only Callisto lies outside Jupiter’s “magnetosphere” and so has less radiation.) • No liquid water (except maybe on Europa) • No air • Little sunlight (1/25th as much as on Earth). Think of essential items you would need to have with you on a moon settlement. Remember, you must be able to live for a few years there without returning to Earth. Have the class brainstorm and list their ideas on the chalkboard or use an overhead projector. Among items that have been considered essential in actual planning of similar projects are such things as: living quarters, a greenhouse, solar panels/generators, storage facilities, a launch and landing pad, etc. Divide the class into teams of 4–5 students who work well together. Arrange seating so they can share materials and work together on the model. Part 2: Building the Settlement Here are your raw materials. Show the class a sample posterboard section and explain that they will be building their model, using a board like this as a base. Show the various raw materials they can use. If certain items are in short supply, you may want to set limits. (e.g. “Only one plastic tube per group, please!”) Suggest ways for teams to be reasonable and cooperative in gathering and sharing materials. After you have been working for a while, you will be given labels and asked to identify and label all the parts and structures you’ve developed. Your settlement should have all the essential requirements that we listed on the chalkboard. Distribute group supplies and give a posterboard to each group. Let the teams get the “raw materials,” and begin planning and building. Circulate and help as needed. Ask questions and encourage the students to use their imaginations. When the settlements are well underway, bring around blank labels and have the students label each part of their settlement (launch pad, greenhouse, and so on). Leave enough time at the end of class for clean up. If the students have not completed their models and you are planning more class time for them to work, encourage them to collect additional materials at home. Have them bring in these materials to incorporate into their settlements. Part 3: Discussing Lunar Settlements Now it’s time to give the class a “tour” of your facility. Imagine that you are conducting tours for visiting dignitaries! I know you have put a lot of creative energy into your model settlements, and look forward to displaying and explaining your inventions and ingenuity. Plan sufficient time for them to do this. They could present a “tour of the facilities.” The presentations could all be made during one class period, or spread out over two or three days. Allow a few minutes for the other students to ask questions of each team. You may want to help guide and focus some discussion, with questions, such as: • How does your settlement take into account the items on the requirement list? • What do you think it would be like to live in this settlement? • What would you do for fun in your settlement? • What do you think the food would be like? • Would you really want to go on a mission like this? Going Further 1. Have the students write a story about daily life in their settlement. They may want to write a special report on an exploration to some of the unusual features of their world, or describe some of their experiments. Or, they may want to write a “letter home,” describing, for example, what it is like to look up in the sky and see Jupiter instead of Earth’s Moon. 2. An option is to have each student build their own moon settlement. For this, you can supply each student with a baseboard of posterboard, or simply them do it completely from scratch on their own as an extended home project. A variation on this idea is for the students to build free-floating space communities designed not for a moon’s surface but to travel through space or orbit a planet on its own. In such communities, there is a technical challenge of dealing with a weightless environment. Most designs have the whole structure spinning to create artificial gravity in a direction outwards from the center. 3. Ask students to respond to the concern, raised by some people, that perhaps people should not establish settlements on other worlds. Some might say, for example, that these worlds should be left alone, so as not to be polluted or changed by human exploitation of natural resources, or by competition by governments and businesses to control specific areas or establish settlements. Do your students agree or disagree? How would they feel if missions were limited to exploration? How about setting up mines and factories on other worlds? 4. Several videos about the Voyager missions are available from NASA. Videos can be ordered from your nearest local NASA Teacher Resource Center. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory Teacher Resource Center specializes in inquiries related to space and planetary exploration, and other JPL activities. That address is listed below. Other NASA Centers are listed in PASS Volume 3, under “Organizations.” Jet Propulsion Laboratory Teacher Resource Center JPL Educational Outreach Mail Stop CS-530 Pasadena, CA 91109 Phone: (818) 354-6916 5. There are many great stories related to space settlement. Here are some: **2010: Odyssey Two** by Arthur C. Clarke Ballantine Books, New York. 1982 Grades: 10–Adult This complex, mysterious, and thought-provoking sequel to Clarke’s *2001: A Space Odyssey* had the benefit of being written subsequent to the Voyager mission. Chapter 13 specifically, “The Worlds of Galileo,” focuses on the four main moons of Jupiter, although there are fascinating observations, accurate scientific information, and lots of interesting speculation about Jupiter and its moons throughout the book. **Against Infinity** by Gregory Benford Simon and Shuster, New York. 1983 Grades 10–Adult This science fiction novel is an account of human settlement on Jupiter’s largest moon, Ganymede. The story takes place several hundred years into the colonization process, and begins from the perspective of a 13-year-old boy whose father is one of the leaders of the settlement. Advanced students may want to read this novel to gather ideas about constructing biospheres, melting ice, obtaining minerals, and other ways humans might possibly survive on the moons of Jupiter. **Jupiter Project** by Gregory Benford Bantam Books, New York. 1990 Grades 7–10 A teenager lives with his family as part of a large scientific laboratory that orbits Jupiter, but he is ordered to return home. He has one chance to stay; if he can make an important discovery... There is a nice mix of physics and astronomy with teen-age rebellion and growing maturity, some love interest, and an exciting plot. The descriptions in Chapters 6, 7, and 8, which are part of an account of an expedition to Ganymede, could be compared by students to the information they observe and learn about this mammoth moon. **The Planets** edited by Byron Preiss Bantam Books, New York. 1985 Grades: 8–Adult This extremely rich, high-quality anthology pairs a non-fiction essay with a fictional work about the earth, moon, each of the planets, and asteroids and comets. Introductory essays are by Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. Clarke and others. The material is dazzlingly illustrated with color photographs from the archives of NASA and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and paintings by astronomical artists such as the movie production designers of *2001* and *Star Wars*. “The Future of the Jovian System” by Gregory Benford (about colonization and development of Jupiter’s moon Ganymede) is a perfect match to the moon settlement activity. However, since the vocabulary is sophisticated it may be more suitable for high-level readers. Moon Maps In this activity, students learn to read maps of the moon and identify features on an image (slide) of the moon. The activity can be connected to "Building a Lunar Settlement," since location is an important consideration in the founding of a lunar community. Objectives This is a map reading activity, so students need to have the capability of reading maps. This activity is recommended for children in fourth grade or above. For more map reading activities, see PASS Volume 5: Constellations Tonight, Classroom Activities. In this activity, students will be able to: 1. Read a map of the moon. 2. Locate features on a telescopic image of the moon (slide) with the aid of their lunar maps. 3. Point out to their classmates the lunar features that they have found. 4. Decide what type of landscape might be best for a lunar community. Materials For each student: 1. Map of the Moon (Master on p. 40) For the class: - Slide projector - Slide or poster of the full moon - Battery light pointer or a stick that can be used as a pointer. [If you have the Optical Data laser videodisc, you can find a suitable image in the series of frame numbers F7336-7344.] Before Class 1. Make sure the light pointer works or stick is on hand. 2. Set up the slide projector with full moon slide or poster of full moon. 3. Duplicate moon maps (1 per student). In Class Show your students an image of the Moon (slide or poster). What sorts of features are visible on the Moon? (Craters, dark areas, light areas.) What kind of terrain do you think the dark areas are? (They are flat plains; long ago, they were thought to be oceans.) What kind of terrain do you think the light areas are? (They are mountainous areas or highlands.) How are the craters formed? (By impact of meteoroids.) Point out the “rays” which are straight lines radiating outward from a couple of the larger craters (notably, Copernicus). The rays are lines of debris which formed right after the meteoroid impact when lunar surface material was splashed up and outward from the impact site. In order to be able to locate appropriate sites for a lunar mission or building lunar settlements, we need to be able to use maps of the moon. Hand out moon maps. Note the directions north, east, south, and west on the moon maps. The map of the moon is drawn as seen through binoculars. Each of you is going to find a particular “ocean,” “sea,” or “bay.” Assign a particular ocean, sea, or bay to groups of students. There are 12 oceans and seas, so you can divide your class into 12 groups. Help groups who need assistance. Those who finish quickly may practice finding other features that were not assigned to them. When each group has found its assigned feature, have the groups, one at a time, point out their feature to the rest of the class using the pointer. For a more difficult challenge, assign each group a crater or mountain range. Again, have each group point out their feature to the whole class. What type of terrain do you think would be best for a lunar settlement? Where on the moon would you build one? Going Further: Rabbit in the Moon Show the moon slide again. Ask the students if they can see a rabbit. Ask where are the ears? Where is the tail? Tell the class that many Native American cultures associated the moon with a rabbit. Many Native American cultures, the Japanese, and other cultures around the world visualize a “rabbit in the moon.” Suggest that next time your students look at the real moon in the sky, they look for the rabbit—it’s easy to see! Optional: Duplicate the rabbit picture from PASS Volume 11, Astronomy of the Americas, page 23 or the cover, for each student. Tell them that the rabbit is a depiction of the rabbit in the moon found on pottery of the Mimbres tribe, who lived in what is now the Southwestern United States from the 9th to 12th centuries. (One piece of Mimbres pottery, which shows a burst of light below the leg of a rabbit, is believed to depict the supernova that created the Crab nebula in 1054!) For younger students, a “Faces in the Moon” activity is very popular. Show a high contrast slide or poster of the Moon and ask the students if they can see a picture or face outlined by the light and dark areas. Have them draw the pictures or faces that they see. Explain that the light areas are actually mountains while the dark areas are low flat areas on the surface of the moon. Moon Map North Pole Sea of Cold Aristoteles Exodus Caucasus Mtns Alps Mtns Plato Bay of Dew Iura Mtns Sea of Rains Archimedes Aristillus Autolycus Haemus Mtns Ocean of Storms Copernicus Kepler Carpathian Mtns Sea of Vapors Spencer Mtns Sea of Tranquility Taruntius Sea of Crises Langrenus Sea of Fertility Tycho Leibnitz Mtns Sea of Nectar Sea of Clouds Sea of Moisture West East South Pole Lawrence Hall of Science University of California Berkeley, CA 94720 © 1993 by the Regents of the University of California
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Reading Presentation Reading at Herrick Reading books: fiction & non-fiction Access to classroom bookshelves School library Reading Records World Book Day-book related activities Virtual Author Visits New Books Book Clubs Reading is the KEY to learning Learning to read and write. | Phase 2, 3 and 5 | Phase 2, 3 and 5 | |------------------|------------------| | **Grow the code grapheme mat** | **Grow the code grapheme mat** | | ![s] ss c se ce st sc | ![ai] ai ay a a-e eigh aigh ey ea | | ![t] tt tt | ![ee] ee ea e e-e ie y ey | | ![p] pp pp | ![igh] igh ie i-e y | | ![n] nn nn kn gn | ![oa] oa o o-e ou oe ow | | ![m] mm mb | ![oo] ue u-e ew ou ui | | ![d] dd dd | ![yoo] yoo | | ![g] gg gg | ![oo] ue u-e ew | | ![c] ck ck | ![ar] ar a* al* | | ![r] rr wr | ![ou] ou | | ![h] h | ![ph] ph | | ![b] bb bb | ![zh] zh | | ![f] ff ph | ![or] or aw au aur | | ![l] ll le al | ![aw] oor al a oar ore | | ![J] j j g dge ge | ![ur] ur er ir or | | ![v] vv ve | ![ow] ow ou | | ![w] wh x | ![oi] oi oy | | ![y] y | ![ear] ear ere eer | | ![z] zz s se ze | ![air] air are ere ear | | ![qu] qu | | *depending on regional accent Reading Sessions • Retell what they have read (summarising) • Talk about the characters • Relate to their own experiences • Predict what will happen in the book • Discuss language and unknown words • Ask and answer questions | Background knowledge | Relate to what you know, connect to another text, personal experience or book or film | |----------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | “Is this like when…..?” | | | “This reminds me of that book/time/film....” | | | “I remember a time I did…..” | | Predict | | |----------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | I predict | | | I think …..because | | | I suppose ……because | | | I will learn …………because | | | Clarify | | |----------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Try sounding it out (if word) | | | Try breaking it down | | | Try reading ahead to see if you work it out | | | Think of another word that might fit | | | Try re-reading the paragraph | | | Question | | |----------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Ask questions as you read | | | Ask questions that have answers in the text: Who? What? Where? Why? How? | | | Asked question that can be inferred | | | Summarise | | |----------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Use your own idea words, summarise main points from the text in order | | | This text is about | | | This part is about | | | First, Next, Finally | | Read like a writer and write like a reader. The children study many different types of texts in a term. They will read non chronological reports, newspaper reports, adverts, instruction texts, articles, leaflets and diaries. Create a reading environment at home. Keep reading time relaxed, comfortable and pleasurable. Ideally the television needs to be turned off. • Set aside a regular time for reading in your family. As little as 10 minutes of free reading a day can help improve your child's skills and habits. Book Cover • Talk about the cover and read the title before you start reading a new book. • This encourages interest and excitement. Ask your child if they think they may have read a similar book. Picture Books • Look through the book, noticing interesting pictures and words, then read the opening together. Don't correct too quickly. If your child makes an error suggest having another go, searching the pictures for a clue, sounding out the first letter or reading on before you 'tell' the problem word. Punctuation Game Check that your child pauses between sentences. Expression • Reading aloud “Oh No,” she cried. “What happened?” Can your child summarise? - The book is about.... - In this chapter...... - The first half of the book... Dictionaries- keep one near when reading. • Learn new words • Write a sentence for a new word • Encourage children to use the words in speech New Words • Make a note of new or difficult words and look up in dictionary. • Write them on a slip of paper and put it on the refrigerator so you’ll remember to try to use them again. • Praise your child if you hear him/her using them in speech. • Can they use the word in a sentence? Dictionary work - Have access to dictionary - Look at image online - Make a picture dictionary - Study words in sentence and ask if children can be replaced with another word - Youtube - pronunciation Learning to pronounce words - Listen to stories online/CDs/audio books. This helps improve pronunciation. • As your child progresses, talk about authors, characters and plots. • Make a flow chart • Thought bubble • Prediction • Draw what you read! Visualise Draw what you read. • In order to draw, you need to understand what you have read! Book Review • Were you surprised by the ending? • How did you think it would end/should have ended? • What is the main event of the story? Non Fiction Books - What is the purpose of the pictures? - How does the layout help the reader? - Why have these words been made to stand out? - Why are these words smaller but still in bold print? - Why are some words in the glossary printed in italics like this? Quick Reads • Joke Books • Riddles • Poetry • Comics Quiz Questions • Children can write quiz questions for books they have read. • Asking questions instead of raising questions Don't try to persuade your child to finish a book he or she doesn't like. Recommend putting the book aside and trying another. • Join your local library together and use it regularly. Watch out for storytelling events, summer reads and reviews of new titles. Encourage older children to read to their younger brothers and sisters. Older children enjoy showing off their skills to an admiring audience. Read the room • Read the rooms. Look around the house for words. • Your child can read ingredients on the packaging while you cook! Empathy Give them a blank speech or thought bubble. How could the character/s be feeling at this point in the story? Probe Deeper- Why? Where is the evidence? Can you think of a time when you felt this way? To gauge a child’s depth of understanding, remove every tenth word and ask the child to replace the word. The Iron Man came to the top of the _______________. How far had he walked? Nobody knows. Where did ____________ come from? Nobody knows. How was he made? Nobody ______________. Taller than a house, the Iron Man stood at _______________ top of the cliff, on the very brink, in __________ darkness. Story Map • Breakdown the text • What is going on? • Keep adding to it! • Raise questions Retaining Information • Who, What, When, How, Why questions. • Children have to write literal questions for the text they have just read. Summarise before moving on..... Summarise a paragraph Summarise a chapter Summarise a page What have the children understood? Retaining Information • Read a short extract (non fiction) • Ask children to put it face down. • Ask the children to record key facts. Make them aware of how much information they are ‘absorbing’ as they read. Skimming and scanning Read out a word from the text and ask your child to locate it. Ask a question and encourage your child to find the answer in the text. Firstly, thank you for choosing Herrick Primary School for your child's schooling journey and for those who are considering our school. Please click here for the Headteacher’s Welcome and the school’s Ethos & Values. Literal Questions • Where does the story take place? • When did the story take place? • What did he/she look like? • Where did he/she live? • Who are the key characters in the book? • What happened in the story? • What kinds of people are in the story? • What is happening at this point in the story? • Read the part that tells me……… Thinking about the story... • Can you explain why............? • If you were going to interview this character/author, which questions would you ask? • What do you think the ........... is thinking? If it were you what would you be thinking? • Which is your favourite part? Why? Which bit of the text shows this? • Predict what you think is going to happen next. Why do you think this? Firstly, thank you for choosing Herrick Primary School for your child's schooling journey and for those who are considering our school. Please click here for the Headteacher’s Welcome and the school’s Ethos & Values. The links below take you to YouTube videos in a new browser window. **Starting to learn to read** - Things we can do at home - Things we can do when we're out and about - Things my child's school might be doing **Making early progress as a reader** - Things we can do at home - Things we can do when we're out and about - Things my child's school might be doing **Becoming a more confident reader** - Things we can do at home - Things we can do when we're out and about - Things my child's school might be doing **A fluent reader** - Things we can do at home - Things we can do when we're out and about - Things my child's school might be doing **Able to read, but doesn't like reading** - Things we can do at home - Things we can do when we're out and about - Things my child's school might be doing **Questionnaires** - Reading Questionnaire - Book Review Questionnaire Firstly, thank you for choosing Herrick Primary School for your child’s schooling journey and for those who are considering our school. Please click here for the Headteacher’s Welcome and the school’s Ethos & Values. | Year | Reading and Literacy Overview | Spelling Overview Pack | |-------|--------------------------------|------------------------| | Year 1| Reading and Literacy Overview | Spelling Overview Pack | | Year 2| Reading and Literacy Overview | Spelling Overview Pack | | Year 3| Reading and Literacy Overview | Spelling Overview Pack | | Year 4| Reading and Literacy Overview | Spelling Overview Pack | | Year 5| Reading and Literacy Overview | Spelling Overview Pack | | Year 6| Reading and Literacy Overview | Spelling Overview Pack | Spoken Language ‘Being Herrick’ Speaking, Writing and Reading are all connected! • “It is mines.” • “I off the lights.” • “I’m going London.” • Encourage children to speak in full sentences. • Model the reading. How are the words pronounced? Questions
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Kookaburras Thrive in Glenfern Kookaburras are one of the most recognisable birds around eastern Australia. They are often seen in Glenfern. Their laughing call can frequently be heard even if you do not spot them. They are there all year round. Glenfern provides an ideal home for Kookaburras. There are suitable trees and the reserve provides enough insects, worms and small mammals, frogs and birds for them to prey on. Small prey is eaten whole, but larger prey is killed by repeatedly bashing it against the ground or tree branch. The older trees along Fenny Creek have many natural hollows that are great nest sites for our many native birds. In spring, we discovered a nesting hollow being used by a family of Kookaburras, close to Fenny Creek, opposite Forest Park Reserve. During October and November, the whole Kookaburra family was busy feeding young. The adults were observed coming and going about every 5 to 15 minutes. The extended family support the feeding task, including offspring of the previous one to two years, who act as ‘helpers’ during the breeding season. Every bird in the group shares all parenting duties – what a wonderful system. The photo shows a Kookaburra flying away from the nest; the entry to the hollow is hidden by the bird’s tail. As part of our reserve rehabilitation and diversity program Red Stringybark (Eucalyptus macrocarpycha) trees have been reintroduced into the Glenfern reserve. Glenfern volunteers were out and about on a damp morning in September 2017 to plant these Red Stringybark trees. This variety of eucalypt was previously known to exist in Glenfern, but has been lost for an unknown reason. Some very good specimens can be seen nearby in Forest Park Reserve and on neighbouring properties near that small reserve. Historically the Red Stringybark was common enough around Upwey, in our reserves, backyards and on our roadsides too. The plantings, just a couple of dozen, can be seen in the general area at the high end of Hill Track. The tree prefers a higher and well drained position. Red Stringybarks are available from the Southern Dandenongs Community Nursery. They have been grown from locally collected seed. Red Stringybark flowers are especially attractive to birds and yield a tasty honey. Red Stringybarks make a comeback Break up Picnic and Night Walk The end of year for the Glenfern Valley Bushlands Friends’ group involved an enjoyable evening picnic at the amphitheatre in the old quarry. As evening fell the group set off on a walk along Wildflower track down to the creek and then along towards the council depot and then back up to the main car park. The weather was perfect and the participants were rewarded with many wildlife sightings. These included a powerful owl (pictured on page two), a sugar glider and many ringtail possums. Anne managed to capture some beautiful shots of the sugar glider picture in this article. It was a rewarding experience for all participants. The excitement of the young walkers and their enthusiastic torch work at wildlife spotting was greatly appreciated. The Friends have worked on our much loved Glenfern project for 16 years and I believe we have completed one of the best years yet. Our enduring task has been “to conserve and enhance the diversity of native flora and fauna of the Glenfern Valley Bushlands while preserving community access and encouraging education and compatible uses for the enjoyment of current and future generations.” I can report that in the last 12 months we have achieved that in spades! I would like mention just a few of the highlights, in no particular order: - Glenfern has removed more Sweet Pittosporum last year than any other year, - Glenfern had completely overhauled Forest Park Reserve, - Glenfern has hosted our largest yet student educational program, - Glenfern has installed nest boxes for the first time, - Glenfern has worked on a neighbouring property for the first time, - Our membership is strong and increasing – around 110 members, - Our financial position is very secure, - Our teamwork is fantastic, and our knowledge and know-how continues to grow, - We are a strong social group, and finally, - Glenfern has never looked so good. We still have our challenges ahead. We, the long term members know we must eventually find a new and younger group to take Glenfern forward for the decades ahead. There are some organisations and special people that we, the Committee, would like to thank. UniPrint Pty Ltd prints our Newsletter for free – it has made our Newsletter an outstanding part of our work. Cr Noel Cliff has been a true believer in our project, and we thank him for that. We thank Yarra Ranges Council, and in particular Gavin Prentice, Jen Ellinsson and Steve Feather for their ongoing support. The Upwey CFA has been a steadfast supporter of our work. Melbourne Water continues to be a generous sponsor of the reserve. In the last 12 months we worked closely with the Port Phillip and Westernport CMA on pittosporum removal. We thank also StopPitt for their support of the work on Forest Park Reserve. We especially thank all our volunteers, members and the local supporters for their valuable time, skills, enthusiasm, donations and loyalty. I would particularly like to recognise our Committee who carry out our administration. The Newsletter, Memberships, Secretary, Treasurer, Working bee coordination, Public Officer, Website, minutes, weed maps, Website, first aid, talks, photographs, environmental volunteering, fantastic morning teas – it is a very long list of activities. The many tasks done by the Committee all deserve our special thanks. I thank Andrew and Rory for being Vice Presidents and for keeping me on track. I would also like to thank Richard Homersharn for his contribution to Glenfern over many years; Richard is standing down from the Committee, but will be staying on as a member. Glenfern is a great team. Our Bushlands will always be a source of delight. - David Moncrief….report from the October AGM Our contributions to environmental education are continuing to grow. Last year the Glenfern Valley Reserve provided a venue for local Fairihills High students and the first year international students from Melbourne University’s Trinity College. On September 18th the Fairihills students (pictured) experienced an afternoon of exploring of the reserve while also making contribution to the maintenance of the reserve by spreading some mulch where needed. Trinity College’s international students have been visiting the reserve for many years now and the response from the teachers and students is always extremely positive. Two different groups visited the reserve in 2017; One in May (140 students visited and it involved the volunteers for a whole day – full report was presented in the last newsletter) and the other in late October. These visits are always an eye opener for both the students and the volunteers. The students hail from many countries including China, Malaysia, Taiwan, South America and Africa and while language and spelling of our flora and fauna can be a challenge, it is always pleasing to see the excitement and wonder the students display as they explore the reserve. **SOME ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS IN GLENFERN VALLEY BUSHLANDS...** **SWAMP RATS** There are plenty in Glenfern Reserve — but rarely seen. Glenfern Valley Bushlands is an important habitat for Swamp Rats as they are only found in areas of native vegetation and avoid areas of human habitation. Swamp rats are native to Australia and have been here for about a million years. Sadly, this little fellow was found dead — not sure of the cause. **THE BOGONG MOTH????** Is it or isn’t it? This image of a moth was taken during the night walk at the end of last year. It was a big moth and was a speckled grey brown in colour and approximately 5cm in length. After checking out the Australian Museum site it seemed to fit the criteria. The Bogong Moth belongs to the Noctuidae family and its larvae are known as Black Cutworms. It is native to Australia and it derives its name from the Bo-gong High Plains where, as an adult moth, it congregates in large numbers over the summer months. In a bumper year the moths have been known to invade built up areas and create problems with air-conditioners and sports grounds especially during night games as, with all moths, they are attracted to lights. An adult sized moth grows to around 5cm in length. It can be found throughout southern Australia including Tasmania. During the summer months the moth is dormant and survives on its fat reserves. Its larvae cannot tolerate cold conditions so the moth heads north to breed and this can be an issue for farmers as the cutworms caterpillars like to feed on crops. Wide leaf plants in inland regions are their favourite food. The adult moth was an important source of protein for the aborigines. They would roast the moths then mash them into ‘moth meat’. Apparently the cooked moths have a nutty flavour. The Glenfern Working Bee Diary February-July 2018 - Sunday February 18th - Area 9 - Saturday March 17th - Area 7 - Sunday April 22nd - Area 13 - Saturday May 19th - Areas 4 & 5 - Sunday June 17th - Areas 2 & 12 - Saturday July 21st - Area 6 Meet at the central car park, Glenfern Road, Upwey Melway Map 74 G10 9:30 a.m. – 12:30 p.m. (Morning Tea 11-ish) Members, Committee and interested supporters meet on-site to take part in weeding, planting & talks about indigenous plants, animals & weed ID. Everyone is welcome. Bring a water bottle and depending on the weather, a hat or wet weather gear. Please wear long pants and sensible shoes/boots. In the event of a Fire Ban or inclement weather the working bee will be cancelled. Details of each working bee can be found on the web site and Facebook. By being a financial member of Friends of Glenfern Valley Bushlands, you enable the group to gain valuable Funding Grants to finance works in the reserve. If you would like to become a financial member, please download the membership form from our website at: www.glenfernvalleybushlands.org.au Membership is only: $5 Concession, $10 Individual, $15 Family or $50 for a business sponsor. Three year memberships and now also available. Reference Library for Members The Friends group has a range of books and articles that are available for borrowing. The list is available on the website with details about how to contact Luke and borrow items. Corporate Sponsors Uniprint Pty Ltd 419 Riversdale Road, Hawthorn East VIC 3123 Printer of this newsletter Call (03) 9882 4905 for all your printing needs. Native Vegetation Management Armin Korchan Ph 5968 3297 Or: email@example.com Photos: David Moncrieff, Anne Comer, Linda Fullagar and Sharon Twining. Visit our Facebook page: For up-to-date information & befriend us! We are troubled by the amount of Rubbish being dumped on the perimeter of the reserve recently Please report rubbish dumping to: Shire of Yarra Ranges Ph: 1300 368 333 Friends of Glenfern Valley Bushlands Inc. P.O. Box 1283, Upwey Vic. 3158 firstname.lastname@example.org www.glenfernvalleybushlands.org.au
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Flea Valley, Rag Dump and Beyond If you drive out Concow Road from Highway 70, seven or eight miles out you reach a point where the pavement stops. It quickly becomes obvious that from this point on the road is not traveled except by those looking for adventure. The road continues for miles as a dirt road with some gravel that has mostly eroded away from the rains each winter. The county maintains the entire road so it is easy to assume the pavement defines where civilization ends, and today that is true. For most people today, the Concow area is the destination when traveling the road, but that has not always been the case. In 1862 Concow was not the destination but rather a midway point on your travels to Flea Valley. Beyond Flea Valley you could go on another 2 miles to what is today called Rag Dump and 5 miles beyond that to the mining community of Little Kimshew near what is today called Ramsey’s Bar. After 1909 you could go all the way to Stirling City, above Magalia. Today it is a long and tedious trip by motorized vehicle that requires good ground clearance and in some cases 4 wheel drive. But in the 1860’s when the road was first cut it only required a good horse, and the ride was no more strenuous than the ride from Pentz to Yankee Hill. Adventure by today’s standards was part of your daily routine. Life in the Area in the Early 1850’s Rich Gulch, along highway 70 was first visited as early as 1850. In 1852 a few people settled in Concow Valley, homesteading 160 acre farms from what is today’s Concow Campground to Camelot. Oregon City, Cherokee and Frenchtown (located on Nelson Bar Road) had been settled since 1854. Yankee Hill and Spanishtown (located above Concow Road opposite Pinkston Canyon Road) had been settled since 1856. The growth had been mostly propelled by the search for gold. The area between Spanishtown and Flea Valley had very little gold production, other than small amounts that had washed down from above in the creeks, because it was mostly decomposed granite in that area, not usually a good source for the precious metal. By the end of 1857 most of the surface gold between Yankee Hill and Spanishtown area had played out, only hard rock mining or tunneling was prevalent. In Aug 1857 an article in the papers talked about gold deposits being found 15 miles above Spanishtown. Individual miners in the area were moving on farther past Concow Valley and even beyond Flea Valley towards Kimshew Creek, named after the Kimshew Indians that had inhabited the area. On the route to Kimshew Creek, thru Flea Valley, the level terrain and the flow of miners made the area a natural spot for a hotel and ranch. At the time the only hotels in this area were at Yankee Hill and Spanishtown (Note: A couple of rooms to rent out and offering meals qualified you as a hotel). May 12, 1857 Oroville Daily Butte Record Correspondence. OROVILLE, MAY 11 I feel disposed to give you some items of a flying trip to the Mountains, but doubt whether you will consider them worthy of being made public... I will not attempt to describe the beautiful panorama on either side of the road from Oroville to Pence's, nor the magnificent views about the West Branch, as most of your readers about Oroville have probably seen them. At Pence's we had to leave the Dogtown stage and take horses to Frenchtown, (which was very inconvenient for those having baggage.) where we took mules for the rest of our trip. Going through Spanishtown, we took the pack trail leading through Concow and Flea villages to Kimshew. Concow and Flea villages are respectively five and nine miles from Frenchtown on the ridge north of Concow. It commenced raining and hailing and by the time we reached Flea Valley the storm came on so hard that we were compelled to halt at a small cabin at the head of the valley. Soon after stopping a regular snow storm set in, which decided us upon camping for the night and returning the next morning. We found the cabin occupied by Mr. Sanford, who extended to us every kindness possible. He with Mr. Fairbanks of Frenchtown have taken up Flea Valley as a ranch, and intend building a public house (a thing much needed at that point,) as there is a great deal of travel through the valley all summer. As we were about starting on our return yesterday morning, Messrs. Fargo and Evans arrived at the cabin; from them we learned that there was a good waggon road from Spanishtown to within one mile of Flea Valley; over which teams are hauling heavy loads of lumber for fluming the Frenchtown ditch. Mr. Evens thinks it will be completed in ten or twelve days. We were also informed by several parties who seemed to be familiar with the country, that a wagon road could be easily made through these Valleys to Honey Lake, but all said the road through Dogtown would be the most practical and less liable to obstructions from snow, and far easier and cheaper than any other route. Returning, we had from the top of the ridge south of Concow Valley a splendid view of the Coast Range, Sacramento Valley, Butte Creek, Table Mountain and the Buttes. At Yankee Hill we found the "Virgin" Company rolling the rich quartz down a long chute to their new Mill. The Mill is built for twenty stamps, but they will commence crushing with ten or fifteen, their engine and machinery is on the ground and they are putting it in place as rapidly as possible. Adjoining them on the south, is the "49 and 56" Company, and on the north, the Butte Quartz Mining Company. Mr. J. F. Johnson the energetic President of the Company has a force of men actively engaged in sinking shafts and opening the vein. They have gone down thirty two feet with one shaft and found rich rotten quartz; they propose sinking the same shaft a few feet further and then drifting to, and cutting through the ledge. The vein extends some 7,000 feet and the croppings along the whole distance are very rich. I will give you a few more items when we renew our trip and penetrate further into the mountains, if acceptable. Yours resp't. H. Butte County 1877 River = Lumber Flume Road = Water Flume Dogtown 1850 Paradise 1877 Fence 1860 Cherokee 1853 Yankee Hill 1856 Concow 1852 Saw Mill Peak Flea Valley Saw Mill 1874 - 1882 Flea Valley 1857 Bigga 1906 Big Bend Berry Creek 1852 Lake Pitmas 1909 Bloomer Hill Rich Gulch 1840 Frenchtown 1844 Concow School 1876 Spannstown 1866 Lumber Dump 1874 - 1884 Hendricks Mill 1866 Lumber Flume The Flea Valley Ranch Mr. Sanford, mentioned in the 1857 article on Flea Valley, does not appear in the 1860 census for Butte County so he must not have stayed long. The Mr. Fairbanks was Henry Augustus Fairbanks, born in 1830 in Virginia. He first lived in Frenchtown, later moving to Cherokee. His neighbors were Hiram Clemons, A.J. Foster, Manoah Pence and James Arbuckle, all of whom would become involved at some point with the Flea Valley Ranch. The 1858 Butte County tax records indicate that the Flea Valley Ranch consisted of 160 acres assessed at $266 with improvements assessed at $1500. $1500 was a lot of money to spend on improvements in 1858; a typical house would be assessed at $150 to $200. The location of the property was at the intersection of Concow Rd and Dixie Rd, (although Dixie Rd did not officially exist until much later). There is also a strong possibility that Fairbanks never intended to live there full time, possibly because of the winter snows, because he kept his home in Cherokee. Fairbank’s savings must have been drained by the Flea Valley Ranch because in Dec 1858, Henry Fairbanks mortgaged his interest in the Flea Valley Ranch to A.J. Foster, his neighbor in Cherokee in consideration for a $760 loan due in 12 months. The loan was considered paid in full in June 1860 when Fairbanks deeded 80 acres of the ranch to Foster in lieu of payment. In July 1860, Fairbanks took out another mortgage for 80 acres, the balance of his holdings, with his brother Augustus Fairbanks in consideration for a $500 loan for 3 years. In August 1860, Foster sold his half interest in the Flea Valley Ranch plus his ranch near Cherokee to Manoah Pence for $770. Foster would leave the area, moving to Santa Clara, Ca. In Oct, two months later, Manoah Pence sells the half of Flea Valley Ranch he acquired from Foster to Hiram Clemons, a miner, for $1,000. Hiram Clemons and his partner Lucius Snow held mining claims farther north on the Little Kimshew Creek. In July 1861 Henry Fairbanks sells his half interest in the Flea Valley Ranch to Clemons as well for $1300 and pays off the mortgage to his brother. Hiram Clemons now was sole owner of the ranch, paying $2300 for the property. In August 1862 Hiram Clemons married Lucy Buxton of Frenchtown at the Flea Valley Ranch. Michael Wells of Yankee Hill and Justice of the Peace performed the ceremony. Meanwhile in June 1863 Henry Fairbanks married Charlottie Whitelow of Cherokee, where they would continue to live. Site of Fairbanks Home - Duensing Hotel Flea Valley Oct 2012 Flea Valley Ranch Changes Hands Again In March of 1865 the Flea Valley Ranch was sold by the Oroville Sheriff to settle a debt owed to J.C. Orr of Cherokee by Hiram Clemons. It appears Clemons’s wife had left him. The sale price was $1098 and the buyer was Garhardt Tebbe who would later own the Deadwood Sanitarium on Concow Rd. Tebbe’s sister, Johanna Thunen and her husband William Thunen also lived at Flea Valley. In April 1867 the Tebbe’s and the Thunen’s decided to move closer to town, Gerhardt Tebbe sold the 160 acre property to J. M. Arbuckle and A. L. Fairbanks, as joint owners for $500. James M. Arbuckle was the neighbor of Henry Fairbanks in Cherokee. As mentioned earlier, A.L. Fairbanks was Augustus Lorenzo Fairbanks, the brother of Henry Fairbanks, the original owner and founder of the Flea Valley Ranch and hotel. In March 1868 Arbuckle sold his half to the older Fairbanks so now Augustus Fairbanks was the sole owner of the Flea Valley Ranch and hotel. The fortunes of the Flea Valley Ranch and hotel were probably not helped when Concow Lake was established in 1870 and J.B. Mullen opened his own hotel on the shores of the lake. Apparently the Flea Valley hotel still brought in income. Miners were working claims farther up Concow Road in the area that is today called Ramsey’s Bar, named after William Ramsey, an early miner. Back then the area was called Little Kimshew. The area was the same area where Clemons and Snow (mentioned earlier) had their mining claims. In 1867 Little Kimshew had 30 registered voters, Concow had 20 registered voters and Yankee Hill had 34 registered voters. Only men could register to vote at the time. Business at the Flea Valley Hotel was also helped by the new business started just up the road in Nov 1873. The Flea Valley Lumber Mill The lumber output in Butte County had increased from 6,000,000 board feet in 1868 to 62,000,000 board feet by 1873. The need for lumber in California and the surrounding states was rapidly growing and a number of new saw mills were established. Butte Record Nov 8, 1873 New Saw Mill.—We understand that Messrs. Ritchie, McGrath & Co., have commenced the erection of a saw mill, probably the largest in the county. The mill is situated about 17 miles from Cherokee at what is known as Flea Valley. The machinery for this mill was purchased in Marysville. The site for the Flea Valley Mill was about 2 ½ miles above the Flea Valley Ranch on Concow Rd. Today maps show the area as Rag Dump, but that name was not used until the 1930’s. Ritchie, McGrath and Company mentioned in the newspaper article consisted of John Ritchie, Eugene McGrath, J.G. Orr and H.P. Hobbs; all were from Cherokee. It appears McGrath was the one with lumbering experience and the force behind the group. He had previously been associated with a mill above Magalia. Two days after the article appeared in the Oroville paper announcing the building of the mill at Flea Valley, a series of buyouts occurred. Richie and Orr were bought out by David and John Daniels of Cherokee. John Ritchie received $500 for his share in the Flea Valley Mill property and apparently left the area. Eugene McGrath increased his share and also ended up owning the new mill equipment that was on the way from Marysville to Flea Valley. In March of 1874 Joseph Willit of Cherokee sold his cabin and mining claim on Fall Creek known as the Rowbore and Stanely claim to the newly incorporated Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company for $75. In May and July of 1874 what were known as Water Claims were filed for water rights on Little Rock Creek to supply water to the new mill via a ditch or flume. On the claims H.P. Hobbs was listed as the secretary of the organization. There were restrictions on how much water you could claim so that you could not have exclusive water rights. It was not uncommon for mines or saw mills to make claims on water from several creeks or rivers nearby to support their operation. **Wooden Flumes Used to Carry the Lumber to the Finishing Mills Below** In March 1875 a claim was filed for water rights on Camp Creek and all its tributaries for the purpose of running a flume to the mill’s dumping ground near Pence’s Ranch. The claim was filed by the Superintendent of the mill Daniel Hilton who was also from Cherokee. The 1874/1875 tax rolls listed the assets of the company as 160 acres in Flea Valley valued at $200, 3 wagons valued at $275, 14 oxen valued at $700, implements and steam engine to run the saw valued at $1500. The concept was to rough cut the lumber at Flea Valley in to planks and then send it via the flumes and ditches to Pentz for the final milling to size. The cost of building the wooden flume and digging the ditches from Flea Valley to Saw Mill Hill and on to Pentz was nearly $3,000 per mile. About half the distance was traversed via elevated wooden flumes and half via ditches in the ground. The concept of using water flumes to float the lumber to the mill had been developed in Nevada several years earlier. Although the initial costs were high to build the flume, over time the costs were recovered by not having to pay the high cost of teaming the lumber with wagons and oxen to the mill. But the high upfront costs soon required new investors in the venture. In July 1876 another water claim was filed by the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company for the water rights on Little Kimshew Creek and all its tributaries starting at a point ½ mile below William Ramsey and Company’s mining claim for the purpose of running a flume to the head of Fall Creek and on to the Defiance Mill, the name given the company’s mill at Flea Valley. The claim was filed by the new Secretary of the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company, Henry Fairbanks, the founder of the Flea Valley Ranch and Joseph M Brock, the owner of the largest hardware store in Oroville which specialized in mining needs. Brock’s hardware business had been in Oroville since the late 1850’s. Soon, David Perkins another successful Oroville businessman would join the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company. He owned the Oroville grocery and provisions store founded by his brother George Perkins in the 1850’s. George Perkins would become Governor of California from 1880 to 1883. These new partners provided supplies and much needed capital for the building of the flumes and expansion of the business. By 1876 strong competition was forming with a new lumber company located in Chico, the Sierra Lumber and Flume Company. The company was created by the acquisition of several smaller lumber companies, each of which had their own mill. The new company was well financed and grew quickly. They, too, used water flumes to carry timber to Chico from Butte Meadows roughly paralleling what is today’s highway 32. Prior to that time, saw mills in Butte County were small locally owned operations. **Rock Creek Lumber Company, Flume and Mining Company** Eugene McGrath, the original founder of the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company decided to open a second mill 2 ½ miles above the Flea Valley Mill in 1876 as a separate venture called the Rock Creek Lumber, Flume and Mining Company. Perhaps he started this venture because his share had been diluted by the new investors in the Flea Valley venture, or perhaps he was bought out. The Rock Creek mill built a flume connecting to the Flea Valley mill’s flume so they could transport lumber to the lumber dump at Pentz as well. That same year in November, Columbus Augustus Leamon and John Adam Heckart filed a patent at Pence’s Ranch for a water powered cart that would allow several people to ride the flume in both directions with and against the water current. This would significantly speed up transportation between two places. It is not clear if the cart was capable of climbing the steeper grades like the grade up the hills to Flea Valley from Pentz. The cart probably benefited the flume tenders the most (people hired to check sections of the flumes for damage and lumber pile ups. It was not uncommon for the tender to live in a cabin near the flume). Dr Enloe and family riding the flume Sierra Lumber Co Flume The use of flumes was dangerous. Large trees were initially milled at the upper mill sites into large boards that would be milled again at the lower sites into smaller boards as needed after they traveled the flume. But while no logs traveled the flumes the larger boards still occasionally caused damage to the flume. In July 1877, five people were inspecting the flume (Charles Campbell, a man named Stevens, Patrick Bacon, Richard Watson and a Chinese man.) They found a lumber jam and were trying to break it loose when the shaking of the lumber by the men caused 200 feet of the elevated flume to collapse. Patrick Bacon and Richard Watson were killed; the man named Stevens was seriously injured. The Financial Panic of 1877 In May of 1877 the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company purchased a block of Downtown Oroville located at Bird and Huntoon Streets to be used as a lumber yard. The price was $2,000 paid to Callow and Stevens who owned the Ohio Livery Stable in Oroville. Callow and Stevens were also investors in the corporation. In Sept 1877 the Bank of America failed in San Francisco. The Sierra Lumber Company in Chico, now the largest lumber company in the area saw demand drop from 40,000,000 board feet per year to 10,000,000 board feet per year; the company was $600,000 in debt. The sudden drop in demand also saw the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company in Flea Valley face financial hardship. In May of 1878 the tax records indicate the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company assets were given a value of the following: mill and machinery $5,000, wagons $900, horses $600, oxen $3240, lumber $3,000 and 14 miles of wooden flume $14,000. It appears only the wooden flume was taxed, not the ditches. At the Rock Creek Mill, located further north, the assets were given a value of the following: 320 acres with a mining claim $300, oxen $700, engine $2,000, taxes paid were $107 or about 3 ½ %. The Rock Creek mill was clearly a much smaller operation with less than 1/3 the equipment of the Defiance Mill in Flea Valley. In June 1878 J.M. Brock sued the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company to settle a debt owed him (probably his store for provisions) by the Corporation. He had to list his fellow investors as defendants; they were George Perkins, David Perkins, James Logan, Thomas Callow, George Stevens, N Cohen and S Cohen. Fairbanks and McGrath were not listed so it is assumed they were no longer involved. Joseph Brock purchased the assets during the sheriff’s sale in Oroville for $94,716.67 which is probably the amount of debt owed him. The Rock Creek mill assets were not involved. Rock Creek Lumber, Flume and Mining Company Changes Owners In 1878 the Rock Creek Lumber, Flume and Mining operation was also sued for $12,984 in unpaid mortgages by John Davis, a miner living in Cherokee. The shareholders in the Rock Creek Lumber Corporation were listed as Eugene McGrath 990 shares, Abram Wolf 990 shares, Charles Wright 990 shares and Henry Fairbanks 50 shares, all from Cherokee, as well as John Dana 990 shares, of Little Rock Creek. Abram Wolf, who was President, held a mortgage for a $12,984 loan he made the Rock Creek Lumber Corporation. John Davis had made a loan to Wolf in the amount of $5,000 and claimed Wolf pledged the mortgage he held on the Rock Creek Mill as collateral for his loan to Wolf. Wolf had recently died, John Davis wanted to collect the $12,984 owed Abraham Wolf on the mortgages, so Davis sued the Rock Creek Lumber Corporation. During the trial, George Parry acquired 75% of the company’s stock and J.S. Bassett became President. Parry was a miner and a carpenter by trade living in Cherokee. Bassett was also a miner and lived in Concow. The Rock Creek Lumber Company held 21 mining claims along the Little Kimshew Creek at the time of the suit. Davis’s case was denied by the California Supreme Court because there was no documentation supporting Davis’s claim that Wolf pledged the mortgage as collateral on his loan, and in fact it would have been illegal if Wolf had committed the shares without the other stockholder’s approval. However, Parry loaned the corporation $5,000 and took over the mortgage that Davis claimed he owned in his suit. It is assumed the money was given to Wolf’s wife to settle her debt with Davis. In late 1878 Parry filed suit for default on the debt owed him by the Rock Creek Lumber Corporation. The assets of the Rock Creek Lumber, Flume and Mining Company were returned over to George Parry in Feb 1879. The assets that were considered valuable were the mining claims; the mill equipment was included but only briefly mentioned in the three page mortgage. It appears Eugene McGrath was more interested in mining than the lumber business when he founded the Corporation. The lumber business was probably just a way of supporting the mining business. That may have been McGrath’s intention when he formed the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Corporation earlier. When the Oroville concerns came into that corporation and acquired all the stock and invested money to build the flume to the Pentz lumber dump, their primary focus became lumber rather than mining. McGrath, now on his own, continued mining in Butte County until 1891, in fact he was partners with George Parry in other mining ventures in the area. He later moved to San Jose, Ca where he was Superintendent of a mine there, presumably the Almaden Quick Silver Mine, the primary mine in the area. **Oroville Lumber Company** Joseph Brock became ill shortly after he purchased the assets of the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company and made one of his employees, Floyd Taber, a partner in the store in Oroville which was renamed Brock and Taber. Later in 1879 Brock moved to Oakland leaving his partner Floyd Taber and son-in-law Milton Green, an accountant by trade, to run the store. Interestingly enough, Green had previously been David Perkins’ accountant, Brock’s partner in the Flea Valley Lumber Company operation. Before Brock became ill he leased the mill at Flea Valley to Charles Holbrook. In 1879 Holbrook incorporated the Oroville Lumber Company with $200,000 in capital. Interestingly the partners in the old Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company would become shareholders in the Oroville Lumber Company. It makes you wonder how much of the $94,716 that Brock paid for the assets of the old company really changed hands. This practice of reorganizing with the same shareholders was common at the time; Sierra Lumber Company in Chico did the same thing. *Chico Weekly Butte Record 10-4-1879 First ad with Oroville Lumber Co name* **OROVILLE LUMBER COMPANY!** C. H. HOLBROOK, SUPERINTENDENT. Leasee of the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company’s Property. MANUFACTURE and Sell at Wholesale and retail all kinds of Lumber and Building Material, COMMON LUMBER, RUSTIC, FLOORING CEILING, SIDING, SHINGLES, SHAKES, etc. DOORS, WINDOWS AND BLINDS, For Sale at Lowest Market Rates. Flume Dump, Pence’s Ranch, Butte County. C. H. HOLBROOK, Superintenden Holbrook had been previously associated with the Clipper Mill in Butte County, which was purchased by the Sierra Lumber Company. He managed their books. In November of 1879 the Sierra lumber Company in Chico lowered prices putting pressure on the Oroville Lumber Company operations in Flea Valley. Chico Weekly Butte Record Nov 15, 1879 LUMBER! REDUCED FROM $18 to $15 Per Thousand Feet. FROM this date, until otherwise ordered, the SIERRA LUMBER COMPANY will sell COMMON LUMBER from 12 to 20 feet in length, at its yard in Chico, at the above reduced rate. The rates on all other qualities of Lumber have also been reduced. Special Rates for Cash and on Large Lots. A. C. WOODSUM, General Superintendent Chico, Sept. 2, 1879.—L In 1880 the Oroville Lumber Company’s taxes were assessed with a value as follows, Mill and Machinery $2500, 10 wagons $750, 14 Horses $800, 40 oxen $1400. In 1881 Joseph Brock sold the Oroville Lumber Company section 22 of Township 23 NR4E, totaling 640 acres for $1600. The property was about 1 mile southwest of the Flea Valley Mill; the land was purchased for the timber it held. (see map) By 1879 the feasibility of the flumes and their costs, especially their unexpected high maintenance costs, were being questioned. After a recent storm, an article that appeared in the Chico papers raised the concerns. Chico Weekly Butte Record 12-27-1879 The Flume. We have been unable to ascertain anything definite as to the amount of damage sustained by the Sierra Lumber Company to their flume property. We understand, however, that there is thought to be a good many breaks in Chico canyon, and the telegraph wires being down, there has been no communication between the Chico office and the mills for several days. We understand, also, that the Blue Ridge and Antelope flumes, in Tehama county, sustained considerable damages. Previous to the construction of these flumes the lumber business was a profitable one for all who engaged in it. Now, it puzzles us to name any of those who have in any manner been connected with the flume business who have not been brought to the verge of bankruptcy and carried others with them. The flume property has been looked upon as a great source of profit, but the expense of building it through the canyons, and keeping it in repair after it was built, has cost them more than the primitive method of teaming lumber from the mill to the valley. Perhaps this is a mere assertion which cannot be maintained, but a comparison of the prosperity of the lumber business of 1871, 1872 and 1873 with that of 1878 and 1879 justifies the assertion. But not only has the fluming enterprise proved ruinous to those engaged in it, but it has been a death-blow to all the teaming interests of Chico, retarding instead of advancing our prosperity. It is to-day an apparent fact that not one single redeeming feature of the flume enterprise can be pointed out as conferring a benefit upon any one. Oroville Lumber Company Assets Sold The poor profit returns forced the assets of the Oroville Lumber Company to be sold in April 1882 to Sylvanns Farnham, a banker in Vallejo. His brother Ellison Putnam Farnham had been in the lumber business in Butte County since the mid 1860’s, first with a mill at Mountain House. In 1882 he owned a major share in the Lumpkin Lumber Mill which he sold and started the Merrimac Mill in 1883. Soon after acquiring it, Farnham shut down the mill at Flea Valley and removed the equipment, but continued the lumber dump at Pentz. The land at Flea Valley was listed as owner “unknown” in the tax records recorded in late 1883. No equipment was listed in the land’s description. Before the sale to Farnham, Daniel Hilton, former supervisor of the Pentz lumber dump and at the time the President of the Oroville Lumber Company, donated 5 acres of land adjacent to the dump site to the Messilla Valley School District in May 1882 for $1.00. The school had been relocated to the site in late 1879. Charles Holbrook, the former President of the Oroville Lumber Company continued to operate the lumber dump with a partner named Phelps. They processed and sold lumber at the site. The tax records in 1883 stated they had 10,000,000 board feet in stock valued at $11,000. The lumber inventory at the dump in 1883 had grown from 1,000,000 board feet in 1882. The assets in 1883 were described as 6 mules, 6 wagons, 12 horses, 20 oxen and 30 tons of hay. The milling machinery at Pentz in 1882 was valued at $1,000 but it was not listed in 1883, indicating it had been removed. In December 1883 the papers reported the following about the lumber industry in Butte County. “It takes 15 to 20 men a day to produce a carload of lumber. Oroville has shipped 400 carloads in 1883. Each carload holds 10,000 feet of lumber. The cost is from $23 to $25 per thousand feet. The cost to haul the lumber by wagon is $9 to $10 per thousand feet. On Monday 5 teams drove in lumber from Flea Valley, 12 teams drove in from the Lumpkin Mill. Next year Merrimac Mill at Peavine (Farnham’s new venture) will produce 400 carloads.” The Oroville Lumber Company Dump at Pence continued on until late 1884 when it was also closed. The reason the dump at Pence stayed open was possibly because of the Rock Creek Mill, which still existed, and its ability to supply lumber for sale at Pence. Farnham had acquired the rights to the flume from Flea Valley to Pentz when he acquired the Flea Valley mill; it is assumed he tore down the flume before the lumber dump at Pentz closed in 1884. This may have contributed to the large lumber inventory build up at the dump site at the end of 1883. After the dump closed the remaining lumber was probably sold by Farnham via his Merrimac Mill distribution connections. I could find no references to the Oroville Lumber Company after 1884. It is interesting to note that the property purchased by the Sugar Pine Lumber Company in downtown Oroville in 1877, by 1884 was owned by David Perkins, a previous investor and operated as a lumber yard. Where he acquired his lumber inventory after 1884 is not known. Charles Holbrook, operator of the Oroville Lumber Company, purchased a home in Oakland, Ca in 1880 where his family lived. In 1900 he was listed as manager of a lumber mill in Siskiyou County. In 1895 James Hutchinson operated a mill at Flea Valley, perhaps the old Rock Creek mill; it only operated a few years. Hutchinson purchased land above Berry Creek in 1902 and built a mill there that he ran until about 1916. Lumber Mill Site or Land Holdings Town or Community Site Mining Site Scale 1:200,000 1" = 3.16 mi Data Zoom 10-0 Troubles at the Flea Valley Ranch In 1875 Augustus Fairbanks married Margaret Kenyon of New York and continued to live on the Flea Valley Ranch. The 1875 tax rolls listed the assets of the ranch as 160 acres valued at $200, improvements valued at $300, 1 wagon worth $25, 2 horses valued at $60, 4 cows (milk cows) valued at $80, 6 cattle (beef cows) valued at $70, 6 hogs valued at $15, poultry valued at $8, tools valued at $12 and furniture valued at $100, total taxes paid $17.40. The Fairbanks family would have three children in Flea Valley, Mabel in March 1876, Willard in 1878 and Monroe Sanford Fairbanks in 1879. Augustus Lorenzo Fairbanks, who lived on the Flea Valley Ranch since 1867 sold his ranch in December 1882 for $1200 to David Perkins, the owner of the grocery and provisions store in Oroville and an investor in the Flea Valley Lumber operation. The formal land patent request was not applied for by Fairbanks until this time, probably as a condition of sale by Perkins. The sale was probably prompted by his wife leaving him. Fairbanks moved back to Cherokee after the sale. You probably are assuming his wife got tired of living in Flea Valley and moved away, but she purchased the Flea Valley Ranch back from Perkins in February 1883 for $1050. The hotel must have still been a viable business and a nice place to live. But in 1888 Perkins would sue Mrs. Fairbanks for an unpaid debt of $1175 resulting in a sheriff’s sale and the property reverting back to Perkins. The deed to Perkins stated Margaret (Mary) Fairbanks had remarried and was known as Mary Cowen. I believe she left the area before she remarried. There is no record of a divorce from Fairbanks on file in Butte County. By 1918 she and her two sons were living in San Francisco. Duensing Family Runs the Hotel Florence Danforth in her articles published in the 1940’s in the Oroville newspapers entitled “Old days in Butte” reported that Betty Duensing operated the Flea Valley Hotel from 1886 to 1907. She states the Duensing family had been living in Flea Valley sometime before that. Betty Duensing divorced her husband George Frederick Duensing in Feb 1894. Betty filed a land Patent in Feb 1894 for 40 acres in Flea Valley adjacent to the old Fairbanks claim. It is unclear when she first inhabited the 40 acres as claims were often filed years later. The Duensing family may have lived on the 40 acres just behind the Flea Valley Ranch in 1886 as the property was also granted to her in the divorce settlement, implying it was a shared asset. Filing the land patent would have formalized the deed. David Perkins never lived in Flea Valley so allowing Betty Duensing to rent the hotel on the adjacent property during this time would have made good business sense. Betty married Jacob Hottman in Nov 1895. They continued to live at Flea Valley. In 1907 Jacob Hottman died and Betty Duensing Hottman moved to Oroville. Flea Valley Turns to Cattle Ranching The Butte County census shows the population for the Little Kimshew Creek area above Flea Valley dramatically dropped by 1900 as mining was dying out in that area. In 1909 Diamond Match Company built a railroad from Stirling City to Ramsey Bar, five miles above Flea Valley ending near Concow Road, where they had a saw mill. The railroad would have had minimal benefit to the Flea Valley Hotel as the railroad was self sufficient, supplying their employees meals and cabins. The Diamond Match Company operated the railroad and mill until about 1915; the U line road somewhat follows the path of the old rail bed to Stirling City. In November 1894 David Perkins died after a wagon carrying mining supplies got away from him. As he was standing next to it, the horses spooked and the wagon went off the road running him over. He was alone at the time. His son found him hours later and he died three days later at home, he was 50 years old. In 1895 the Perkins estate sold 160 acres in Flea Valley located below the old Flea Valley Ranch and hotel to Charles Campbell of Cherokee for $140. In 1898 Charles Campbell also purchased the adjacent 160 acre Flea Valley Ranch site for $500. The Campbell family must have continued to let Betty Duensing run the hotel until 1907. The following article talks about herding cattle to the mountains in 1895. Oroville Register 5-16-1895 Cattle in the Mountains. From Thos. Retson we gather some facts concerning cattle amid the mountains of this county. Mr. Retson and his brother are extensive stock raisers near Table mountain and in summer they drive their stock to the West Branch. They will send up this month about three hundred head. Miller Brothers summer there 600; Jones Brothers of Oregon City, 200; Chas. Campbell 150; H. C. White 150; D. C. Morgan 125, W. H. McKay 150; and Messrs. Elliott, Thompson and Stokes over 100 each, making in all about 2,000 head that range between the West Branch and Golden Summit. The stock fatten on the rich grass and on sweet barch. The seeds of this shrub are very fattening. Only four or five men remain to look after the cattle in summer and few head are ever lost or stolen. Once in a while a bear gets away with one or a California lion makes a meal of a calf. The animals are sent to the range in May and brought back in October. Between 1900 and 1920 there was a buying spree of property in the Flea Valley area to secure timber rights and cattle grazing land. The Central Pacific Railroad owned 34,000 acres in the Ramsey Bar, Flea Valley and Concow area in 1883. The railroad was selling the land they acquired in the 1870's; several local families as well as the Diamond Match Company were buyers. About 1915 the Forest Service established a fire lookout at Flea Valley, it operated there until around 1928 when it was moved to Rag Dump, the old Flea Valley Lumber Mill site, where it operated until the early 1930's. In 1919 the children of Betty Duensing Hottman and George Duensing, George Jr., Adolph and August Duensing purchased an additional 38 acres located on the back side of Flea Mountain for $10. In 1939 Diamond Match, who purchased the Sierra Lumber Company in Chico and had acquired large amounts of land in this area around 1902, purchased 5 large trucks so they could haul lumber from the mountains to the Stirling City Mill. The Lodi Sentinel ran an article on the operation and said they could make the trip from Stirling City to Flea Valley in 1 hour; the dirt roads must have been in great shape then, this likely is when the P line road was constructed from Stirling City to Flea Valley. In 1944 Charles Campbell’s widow, Alice Campbell sold Diamond Match the timber rights on the Campbell family property for $10, probably because their focus was on cattle ranching. With the land cleared they could graze more cattle. As part of the agreement Diamond Match was allowed to tear down any structures on the property. The Flea Valley Hotel was probably taken down then if not before. Diamond Match was also given the right to build a railroad on the Flea Valley property if they so desired, it did not happen. By 1950 the Duensing family would own another 160 acres in Flea Valley. In 1950, the 38 acres located behind the Flea Valley Ranch Site was transferred to the Duensing children, one of whom was Katherine Duensing Campbell, the daughter of George Duensing Jr. and the wife of Carrol Campbell. Today the 38 acres in Flea Valley is owned by Dug Ringel and an Uncle. Katherine Campbell was Dug’s Grandmother. The site is referred to as the Campbell Meadows. The descendants of the Charles Campbell family still owned the Flea Valley Ranch property in 1974 and the timber rights belong to the Sierra Pacific Lumber Company which purchased them from Diamond Match when the company folded in the late 1960’s. The two Campbell families mentioned above are not related: Charles Campbell purchased the Flea Valley Ranch property in 1895, his father John Campbell was from Ireland and settled in Cherokee. The descendants of Katherine (Duensing) and Carrol Campbell, whose family came from Tehama County, inherited the Duensing property. **Cattle Drives to Flea Valley Come to an End** Concow Road was paved from the lake site to its current stopping point in the early 70’s to accommodate the development of Camelot and the surrounding areas. Prior to that, that section of road was gravel. Local residents here before 1970 talk of walking from the lake to the old Pines Store located at the intersection of Pinkston Canyon Road and Concow Road and not seeing a single car. By 1970 the practice of running cattle up to Flea Valley for the summer was becoming less feasible because the construction of highway 70, replacing the old Nelson Bar Road access, resulted in more automobile traffic to contend with. The Flea Valley area itself was also becoming more popular with motorcycle and off road enthusiasts which disturbed the cattle. By the mid 1970’s the cattle drives were over. The land at Flea Valley was of little use to the ranchers for summer grazing. Cabins built by the Lynch family, Johnson/Pinkston family, Duensing/Campbell family and other ranching families were abandoned and with time would disappear as had the old hotel. The men and women who lived beyond the end of the pavement on Concow Road for over 50 years are gone now, as are the cabins of the ranchers. Evidence of their presence almost completely erased, just like the Indians that lived there before them. Flea Valley has a single resident now, Howard Goodman living at Rag Dump, the old Flea Valley - Defiance Mill site. *The last cattle drive - 1975 photo on Highway 70 courtesy of Bob Saville* Just as it has for the last one hundred plus years, the wind blows across Flea mountain, rustling through the pines, shaking loose a few dried pine needles to land on the weathered, hand split shingles that cover the outside walls and roof. Most of the wavy glass panes are gone from the windows, allowing the wind to deposit some of the needles inside, on the few remaining rough cut pine floor boards. The only residents now of the aged cabin, are the mice and rats that gather the needles to make their nests in the clapboard cabinet, still barely hanging on the wall, next to where the wood stove once stood. Many of the hand forged square nails still protrude from the walls where they may have held other shelves or provided a place to hang coats and hats. From the claw marks, it looks as though a bear may have taken shelter from the elements numerous times, and ripped things apart.... probably years ago, when the faint smells of spilled food and bacon grease still lingered. Now the aging structure relies on the pine tree to remain standing, but the heavy winter snows will undoubtedly take their toll, and soon only the mountain winds will evidence those thing that were... Bob Saville Duensing/Campbell Cabin built sometime after 1919 Photo and Accompanying Text Courtesy of Bob Saville Below is brief information about the practices of finance and real-estate before 1900 In the 1800’s deals were usually made between friends or local businessmen with money rather than with banks. Local banks were basically small lenders. A handshake could seal a deal but if the deal went sour you found a local judge and filed a complaint. If the judge found in your favor, the other defendant’s assets would be put up for sale to cover the damages owed. The sale would happen on the court house steps, six months later if the debt had not been settled, the sale was made final and money changed hands and new deeds were recorded. This practice was in effect for many years. There were no bankruptcy laws to protect you if you borrowed money. Prior to 1862 you filed a land patent to claim land you had occupied and wanted put in your name, the fee was $15. When the patent was approved by the state government, you were then the rightful owner. Early claims talk of four points on their land as the boundaries, a large rock, a river, a post in the ground, etc. In 1862 the Homestead Act was created which lead to counties being divided up into townships each with 36 one square mile numbered sections divided into four 160 acre parcels that you could homestead if you lived on the property and farmed the land. Many people in outlying areas did not file for the land patents or homesteads until they wanted to sell their land in order to save the $15 and a trip to the county clerk or to avoid taxes. Many early land patents were not filed until the 1870’s or even 1880’s; even though the claimant had lived on the land for years, some since the 1860’s. In 1862 the railroads could buy up diagonal quarter sections, 160 acres for $2.50 an acre to finance the building of the railroads (to keep access to the lands open to traffic and allow the public to own land. They could not buy adjoining sections). The lands not needed were later sold by the railroads in the 1870’s, 80’s and 90’s. Many of the railroads held land with valuable timber that was later acquired by people or businesses speculating in lumber. A lot of the land from Concow to Ramsey Bar, including Flea Valley was held by the Central Pacific Railroad (nearly 34,000 acres) and later purchased by Diamond Match from whom it was later acquired by Sierra Pacific Lumber Company. Further Reading: In 1996, the Feather River District of the Plumas National Forest Service wrote a report on the Flea Valley Lumber Mill at Rag Dump, researched by Deborah Tibbetts. Copies of the report are available at the Oroville Office. In 1998, Robert Colby wrote an article in the “Tales of The Paradise Ridge” volume 39 #2 about a tour of Rag Dump hosted by Deborah Tibbetts. Copies are available from the Gold Nugget Museum. For further information see the following guide to some of the key characters mentioned in this article with additional information about their lives. **Flea Valley, Rag Dump, Ramsey Bar List of Characters** **Arbuckle, James Monroe** – Born in 1820 in Vermont. He lived in Butte County from 1867 to 1897; he was living in Cherokee in 1867. In 1868 he shared a mortgage on the Flea Valley Ranch with Augustus Fairbanks. His neighbors in Cherokee were A.J. Foster, Hiram Clemons, Henry Fairbanks and Manoah Pence. He died in 1897 at Pentz. He is buried in the Clear Creek Cemetery. **Boynton, Albert Eugene** – Born in Oct 1875 in Oroville, A.E. Boynton acquired the old saw mill site in Flea Valley sometime after 1882 and sold it to Henry C White, a miner and stock raiser in Oregon City in 1904 for $10. Boynton, a lawyer by trade, died in 1945 in San Francisco. **Brock, Joseph** – Born in 1830 in New Hampshire, he came to Oroville in the early 1850’s where he opened a successful hardware and mining supply business. He invested in several businesses in the area including the Bidwell Bridge and Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company. He acquired the assets of the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company in 1878 at a sheriff’s sale for $94,716 as a settlement for debt owed him by the corporation. Brock held onto the assets and leased out the mill. He became ill in 1882 and made his clerk a partner in the Oroville business allowing him to move to Oakland, where he died in Nov 1889. It appears Brock turned the assets over to the Oroville Lumber Company of which he was a partner along with several others. The actual money transfer from the 1878 sale may have been far less than the $94,716 mentioned above. **Callow, Thomas** – Born in 1824 on the Isle of Man, he owned the Ohio Livery Stable in Oroville with George Stevens. He and his partner’s estate sold the lot in Oroville located at Bird and Huntoon to the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company in 1877 for $2,000 for a lumber yard. It appears he died around 1890. **Campbell, Carrol** – Born in 1893 in Butte County, his father was Andrew Jackson Campbell from Tehama, Ca, Carrol married Katherine Duensing about 1925. Carrol’s grandparents were from Missouri, his father from Tehama County. Katherine inherited some of the Duensing property at Flea Valley, a 38 acre section purchased in 1919. Dugald Ringle, Katherine’s Grandson, now owns the property with an Uncle; the area is called Campbell Meadows. (Note: Carrol Campbell and Charles Campbell are not related) **Campbell, Charles S** – Born in 1853 in Michigan, his father John Campbell was from Ireland and lived in Cherokee. Charles purchased 160 acres in Flea Valley in 1895 located below the Flea Valley Ranch for $140. He purchased the 160 acre Flea Valley Ranch property in 1898 for $500. In 1944 his widow sold the timber rights to the Diamond Match Lumber Company and gave them the right to tear down all the structures on the property as well as the option to put a railroad on the site if they desired to do so. In 1974 the property was still with Charles Campbell’s descendants and the timber rights held by Sierra Pacific Lumber. (Note: Carrol Campbell and Charles Campbell are not related) **Clemons, Hiram** – Born in 1820 in Vermont. Lived in Butte County from 1867 to 1897, was living in Cherokee in 1867, neighbors with A.J. Foster, James Arbuckle, Henry Fairbanks and Manoah Pence. He was partners with Lucius Snow in mining ventures on the Little Kimshew River above Flea Valley. Owned Flea Valley Ranch and hotel from 1861 to 1865 when he went broke. He married Lucy B Buxton in Aug 1862 at the ranch, they later divorced. **Cohen,N** - Not much is known about Cohen. He was an investor in the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company in 1878, probably from out of this area and related to S Cohen, probably brought in by another investor. **Cohen,S** - Not much is known about Cohen. He invested in the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company in 1878, probably from out of this area and related to N Cohen, probably brought in by another investor. **Duensing, Betty** – Wife of George Duensing was born in 1857 in Sweden and immigrated to the US in 1872. She married George Frederick Duensing in 1874, they had 7 children. Betty Duensing managed the Flea Valley hotel from 1886 to 1907. In Feb 1894 Betty filed a land patent for 40 acres behind the hotel on the left side of Flea Mountain. Betty Duensing divorced George F Duensing in Feb 1894, retaining custody of the four living children; three had died within the last two years and were buried at the Thompson Flat Cemetery. Betty married Jacob Miller Hottman in Nov 1895. They lived at Flea Valley until Jacob died in 1907. Later, Betty left Flea Valley and moved to Oroville where some time much later she married Harry Summers. Betty died in 1928 and is buried in the Thompson Flat Cemetery. **Fairbanks, Augustus Lorenzo** – Born in 1829 in Vermont. He was the brother of Henry Augustus Fairbanks. In 1863 he lived in Cherokee with his brother. In 1867 he purchased the Flea Valley Ranch with James Arbuckle, which was first founded by his brother, Henry Fairbanks. They purchased the ranch from Garratt Tebbe for $500. In 1868 Arbuckle sells his half to Fairbanks who now owns the entire ranch. In 1875 tax rolls indicate he had 1 wagon, 2 horses, 4 cows, 6 head of cattle, 6 hogs, some chickens and furniture valued at $100. He died around 1900, possibly buried in Sacramento where his daughter Mabel (Fairbanks) Heim lived. Mabel, born in 1876, along with her two brothers, Willard, born in 1878 and Monroe, born in 1879 were all born at Flea Valley. **Fairbanks, Henry Augustus** – Born in 1830 in Vermont. He was the younger brother to Augustus Lorenzo Fairbanks. Henry lived in Frenchtown in 1857 when he said he would open a hotel in Flea Valley with a man name Sanford. In 1858 the tax records indicate he had 160 acres and had made $1500 in improvements. (A house usually was valued at $150 - $200 dollars at that time.) Henry would sell ½ his interest in the Flea valley property in 1860 and the other ½ in 1861. He later bought property in Cherokee next to Manoah Pence’s place. He was secretary for the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company in 1876 and later Secretary for the Rock Creek Lumber, Flume and Mining Company. He moved to Anderson, Ca about 1881 and died there in June 1902. **Fairbanks, Margaret (Mary)** – Born in 1849 in New York she marries Augustus Lorenzo Fairbanks in 1875, together they have three children at Flea Valley Ranch. She leaves Fairbanks; in 1882 he sells the ranch for $1200 to David Perkins. Margaret, his estranged wife, buys the ranch back 2 months later for $1075 from Perkins. She later marries a man named Cowen about 1886-87. They apparently left the area and defaulted on payments and the Flea Valley Ranch is taken back by Perkins in 1888. He holds onto it until his estate starts selling it off in 1895. In 1895 and 1898 Charles Campbell buys the Flea Valley land. Mary (Fairbanks) Cowen, along with her two sons lived in San Francisco in 1918. **Farnham, Ellison Putnam** - Oroville Lumber Company assets sold to Sylvanns Cobb Farnham, a banker in Solano County. The following described property: All of Section No. 22; NW 1/4 of SW 1/4 of Section 24; N1/2 of NE 1/4 Section 28; all in Township 23, Range 4 East. Also SE 1/4 of NE 1/4; and East 1/2 of SE 1/4 of Section 24, Township 21 North, Range 4 East (Pentz lumber dump site). Also the North half of Block 71 in the Town of Oroville, Butte County according to the Official map of the Town site of Oroville. Also the Defiance Mill equipment on Section No. 13, Township 23, North Range 4 East. Also a certain canal, ditch and flume conveying water from Rock Creek to said Defiance Mill with all water rights and privileges belonging to or in anywise connected therewith. Also the Williams and Vinton Ditch: also a certain "V" flume and ditch conveying water from said Defiance Mill to the Dump at or near Pence's Ranch with all water rights and privileges ascertaining thereto or connected therewith..." Daniel Hilton President, F.D. Mead Secretary of Oroville Lumber Company. **Note:** S.C. Farnham was a banker in Vallejo and the brother of Ellison P. Farnham of Oroville who purchased a 1/2 interest in a saw mill at Mountain House in 1864 with Joshua Turner and later opened a lumber yard in Oroville. He then purchased the Lumpkin Sawmill which had been built in 1870 and later sold by Farnham in Nov 1882 to William Kitrick. Farnham was also involved with the Merrimac Mill in 1883, (Merrimac had a post office from 1883 to 1902). He sold those assets in Apr 1889 to the Merrimac Mill Company, a corporation, for $30,000. Ellison P. Farnham died in Feb 1905 and is buried in the Old Oroville Cemetery. His brother Sylvanns C Farnham died in 1883 in Solano County. Foster, A.J. – Born in 1833 in Illinois. Lived in Butte County from about 1858 to about 1870, a machinist by trade his net worth is listed as $7,000 in 1870. He loaned Henry Fairbanks $760 on the Flea Valley Ranch in 1858, accepting 80 acres as payment in 1860. One month later he sold his half interest in the ranch along with his ranch near Cherokee for $770 to Manoah Pence. He lived in Cherokee in 1867; his neighbors were James Arbuckle, Hiram Clemons, Henry Fairbanks and Manoah Pence. He moved to Santa Clara, Ca in 1880. Heckart, John Adam – Born in 1813 in Pennsylvania, Heckart was a millwright and mechanic by trade. He was living in the Oregon Township/Pentz area in 1870, prior to that he was in Iowa. In 1876 he and Columbus Leaman filed a patent at Pence’s Ranch for a flume cart to be used on water flumes as a means of transportation. The unique design allowed the cart to travel both up and down the flume under its own power. He died in Sept 1897. He, his wife Elizabeth and his family are buried in the Clear Creek Cemetery. Hilton, Daniel – Born in 1832 in Maine, Hilton arrived in the Oroville area around 1852 where he took up mining. Hilton filed a land patent in Apr 1882 claiming 80 acres on both sides of Messilla Valley Road in Pentz where the lumber dump was located in 1874. He must have turned 75 acres over to the Oroville Lumber Company because the company authorized Hilton, who was President of the firm at the time to sell off the land in May 1882, see S.C. Farnham. He also donated 5 acres for the Messilla Valley School that same month; the school had been on the lands since June 1879. Hilton died in July 1918 and is buried in the old Oroville Cemetery. Hobbs, Hans Patten – Born in 1830 in Maine, he lived in Cherokee. H.P. Hobbs was an original investor in the Flea Valley Lumber project; he sold his 1/6th interest in 1874 to McGrath for $300. In 1880 he lived in Gilroy, Ca. where he was secretary for a lumber company. Holbrook, Charles H. – Born in 1847 in Maine, in 1878 he leased the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining facilities in Flea Valley under the name The Oroville Lumber Company which was owned by Joseph Brock and several others, Daniel Hilton was the President. After the Oroville Lumber Company sold off its holdings in 1882, Holbrook ran the finishing mill and lumber yard at the Pentz lumber dump with a man named Phelps for several years. The business shut down in 1884. Holbrook in 1900 was foreman at a mill in Siskiyou County. Holbrook and his wife moved to Oakland and later San Francisco where he died in 1909, she died in 1924; they are buried in the Chico Cemetery. Hutchinson, James Alexander – Born in 1843 in Nova Scotia, he immigrated to the United States in 1860 and was naturalized in 1876 in Monterey. Hutchinson operated a lumber mill at Flea Valley from 1895 until about 1896. In 1887 he patented 160 acres near Lumpkin Saw Mill which he sold to the Lumpkin Mill partners for $500. In 1898 he operated a saw mill at Brush Creek near Mountain House. In 1902 he built his own saw mill just above Berry Creek which he operated until about 1916. He died in 1922 in Oroville where he is buried. Leaman, Columbus Augustus – Born 7 Mar 1803 in Maryland, he was a farmer in 1870 at Rough and Ready, Ca before coming to Chico. In 1876 he and John Heckart filed a patent at Pence’s Ranch for a flume cart to be used on water flumes as a means of transportation. The unique design allowed the cart to travel both up and down the flume under its own power. Leamon died in Oct 1899 and is buried in the Chico Cemetery along with his wife Mary and brother Washington Jefferson Leamon. Logan, James C – Born in Illinois, he was in Oroville in 1870. He was listed as a grocer in 1880. He was an investor in the Sugar Pine Lumber Company in 1878. He apparently left Butte County by 1890. McGrath, Eugene – Born in 1848 in Vermont he lived in Cherokee. He was one of the founders of the Flea Valley Mill project in 1873. He had previously worked for the Sierra Lumber Company. He apparently sold out his interests in the Flea Valley mill around 1876. He later was a principle owner in the Rock Creek Lumber, Flume and Mining Company located on Little Rock Creek above Flea Valley. He continued gold mining in the area until about 1891. He moved to San Jose where he supervised a mining company (New Almaden Mines?). He died in San Jose, Ca in 1929. Orr, John Gray – Born in 1841 in Illinois he lived in Cherokee where is listed as a laborer. Orr would be owed money by Hiram Clemons which forced Clemons to sell the Flea Valley Ranch in 1865 to Gerhardt Tebbe. Orr was an original investor in the Flea Valley Mill project; he sold his 1/6 for $400 in 1873. In 1880 he was in Kern, Ca. where he was a carpenter. Pence, Manoah – Born in 1819 in Ohio. He lived in Butte County from about 1850 to June 1882. In 1867 his neighbors in Cherokee were A.J. Foster, James Arbuckle, Hiram Clemons and Henry Fairbanks. He purchased half interest in the Flea Valley Ranch from A.J. Foster in 1860 along with Foster’s Cherokee ranch for $770. He sold the Flea Valley property one month later for $1,000 to Hiram Clemons. He sold Foster’s Ranch in Cherokee to Henry Fairbanks in Sept 1862 for $1,000 as well, realizing a total profit of $1,230. In May 1875 he was granted a land patent on 400 acres in Mesilla Valley. He died at his ranch from a sudden chill in June 1882. He is buried in the Cherokee Cemetery. His wife, Sophia and child, Watt Manoah Pence Jr. moved to Paradise in late 1892 after the ranch was sold at a Sheriff’s sale in June 1891 for $6180 and the assets transferred in Feb 1992 to repay an outstanding mortgage. Sophia and Watt Pence are both buried in the cemetery in Paradise. Perkins, David R – Born in 1843 in Maine, brother to George Perkins started as a clerk around 1870 and later took over the grocery and provisions store in Oroville started by his brother until his death in Nov 1893. He lost control and was run over by a wagon carrying mining supplies, dying three days later. He invested in several businesses in the area including the Abetine Medicine Company at Balsam Hill and Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Company. He purchased the Flea Valley Ranch and hotel from Augustus Fairbanks in 1882 for $1200. He also ended up with the lumber yard in Oroville on Bird and Huntoon St which he continued to operate until his death. The firm Perkins and Wise in 1898 sold some of the assets, including property in Flea Valley, to L.L. Green for $1.00 to act as their sale agent. The property was later sold to Charles S. Campbell, L.L., Green worked for a bank in Oroville and was the brother of Milton Green, Perkin’s bookkeeper in 1880 who married Joseph Brock’s daughter, May Brock. David Perkins died in Oroville. He is buried in the old Oroville Cemetery. See photo next page Perkins, George C – Born in 1839 in Maine, Settled in Oroville around 1850 opened a grocery and provisions store which was very successful. Governor of California from 1880 to 1883, Oroville business run by his brother and partner, David Perkins. George died in Oakland in Feb 1923. David R Perkins and staff of the Oroville store (Photo courtesy of the Butte County Historical Society) **Ramsey, William** – Born in 1832 in Germany, Ramsey lived in Yankee Hill in 1860. In 1865 he was hurt by a dynamite blast while mining on the Little Kimshew, above Flea Valley which nearly blinded him. In 1872 he filed a claim with William Ryan on Little Kimshew Creek. In 1880 his residence was listed as Concow, Ca. He died around 1885. Ramsey Bar is named after his mining claim. **Ritchie, John** – Little is known about him other than he lived in Cherokee and was one of the founders of the Flea Valley Mill project in 1873 with Eugene McGrath. He sold out his 1/6th share for $500 before the mill was built. It appears he left the area soon after. **Sanford, Unknown** – Little is known about him other than he had a cabin at Flea Valley and was going to open a hotel with Henry Augustus Fairbanks in Flea Valley in 1857. By 1860 he was no longer in the area and his name does not appear on any tax records in 1858. Snow, Lucius A – Born in 1827 in Massachusetts in 1860 he was partners with Hiram Clemons in a mining venture on the Little Kimshew River above Flea Valley. Later, after 1865, went on alone to run a successful mining operation as sole owner for years above Flea Valley. He also made shingles in Little Kimshew and sold them in Concow. The tax roles for 1867 indicated he had 2 mining claims, a wagon valued at $50, 2 American horses valued at $150, 2 Spanish horses valued at $40, 2 cows and a calf valued at $35, 4 jackass valued at $40 and 8 hogs valued at $25. His furniture was valued at $50, merchandise (shingles?) valued at $150 and lumber valued at $60. He died in 1923 and is buried in Lovelock. Stevens, George - Born in 1833 in Michigan, owned the Ohio Livery Stable in Oroville with Thomas Callow. He and his partner sold the lot in Oroville located at Bird and Huntoon to the Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and mining Company for $2,000 upon his death in Mar 1877 for a lumber yard. He was also an investor in the corporation. He is buried in the Old Oroville Cemetery. Tebbe, Gerhardt – Born in 1832 in Prussia, Tebbe immigrated to the United States in May 1862. He was a miner by trade. He married Mary Sauer in 1864 and buys the Flea Valley Ranch in March 1865, just after their first child, Ida Rosetta Tebbe is born. Sold at a sheriff’s sale for $1098, Hiram Clemons sold the ranch to settle a debt owed to John C. Orr of Cherokee. The Tebbe family had six children; in Oct 1866 George Tebbe is born at the Flea Valley Ranch. In 1867 Gerhardt sold the Flea Valley Ranch. Tebbe later moved to Deadwood where he built a hotel and sanitarium at the intersection of Deadwood Road and Concow Road. In 1871 Ida, his daughter, died at Deadwood. In 1884 Mrs. Tebbe would also die at Deadwood. Tebbe sold the Deadwood Hotel/Sanitarium to Dr Ah Sang around 1888. Gerhardt died in Jan 1897 while mining in Trinity County when a reservoir above him broke and he drowned. Members of the Tebbe family are buried near the old sanitarium site in Concow. Thunen, William – Born in Prussia and a Blacksmith by occupation he and his wife Johanna Tebbe, the sister of Gerhardt Tebbe, lived in Flea Valley for a little over a year. In 1867 they moved to Cherokee where he worked for the mines. They had 11 children, Charles Thunen; their third child was born at Flea Valley in May 1865. William Thunen died in 1895 at Cherokee and Johanna Tebbe Thunen died in 1923 in Oakland. Wm Thunen Jr., born in 1871 was a photographer in Oroville. Many members of the Thunen family are buried at the Cherokee Cemetery. Johanna Tebbe Thunen (Seated) and family 1901 Oroville, Ca (Gerhard Tebbe’s sister) Photo by Wm Thunen Willit, Joseph – Little is known of him other than he sold a cabin and mining claim on Fall Creek, known as the Rowbore & Stanley claim to Sugar Pine Lumber, Flume and Mining Co. in 1874 for $75 Wolf, Abram – Cherokee merchant who owned 25% of the Rock Creek saw mill above Flea Valley in 1877 and was its President. He died in Feb 1878. After his death there was a lawsuit over a loan made to Wolf by John Davis, a miner in Cherokee. Wolf used the mill’s assets for collateral on his personal loan without the stockholders consent. Davis sued for the mill’s assets. The case was thrown out of court. Origin of the Name Rag Dump - First considered part of Flea Valley it was later called Rag Dump Circle on the 1939 county map. Several stories are circulating as to how the name came about but the common thread is that the people there in the 20’s and 30’s lived in tents. The term “dump” may be because the location was in bad shape with minimal facilities or that it was the lumber dump and truck turnaround for Diamond Match trucks which first started making trips there in 1939. Yankee Hill Historical Society Officers and Contact Information President: Bob Huffman (530) 533-4132 Vice President: Marji Corey Treasurer: Debbie Ingvoldsen Secretary: Don Saul Director: Geneva Harris Newsletter Editor: Larry Mauch Phone (530) 532-0706 or email email@example.com General Correspondence: firstname.lastname@example.org We are always looking for photographs and further information about the area from Pulga to Pence. If you have information on this or any of our stories in the Yankee Hill Dispatch please contact us. All comments or corrections are welcome and appreciated. Yankeee Hill Historical Society P.O. Box 4031 Yankeee Hill, Ca 95965 “Dedicated to Preserving Our Local History” Visit Our Web Page @ www.yankeehillhistory.com
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Foster Families Sometimes children can’t stay at home because their parents are unable to care for them. The court may decide it’s best for a child to stay with relatives or a foster family until they are able to return home. Usually, a relative’s home is the first choice for a child who needs temporary care. If this is not possible, he or she may need to stay in a foster family’s home. Children do best when they can stay in their own school, keep their friends and see birth parents often. Children services agencies try to place each child in a foster family within the child’s neighborhood. Agencies support foster families and train them how to help a child and the birth parents. Foster families care for children until a court decides they can return home. They sometimes work directly with the birth parents, teaching them skills and encouraging them. Most children return to their birth parents or another relative within a year. Sometimes it takes longer. Foster parents agree to care for the child as long as needed. They often continue to encourage and support the child and family after the child returns home. Foster families receive payments and medical coverage to help meet the daily living needs of the child. You don’t need a fancy house or a graduate degree to be a foster or adoptive parent. What you do need is 100% heart: - You can be married, single or divorced. - You can have other children. - You can own or rent your house or apartment. - You must be at least 18 to foster or adopt. If you’re interested in becoming a foster or adoptive parent, a social worker will help identify your parenting strengths and tell you about programs to help meet children’s financial and medical needs. You’ll also receive training both before and after you make the commitment. Adoptive Families Children need stability. Without it, they can’t grow and feel good about themselves. Sometimes, a court may decide it’s not in a child’s best interest to return to a parent or a relative. The court may decide it’s best for a child to have another permanent family. If this happens, the court will usually order the children services agency to find another permanent home for the child as soon as possible. The agency will then look for an adoptive family for the child. The adoptive family could be a relative, a foster parent or another family not known to the child. All children need safe, stable families in which to grow. For some children who are abused or neglected, this may mean a foster or adoptive family. On any given day, Ohio has nearly 16,000 children in foster care and more than 2,600 awaiting adoption. All types of foster and adoptive parents are needed. Ohio especially needs those who can care for teenagers and sibling groups. For more information, visit FosterAndAdopt.jfs.ohio.gov. Children are the future of our communities. It’s up to all of us to make sure they have families to help them grow and be safe. Children who have been abused or neglected need caring people to open their hearts and homes as foster or adoptive parents. If you’re interested in taking on the challenges and rewards of becoming a foster or adoptive parent, here’s how to get started: 1. Visit FosterAndAdopt.jfs.ohio.gov for useful information to help you get started on your journey. 2. Check out the “Ohio Adoption Guide: A Handbook for Prospective Families” (JFS 01675). You can get it at your county agency or at jfs.ohio.gov/form01675. 3. Check out AdoptUsKids.org. This site contains profiles of children waiting for adoption, including a brief description of their talents and characteristics. FOSTER AND ADOPT IN OHIO Mike DeWine, Governor State of Ohio Matt Damschroder, Director Ohio Department of Job and Family Services JFS 08013 (Rev. 7/2021) This institution is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
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Apollo 11 FactFile: Apollo 11 – 50 Years On! What is the Moon? The Moon goes round and round the Earth. The Earth only has one Moon. Is the Moon Made of Cheese? No. The Moon is made of rock. We know this because Neil Armstrong brought some Moon rocks back to Earth with him. What is the Earth? The Earth is a planet. It is then third planet from the Sun. Like all the other planets, it goes round and round the Sun. Have We Ever Been to the Moon? Twelve people have been to the Moon. The first was Neil Armstrong – in the year 1969. It took his spaceship – Apollo 11 – nearly four days to get there. Are There Any Aliens on the Moon? Neil Armstrong didn’t meet any aliens when he was there! We are sure there are no aliens on the moon. But we are looking for life in other places ... On July 20th 1969, a small spaceship called The Eagle landed on the moon. Two astronauts stepped out. The first was called Neil Armstrong. There is no weather on the moon – so the footprints they left will last for at least ten million years! The moon is our closest neighbour in space. But the solar system is so big that it still takes nearly four days to get there! That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. Neil Armstrong spent nearly a day on the moon. Together with his friend Buzz Aldrin, he explored and collected rocks. Over the next three years, another ten astronauts visited the moon. But no-one has been there since! The moon is over 4 billion years old. And for almost all of that time, it has been a mystery to us. On July 20th 1969, a small spaceship called The Eagle landed on the moon. Two astronauts stepped out. The first was called Neil Armstrong. That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. Neil Armstrong and another astronaut, Buzz Aldrin, spent almost a day on the moon. The rock samples they collected helped scientists understand more about our only satellite and how it was formed. Over the next three years, another ten astronauts visited the moon. But no-one has been there since! We keep on learning about the moon, though. Now we know there is frozen water at its poles. A discovery that might change space travel forever ... The moon is over 4 billion years old. And for almost all of that time, it has been a mystery to us. On July 20th 1969, a small spaceship called The Eagle landed on the moon. Two astronauts stepped out. The first was called Neil Armstrong. We keep on learning about the moon, though. Now we know there is frozen water at its poles. A discovery that might change space travel forever … That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. Over the next three years, another ten astronauts visited the moon. But no-one has been there since. And we might soon be back. In January 2019, a robotic Chinese spacecraft, Chang’e-4, landed on the dark side of the moon – sending back the first ever close-up pictures of this part of the lunar landscape.
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Didactical-methodical hints General information and didactic considerations The risk of extinction varies among different bird groups. **Garden birds** They are well studied due to regular censuses (Hour of Garden Birds, Hour of Winter Birds). Since they are often sedentary or stick birds, they can adapt well to the changing seasons. Gardens are now often much more ecologically valuable than agricultural landscapes and thus offer a diverse range of food, supported by feeding by humans. Many garden birds are omnivorous and therefore not so dependent on insects. Thus, their population is relatively stable, some species are developing positively. **Migratory birds** Because they travel long distances, often to sub-Saharan areas, due to the lack of food available in winter in our latitudes (insects, amphibians, reptiles), they are handicapped in several ways. For example, they are more affected by climate change (see examples) = mismatch, as well as by the lack of food due to the decline in the number of insects or other prey, and also by extreme weather events. **Here, the teaching unit "Insects" as well as the topic "Agriculture" can be connected.** **Birds of agricultural landscapes** The impoverishment of the agricultural landscape plays the main role in the particularly strong decline of these birds, which affects both the food supply and the supply of shelter and nesting sites. Depending on the lesson planning, a connection can be made with the unit Insects. Based on the differentiated threat analysis, **protection measures result.** These benefit/would benefit all endangered animal species of agricultural landscapes. - Biotope or habitat management >>> ecological agriculture, programs such as field margins, grove islands, fallowing of fields, recultivation of moors and wetlands, etc. - Renunciation of pesticides - Implementation of EU directives in Germany (hardly ever done so far, which is why, for example, Nabu is suing the Federal Republic of Germany for the loss of partridge species). - The reintroduction of storks through reclamation measures can serve as a positive example. However, the problem of climate change cannot be tackled locally, but only nationally or globally. >>> see separate unit. The learners should therefore recognize that the endangerment potential of different bird species strongly depends on their way of life. For this purpose, they will look at individual animal portraits (monographs). On the other hand, it should also become clear that the endangerment potential strongly depends on factors that go far beyond the demands of the different species, so that an improvement of the situation can only be achieved on an economic and political level. In this context, the various environmental organizations as actors focussing on species protection, such as Nabu or LBV, also play an important role, as well as social and civic engagement against climate change. These aspects are discussed in more detail in T 3 and T 5. Describe, in a language of your choice, the situation of birds in Germany. Be prepared to do the next step in English. ... by naming "winners" and "losers" as well as bird species whose population is essentially constant. **Vogelpopulationen in 25 Jahren** (DDA Bestandsabnahmen Deutschland 1990-2015) - Feldlerche: -38% - Uferschnepfe: -61% - Braunkehlchen: -65% - Kiebitz: -76% - Rebhuhn: -84% Fig. 5 (DDA o.J.) **Development of the bird population total** "Winners" Constant population number "Losers" Describe, in a language of your choice, the situation of birds in Germany. Be prepared to do the next step in English. ... by naming "winners" and "losers" as well as bird species whose population is essentially constant. **Vogelpopulationen in 25 Jahren** (DDA Bestandsabnahmen Deutschland 1990-2015) - Feldlerche: -38% - Uferschnepfe: -61% - Braunkehlchen: -65% - Kiebitz: -76% - Rebhuhn: -84% Fig. 5 (DDA o.J.) **Development of the bird population total** For most bird species, the trend is negative or constant, with only a few species increasing in numbers. **"Winners"** Tree and house sparrow, wood pigeon, jay, great spotted woodpecker. **Constant population number** Great tit, blue tit, starling, robin. **"Losers"** Blackbird, swift, wren, redstart, Skylark, black-tailed godwit, whinchat, Lapwing, Partridge. Fig. 4 (NABU 2018) The bird species listed in Fig. 5 live in open landscapes and agricultural landscapes. Fig. 6 shows the different development of bird populations depending on their habitat. Hypothesize in English about the causes of the different stock development. Include your results from task 4. In group work, you can now take a closer look at individual bird species. Create a poster or a short presentation or a pitch (see T 1, AB 3). The bird species listed in Fig. 5 live in open landscapes and agricultural landscapes. Fig. 6 shows the different development of bird populations depending on their habitat. Hypothesize in English about the causes of the different stock development. Include your results from task 4. Bird populations in agricultural landscapes have declined sharply over the past 36 years, while birds in other habitats have shown a slight increase. It can be assumed that the respective habitats are decisive. Gardens, parks and forests are not likely to have changed fundamentally, but rather to have become more natural. The negative change in agriculture is probably related to changes in agricultural production methods. (see T 3 and T 5) In group work, you can now take a closer look at individual bird species. Create a poster or a short presentation or a pitch (see T 1, AB 3). Endangered and threatened species Bird species extinct or threatened with extinction The NABU lists a number of birds that are extinct or in acute danger of extinction. Red List of Breeding Birds (NABU e.V. 2021) Little Bustard (lifePR 2012) Crested Lark (NABU e.V. o.J.a) Mornell’s plover (NABU e.V. o.J. b). Caspian tern (NABU e.V. o.J.c) Task Pick a species, describe it and explain the reasons for its extinction. Under the links you can find more information about individual species, e.g. the Little Bustard, a plover or a tern. Of course you can choose another species. You can decide if you want your presentation to be in English, German, or even bilingual! You can also look in Topic 1, AB 4. There you will find tips on how to work with the Red List. General information Potsdam - In an agricultural area like Brandenburg, wild animals often do not find good living conditions, but rather hostile, even deadly living conditions. In a current inventory of the State Office for the Environment (LfU), 6000 animal species are classified as endangered. Accordingly, 581 species are on the Red List as acutely endangered, 389 species have already become extinct here. According to LfU spokesman Thomas Frey, these include, for example, the black grouse, the ruff and the moor duck. [Schlüter, C. 2021] The black grouse As a regionally extinct or endangered species. The black grouse is a, in Germany formerly widespread, year-round occurring breeding bird, whose population is now highly endangered. Black grouse grow up to 40 - 55 cm and live in mountainous regions between about 1500 and 2200 m altitude. They feed mainly on plants, but also on larvae and adult insects, especially during the breeding period. The courtship display of the males is spectacular. Task You may decide in which language you do this task. If you choose a language other than English and German, add a few dashes in one of the two languages to help the others understand your answer. Sources NABU e.V. n.d. King 2014 (video) The cuckoo Bird species whose population is declining Have you heard a cuckoo this year? Then you are lucky! That the number of cuckoos strongly declines is mainly due to the climate change. As you surely know, the cuckoo is a so-called incubator. The females lay one egg each in different nests of host birds and match the color of the eggs to that of the host birds. However, the cuckoo egg is larger than the host bird’s eggs and the hatched chick is also larger than the "stepsiblings". For the host parents, the large egg, as well as the hatched large chick, represents an over-optimal trigger and is not recognized as foreign. As soon as the cuckoo chick hatches, it throws the eggs or the hatched chicks out of the nest and continues to be fed devotedly. However, this "business model" only works when the breeding seasons of cuckoos and host birds are in sync. Due to climate change, host birds are breeding earlier and earlier, but the cuckoo has not changed its migratory behavior, so it arrives too late to have its eggs hatched. This is called "mismatch." Tasks 1. Use the text and other sources to learn about the cuckoo's lifestyle and population decline. 2. Make a connection to climate change in English. More sources Newcomer 2018. Weather Online 2020. The swift Population strongly declining or endangered Swifts announce summer with their shrill cries. They are migratory birds that spend only a few months in our country to raise their young. Swifts feed on insects that they catch in flight. They are widespread throughout Europe, but their population in our country is decreasing significantly. In some areas the species is classified as endangered, e.g. in Bavaria. Bavarian State Office for the Environment n.d. Tasks 1. Find out about the swift’s way of life and explain the numerical decline of this species in our latitudes. 2. Explore, name, and evaluate which conservation measures could help stabilize swift populations. You may decide in which language you do this task. If you choose a language other than English and German, add a few dashes in one of the two languages to help the others understand your answer. More sources Swifts (BUND NRW e.V. o.J.) Swifts (NABU e.V. o.J.) Swifts (Stiehl 2021). Swifts (Nature Detectives o.J.) The House Martin Delichon Urbicum On the list of endangered species Like the swift, to which the House Martin is not related, the House Martin is a summer messenger; it too is a migratory bird, but unlike the Swift, it occurs mainly in rural areas. Even though the species is not considered endangered, however, its population is steadily declining, cf. fig. 4. Sources House Martin (NABU e.V. o.J.) House Martin (LBV e.V. o.J.) Task Find out about the swallows’ way of life and their population situation and explain the decline in population numbers. The lapwing Vanellus vanellus Highly vulnerable (category 2) BirdLife Switzerland has chosen the lapwing as Bird of the Year 2019. The endangered species once lived in wet meadows and after their drainage in arable land. The intensification of agriculture with numerous cultivation passes and the spraying of pesticides almost brought the lapwing to extinction in Switzerland. Thanks to close cooperation between conservationists and farmers on nesting sites, the dazzling bird is getting a chance again. Tasks 1. Check out the video about the lapwing. 2. Summarize the information about the peewit’s way of life in English. 3. Now describe in German which changes have led to the population decline of the lapwing in Switzerland. 4. Protection measures for lapwings have been implemented in Switzerland. Name and evaluate them in the language of your choice. If you have chosen neither English nor German, include an explanation in one of the two languages shortly. Sources Video II (NABU e.V. 2017) Lapwing (Bavarian State Office for the Environment oJ) Note Species from Fig. 5 could also be studied here. See Nabu bird portraits: Braunkehichen (NABU o.J.). The white stork *Ciconia ciconia* A success story or an endangered species? Tasks 1. Describe the development of the number of storks in Germany since 1840 (Fig. 1 and 2). 2. Using the materials in English, analyze causes of the stork population decline as well as its recovery. 3. Discuss whether there is actually a success story here. You have the choice whether to use German or English. 4. Make the product multilingual, at least in English or German. Any other language you know would be a bonus. Fig. 1: Population development of the white stork in Baden-Württemberg (Sources: BERTHOLD et al. 1975 and 1977, HÖLZINGER 1987, HÖLZINGER et al. 1981 and 1996). Sources NABU e.V. 2019 WWF n.d. Fig. 2: NABU e.V. 2018: 22 1. Create a mind map or a sketchnote about the different causes of endangerment of the bird species you have been working on. Use both German and English, and feel free to use other languages as well. 2. You could now find out information about many bird species. Now compile all the results in the table. Decide in your group which language you want to use. | Type | Threat status | Causes | |------|---------------|--------| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | The field hamster Until now, it was assumed that there were still plenty of field hamsters in Eastern Europe. This was obviously a fallacy. The animal is acutely threatened with extinction and has been included in the Red List of the World Conservation Union. Once, the field hamster was found in millions from Alsace to Siberia. Now it is officially threatened with extinction throughout its entire range. This is the result of the new Red List of endangered animal and plant species presented by the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The reduced occurrence in Western and Central Europe was already known. In the EU, the field hamster is strictly protected. However, conservationists had assumed that there were still plenty of field hamsters in Eastern Europe and Russia. This was apparently a fallacy. "If nothing changes, the field hamster will become extinct within the next 30 years," reported the IUCN. The causes of the disappearance of the field hamster are not yet clear. However, the expansion of monocultures in agriculture, global warming and light pollution are considered possible causes. (Link 1) Tasks Read the info text (Link 1). Further information can be found at Links 2 and 3. 1. Summarize the information on the situation of the field hamster in English and name the suspected causes. 2. In Link 3, protection programs are presented - present them and evaluate their chances of success. You may decide whether you do this in German or English. The brown hare The population of the brown hare has been declining in Europe for decades. In an ever more intensively used agricultural landscape, it can hardly find any hiding places from predators or places to raise its young. Its diet is also becoming smaller and smaller. In the cultivation of intensive monocultures such as corn or wheat, no "weeds" are desired and are fought with the help of pesticides. If he still finds something in such a field, he is threatened with poisoning. In Germany, the field hare, which used to be so widespread, is doing particularly badly. It is listed as an endangered species on the national red list. (NABU e.V. o.J.). Tasks 1. Describe the lifestyle and population threats of the brown hare in English (text and video). Video (German Wildlife Foundation 2019) 2. You find a detailed profile e.g. here: (German Wildlife Foundation o.J.) 3. Compare the threats faced by field hamsters and hares with those faced by birds in the agricultural landscape. Decide whether you will do this in German or English.
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Van Ark, Mike Oral History Interview: Sesquicentennial of Holland, "150 Stories for 150 Years" Ena Brooks Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.hope.edu/ses_holland Part of the Archival Science Commons, and the Oral History Commons Recommended Citation Repository citation: Brooks, Ena, "Van Ark, Mike Oral History Interview: Sesquicentennial of Holland, "150 Stories for 150 Years"" (1997). Sesquicentennial of Holland, "150 Stories for 150 Years". Paper 138. http://digitalcommons.hope.edu/ses_holland/138 Published in: 1996 - 1998 - Sesquicentennial of Holland, "150 Stories for 150 Years" (H88-0234) - Hope College Living Heritage Oral History Project, November 25, 1997. Copyright © 1997 Hope College, Holland, MI. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Oral History Interviews at Digital Commons @ Hope College. It has been accepted for inclusion in Sesquicentennial of Holland, "150 Stories for 150 Years" by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Hope College. For more information, please contact email@example.com. Oral History Interview with Mike Van Ark Conducted November 25, 1997 by Ena Brooks Sesquicentennial Oral History Project "150 Stories for 150 Years" EB: We'll start by having you state your full name, where you were born, and the hospital you were born in and the date. MVA: My total name is Myron Dale Van Ark. I was born [date removed], 1929, Holland Hospital. My father's name was Marinus, a good Dutch name, so they couldn't name me that. So they named me Myron instead. EB: And your mother's name? MVA: Her name was Alberta Beek. She lived between Holland and Grand Rapids, in Jamestown, which is a very small town. EB: Did you have any brothers or sisters? MVA: I have one brother who is nine years older than I am, and he's also living, so he's now seventy-seven, and I'm sixty-eight. EB: Well that was a huge gap in between you two! MVA: Right. So I'm kind of a Depression-era person really. I was born just before the Depression, 1929, and I really grew up then during the Depression. My father was a butcher, and we lived over on Twenty-sixth Street and what would be Lawndale Court, and my father came from the Netherlands in 1900. His mother died just before they came, so his father brought four brothers and one sister. So the sister really acted as a mother then when they came over. She really helped to bring up the family. My grandfather was a blacksmith, and later he worked at Holland Furnace Company in the machine shop there. My father only had an eighth-grade education, and that was true for three of the brothers. The youngest brother then became a doctor. My father worked at what was called Haveman and later J. Hulst & Son, which was located on Twenty-fourth and College Avenue. This is where OK Tire is now. You had a whole small area of businesses there. You had that, you had Bartel's Shoe Store, Buter's Grocery Store, Bert Koning's Barber Shop, Van's Drug Store, and early in the '30s there was a hardware store right next to Hulst. That burned, later Mannes Super Service built there. I don't know when Hulst Grocery Store was torn down, but then that became OK Tire then later. EB: You said you grew up in the Depression. Why don't you talk a little about what you remember about living here in Holland during the Depression. MVA: Well, actually, for us, my father had a steady job in the store. So, all I can sort of remember was that I don't know what he got paid during the Depression, but when I grew up, he got about twenty-five dollars a week, which had to take care of us. So we always had a large garden and raised a lot of vegetables. We had some relatives that lived between Holland and Grand Rapids where my mother came from, and we'd visit them. So it was a case of usually practically no commercial entertainment. We usually went to uncles and aunts, or friends, and they would take me along. That was very common, you know, you wouldn't have a babysitter at that time. Quite often they played cards, or did some talking. If my mother had people over, quite often they would do sewing, rather than sitting and talking. Well, they talked too, but they would do their own sewing or knitting, or crocheting, or tatting, whatever you might have. So actually, I really, when the Depression was going on probably didn't realize it completely. But I knew we didn't have a lot of money through my whole time. I also knew that as I grew older, that if I was going to go on to school, that it would be up to me to earn the money for that because my parents just didn't have the money. My brother went to college and stayed at home, and then when the time came, that was also true of myself. When I was probably around the sixth-grade or so, fifth or sixth grade, summertime, we would pick cherries at Derr's, which was located where the East Middle School is located now. They also raised gladioli bulbs. When I was in the seventh grade, and I think about until the eighth grade, then in the fall, we'd have to, I'd be employed after school to clean gladioli bulbs. You scrape off the old bulb so that the new one would be all set to be sold then. When I got to be fourteen, I worked in the same store that my father worked. Of course at that time it was during World War II. So it was rather interesting because a lot of things you couldn't get. People would come in and ask for things like coconut or chocolate or Jello. They'd have those things kind of in the back room for the regular customers. You'd put those in a separate bag so people you know would have those. I can remember getting meat was a problem, and if you wanted more meat, a lot of times you could buy it on the black market at that time, because there were stamps of course, for meat, and sugar, and other things. So there was one local meat processor who had good quality meat, but then you had to pay the price if you wanted the meat at that time. I went to Longfellow School. This was a school that was built back around 1903 or 1906. I think my father might have gone to the same school. This was a school with two upper stories which each had four rooms. The basement had two rooms. There was also a furnace room, and there was a so-called room where we had a gym. Joe Moran who was the phys. ed. instructor and the tennis courts were named after him a lot later, would have gym classes there. We'd learn things like the Virginia Reel, that type of thing. Then on the top floor of the school was an area where we'd have plays and other kinds of things. So that was really a neighborhood school. When I was in the sixth grade, I was the safety patrol captain, and this was the same year as Pearl Harbor, but of course this was in spring then. I was able to go to Washington D.C. then. This for me was a big thing because we didn't do much travelling at that time. So that year, two people from Holland were selected to go. For me that was a nice kind of a thing then. EB: What did you do in Washington D.C.? MVA: Well, actually, we had a parade, and of course we took a train from Detroit. To be honest with you, I can't even remember how I got from Holland to Detroit. I think probably the Triple A took us to Detroit. I can remember being served Vernor's Ginger Ale, which of course was a Detroit product, on our way to Washington D.C. We had a parade and then we saw the Capitol and some other kinds of things. That's about all I can really remember about that particular time. EB: Now you mentioned in gym class you learned the "Virginia Reel." What's that? MVA: Well this would be a kind of square dance type of thing. Our gym was probably, I wouldn't dare to say the size, but probably about twenty by thirty. Then you had steel posts holding up the floors above it so you had a kind of get around things at that time. EB: Why don't you talk a little bit about your going to school after Longfellow. MVA: Seventh grade we went to the first high school, which was on Graves Place and Tenth Street. That's where Hope College has their math/physics building now, just behind Central Avenue Christian Reformed Church. That had been done for several years because I guess there were just too many kids for the junior high, which was on River Avenue and the high school, which was on Pine Avenue, between Fifteenth and Sixteenth Street. I think about fifth grade I started playing the clarinet, and my parents gave me private lessons. My brother took piano and I took clarinet. I was pretty diligent with practicing. Then when I got into eighth grade, I was put into the high school band, so I was really in the high school band for quite a long time. Not that I was that great of a clarinet player, but I worked at it a little bit then. Junior high, which would have been eighth and really ninth grade at that time in the building on River Avenue where the administrative offices are located now. I'm just trying to think of a couple of things...I ran for vice-president of the junior high, and odd as it might seem, we had a tie vote. The girl that was tied with me, later became, I can't think of what her title was at West Ottawa, but I think she was in charge of curriculum there. Then I was involved in music there. My eighth grade shop teacher was Gerald Haworth, who later of course formed his own company with the Haworth Company. I can remember I had mumps when I was in the eighth grade, and I was making an easel because my brother did some developing of pictures and I did some of the same sort of thing later, so I made an easel as my class project. When I got to be sixteen, I started working at Heinz. Heinz paid sixty-five cents an hour, which was quite a bit more what I could make at the grocery store. So I worked there after school, mainly doing clean-up work. The summer, of course, was their busy time, so I worked really all the way through high school and college there, because at that time opportunities for jobs in Holland really were not very many. Actually, until probably the late fifties or so, we really didn't have a lot of industry in Holland where you could get jobs. So I worked for Heinz mainly in the shipping department. As it got into college, then I did mainly, I drove a fork-lift truck. Mr. Schierbeck, who later became the plant manager, employed me on Saturdays more or less just as a kind of a thank you. But then I washed trucks and I took things to the dump, which at that time was on Pine Avenue where Padnos is located now, and they were filling that area during the fifties then, that would have been the late forties, early fifties, right in that period of time. EB: Where did you go to college? MVA: I went to Hope College. Well, probably my folks said if you want to go to college, you can stay at home, no problem. You'll have to pay for your own tuition, and I can't even remember, it was less than a hundred dollars a semester at that time, but when you're only getting around a dollar an hour then you still had to pay for it. Like I mentioned, I worked at Heinz. Summertime during the green season we could put in as many hours as we wanted to. For about an eight week period, you could put in seventy hours a week if you wanted to. Monday through Saturday. So like I mentioned, I mainly worked for the shipping department. One summer I worked and made the syrup that went into the bottles when they canned their pickles. That would have been during the green season. Then at Hope I was involved quite a bit also with music. Dr. Morrette Rider came I think the same year as I did, that would have been in the fall of 1947, and established the orchestra and the band. Before that I don't think instrumental music was too much, and of course Hope really expanded after World War II because of the veterans all coming. The orchestra was a very nice group. I really enjoyed that. At that time we didn't travel like they do today; we had a few concerts maybe in Western Michigan. The orchestra was nice, and also for a couple, maybe an hour a semester or so, I would take a course with just a small group like maybe a clarinet trio or quartet--something of that sort. I was part of the Fraternal Society, the Fraters. I'm a non-athlete, I was not an athlete at all, but they always had the Frater Frolics at that time. So then I played a little bit of saxophone as well as clarinet, so we always had a good time with that. EB: Did you continue to play the clarinet and the sax? MVA: Yes, during college we had a dance band, made up of local people. Just in terms of what we're talking about, Bob Albers, who is a local doctor, was involved with that band. Don Hillebrands for awhile was our drummer, and Dick Ruch who later became the head of Herman Miller in Zeeland, also played at that time cornet. They didn't play trumpets as much I don't think at that time. Rog Kramer later became a band director in the eastern side of the state. He played trombone. We played at the Castle, which at that time accepted guests during the summertime. They would have dances on I think it was Wednesday and Saturday night. I think one or two years we also played at the hotel at Macatawa Park then. So that helped to bring a little money, and we played for some of the sorority and fraternity dances for Hope College. After I graduated, the Korean War was going on, so of course nobody would hire you. I had a teaching certificate. I majored in social studies: a composite major. So I volunteered for the Army, which was a foolish thing to do, because as I found out later, they could have extended my enlistment if they had wanted to rather than volunteering for the draft. But I felt that if I waited, they might not take me until the fall, so there would been nothing to do during that period of time. That would have meant if I had wanted to get into teaching then it would have been a wasted year. So I went into the service in July of 1951. I started basic and they sent me to Camp Chafee, Arkansas. At that time it was a camp. You had sixteen weeks of artillery basic. After that, most people went directly to Korea. As it happened, our company, which was not too great a company, a lot of the people were sent to Alaska. So I had an audition with the band. At the time they had a freeze on anybody going into the band because they wanted people in Korea. They needed people very badly. Then the freeze was lifted, so when I finished my basic training in November, I went right into the band. For the rest of my two years I was stationed in Arkansas, which is not always the nicest place to be, but in comparison to a lot of other things, I thought I was very fortunate. We had a very nice band in terms of people, because a lot of the people were in the same situation I was, where they graduated from college, not necessarily music majors or anything, but they got into the band. We had a pretty good time. They also had a National Guard Band from New York City. Those guys are more characters, you know; they were really a lot of fun. There were a lot of Italian guys, and Jewish fellows. It was a pretty diverse group. The interesting thing about our band when you think about other groups in the service, nobody ever gambled. I can't tell you why--they played cards, but not for money. When I was in the band, and we had a big band, we did a broadcast a week and we also had four dance band units: two combos and two large, you know, dance bands at that time. We played for the USO in town, the service clubs on our base. By the way at that time, the service clubs were still segregated yet. You had a black service club as well as for whites. Our band was all white. We had no black fellows in our band at all, because we were stationed in Arkansas, and you still had separate facilities there at that time, the early fifties. We also played at the Officer's Club. At the end of the month every fellow would get paid for these special dances, not by who you were, but just as an individual. So in that way, you had some money to spend to go into town, go to restaurants and that type of thing. I think we were getting probably about a hundred or a hundred and twenty-five dollars a month, as far as our pay was concerned. EB: After the service, did you get a teaching job? MVA: Yes, what I did, I took a furlough in the spring of 1953 when I was going to be discharged in July. I made some inquiries and there was a job opening in Spring Lake, which I did not get. Dr. Umbright, who is in charge of the Junior College at Muskegon, also had some job openings. He hired me and I was able to get a job in Muskegon teaching a combination of things. Social studies, which was really a kind of civics course in ninth grade, and then in eighth grade they had a semester business course, mainly out of a workbook. I also taught one hour of American history to seventh graders. It was kind of a combination. We had a very large school there. The junior high occupied the top floor of the building. Our principal was a former football coach, C. Leo Redman, whom a lot of people knew in that area, and if you were a football fan at that time, you would have known him. I stayed in Muskegon for two years. We got married in 1955, and my wife was working with the Holland Chamber of Commerce as a secretary then. There was a job opening, but I had signed a contract already, and I had either a sixty or a ninety day escape clause. At that time, Walter Scott was the superintendent, and he said he would have a job open, but he couldn't give it to me until that time period was ended. So in August I signed a contract with the Holland Public Schools. That was in 1955. Our superintendent in Muskegon, his last name was Beemer, very interesting person. We called him, not to his face, but otherwise we called him Stub Beemer. When he would come into the classroom to evaluate you, he'd stand up with his arms folded, back of the classroom or he'd walk around. He'd never say a word to you, if you'd meet on the stairs he wouldn't say anything either. When I left, he wrote Mr. Scott a letter, saying "Yeah, Mr. Van Ark, his wife is going to be dominating him, because he's moving to Holland." So then I taught seventh grade at that time, that was before any political annexation took place, so Holland was much smaller than it is now. But all of the people who go to West Ottawa now and some of the people that went to Hamilton would come into Holland, to school, so it was very crowded. Jefferson School was just built then, so they had some of seventh grade at Jefferson School, and some of it was also at Washington School. So I was assigned to Washington School, and we had, if I remember correctly, four rooms there. I taught geography. There was an English teacher, and we didn't have any science at all. In fact, we added science after Sputnik, then they felt they should start science in seventh grade. I taught some science then, which I didn't have any real background for. Then we also had an art teacher and a small area for a gym. So we did have some of that. Jefferson School had a little larger seventh grade population, and then that kept going through 1959. Then the high school was built on Van Raalte Avenue between Twenty-fourth and Twenty-eighth streets. So at that time, I had my choice of staying in a junior high situation or going into elementary. So I decided I'd try elementary. There was an opening at Longfellow, which is only really two blocks away from where we lived. It was kind of interesting because I taught sixth grade for two years, and to come back where I had gone to school. By this time the school of course is getting old, and if the wind would blow the curtains would be flowing in the breeze, and they had hot-water heating with pipes. You know, you had a series of pipes in the room so every time the heat would go on the pipes would bang. By that time, fire regulations had changed, so they couldn't occupy all of the rooms in the building, nothing on the basement level, or the partial-basement. Only certain rooms could be occupied in the rest of the building. They had added a wing onto Twenty-fourth street. I stayed there ten years until our children started going to that school, and then I transferred to junior high. But while I was there the old school was torn down. That was part of the courtyard. They saved the bell, and some of the people got some of the old bricks from the school. Then I went to junior high, and I taught there for the rest of my time. When the new junior high was built, in around '79 or '80, then the old junior high became the E. E. Fell building, and that was just for seventh grade. We had just all seventh graders there. That lasted for about eight or ten years. The last two years I taught then I moved over to what now would be the West Middle School. At that time, all seventh, eighth, and ninth graders were there. So that was really a very congested building. They put me into a room which was originally an art room, and they made a wall in the middle to separate what was a computer room. I was fortunate—I was on the window side. They put carpet on the floor at least, but I was kind of off by myself in some ways, which wasn't too bad. The kids I had then had to come all the way around to get to my room. Then I retired in 1990. EB: You said that you have a wife. Why don't you state her name, when you were married and maybe how you met. MVA: My wife's name is Mae Alice. Her last name was Naber. She grew up really on a farm on what would be Ottagon, which is Thirty-second street in Holland, just east of State Street in Zeeland. She went to the Zeeland schools. My friend's father was the manager of the Chamber of Commerce, so I would get in there once in awhile. I asked her if she wanted a ride home, and we started dating. We were married in 1955. Starting in the summer of 1958, I was looking for a summer job. Before that I had been a registrar at Camp Geneva for two years. One summer we took a six-week trip. The schools would give a hundred dollars for each of three years. If you took either a six-week trip or if you went to school for the summer. So we decided we'd go out west for six weeks in the summer, and we took the back seat out of our car. We had bought a tent from Holland Awning Company, and we had a Coleman stove. So we spent six weeks...we put on about 12,000 miles in the western states and into Canada then. Then starting in 1958, Arthur Deem was looking for somebody to be the manager of Oxbow which is the Summer School of Painting in Saugatuck. At that time, it was a for-profit corporation because they had organized in the early 1900s when for-profit corporations were not a problem. But by that time, they were having real problems. They had a lot of changes, and they wanted to get back more to fine arts rather than to crafts, so there was a lot of problems within their own board. I did everything there, from registration to hiring the cook, making any kind of repairs that would not require money. We stayed there. We had a room in the inn which was Riverside Hotel on the old channel of the Kalamazoo River, which was plugged up when they changed the course of the river in 1905, and then that became kind of a dead end. That's why it was called Oxbow because of the shape of the river right at that point. It was a very interesting experience. I probably would lose about fifteen or twenty pounds in a summer through work and just worry that we were going to make it, as far as financial things were concerned. Now, of course, they're a non-profit corporation so they can get money and their tied more closely to the Art Institute of Chicago. My wife started taking some classes even though she was working full-time. She really enjoyed art. So as time progressed, we had children starting in the 1960's, so she really didn't do too much until later. She was not working at that time when you had children, then she started working part-time in Vocational Education. She took some courses at Hope College from the art department with Del Michel and others. She started doing more art work. Now she does a lot of watercolors. She has her work at the Castle Park Gallery. She just had a show. She's done some monotypes this summer with Michigan leaves, and mostly things from our yard here, from our garden. She also, for the last about eight years, has had a class for developmentally disabled adults at the Holland Area Arts Center. That's been a kind of a, well, both sides, good and bad. When I say bad, you know it's very trying sometimes, but she's gotten a lot of good, steady volunteers. That's really been helpful. They have about between twenty and twenty-five students in that class, and they meet the year around on Monday nights. The last several years now, Hope College students who are majoring primarily in psychology, they will go there for one of their related experiences for one hour credit for the semester. She is quite involved I would say with the Art Center. EB: You mentioned you had kids. Why don't you tell me their names and when they were born. MVA: Our son Jonathan was born [date removed], 1961--Pearl Harbor Day. We adopted him and got him the same day, I was trying to think now, I think it would be Senator Glenn now, made his space shot, it would have been in February of 1962. I should mention two years later, our daughter was born. Her name is Elizabeth. We always called her Beth. Both of our kids went through Holland Public Schools. When they got to college, we said they could go wherever they wanted to. We would pay tuition, etc. They would have to take care of their own board. We felt that they should get away from home, but they both decided on Hope. Our son majored in computer science, and he had a couple of local jobs. The one company went bankrupt and the other company was purchased by another company. So he went to North Carolina through the help of his prof at Hope College, who had some connections there. He worked under contract with GTE and the defense division there. They were doing programs for the Army. Then he got a permanent job, by that time he was married and had one child. So they were here for six months while he was there, then they moved there permanently. Now he's working for a new company, made up mainly of former employees of GTE. They like it very much there. We usually try to visit spring and fall. I don't care to go there in the summer, it's too hot. Our daughter majored in psychology. She did not go on for her master's right away. She did some other things. Then she went to the University of Michigan and got her master's degree in school social work. She was in two schools where she was the first school social worker, and now she's at Harper Creek, which is just east and south of Battle Creek. She likes it there quite well. Those are our two kids. EB: Why don't you tell me a little bit about hobbies that you have. MVA: Music has always been a real important thing I would say. As I mentioned earlier, I played the clarinet. When I was a senior in college, I probably gave about twenty-five lessons a week. That helped, you know, to pay for college. Then I was able to really save some money so when I finished college, I didn't have any debts. When I came back from the service, I could at least buy a car. I couldn't do much else. Then after we got married, well, I've always been a member of the Trinity Reformed Church. That was down on Twentieth and Central. We were very active there, and in 1984 they moved to their present site on Apple Avenue between Twenty-fourth and Thirty-second. We were involved with the choir there. I really enjoyed singing, baritone-bass primarily. My wife also sang. We were involved in other things there as well. I like to primarily listen to classical and jazz music. I try to record everything for woodwinds, so I enjoy that. Also, I started back in about the late '70s collecting postcards. My mother was a real writer and saved the postcards she had received. When she grew up in 1910s, or around 1910, postcards were the primary way of communicating with people. You'd send a postcard for everything. She had around four books of postcards. She died, and my father later re-married, and then when he died, my stepmother said to my brother and I if we wanted the cards we could have them. So we just split them. You know, one for me and one for him, et cetera. I started getting interested in postcards, find them like the flea market towards Saugatuck and the woman there usually had a lot of cards. You go to postcard shows where dealers would sell cards. Kalamazoo, Chicago, wherever we would go you could find them. I knew where postcard shows would be. If we'd be on vacation then I'd find those. So I really started collecting those in earnest during the '80s and probably the early '90s. At that time, postcards were quite inexpensive. I tried to collect Ottawa and Allegan county, but then I found that that became a little too much. I had quite a collection of South Haven, and I sold that. Now I still have cards probably about from Glenn, which is south of Saugatuck, and I have quite a large collection of Allegan cards, Saugatuck-Douglas, maybe probably around nine hundred or a thousand cards, and about the same number of Grand Haven. Holland-Zeeland, I couldn't even tell you. I've got quite a few like of Tulip Time, and then I've got a lot of cards just of the Holland-Macatawa-Zeeland-Hamilton area. So I have about five or six hundred of those on slides. It's kind of interesting. In the early days, of course, postcards were purchased by people when they took vacations; or like Holland was a place where a lot of people got off the train to go either to Muskegon or to transfer some other place, so they would just send a postcard. In those days also, the early days I'm talking about, people would take their own personal pictures and put them on postcards. So I have postcards of my mother, and my mother and father, and my uncle. Those were very, very nice. So through the postcard collection, I've became quite interested in Holland history. You see a lot of the changes that have taken place. You see the cycles that occur over a period of time, how the community has really changed--as far as buildings I'm talking about, not people, because, except for private cards, you don't have as many pictures of people usually with postcards. Out of the local industries, thirty, fifty years and then they are gone and someone else takes their place. The early resorts along Lake Michigan or Macatawa have changed. Transportation, of course, with the interurban that came through from the last part of the 1800s until the latter part of the 1920s. There's been quite a few changes that have occurred. EB: Why don't you tell a little bit about what you remember about the freeway coming through Holland? MVA: You're talking about U.S. 31? Part of that time I was in the service when it was just being built north of Holland, U.S. 31 instead of the two-lane road. Originally, of course, U.S. 31 came in on 64th Street which is what we call the Old Saugatuck Road. We used to be able to see the shield of the federal highway on the bridge abutments. They didn't have a separate sign. In the 30s, they built the Blue Star Highway, which connected Holland to areas south. It came right through the city. The freeway was built in the early '60s, but U.S. 31 itself, the bypass around Holland, was built in the late '40s early '50s. I can remember the Holland Rendering Works, which processed waste materials of animals, like bones and all the rest, grind them up into bone meal, fertilizer or made into fat. They were located right between DeNooyer's and R. E. Barber right on Eighth street where the highway goes now. Because of the odors that would come from that plant, they had limited places where they could go. So the state condemned that land and eventually they moved to the New Richmond area which was south of Holland. Then the state built, what I call the bypass, but you know it's really the highway today. When I taught in Muskegon, where M-21, Chicago Drive and U.S. 31 met, there was no overpass there. So then there was a stop light there. I can remember accidents. People would come over the hill and suddenly there would be a stop light. If the weather was bad, especially, there was a problem. But if I travelled between Muskegon and Holland when I taught there those two years, then it was a little easier because it was a divided highway at that time, even though it was not limited access. The freeway was built into Holland in the '60s. I taught Driver's Education then for about twenty-six years for the schools in the summer--that was kind of a summer job then. I usually taught two sessions and then we'd take the third session and we'd usually, we had a camping trailer...(end of side one) EB: You were talking about the freeway to Grand Rapids... MVA: Yes, that was not completed until later. I can't tell you what year, but probably in the '70s before that was completed in Holland, and then when 196 tied into Grand Rapids. Before that you had M-21, around Zeeland, originally went through Zeeland, then was a four lane road once you got past Zeeland, which was quite a road in that day. But today, nothing. Roads really have changed quite a bit in that period of time. I can remember when I was real young, we used to go to Jamestown which was east of Zeeland. We'd come back at night and sometimes the Byron Road, which is the present road out of Zeeland, when you get through the old muck area there up the hill, I can remember sometimes it would be very hard because there would be new snow, and they wouldn't take care of it like today. So to get up the hill would be a problem then. EB: How did those road expansions and growth help Holland industry? MVA: I think the main thing...I mentioned of course annexation and enlargement of the city occurred in the late '50s or early '60s. At that time, the Holland Public Schools said, "If you're going to stay with us, we have to build a new high school." So it became a city/school thing, a political type of annexation. West Ottawa decided to start building their own system. Also Hamilton built a junior and senior high school. As a result of that, Holland annexed the area we call Maplewood, which would be toward the south of Thirty-second street and then they annexed Montello Park and Lakeview to the west, and Apple Avenue which had the General Electric plant at that time to the east. The rest of the areas did not come in, and so for a few years it was kind of an odd thing. Then Holland started HEDCOR and that started to bring in more industry. So as a result of that really, more industry came, and we had a lot of different types of industries that came as compared to, like I mentioned back in the '50s, if you had any real job skills, it was very hard to find a job in Holland. You really almost had to leave, you know, for the majority of people, whereas today, there are a lot of different types of jobs that are available. On the one hand you had growth, which makes a lot of changes, changed the whole complexion of thing, but on the other hand, it provided a lot of jobs. So, to go back to your original question, we had railroad transportation here for some industries. And then roads tied in for the other things as well. EB: You haven't talked much about the relationship between Holland and the church, especially the RCA, and the Christian Reformed Church. MVA: I always went to Trinity Reformed Church, and I was just a block away from the Christian high school. When I went to Longfellow, and later when I taught there, I would say a lot of the teachers there were actually from our own church. In those days, well, when I went back to teach, it was expected that you'd have some type of Bible reading in the morning. I usually let the kids take care of that. At that time, you didn't think too much about that. I really was not involved too much with the differences between the Reformed Church and the Christian Reformed Church. We went to the Reformed Church, so I would say, a lot of the kids I knew and the people we did things with at that time, the church was kind of the center of social activities really, too. Trinity Reformed Church was a neighborhood church. When it was started, it was on the outskirts of the city back in the 1910s, and then kind of grew with the neighborhood. So I really did not get involved with the differences between the two, actually. Later I began to see some of the contrasts between the two. For some people, parochial education is a very essential thing. I still feel myself that as a Christian, you should be in the world enough so that people can be seeing you rather than being separated. On the other hand, I went to Hope College, which is affiliated with the Reformed Church. So that was really like going to a church-related school rather than to a public college or university. At that time though I would have either gone to Western Michigan in Kalamazoo, which at that time didn't have as high of standards as Hope College or to Michigan State College, or some other place. EB: Speaking of Hope College, how does Hope College play a role in the community of Holland? MVA: Well, I feel myself, a couple of things. When our church was thinking about staying on Twentieth-street or moving, I was quite involved with that process, and my wife also. We had meetings with Hope College, and they were quite interested and concerned that we would stay there to sort of stabilize that neighborhood. At that time, they said they were only going to be expanding up to a certain point. Since that time they have purchased a lot of property to the east and also to the south, much more than what they said at that time. But I think, really, if you want to take advantage of what the college has a lot of things really to offer. We go to some of the concerts, obviously not all of them. We have tickets for the Grand Rapids Symphony, that's part of what we do, but we always get to the Vespers, and some of the Sunday concerts, and then some of the others. We go with my brother to the basketball games. I usually don't go to the football games any more. I did at first, when we were married. Also I belong to HASP, which is the Hope Academy of Senior Professionals. The college has been really supportive of that group. It's kind of a mutual thing, because we do some things which help the college, but on the other hand, they also help us and encourage us. I don't know if you're acquainted with HASP or not, but they run their own classes and it's very nice because you can stay as busy with them as you wish, and they offer quite a wide variety of things. Right now I just finished...we were gone to Virginia, North Carolina in October, so I missed one class with the Internet. And then I'm taking the series on the Civil War right now. In December, I'll be volunteering and helping with the Salvation Army baskets for several different days. So Hope College is a pretty positive thing, I realize having gone there. But for me it was an opportunity of course for advanced education too. EB: Let's talk about your heritage, your ethnic background. Why don't you say a little bit about that? MVA: I mentioned earlier that my father was born in the Netherlands, and his father wanted to come to the United States. I have no idea what the economic conditions were at that time. He was a blacksmith like I mentioned earlier, and I also mentioned that his wife died just before they came, but they still did come, and they had relatives here, which helped. Those relatives had come to Holland very early. I can't tell you exactly...we were related to them...but my father learned to speak English. I don't think you could tell too much that he had been born in the Netherlands because he was about eight years old when they came. So he learned English very fast. I would say the older sister and brother, you could tell more. Primarily the younger four people in the family you couldn't tell very much that they had been born in the Netherlands. They were involved with...in terms of ethnic background, church for us was a very important thing, and they were involved with the Reformed Church, both my mother's family and my father's family. We never learned Dutch at home. They spoke Dutch, you know the old story, if they wanted to say something that they didn't want us to understand. My wife's father spoke more Dutch at home, and also she went to some Dutch services. The interesting part, when we visited the Netherlands a few years ago for three weeks, my wife remembered more things and of the Dutch language than I really, the few words that I knew were not very many. But I think that my parents, even though with a limited background, felt that education though was very important. They tried to give my brother and me the opportunity to stay at home if we wanted to go to Hope College at that time. EB: The role of women in Holland, how has that changed? From your parents' generation, to now. MVA: When I taught, junior high and senior high, probably, well, this would have been after World War II, had really quite a few fellows that were teaching. When I started teaching at Longfellow, I was the first male that taught there. So I won't say too much about that, it was for me, sometimes a little more difficult because just being a male there. Not that I was put under any particular kind of a pressure, but I think kids liked it, and at that time, I wasn't that old and I could do a lot of things with the kids as far as playing games, or if we had gym we could do a lot of things together. When I think about my mother, she was always at home, and never worked outside the home. She always did her thing there. With my wife, once our kids were in junior high, she got a part-time job working at Vocational Education and teaching at Community Education. She's been involved a lot more outside of the home. That's in terms of our family. We have a neighbor, I won't mention her name, but I would say that if she were born today, that probably she would be...she is a leader in the community, but she probably would have been more involved probably outside, although because of occupations, probably she would not had to have been. But she was very involved with a lot of the community things. So you know, today you see quite a contrast. When we grew up, talking about after we got married, I think I started teaching my first year for $3000, but then because I had been in the service, they gave me $200 extra. So my wife, as a secretary, was making almost, not quite as much as I was, teaching. So we didn't have too much to start with, but we always managed to get along. As time went on then we tried to save, so that really benefitted us later, especially now since we've been retired because, I'm getting away from your original question, but we've had an opportunity to do a lot of travel since I've been retired. To partially answer your question, my wife has one niece who has been in China teaching for I think seven years, or this is her eighth year now. She went over teaching in the People's University with Cedarville College which is a very conservative Baptist school. She went there as a part of that team, teaching English. So it was kind of an ironic thing, because here you had a very secular type of situation and then you have all of these Christians. We visited her about three or four years ago. We took a trip to China and then we spent an extra week with her then. She did some things to show us around Beijing. Last spring we took a trip to Bolivia and Peru. I don't know if you've ever heard of the Inca Trail or not, that leads into Macchu Picchu, but we hiked that. We were a little too old for that, we were very fortunate through the grace of God that we made it, because you know it's a four day trek. I think that the total trip, was the most beautiful trip I think that we had taken all together. We have actually been to the Netherlands, we took a boat trip between St. Petersburg and Moscow and China, and we have taken a number of Elderhostels. Everything from an impressionist painters barge trip in France and Oaxaca, Mexico. We took a naturalist trip to Costa Rica. So we've had an opportunity to do some travelling since we've been retired. We don't usually go away during the winter per se, because Mae is busy with her art work, and I have enough to do. I volunteer also at the Holland Museum, usually a half-day a week. Then also in the last three or four years, I've volunteered a couple hours a week to help the sixth grade band teacher with clarinet or saxophone. You find enough to do, and at home here I enjoy working in the yard and garden. I have a greenhouse, and I collect cacti and succulents. If you're a biology major you know about those things, so I built a greenhouse back in 1970. I slowly evolved into collecting cacti and succulents, rather than some of the other things I had earlier. EB: That's interesting. You're very lucky that you guys get to travel so many places. MVA: Yes, and as growing up, I think we went once to Niagara Falls, and once to the Straits of Mackinaw. But beyond that, we didn't have the opportunity. So like I mentioned, after we got married, then we took that six-week trip. Then for about five summers, I was working at Oxbow, so we didn't do much travelling then. But later we started doing some with camping. After we retired then we did quite a bit more for about four years. Then we had a motor home, and we took that to the Maritime Provinces of Canada. We had a five week trip to Alaska with that, and out west and other places. So that was nice too. EB: How have the everyday fears changed from when you were a kid to when your kids were younger? MVA: Especially what are you thinking about? EB: Well, nowadays, it's not uncommon to hear about burglaries, muggings. How have those type of fears changed? MVA: I would say that our house, we had a skeleton key-- no special locks at all. A lot of times we wouldn't even have anything locked up at all. Of course we didn't have that much either, I don't think. I can remember some problems once in awhile in Holland, but it would be a major thing if you would have somebody being killed or something of that sort. You have to kind of adjust to the changes. We don't like to feel like we're ever threatened by those kinds of things. We try to take precautions that we can, in terms of how we live. If we travel, we try to know ahead of time what's going to be happening; we try to be aware of things. But I think it is too bad when you can't trust other people. I think this is kind of sad. In our own neighborhood we've had a door forced once, nobody came in, but we assume that somebody tried to, and they could have. We've had our doors replaced, but otherwise we have never been burglarized, but our neighbors, a few of them have had problems with that. It's not a nice experience really. EB: So you'd say that those fears have changed from when you were a child? MVA: I don't know if I have fears, but on the other hand, I take more precautions than I would have done earlier. If I drive at night, I try to make sure to lock the doors of the car. We have a security light in the back of our house. I don't know if we really need it or not, but we do. So you know, we have a few of those kind of things. EB: Do you notice a large generation gap in Holland? MVA: Yes, I think one of our problems with our son living in North Carolina, we have one grandson who's ten years old. So we see him, just occasionally. We don't have a lot of kids that we're directly involved with all of the time. However, volunteering at the schools and talking to people, to me it's not easy today with kids. I'm talking about raising kids and just life as a family is a lot more difficult today because of the problems that they face. This is kind of a problem. EB: Holland has been recognized as one of the top ten all-American cities. Why don't you tell me why you think Holland has been recognized. MVA: All-American city, why should it be? Having lived here all of my life, I guess I'm sort of prejudiced in terms of what we're trying to do here. I feel that Holland, as far as I see things, and I realize I am an older person and a lot of the problems deal with people that I don't really have a lot of connections with, but it seems like the city and this surrounding area through the Macatawa Area Coordinating Council try to work at problems that come up, rather than trying to say they don't exist or avoid them somewhat. I think like the Weed and Seed programs that have been carried on here in the city and also in the West Ottawa areas are examples of that. I think our schools are making an effort. Van Raalte school, which has a lot of different groups, is not just a school, but it is a center for the community in that area. It provides a lot of services, a lot of things go on at school, which provide help for people and encouragement. Talking to people that have come from other cities and settled here, they feel that Holland provides a lot of things for them that enrich their lives. In other places you might have to belong to a private group to take advantage of these things. We have Evergreen Common for senior citizens. I don't belong to it. Right now I am plenty busy and so is my wife, but I know we should really join just to support it. I think there are a lot of volunteers also that help in a number of different ways within our community. I think that we're still of a size yet where volunteers can make a difference. I think that with the background of this particular area, people still really do make a difference yet. EB: Can you describe a significant turning point in your life? MVA: In what way do you mean? EB: Anyway you can think of, whether it had to do with the city of Holland, whether it had to do with a person, or a place. MVA: A significant turning point. Wow, that's hard. I don't know if there is any one thing. Like I mentioned earlier, I think in elementary school, I had the opportunity to get involved with music, and also was involved with the Safety Patrol which was a leadership thing. I'm a person who probably doesn't push myself maybe as hard as I could as far as promoting. I like to do things more probably behind scenes rather than be up front. In college, at Hope College, I would say several people there really encouraged me. For one thing, in high school, I should have taken Advanced English and no one ever told me to. So when I was a sophomore, and ran into especially Greek Mythology, et cetera, I had a real tough time. Dr. Jimmy Prins, my teacher, I would say encouraged me. When I started getting involved in a major in social studies, Professor Al Vandenbusch who taught specially government and political science was very encouraging. Then Ella Hawkinson, who came here and worked very hard to get the social studies department going, also gave me a lot of encouragement. I think through our lives also, religious faith has played a very important part. I know back in the '80s, when we faced some rather serious problems, this was very helpful, and I think along with it that time, just music helped me at least get through some of the kinds of things that were really very serious problems at that time. EB: Why don't you tell me about somebody important here in Holland that affected your life. MVA: I'd have to think about that. I haven't really thought about who that might be. I think as I mentioned a minute ago, teachers, not just elementary, but also junior and senior high, were very helpful. That was very important to me. As far as a person that would stand out in the community right now, offhand, I really couldn't think of a particular person. EB: Okay, that's perfectly fine. How have your priorities changed as your life has progressed here in Holland? MVA: When Mae and I were first married, our incomes were very limited. As I mentioned, coming out of the Depression of course you look at things in a particular kind of a way. So we worked hard just to try to establish ourselves, and I had some part-time jobs which helped. Mae worked until our children came. So we started building our home the third year after we were married. We lived in an apartment for the first two years. I would say the first year is probably just trying to get ourselves established. But during that time also, we were both quite involved with Trinity Reformed Church in a number of different ways: choir, youth groups, consistory, those types of things. I think as time goes on, probably you appreciate more things, and I shouldn't use the term things but people. I think also we've had more opportunities to be involved with things that enrich our lives. Mae does a lot of watercolor and other types of art. So whenever we take a trip, we try to go to art museums. If there are special shows in Chicago or other places, we try to see those. Even in trips we've taken to foreign countries, we've done that. We've enjoyed the Grand Rapids Symphony concerts over the years. We go with friends, and we've done that for quite a few years. So I think in that way we've probably broadened how we look at a number of different kinds of things. Hopefully our lives then would have been enriched that way then too. EB: How has your commitment to faith changed over the years? MVA: Well, in our home, our family faith was a very important thing. It was emphasized about six months ago. We have a new calling pastor in our church. He said, "You know, the thing I remember about you," back in those days we'd have a city-wide thing for Bible-knowledge or something of that sort, and he said, "You won the city championship in that." I had forgotten about that completely. So at that time it was at one level, but then I think through life and especially if you hit real serious problems, I think is when if you do have religious faith, it helps, and I think it strengthens your faith then at that time, even though the problems themselves can hit you very hard. Through much of our life really, things went fairly smoothly. You know, we ran into a few things where we had some really very serious problems that we had to overcome. I think faith played a big part in that. I think one of the things that we are facing, and I think it's true for a lot of people our age, was the change in the way church services are run now as far as music, and some of the other kinds of things. You lose, as far as we're concerned, some of the quality. I think it becomes more of a popular type of thing, when I say that I'm talking about certain aspects of the service, rather than quality. I enjoy a lot of different types of music and so my main concern is, when I get involved in music, especially either listening or when I used to do more singing et cetera, would be the quality of the music no matter what kind it really was. So I think, for us, this has been kind of a difficult thing. But on the other hand, you realize changes take place. You don't want to set yourself as a person who is an obstructionist, but yet when you have certain values, you hate to see some of those kinds of things changing. EB: Do you think that change in the style of church is due to younger pastors? MVA: I think to an certain extent. How you attract people of course, I realize is very essential for any religious group. There are a number of different ways to do this, but I think that for at least ourselves, I'm talking about Mae and me, I think it's been a little more difficult, at least some of the aspects, when you get real changes where you lose, what I call the quality, rather than just playing to the crowd. The changes that occur with that. EB: How has your involvement in the community changed? MVA: Well, when I was teaching, I would say that a lot of my energy was just involved in teaching. Well, when you get through of a day of teaching, you still have papers to correct and you have to think about preparation. So besides church and a few other activities, that pretty well took care of my time and energy. Since I've been retired now, that and I volunteer at the Holland Museum--usually I try to do that about a half-a-day a week. I've enjoyed that, because I do enjoy Holland history. Also like I mentioned earlier, I have helped the sixth grade band teacher with clarinets and saxophones. I realize again I can only do so much with that particular kind of activity. The Hope Academy of Senior Professionals provides as many outlets as you really want in the way of activities and classes. So with that and many opportunities to travel and to do some things, we've been very fortunate since I've retired. EB: There are just a few other things that you may want to touch on. You talked about your life here in Holland, after and during the Depression. What about during the Korean or Vietnam wars? Was there a significant change here? MVA: I don't know if I mentioned earlier or not, I graduated from Hope in 1951. That was during the Korean War. So I had a teaching certificate, and unless you had political connections, school districts really didn't care to hire you because they didn't know when you might be drafted. So I actually enlisted for two years, and then I served my two years and fortunately like I mentioned, I was attached to the band during that time. But a lot of the people that came through our camp, and I saw a number of people from Holland that went through, went right to Korea, and was not a very pleasant kind of experience during that time. I think that the Vietnam War, to me, was really a critical mistake in our country, from both the economic standpoint and also from the way it changed how people lived. It was really a kind of a sad thing that happened to our country because I think that the way people dealt with their lives changed so much, not necessarily just because of the war, but because of the conflict between the different groups, and especially once people began to see the fallacy of what we were trying to do in Vietnam. To me, without any popular support of the country, you can't fight a war. You can kid yourself, but I think that was sad. I think with the fighting in Vietnam and the whole drug scene there with our troops really led to a lot of problems for a lot of veterans when they came back. I think when you look at veterans from the Gulf War, Vietnam--Vietnam was a very long war, in some respects for some people, and of course the fighting was quite different. I'm quite amazed that people who came through World War II, who might have been fighting very actively for four years in some cases, really survived very well as compared to those who fought in some of the later conflicts actually. EB: Do you have anything to say about Tulip Time? Maybe how it has changed? MVA: I've been involved with it, not all of the time I've lived in Holland. When I taught, I really didn't get involved very much, oh, I shouldn't say that. When I taught elementary, I did. When I taught junior high, I really didn't get involved with it. When I was younger, going to school, at first just being a participant, either with a costume or decorating bicycles--that type of thing. Being part of the parade was something. For the rest of the time through school I was in the band all of the time. Also when I was in college, then I was in the American Legion Band. I marched with them during that time. More recently now, the last three or four years, I've forgotten how many, with HASP we've been providing volunteers to go on the trolley tours, kind of a historical kind of tour. I've been doing that since they've started it. Tulip Time I think is a good thing, whether two weeks works out, I think it's a little long for a lot of people. I think when you have volunteers you have to consider how much that they can really handle. However in talking, especially groups that come in, a lot of the senior groups that come in the first week of Tulip Time, before the parades et cetera, are really just very happy to come here and see tulips, and maybe Dutch dancers, that type of thing. The second week, that is different then when you have parades and Dutch dancers, and all of the rest. Tulip Time I think still plays an important part in the community, however with the economic development of our city over the last twenty or more, maybe a little less than thirty, I don't feel that Tulip Time is as essential as it used to be. Resorts, per se, are not as important as they used to be because, well, along Lake Macatawa and Lake Michigan, a lot of that has become permanent housing now, whereas they used to be more just of a summer type of resort. So in those days, Tulip Time provided kind of an economic incentive in May, before actually the tourist season began. But now I realize tourism is still a big thing. I think with our other avenues of economic development, Tulip Time isn't quite as important as it used to be. Holland Furnace used to make a big production by bringing in movie stars at the Warm Friend Hotel, promoting their products as well as Tulip Time. EB: I guess the last thing I have for you to comment on is, what do you think about the bilingualism in the school? MVA: I have kind of mixed feelings about bilingual education. On the one hand, we have probably more different groups, I couldn't even tell you how many. If I said twenty-five or thirty, I'm talking about ethnic groups that have foreign languages that have come in now. It's a rough thing and I think it's very essential that we get people past the point where they can only speak native language, that they are able to communicate in English, because I think that's what eventually what most people want to do if they're given the opportunity. I think I volunteered one year at Community Education to help a Vietnamese person start learning some English. I'm not really a reading teacher per se... (end of side B, tape 1) MVA: I think community education really, you see the heart, when I say the heart of the community, the people who have really come in and really have to work very hard to be able to accomplish anything, especially because they cannot speak English or very little English. You'd be amazed at the number of people. And then when you get into the schools themselves, I've been away of course, this is my eighth year, so I really don't know completely what is happening in terms of bilingual education, but I think you do have to help people along to be able to make the transition between one language and another. I feel that one of the problems we always face anytime is when you promote programs. You have to be careful of course, the program, the end results justify what you are doing, instead of setting up empires for people who have a particular agenda that they want to accomplish rather than to deal with the problem itself. EB: Is there anything else that you might want to add that would help somebody fifty years from now? MVA: Fifty years from now, wow. Well, I would just say that I think in looking back through my time, I've been able to experience a lot of things that have occurred. I don't think there's any way that you can duplicate that kind of experience. Going back to the 1930s and the '40s and the '50s, et cetera, you've seen all kinds of changes that have occurred, and you've maybe grown up with them, changed with them, and I think you have to keep doing this through your whole life. I'm not very computer literate right now. We have a computer, my wife does a lot more with it than I do, but I took a course on the Internet. One of the comments that the person in charge said was, "It's not how much information you have, but rather how your life is involved with that, and what kind of a person you really are, not how much information you have." So I feel that I have been very fortunate to have gone through a lot of these changes. At certain times, survive some of the changes that have occurred. Starting out very simply, I've had opportunities and fortunately I've been able to use those. Since we've been retired, we have enough resources so that we really can do some things, which when we first were married, we didn't feel we probably could ever have done. What the future will bring, you don't know. But on the other hand, I feel that we've been very blessed in terms of what has happened to us through our lives. No matter what happens in the future, I would still feel that our life here has been a good life. EB: Do you have anything else? MVA: Well I think that's about all I can say right now. My brother and his wife were over for Thanksgiving, and I mentioned that we were talking a little bit about some of these times. He's nine years older than I am, so he saw things maybe a little differently from what I did at those times. So it was kind of interesting to compare, in talking with him, how he saw some things as compared to maybe the way I did. You know, with what I just mentioned, I feel that we had a lot of opportunities in our lives that have been enriching for us. EB: Just wanted to make sure we got everything. MVA: Yes. EB: Thank you. MVA: Okay, thank you.
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City of Bellevue Planning for Housing # CONTENTS Background .................................................................................................................. 4 How Cities Plan for Housing ..................................................................................... 6 - Growth Management ................................................................................................. 7 Categories of Housing ................................................................................................... 8 Bellevue Plans for People ............................................................................................ 10 Bellevue’s Housing Profiles ....................................................................................... 12 What We’ve Heard from the Community ................................................................... 16 Housing Approaches .................................................................................................... 18 - Introduction to the Approaches .............................................................................. 19 - Housing Approach Under Alternative 1: Urban Cores ........................................... 20 - Housing Approach Under Alternative 2: Mixed Use Hubs .................................... 21 - Housing Approach Under Alternative 3: Walkable Center .................................... 22 - Housing Approach Under Alternative 0: Current Strategy .................................... 23 Considering the Approaches ....................................................................................... 24 Sources ....................................................................................................................... 26 Housing that meets the needs of people at all stages of life is a key component of a thriving city. Housing contributes to a strong economy and workforce by helping people live close to their jobs. Putting housing near transit helps maximize those investments and reduce overall carbon emissions. Providing a variety of housing options allows people to find housing in their neighborhood of choice throughout their lives. A young family might be looking for a starter home in a neighborhood with a school they like, while an older couple might be looking to downsize and find a more walkable neighborhood with nearby amenities. That’s why the City Council’s Vision includes direction to create a wide variety of housing types and affordability that provide people with a safe, sustainable, inclusive, and accessible community. We need to create housing for everyone, across the income bands and for all stages of life. In planning for housing, we need to consider the following questions: - **Who**: Who needs housing? - **What**: What kind of housing will meet people’s needs at all stages of life? - **Where**: Where to locate housing so it’s close to jobs, transportation, shopping, schools, parks and more? - **How**: How to build housing and make it available to owners and renters? Ensuring people have access to housing is one of the most important parts of the comprehensive planning process. Cities consider a variety of factors including: - What land is available for development or redevelopment. - The needs of low- and middle-income residents. - How the housing can support opportunities for, employment, education, and recreation. - How historic discrimination may have impacted the ability of people to find housing at the start of this planning process. GROWTH MANAGEMENT In 1990 the Washington State Legislature passed the Growth Management Act which aimed to coordinate planning across cities and counties. The Growth Management Act has several goals, including: - Concentrate Growth in Urban Areas where there are jobs, infrastructure and services. - Reduce Sprawl to protect farmland, natural areas, and wildlife habitat. - Encourage Efficient Transportation Systems that are coordinated regionally. - Plan for Housing that provides a range of housing types and that is affordable to a range of income levels. - Support Economic Development that promotes economic opportunity for all. - Protect Open Space to conserve fish and wildlife habitat and provide opportunity for outdoor recreation. - Protect the Environment to ensure the availability of clean air, water and a high quality of life. - Support Public Participation to encourage the involvement of community members in the planning process. Bellevue worked with other cities, King County, and state and regional bodies to identify these important housing goals: - Create more housing options such as duplexes, townhomes, and other modest scale housing. - Create options that are affordable at all income levels, especially for households that have low incomes. - Ensure housing has access to jobs and transit. - Address impacts from historic discrimination in land use and housing. Cities need to provide a wide range of housing options to people. Most people either rent or own their home, but cities also need to provide more supportive housing options for people who are experiencing homelessness or in crisis. A renter might be able to afford something at the market rates or need financial support or rent through a non-profit or social housing program. People looking to buy a home might also be able to purchase something at market rates or participate in a program that helps them with a down payment or mortgage. | TYPE OF HOUSING | HOUSING CATEGORY | TYPE OF STRUCTURE | WHO IT SERVES | GENERAL INCOME LEVELS | |-----------------|------------------|-------------------|---------------|----------------------| | NON-MARKET HOUSING | EMERGENCY SHELTERS | Nightly shelters, extreme weather/warming shelters | People in crisis, people with insufficient housing resources | 0 to 30% AMI | | | TRANSITIONAL HOUSING | Temporary Housing (under a year) with supportive services | People moving from homelessness | 0 to 30% AMI | | | SUPPORTIVE HOUSING | Group homes, assisted living, long term housing with supportive services | People needing assistance to live independently | 0 to 80% AMI | | | NON-MARKET RENTAL HOUSING | Non-profit and public rental housing | People who can’t afford market rate rents | 30 to 80% AMI | | MARKET HOUSING | RENTAL HOUSING | Apartment buildings, rented condos, houses, ADU, etc | People who prefer renting or can’t afford home ownership | 80 to 120% AMI | | | HOME OWNERSHIP | Condos, single family homes, duplexes, etc. | People who can afford home ownership | 120% AMI and over | Eligibility for affordability is based on household income. Area Median Income (AMI) is the benchmark used to determine what a household earns and what they can afford. **Area Median Income (AMI)** AMI Area Median Income is the income level where half of households make more and half of households make less. It is calculated for different household sizes so the AMI for a single-person household is less than the AMI for a household with 3 people. **Area Median Incomes for Seattle-Bellevue Metro Region** - **AMI for one-person household**: $91,000 - **AMI for four-person household**: $136,000 Any household that earns 80% or less of AMI qualifies for affordable housing. Bellevue supports the construction of units affordable to low income households through a variety of methods now. - **Tax Credits**: Developers can get an exemption from taxes if they reserve units for low income households. - **Density Bonuses**: Developers can increase number of units they build if they are reserved for low-income households. Available in Downtown, BelRed, and on faith-owned properties. - **Investments**: The city can contribute funds to projects developed by nonprofit developers for affordable housing, behavioral health services, and housing-related services. In addition to these programs, Bellevue could implement one or more additional strategies to increase the number of units reserved for low income households: - **Expand Inclusionary Housing Incentives**: Expand the incentives available in Downtown and BelRed to other areas of the city. - **Mandatory Inclusionary Housing**: Require developers of housing with a certain number of units to reserve some units for low income households. - **Commercial Linkage Fee**: Require developers of commercial development to pay a fee that would go into a fund to support the development of affordable housing. BELLEVUE PLANS FOR PEOPLE People are at the heart of planning. The Comprehensive Plan helps guide future growth and development and ensures the city meets the needs of people for things like housing, transportation options, economic opportunity, access to parks, human services, and more. So, let’s take a moment to better understand the people who make up Bellevue. POPULATION BY AGE GROUP - <10: 15,705 - 10-17: 14,700 - 18-29: 23,006 - 30-44: 35,095 - 45-64: 38,566 - ≥65: 22,357 A little more than a quarter of households (28 percent) include at least one child under 18. The total population in Bellevue was 153,900 in 2022. The average household size is 2.4 people. The average commute is 22 minutes for residents and 8 percent of households do not have a car. POPULATION BY HOUSEHOLD TYPE - Married Couple Family: 33,178 - Other Family: 6,042 - Single Person: 17,129 - Other Non-Family: 5,091 TOP 5 LANGUAGES SPOKEN IN BELLEVUE 1. Chinese 2. Spanish 3. Korean 4. Russian 5. Japanese About 38 percent of the population lives near a frequent bus stop or light rail stop. 42 percent of Bellevue’s population was born outside of the US. About half of those born outside of the US are between 25 and 44 years old. POPULATION BY RACE/ETHNICITY 60 percent of Bellevue residents are people of color. While it is common for adults in Bellevue to identify with a single race, about 12 percent of people under 18 identify as 2 or more races indicating that many households in Bellevue are multiracial. One of the goals of this planning process is to support the creation of housing that is attainable to people at a variety of income levels. That includes housing that is subsidized for people with very low incomes and market rate housing that people with middle-incomes can rent or buy. The following profiles are examples of the kinds of housing experiences people have. As you look at the housing approaches the city is considering, keep in mind how each one might serve one of these people. **GEORGE, 52 | LOOKING FOR HOUSING** On Disability Insurance | $18,500 Annual Income | Less than 30% AMI George is a disabled man who grew up in Bellevue. He is living with his brother as he looks for housing. He is worried that he won’t find anything and will have to move farther away from his family, which might leave him isolated. **SHANAE, 43 | RENTER** Home healthcare aide | $33,000 Annual Income | 30% - 50% AMI Shanae is a single parent. She rents a one-bedroom apartment in Bellevue where she lives with her six-year-old daughter who is enrolled in the Bellevue School District. Shanae has a degree; however, her salary barely covers her housing and other living costs. “I would love to be able to live in a home where my daughter can have her own room… I cannot find any apartments in the Bellevue or anywhere in the area with two bedrooms in my ability to pay range. I am scared I will be homeless this time next year. I just want something that I can afford. I don’t want a handout…If I were to have to move, I would not have any money for the move in costs. I already live paycheck to paycheck.” **HASAN & MEENA | OWNERS** Recently Retired | $73,300 Combined Annual Income | 50% - 80% AMI Hasan and Meena bought their home in Bellevue in the early 2000s. Their son Asif recently finished grad school and is living with his parents while looking for a job. Now, that they are retired, they worry about paying for increasing property taxes on their fixed incomes. They love their home, where they can walk to parks and many services such as a grocery store and restaurants. “We love living in Bellevue, but we could not afford to buy the home we are living in if we had to buy it today. Each year our property valuation increases and last year the valuation increased by over $500,000. I am really concerned that as we retire and live on a fixed income that we won’t be able to afford to continue to live here.” SAMANTHA & JEREMY | OWNERS OUTSIDE OF BELLEVUE Teachers | $82,700 Combined Annual Income | 50% - 80% AMI Samantha is a pre-school teacher and has recently married her partner Jeremy, a high school math teacher. Both currently work in Bellevue and had hoped to buy a home close to their place of work or at least in the city. The closest housing market they could afford is Lake Stevens. Their commute is usually an hour one way which makes it tough help students after school or be an advisor for a club. “I was sad to learn that because these fabulous educators investing their time in our kids lives are unable to participate in our community.” MEI | RENTER Nurse | $78,000 Annual Income | 80% - 120%AMI Mei grew up in Bellevue and recently moved back from North Carolina to be closer to their family. Mei is single and works as a nurse at the Overlake Medical Center in Bellevue. While their income allowed them to live comfortably in North Carolina, they’re struggling to stretch their budget here and find a place to live in that suits their lifestyle. “I moved back in December to be near family, who have lived here before prices escalated. I am single and a nurse, and in North Carolina, I could live comfortably in a new home…I tried applying to rent in this area where I got my new job here (in Bellevue) and would sometimes be 18th in line with a credit score over 700 and no debt… I finally found a place to rent, but at almost $3000/month, old, dated… and taking almost half of my take-home pay, I am greatly disheartened that I cannot ever get ahead trying to live in the city I work in.” CHRIS AND LAURA | OWNER Software Engineer | $179,200 Combined Annual Income | 120% + AMI Chris and his wife Laura recently bought a home in Bellevue. Chris is a software developer and Laura has recently started a new job as a human resources specialist after staying at home for a while to raise their daughter. They feel very lucky to have been able to buy a home in Bellevue after many years of renting downtown. “After many years of renting downtown, my wife and I had a daughter, and we began searching for a more permanent place to live. After running into many, many multiple-offer situations (30+) we finally got close on a townhouse, but still did not “win.” Fortunately, the lead offer caused a lot of friction with the seller, and the deal subsequently fell through. The seller then chose us, and we proceeded with the purchase. Very grateful this worked out, but we can definitely sympathize with folks who did not have such a fortunate experience trying to secure a home here.” These quotes are taken from the housing stories people have shared with the city on engagingbellevue.com/bellevue-2044 The availability of housing that meets their needs and housing that people can afford are some of the top concerns expressed by Bellevue residents in this planning process. Bellevue’s, and the region’s, growth over the past decades has put pressure on the housing market as supply has not kept up with demand. The impacts of that underproduction can be seen in rising rents and housing costs, greater need for housing that is affordable for low- and middle-income households. This page shows some of the results of the 2022 Housing Needs Assessment and sheds light on the challenges facing the city. **PERCENTAGE OF BELLEVUE HOUSEHOLDS THAT QUALIFY FOR AFFORDABLE HOUSING BY RACE** - **29%** White - **29%** Asian - **51%** Hispanic or Latino - **47%** Black or African-American - **25%** All Races **HOUSEHOLD BY UNIT TYPE AND OWNER/RENTER STATUS** - **Owner Occupied Households** - Single Family Housing: 26,995 - Multi-Family Housing: 5,301 - **Renter Occupied Households** - Single Family Housing: 6,825 - Multi-Family Housing: 22,319 --- 27% of Bellevue households pay more than 30% of their income on housing and are considered cost-burdened. 24% of Black households and 34% of Hispanic or Latino households own their home compared to 59% of White and 50% of Asian households. 53% of Bellevue households own their home, while 47% rent. 50% of older adults living alone are cost burdened. Bellevue has a shortage of 5000 units available to households making 50% AMI or less. 8% of affordable housing units in Bellevue are for people experiencing homelessness, needing transitional or special needs housing. WHAT WE’VE HEARD FROM THE COMMUNITY One of the goals of the planning process is to encourage the participation of community members. Supporting public participation in planning is part of the city’s core values and leads to more transparent, accessible, and responsive government. Through mailed questionnaires, in-person events, online platforms – community members have had many opportunities to provide input. The Bellevue 2044 Vision Questionnaire, which was sent to all residential households, invited people to share open ended feedback on what they love about the city and what their chief concerns are. They were also invited to rate the city’s performance on achieving the City Council’s adopted vision. More than half of respondents (56%) reported Bellevue’s progress towards achieving its goal of providing a range of housing types that is affordable to all income levels as below average to very poor. Housing and affordability were the issues raised most frequently in the open-ended questions. More than half of the responses (52%) for this question touched on this issue. What is the most important challenge Bellevue should address to make sure future generations can thrive? 22 - Housing & Affordability: 52% - Homelessness: 19% - Safety: 14% - Traffic: 11% - Crime: 10% - Parks: 6% The city also worked with an outside research firm to conduct a statistically valid survey of Bellevue residents to better understand: - How residents prioritize planning goals. - What features people value in neighborhood. - Openness to adding new housing types throughout Bellevue and in their neighborhood. Survey results show that the top five development priorities for Bellevue residents are: 1. Homeownership opportunities for people with different incomes. 2. Preserve and enhance the tree canopy. 3. Residents can walk to a meeting place like a coffee shop or library. 4. More small businesses that are accessible to local neighborhoods. 5. Unique places to visit and things to do in the city. 68% of Bellevue residents support new housing development throughout Bellevue. There are significant differences between some demographic groups. Renters, younger residents, and residents in existing high-rise and mid-rise neighborhoods are nearly twice as likely to support new housing development in Bellevue, whereas homeowners, older residents and residents in primarily residential areas are more likely to oppose new development throughout Bellevue. Support for New Housing Development throughout Bellevue | Support | Neutral | Oppose | |---------|--------|--------| | 68% | 14% | 19% | 54% of Bellevue residents support new housing development in their neighborhood. There are significant differences between some demographic groups. Renters, younger residents, and residents in existing high-rise and mid-rise neighborhoods are nearly twice as likely to support new housing development in their neighborhood, whereas homeowners, older residents and residents in primarily residential areas are more likely to oppose new development in their neighborhood. Support for New Housing Development in your Neighborhood | Support | Neutral | Oppose | |---------|--------|--------| | 54% | 11% | 35% | Survey results show that the type of housing available is the most important criteria to residents when considering what makes their “ideal neighborhood.” Though “one house per lot” received the largest single share of support (38%), overall residents have a preference for neighborhoods that have a mix of housing types (62%) from lower to higher scale densities. Bellevue is considering several approaches to housing in order to reach our target of 35,000 new housing units by 2044. These approaches take into account state and regional requirements, City Council direction and input the planning team received during community engagement. **Approach 1: Urban Cores** *Capacity: 59,100* Maximize our transit investments to support vibrant urban centers. **Approach 2: Mixed Use Hubs** *Capacity: 76,300* Enhance mixed use areas and transit nodes throughout the city. **Approach 3: Walkable Centers** *Capacity: 94,500* Support complete communities with walkable neighborhood centers. **Approach 0: Current Strategy** *Capacity: 40,500* Continue with the current growth strategy. **A few things to note:** - Approaches 1, 2, and 3 also allow for new low-scale housing types like duplexes, cottage homes, and triplexes in neighborhoods throughout the city. - Approaches 1, 2 and 3 build off of each other to add capacity and flexibility in achieving our housing target. **Why is capacity larger than our housing target?** Bellevue is planning for an additional 35,000 housing units by 2044. Having more capacity gives developers (both non-profit and for-profit) more flexibility to respond to the needs of future residents. This means developers can build a greater variety of housing types and provide more choice in more neighborhoods. INTRODUCTION TO THE APPROACHES In looking at the approaches it’s helpful to think about these different areas of the city. Each approach combines these areas in different ways to achieve our goals. **URBAN CORE** Downtown, BelRed, Wilburton, East Main - Larger high-rise, towers (10+ stories) - Mid-rise apartments (5-10 stories in BelRed/East Main, parts of Wilburton) - Mostly 1-bedrooms and Studios - Residents can easily walk to retail/services - Largest Variety of services/amenities, more larger chains - More nightlife, arts, restaurants **MIXED USE** Crossroads, Eastgate, Factoria - Mid-rise apartments (5-10 stories) - Some smaller apartments (3-5 stories) - Townhomes - Residents have walkable access to retail/services - Medium variety of services/amenities **TRANSIT NODES** Select Arterials - Mid-rise apartments (5-10 stories) - Some smaller apartments (3-5 stories) - Townhomes - Residents have walkable access to retail/services on ground floor - Smaller variety of services/amenities **NEIGHBORHOOD CENTERS** Around existing shopping centers - Lake Hills, Kelsey Creek, Newport - Smaller apartments (3-5 stories) - Townhomes - Sixplexes, fourplexes, triplexes and duplexes - Residents in or very close to Neighborhood Center can easily walk to retail/services - Smaller variety of services/amenities, but more opportunity for small, locally owned businesses **NEIGHBORHOOD RESIDENTIAL** - Mostly a mix of single-family homes, duplexes & triplexes, cottage homes and townhomes - Not close to retail or transit, residents must drive to access services/amenities HOUSING APPROACH UNDER ALTERNATIVE 1: URBAN CORES Maximizing our Transit Investments to support vibrant urban centers. This approach would focus most of the new housing growth in Downtown, BelRed, Wilburton, and East Main and add additional density in mixed-use areas of Crossroads, Factoria, and Eastgate. New development in the urban core areas would be larger high-rise apartments that are 10 or more stories and mid-rise apartments that are 5-10 stories. The majority of housing units in those buildings would most likely be 1-bedroom and studio apartments. Additional low-scale housing options like duplexes, townhomes, or cottage homes would be allowed in neighborhoods throughout the city. Residents in the urban core areas would have good access to a wide variety of retail, services, and amenities, including arts and cultural opportunities, that they could walk or bike to. This option maximizes the current transit network and emphasizes housing near light rail. Housing Costs SOME mix of subsidized and market rate housing. Mobility SOME housing near jobs and transit. SOME support for biking/walking/transit options. Variety Minimal variety in housing types. What do you like about this option? What concerns do you have about this option? HOUSING APPROACH UNDER ALTERNATIVE 2: MIXED USE HUBS Supporting transit focused hubs and corridors by enhancing mixed use areas and neighborhood centers throughout the city. This approach builds off Approach 1 by adding new development around areas that have frequent bus service and allow both residential and commercial uses in the neighborhood shopping centers. New housing development in these areas would include mid-rise apartments, smaller apartments that are 3-5 stories, and townhomes. In neighborhood centers housing could be mixed in with retail. Like the previous approach, additional low-scale housing options would be allowed in neighborhoods throughout the city. Residents in these mixed-use hubs and neighborhood centers would have good access to retail and services. This approach would also support a more widespread network of transportation options, particularly for bus service along the frequent bus network. **Housing Costs** GOOD mix of subsidized and market rate housing. **Mobility** GOOD housing near jobs and transit. GOOD support for biking/walking/transit options. **Variety** SOME variety in housing types. What do you like about this option? What concerns do you have about this option? HOUSING APPROACH UNDER ALTERNATIVE 3: WALKABLE CENTER Supporting complete communities with walkable neighborhood centers. This approach builds off both Approach 1 & 2 by adding new housing development around neighborhood centers within ½ mile of the smaller neighborhood centers that exist today. New housing development in these areas would include small apartments between 3-5 stories, town homes, four-, tri-, and duplexes. Like the previous approaches, additional low-scale housing options would be allowed in neighborhoods throughout the city. More residents would have walkable access to neighborhood retail and there would be more support for smaller, locally, owned businesses. This approach would do the most to support walking and biking around neighborhood centers and make it possible to expand the transit network into more areas. Housing Costs GREATEST mix of subsidized and market rate housing. Mobility MOST housing near jobs and transit. MOST support for biking/walking/transit options. Variety MOST variety in housing types. What do you like about this option? What concerns do you have about this option? Under this approach there are no changes in land use or policies. Currently almost all of the capacity for housing is in Downtown and BelRed neighborhoods. The housing developed in those locations under the current policies would be primarily mid- and high-rise buildings. Most buildings of this type have smaller units, mostly studio and one-bedroom units with some two-bedroom units. The new housing developed under this approach would be close to light rail and have access to jobs and community resources. Existing housing would have similar access to transportation options such as bus, walking, and biking. New housing outside of Downtown and BelRed would primarily be the rebuilding of single family homes into larger single-family homes. **Housing Costs** LEAST mix of subsidized and market rate housing. **Mobility** LEAST housing near jobs and transit. LEAST support for biking/walking/transit options. **Variety** LEAST variety in housing types. What do you like about this option? What concerns do you have about this option? CONSIDERING THE APPROACHES At this point in the planning process, we are not asking people to choose a “favorite” approach. There is still work to do before the city’s growth strategy is determined. The city will complete an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), that provides further analysis on the potential environmental impacts of the different alternatives. The Planning Commission will review the alternatives and may ultimately recommend a growth strategy that combines different parts of each of the approaches. Your feedback will be shared with the Planning Commission and inform their recommendations. In your discussion, focus on what you like about each approach and what concerns you have. Make sure to explore the why behind your likes and concerns. Remember the goal of dialogue is not to arrive at consensus or reach a specific conclusion, but to explore shared values and common understanding. When disagreement surfaces use it as an opportunity to clarify perspectives rather than an opportunity for debate. Be respectful and listen for understanding. Below are some questions to consider. You may not get to all of them, so select the ones that the group most wants to discuss. 1. How has the issue of housing affected you, your family, or community? 2. When you think about the issue of housing what values and goals are most important to you? 3. Choose one of the lenses listed below and discuss what you like and what worries you about each approach. - Housing affordability and the impacts for homeownership and for people with very low incomes. - Housing choice and the range of housing options that meet needs of people at different stages of life. - Transportation and the impacts on driving, transit, walking, cycling, and people with mobility challenges. - Access to local retail, services and amenities. 4. Do you see any gray areas? 5. How might people with different life experiences view these options? 1. Area Median Incomes for Seattle-Bellevue Metro Region: US Department of Housing and Urban Development. 2022. Income Limits. Available online at huduser.gov/portal/datasets/il.html 2. Population by Age Group: U.S. Census Bureau. 2021 American Community Survey (1-Year Estimates). Table B01001. 3. Population by Household Type: U.S. Census Bureau. 2021 American Community Survey (1-Year Estimates). Table B25011. 4. Top 5 Languages Spoken in Bellevue: Calculations by Bellevue staff based on American Community Survey and Bellevue School District data. 5. Population by Race/Ethnicity: U.S. Census Bureau. 2021 American Community Survey (1-Year Estimates). Tables B01001 B-I. 6. Fact: US Census Bureau. 2022 American Community Survey 7. Fact: Washington State Office of Financial Management 8. Fact: US Census Bureau. 2022 American Community Survey 9. Fact: US Census Bureau. 2022 American Community Survey 10. Fact: Calculations by Bellevue Staff 11. Fact: US Census Bureau. 2022 American Community Survey 12. Fact: US Census Bureau. 2022 American Community Survey 13. Household by Unit Type and Owner/Renter Status: U.S. Census Bureau. 2021 American Community Survey (1-Year Estimates). Table B25032 14. Households by Total Bedrooms and Owner/Renter Status: U.S. Census Bureau. 2021 American Community Survey (1-Year Estimates). Table B25042 15. Median Earnings by Occupation Category: U.S. Department of Housing & Urban Development. 2019 Income Limits; U.S. Census Bureau. 2015-2019 American Community Survey (5-Year Estimates). Table B25118. 16. Fact: Housing Needs Assessment 17. Fact: Housing Needs Assessment 18. Fact: Housing Needs Assessment 19. Fact: Housing Needs Assessment 20. Fact: Housing Needs Assessment 21. Fact: Housing Needs Assessment 22. What is the most important challenge Bellevue should address to make sure future generations can thrive?: City of Bellevue. 2022. Vision Survey 23. Support for New Housing Development throughout Bellevue: City of Bellevue. 2022. Random Sample Survey 24. Support for New Housing Development in your Neighborhood: City of Bellevue. 2022. Random Sample Survey For alternate formats, interpreters, or reasonable accommodation requests please phone at least 48 hours in advance 425-452-6930 (voice) or email firstname.lastname@example.org. For complaints regarding accommodations, contact City of Bellevue ADA/Title VI Administrator at 425-452-6168 (voice) or email email@example.com. If you are deaf or hard of hearing dial 711. All meetings are wheelchair accessible.
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Illinois’ Ice Age Legacy Myrna M. Killey Geoscience Education Series 14 2007 Cover photographs (clockwise from upper left): Looking across the meltwater channel in the northern half of the Marseilles Morainic System in northern Illinois; Camelback Kame, along Deerpath Trail, Glacial Park, McHenry County Conservation District; ISGS geologist explaining the depositional environment of the tusks and teeth of a fossil woolly mammoth discovered in loess deposits on Principia College campus, Elsah, Illinois; the view from the top of Camelback Kame. (Moraine channel and wooly mammoth photographs by Joel M. Dexter; Camelback Kame photographs by Cheryl K. Nimz.) Printed by authority of the State of Illinois PRT 3427743-5M-6/07 Printed with soybean ink on recycled paper Illinois’ Ice Age Legacy Myrna M. Killey Geoscience Education Series 14 2007 Illinois Department of Natural Resources ILLINOIS STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY William W. Shilts, Chief Natural Resources Building 615 E. Peabody Drive Champaign, IL 61820-6964 217/333-4747 http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu A varied and fascinating geology is buried beneath the relatively flat Illinois plains. A well driller boring down into the earth in Illinois passes through many different layers of soils, sand and gravel, pebbly clay, and silt before hitting bedrock. These varied deposits and the shape of the bedrock surface on which they rest are due to huge continental glaciers that repeatedly advanced and retreated across Illinois in the last 1½ million years. Much of what we take for granted in our daily lives—soil, water, and minerals, the resources that nurture all life and sustain our society—is the legacy of these glaciers. A great deal of Illinois’ economy and well-being depends on the riches we have in the deposits, or drift, left by the glaciers. - Illinois’ rich agricultural soils developed in the windblown loess and till left by the melting glaciers. - Much of our drinking water is pumped from aquifers of glacial sands and gravels. - The sand and gravel essential to every building and road project was left by runoff from the glaciers. - The diversity of our forests, prairies, and wildlife habitats depends on the different deposits and landscapes left by the retreating glaciers. The importance of glacial drift was obvious to the writer Ignatius Donnelly back in 1883. He wrote of the drift covering much of North America: It is our earth. It makes the basis of our soils; our railroads cut their way through it; our carriages drive over it; our cities are built upon it; our crops are derived from it; the water we drink percolates through it; on it we live, love, marry, raise children, think, dream, and die; and in the bosom of it we will be buried. —Ragnarok: The Age of Fire and Gravel Awareness of glacial deposits is important for yet another reason—preserving a safe and healthy natural environment for ourselves and our children. As citizens, we face many crucial health and environmental issues that involve landscapes composed of glacial deposits: - keeping our drinking water, rivers, and streams free of contamination; • protecting ourselves against floods, earthquakes, and erosion of soil and beaches; • siting landfills, agricultural facilities, and low-level radioactive waste disposal sites safely; • reclaiming land contaminated by previous generations; • maintaining natural areas and wetlands for habitat and recreation. As citizens, finding local solutions to these problems requires a basic understanding of these glacial materials and how they were formed. This book introduces you to the legacy of glaciers in Illinois: the ways geologists study and learn about them, the history of the many glaciations, and descriptions of the deposits they left behind. I hope, when you next look out over the landscape of our state, that you’ll see more than the relatively flat landscape around you and realize that much of what affects your daily life is a legacy of the massive glaciers that once covered Illinois. —William W. Shilts, Chief Illinois State Geological Survey Thanks are expressed to these contributors for writing sidebars: Ardith K. Hansel for “The Present is the Key to the Past,” John P. Kempton for “Mapping Ice Age Deposits to Find Water” and “Evidence for Multiple Ice Advances,” Ardith K. Hansel and John P. Kempton for “Classifying and Naming Geologic Deposits and Times,” Leon R. Follmer for “The Importance of Buried Soils,” and E. Donald McKay for “What Loess Tells Us” and “Ice Age Dust Clouds.” Thanks are also given to Ardith K. Hansel, E. Donald McKay, and Steven E. Brown for insightful reviews of this revision; to Cheryl K. Nimz, Joel A. Steinfeldt, and Jennifer K. Hines for editorial contributions; and to Michael W. Knapp for graphics and design. Barbara J. Stiff and Curtis C. Abert are thanked for producing the statewide maps from Geographic Information Systems (GIS) data in the ISGS database. Appreciation is extended to Joel M. Dexter, Ardith K. Hansel, Leon R. Follmer, C. Pius Weibel, Richard C. Anderson, and David L. Reinertsen for the use of their photographs. ## Contents **Foreword** iii **Acknowledgments** v **The Great Ice Age and Its Importance** 1 “Quaternary”: What Does It Mean? 3 Natural Resources 4 Soils 4 Water 4 Mapping Ice Age Deposits to Find Water 5 Sand and Gravel 5 Natural Gas 6 Peat 6 Fill Materials 6 Geologic Hazards 6 Earthquakes 7 Landslides 7 Swelling Soils 7 Subsidence 8 Floods and Coastal Hazards 8 **What Happened during the Ice Age?** 9 Causes of the Ice Age 9 The Present Is the Key to the Past 10 How Glaciers Formed 11 Ice Age Evidence 11 Rocks and Sediments Left Behind 12 Till 12 Outwash 13 What on Earth Is “Diamicton”? 13 Loess 14 Lake deposits 14 Erratics 15 Scratches on bedrock 16 Landforms Left by the Ice 16 Evidence for Multiple Ice Advances 17 End moraines 17 Kames and kettles 18 Eskers 20 Glacial lake plains 21 Other Ice Age Evidence 21 Ice-wedge casts 22 Patterned ground 23 | Topic | Page | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | Studying Ice Age Deposits | 24 | | The Need to Know | 24 | | What Geologists See | 25 | | Deciphering the Ice Age Story | 25 | | Age Dating | 26 | | Relative age dating | 26 | | Radiometric age dating | 26 | | Drilling | 27 | | Lithologic and mineralogical analysis | 28 | | Buried soils | 29 | | Putting It All Together | 30 | | Telling the Story | 30 | | How to Read a Cross Section | 32 | | Before the Ice Age | 34 | | Investigating Bedrock in Illinois Today | 34 | | Studying Buried Bedrock | 35 | | The Bedrock Landscape | 35 | | Bedrock Uplands | 37 | | Bedrock Valleys | 37 | | The Driftless Area | 39 | | Did You Know? | 39 | | The Earliest Glaciations | 40 | | Deciphering the Earliest Glaciations | 40 | | Origin of the Early Glaciers | 42 | | Northwestern-Source Glaciers | 42 | | Classifying and Naming Geologic Deposits and Times | 43 | | Northeastern-Source Glaciers | 44 | | Time Relationship between Pre-Illinois Deposits | 45 | | Other Sediments | 45 | | Ancestral River Systems | 46 | | The Yarmouth Soil: A Distinguishing Role | 47 | | Finding Out More | 47 | | The Importance of Buried Soils | 48 | | The Illinois and Wisconsin Episodes | 50 | | Illinois Episode Glaciation | 50 | | Source Area | 50 | | Extent of Illinoian Deposits | 50 | | Ice Advances | 51 | | Illinoian Landscape | 52 | | The “Ridged Drift” | 53 | | Changing the Course of Major River Systems | 54 | | After the Illinoian Glaciation | 54 | | Topic | Page | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | The Wisconsin Episode | 55 | | Source Area | 55 | | Deposits | 55 | | When Did the Wisconsin Glaciation Happen? | 57 | | Time-Transgression | 57 | | Clues from Wisconsin Episode Sediments | 58 | | Ice Age Dust Clouds | 58 | | What Loess Tells Us | 59 | | Glaciers Change Major River Systems | 61 | | Recognizing Wisconsin Episode Deposits | 61 | | Landscape Differences between These Last Two Glaciations | 61 | | Surface Topography Map | 62 | | Sediments Other Than Till | 63 | | After the Wisconsin Glaciation | 63 | | Glacial Meltwater Floods | 64 | | Glacial Lake Sediments | 64 | | Sand Dunes | 64 | | Are We Still in the Great Ice Age? | 65 | | For More Information | 66 | | Glossary | 70 | Although the Earth is calculated to be roughly 4.6 billion years old, the face of most of Illinois is quite young—mere thousands of years old (fig. 1). Due to various climate changes about 1.8 million years ago, immense sheets of ice, called glaciers, flowed outward from centers of snow accumulation in Canada (fig. 2). (Some sources say these climate changes occurred 2.5 to 3 million years ago, but that is still only yesterday in geologic time.) Eventually, the glaciers crept far enough south to invade what is now Illinois. In time, the climate warmed again, and the ice sheets melted back. Such episodes of ice advance and withdrawal occurred several times. Figure 1 Geologic time scale showing how recent and short-lived the Great Ice Age of the Pleistocene was in comparison to the age of the Earth. Blue shading indicates periods and epochs for which no deposits are known in Illinois. Small black rectangles indicate times of major ice ages. Based on the Geological Society of America 1999 Geologic Time Scale (Palmer and Geissman 1999). Imbedded in each successive glacier were immense amounts of ground-up rock debris gouged out of the *bedrock* (italicized terms are defined in the glossary) in Canada and the northern United States as the glacier slowly pushed southward. As the last glacier to reach Illinois melted and left behind the final load of rock debris, the land that emerged looked far different from the preglacial landscape. Hills and valleys on the old rock surface had been buried, new ones had formed over them, and a thick mantle of ground-up rock debris—called *glacial drift*—lay over most of the land. These continental glaciers affected Illinois in several ways. First, rock debris was deposited by glaciers that came from both the northwestern and the northeastern centers of ice accumulation in Canada (figs. 2 and 3). Second, drainageways for meltwater from the glaciers converged here from the northeast, north, and northwest (fig. 3). Third, the continental glaciers spread farther south in Illinois than anywhere else in the United States (37°30′ N latitude; fig. 3). Although the last glacier disappeared from Illinois between 14,000 and 13,000 years ago, to the geologist, glaciers are very recent visitors to the state. Of the approximately 4.6 billion years of Earth history (fig. 1), the Quaternary, which began with the Great Ice Age and continues to the present, makes up only about the last 0.03% of that history! The time spanned by the Great Ice Age alone is called the Pleistocene Epoch. Geologists prefer to use the term Quaternary because certain geologic processes affecting sediments deposited during the Great Ice Age are continuing on the landscape today. “Quaternary”: What Does It Mean? The term Quaternary (pronounced Quat-ter´-nah-ree”) is a relic of the earliest attempts to subdivide the geologic record and establish a time classification scheme for the rocks and sediments observed at the Earth’s surface. But, if we still use the term “Quaternary,” or “fourth,” what happened to Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary? Giovanni Arduino, an eighteenth century Italian who studied the Alps and plains of Italy, based his classification scheme on the degree of metamorphism, structure, and hardening of rocks. Arduino observed that the core of the Alps consists of crystalline rocks; because these were obviously the first formed, he called them Primary. The flanks of those mountains are strongly deformed fossiliferous limestone and marble, and he named these strata Secondary. He classified the un lithified sediments of the plains as Tertiary and later alluvial (river) and lake deposits as Quaternary. This scheme was useful for early studies and was applied elsewhere in Europe and America until the 1820s. As geologic understanding of other areas and mountain ranges grew, however, it became clear that all mountain ranges were not the same age and had not been formed in the same manner. The terms Primary and Secondary were, therefore, misleading and were eventually discarded. Attempts have been made to eliminate the terms Tertiary and Quaternary, but their use has persisted. The term Tertiary has come to refer to the often un lithified preglacial formations of the Cenozoic Era (fig. 1), and Quaternary labels the period from the beginning of the Ice Age to the present and the sediments deposited during this time. Despite their geologically short visit, the glaciers left a rich legacy of natural resources that first supported Native Americans and later attracted Europeans to settle in what is now Illinois. Ice Age deposits also form the natural foundation for construction—houses, cities, factories, highways, bridges, dams, and other structures. We must understand the characteristics of these materials and how natural processes affect them in order to identify and avoid associated potential hazards, such as landslides and unstable slopes. Finally, much of the waste produced by our society is buried in Ice Age deposits. Clearly, it is important for us to learn as much as we can about these interesting and useful materials. **Natural Resources** **Soils** Illinois’ highly productive soils are one of the Ice Age’s richest legacies to the state. The rich soils of Illinois grow enough crops to feed much of the nation. Many of these soils developed in *loess*, a wind-deposited silt that blankets most of the state (see p. 14). Loess is one of the best possible parent materials for soil development suited for agriculture. It is rich with a wide variety of minerals that crops need and has a uniform, medium *texture*—one that retains moisture but is neither as coarse grained and loose as sand and gravel nor as fine grained and sticky as clay. Loess contains no cobbles or boulders that can interfere with plowing, and it retains moisture well. **Water** Water is our most essential resource. Rain and snow collect in lakes and streams or seep into the ground to form groundwater. Approximately 50 percent of the state’s population depends on groundwater to supply its water needs. Glacial deposits contain significant groundwater sources, although amounts and quality differ from area to area. Where water-saturated, the numerous and widespread sand and gravel deposits throughout the glaciated area of Illinois provide water to wells in amounts ranging from small domestic supplies to large municipal supplies. Abundant groundwater supplies also help meet the heavy demand of large urban areas such as the greater Chicago region and the areas of southwestern Illinois that form part of the St. Louis metropolitan complex. Mapping Ice Age Deposits to Find Water Over the years, many ISGS geologists studying groundwater resources have responded to requests for information about developing groundwater supplies for homes, farms, industries, and towns. Because much of the state is covered by Ice Age deposits and the bedrock that underlies large areas of Illinois yields little or no water, a knowledge of the water-yielding characteristics of the glacial deposits is extremely important. For example, when an ISGS geologist receives a request for information to help a new homeowner in a rural area develop a groundwater supply and has to reply that there are no known sources of water at that new site, the geologist and the homeowner both realize how important it is to be able to predict the distribution of water-yielding deposits. Within the glacial deposits, the principal sources of water (aquifers) are the layers of sand and gravel. These deposits are often buried within or below tills. Anyone who has dug a shallow hole in beach sand on the shore of a lake knows that water moves very rapidly into that hole once the water level of the lake is reached. A sand and gravel deposit that allows water to move rapidly from the deposit into a well is what the geologist and homeowner seek. When no sand and gravel deposits are present and the bedrock does not yield water, the homeowner may have to haul water or construct a large-diameter well. Water can move only very slowly through clayey glacial deposits. The large well diameter allows water to collect over a long period to meet the home’s most minimal needs. If the people purchasing rural properties are able to consult maps that show the thickness, depth, and extent of sand and gravel bodies, they would certainly be more likely to choose an area where they could get water. The same could be said for selecting a site for a new development or industry. Detailed mapping of the glacial deposits in Illinois, therefore, is a very important mission of the Illinois State Geological Survey. More information about the importance and relationship of geological mapping to groundwater location and protection can be found in *Illinois Groundwater: A Vital Geologic Resource*. See *Land-Use Decisions and Geology: Getting Past “Out of Sight, Out of Mind”* to learn about how mapping glacial deposits can lead to better, more informed decisions. Sand and Gravel In addition to storing groundwater, sand and gravel deposits provide excellent materials for numerous commercial and industrial uses, including concrete aggregate, construction fill material, road gravel, building sand, and molding (casting) sand. Sand and gravel deposits are evaluated by their thickness, extent, thickness of any overlying deposits (*overburden*) that must be removed to reach them, distribution of particle sizes, and the quality of the gravel for given uses. The most valuable sand and gravel deposits contain at least 25 percent gravel and can produce large volumes of coarse and fine aggregate of the right composition for use in concrete. Natural Gas We generally think of natural gas (including “drift gas”) occurring in association with petroleum. However, some natural gas forms in glacial deposits through the decay of *organic matter* in buried soils, peats, and organic-rich silts. The gas is confined in these layers or in porous layers of sand and gravel by thick, overlying deposits of mixed clay, silt, sand, pebbles, cobbles, and boulders called *till* (till formation and properties are discussed on p. 12). Several billion cubic feet of drift gas have been used to heat homes in Illinois over the years; it is a significant economic resource. Peat Peat is partially decomposed and disintegrated plant matter formed by the natural accumulation of plant materials in poorly drained areas such as bogs. The occurrence of peat in Illinois is spotty and localized, but peat is produced commercially in Lake and Whiteside Counties. (See inside front cover for map of Illinois counties and select cities.) Peat has horticultural uses as a soil conditioner to increase organic content, make clayey soils more friable (easily broken or pulverized), and increase moisture retention. Fill Materials Many construction projects require fill materials to provide uniform foundation conditions for buildings. Most tills and clayey glacial deposits provide good fill materials, although all must be tested for their engineering properties to determine their suitability. Because they are widespread in Illinois, adequate quantities and quality of fill materials are usually found easily. Geologic Hazards Most of the damage from the geologic hazards we face in Illinois, from earthquakes and landslides to flooding and coastal erosion, involves glacial deposits. Planning to prevent or minimize damage depends on understanding the physical properties of the deposits. The tills that were deposited directly by the glaciers are the thickest type of glacial sediment in Illinois, and they directly underlie the comparatively thin loess cover across vast areas of the state. Tills were deposited beneath the glacier and later were overridden by glacial ice—in some areas, by several successive ice sheets. The great weight of the ice consolidated the mass of individual grains of various sizes and compacted them tightly together. When subjected to certain standard types of engineering tests, these tills will behave similarly to rock. Engineers refer to this property as *overconsolidation*. Many geologists, however, describe tills and other glacial deposits as “unconsolidated,” using the term in the sense of *unlithified*, because not enough geologic time has elapsed since their deposition for the processes of compaction and cementation to turn them into true rock. In addition, even the most dense and massive overconsolidated tills, if they are moist enough, can generally be cut with a knife, pick, shovel, or other field implement. In reading about Ice Age deposits, it is important to understand the different concepts each term is intended to convey according to its context. **Earthquakes** Because many tills are compact, they behave much as bedrock does when they are subjected to *seismic* energy during an earthquake. However, uncompacted, unconsolidated materials such as sand and gravel or lake silts may lose coherence when shaken, especially when they are moist. When these sediments become saturated with water, the grains may lose contact with one another during an earthquake. If this happens, the sediments may become liquefied. In this state, there is little grain-to-grain contact, and the grains float loosely in water. When liquefied, sands and gravels and lake silts lose strength and no longer support buildings or other structures. Thus, the geologic materials of an area, the degree to which they are saturated, their behavior when subjected to seismic energy, and their proximity to an earthquake epicenter (the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the quake’s point of origin) must all be taken into account in determining how Ice Age materials may react during an earthquake. Earthquake tremors can also loosen earth materials that occur on otherwise stable slopes and can trigger landslides. **Landslides** The causes of landsliding in Illinois are numerous, and landslides may involve bedrock, Ice Age deposits, or both. If glacial deposits occur along steep stream banks, road cuts, or other excavations, slumping and landsliding may result, especially after heavy or prolonged rains, which cause the sediments to become saturated and lose coherence. **Swelling Soils** Some glacial deposits with large amounts of certain types of clay minerals expand when wet and shrink when dry. After repeated cycles of shrinking and swelling, small cracks open and fill with earth, leaves, twigs, and other debris; during swelling cycles, pressure can build up against foundation walls of houses and other buildings and crack and tilt walls and floors. Similar behavior can result from the expansion and contraction caused by cycles of freezing and thawing of water in the pores of soils. **Subsidence** In Illinois, most subsidence—a drop of the ground surface—takes place over underground coal mines. Ice Age materials are involved only to the extent that collapse of an underground mine roof causes the overlying earth materials, including glacial deposits, to subside, or sink. *Karst terrain*, characterized by closed depressions, sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage networks produced by the action of water on limestone or *dolomite*, is also susceptible to sinking and sudden collapse. The shrinking and swelling cycles of some Ice Age deposits, the subsidence of soft glacial sediments when subjected to weight, and the settling of clays also can cause damage to building foundations and roads in ways that may mimic the effects of mine subsidence. **Floods and Coastal Hazards** Because Ice Age sand and gravel and more recent floodplain deposits exist in our major river valleys, and because the Lake Michigan coastline also consists of glacial deposits, studying the properties of these sediments helps us understand their susceptibility to the erosional and depositional processes of river floods and coastal waves. During the Great Flood of 1993, for example, floodwater inundated towns and large areas of farmland in the river floodplains. In places, the water deposited great volumes of sediment, but, in others, water eroded support from around bridge abutments and building foundations. Over many years, erosion of beaches and shorelines and undercutting of lake bluffs by wave action has caused considerable damage to land and structures along Illinois’ Lake Michigan coastline. Many of us live, work, and play on Ice Age deposits every day but rarely think about their contributions to our daily lives. This booklet introduces the reader to the fascinating legacy left to Illinois by those massive ice sheets that covered the state so many thousands of years ago. If you had been able to view North America from space during the Ice Age and to drastically speed up time, you would have seen an awesome sight. Centers of snow and ice accumulation would have appeared in Canada, and ice sheets would have spread rapidly outward from these centers until they covered much of the northern half of the continent (fig. 2). You would have then seen the ice fronts pulse back and forth across Canada and the midwestern states many times before finally receding to their present location. If you had looked closer as the ice melted, you would have seen huge streams of water flowing away from the front of the ice and down the major river valleys we know today. **Causes of the Ice Age** Although the reasons why the climate changed to conditions permitting the growth of continental glaciers are not fully understood even today, scientists think the following factors played key roles. Segments of the Earth’s outermost rigid, rocky shell (called plates) slowly but continuously shift their positions in relation to one another. These large-scale movements and resulting deformations of the Earth’s crust are part of the concept of plate tectonics. As the crustal plates eventually reach configurations in which a substantial portion of the Earth’s land area is located near the poles, they form barriers to the flow of warm winds and ocean currents from the tropics to the polar regions. Such an arrangement of continents cools the high latitudes and allows the buildup of snow, which eventually forms glacial ice. These movements of the Earth’s plates could account for the three major glacial ages throughout Earth’s history: the first one, about 700 million years ago (during late Precambrian time); the second one, about 300 million years ago (during the Pennsylvanian Period); and the third one, the Great Ice Age, starting about 1.8 million years ago (the Pleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period; see fig. 1). Within a single glacial age, the climate fluctuated from cold to warm and back many times, which accounts for the expansion and contraction of major continental glaciers. A great deal of evidence suggests that these climatic cycles are due to a combination of the variations in the shape of Earth’s orbit around the Sun, the tilt of Earth’s axis relative to the plane of Earth’s orbit around the Sun, and the times of the year when Earth is closest to the Sun as it moves through its elliptical orbit. Periodically, these orbital variations combine to reduce the contrast The Present Is the Key to the Past Even though we can find abundant evidence in the landforms and deposits of Illinois that continental glaciers invaded the state many times during the Great Ice Age, glaciers remain an exotic concept for most people. The nearest glaciers are mostly in remote areas thousands of miles from population centers. It is hard for most of us to imagine what it must have been like in Illinois 20,000 years ago when a vast lobe of ice extended across the northeastern quarter of the state. The concept of a Great Ice Age was first proposed by scientists such as Louis Agassiz of Switzerland, who grew up in countries where glaciers could be readily observed. In 1837, Agassiz presented the idea that glaciers once covered much more of the landscape than they do today. He and others noted deposits on the lowlands of western Europe that were similar to those adjacent to glaciers in the Alps. These observations convinced Agassiz and others that deposits on lowlands in front of the Alps were formed by earlier, more widespread glaciers. One of the best ways to understand the glacial landscape and deposits of the Ice Age is to study existing glaciers; doing so uses a fundamental principle in geologic studies: The present is the key to the past. Modern glaciers lure scientists to Iceland, Greenland, Antarctica, Patagonia, the Alps, eastern Canada, and Alaska. Although no present-day glaciers are perfect models of the Ice Age glaciers that reached the midlatitude area of Illinois, study of modern glaciers has increased our understanding of the dynamics and complexity of glacial environments. Geologists have been able to observe first-hand many of the processes occurring in modern glacial and *proglacial* environments and see the resulting landforms and deposits. Some of these processes take place very rapidly. Where one day there is a large lake dammed by ice or sediment, the next day there is only a barren lake bed with a channel cut through the former dam. On a sunny summer’s day when melting is at its greatest, small glacial streams in the morning can become raging torrents rumbling with boulders by afternoon. As meltwater is added to debris that has melted out on the glacier surface, the mixture can become a muddy slurry that cascades off the ice front. On windy days, the sky may be filled with clouds of dust lifted from dry meltwater channels, eventually to be carried far from the glacier. Because we cannot see directly beneath a glacier, what happens there remains something of a mystery. Only at the very margin of the glacier can we crawl into tunnels to observe what goes on under the ice. To infer what processes operate at the base of the glacier, geologists must rely on indirect observations from ice cores and seismic records. Long-term historical studies also have allowed scientists to infer what happens as glaciers expand, remain stable, or shrink through time. For example, over the last 50 years or so, geologists have been able to observe the landforms and deposits emerging from beneath the shrinking Burroughs Glacier in Alaska. These observations suggest models that might explain some of the landforms and deposits we see in Illinois. These models then must be tested against observable evidence in the landforms and deposits. Such studies often suggest ways the models need to be modified. By such cross-checking between concepts and observations, geologists improve their understanding of the glacial landscape and deposits. For example, from modern glacier studies in Iceland and Antarctica has come the idea that when glaciers move over soft sediment rather than bedrock, the soft sediment may change shape as water is added to it. The result is a glacier moving over a bed of deforming sediment. Some geologists have suggested that the Ice Age glaciers in Illinois at times moved by such a process. The homogeneous tills we find in Illinois might be in part a result of sediment mixing in a deforming bed beneath the glacier rather than the result of simple melting at the glacier’s base. Geologists are now studying the tills in Illinois to see whether the deforming bed hypothesis could account for the state’s homogeneous till beds. in temperature between summer and winter and to produce extended periods with cool summers. During these periods, the previous winter’s snow does not melt completely, and ice and snow gradually accumulate in northern areas. The increased area blanketed by light-reflecting snow and ice helps to cool the climate further by reflecting more of the Sun’s energy back into space; the growth of a continental ice sheet further reinforces the climatic effects that make it grow. These cycles of climate variations occurred many times throughout the Pleistocene Epoch. Studies conducted over the last two decades indicate that, during the Ice Age, glaciers spread out and then receded on North America, perhaps as many as a dozen times, with many more minor pulses. Some scientists think that we are presently in the midst of another interglacial age (warm cycle) and that, within the next few thousand years, glaciers may yet again advance into the interior of North America. Complicating such a scenario is the warming of the climate that may result from the ongoing release of human-made pollutants (greenhouse gases) into the atmosphere. **How Glaciers Formed** As the climate became cooler, snow that fell in northern regions during the winter did not completely melt during the summer. It did, however, recrystallize into granular ice. Over many hundreds of years, the snow and granular ice accumulated to such thickness that the lower layers, weighed down by the thick overlying snow and ice, recrystallized into solid ice. Eventually the ice became so thick (at its maximum, perhaps 8,000 to 10,000 feet thick in central Canada) that it began to deform and flow outward under its own weight. It is this flow that distinguishes glaciers from all other forms of ice accumulation. The building up and flowing outward continued for such a long time that the resulting glacier eventually flowed southward into Illinois. When the climate warmed enough so that the rate of melting in the summer exceeded the rate of spreading outward, the ice front stopped expanding and began to recede as the mass of ice itself gradually melted, a process known as *ablation*. **Ice Age Evidence** Illinois’ present landscape bears witness to the presence of the massive continental ice sheets that covered the area many times over the past 1.8 million years and to the dynamic interplay of depositional and erosional processes associated with the ice. The evidence consists of the earth and rock materials blanketing Illinois’ bedrock surface and the landforms that compose today’s landscape. Rocks and Sediments Left Behind Approximately 90 percent of Illinois is blanketed by layers of unlithified sediment. In places, this sediment is more than 400 feet thick, and it averages about 100 feet thick. We know this sediment was deposited by processes related to glacial ice because scientists have seen some of the same types of sediments deposited by glaciers in Alaska, Iceland, Greenland, Switzerland, South America, Antarctica, and elsewhere. There scientists today can study the processes responsible for depositing glacial drift. Although a mental picture of a mass of pure, pristine blue-white ice covering our part of the continent is attractive, a look at glacial ice today (fig. 4) shows that, in fact, it contains rock debris that was plucked from underlying bedrock, ground up, and embedded in the lower part of the ice as it moved forward. The continental glaciers, massive as they were, must have been very dirty indeed to have left behind the immense amounts of sediment now overlying our bedrock. **Till** Moving glacial ice gouges out, incorporates, grinds up, and carries along rock debris from clay-size particles smaller than the eye can distinguish, through silt (about the size of grains of flour) and sand-sized particles, to pebbles, cobbles, and boulders. Over broad expanses of Illinois, rock grains of all sizes are jumbled and packed tightly together in a deposit called till (fig. 5). Till was plastered onto the preexisting landscape at the base of the ice sheet as it slowly moved forward or was left behind as irregular layers when the glacier melted. *Figure 4* Bands of sediment sheared into the ice can be seen on the face of this tidewater glacier in Glacier Bay, Alaska. (Photograph by Myrna M. Killey.) Outwash Other glacially deposited materials were sorted by size, indicating that some type of sorting agent—usually water or wind—has been at work on the sediments. It is easy to imagine streams of water pouring from the edge of the melting ice, first dropping (“washing out”) their loads of coarser, heavier materials such as gravel and sand (called *outwash*; fig. 6) near the ice margin but carrying the finer material such as silt and clay farther downstream. These outwash sediments can be seen in many of today’s sand and gravel quarries in Illinois. What on Earth Is “Diamicton”? The word “till” has been used for many years to describe any glacially deposited sediment displaying a range of grain sizes from clay to boulders. Many geologists now restrict the term to mean only sediments consisting of a mixture of grain sizes deposited directly onto the landscape beneath the ice when the sheer weight of the overlying ice causes the base of the glacier to melt. The term “till,” therefore, implies a particular way that the sediment is deposited. However, mixtures of water-saturated, till-like sediment can also be deposited in other ways. For example, deposits with a wide range of grain sizes can occur when saturated sediment gradually creeps down a slope and settles at its bottom; no glacial ice is involved. Even in a glacial environment, debris-laden ice at or near the glacier’s margin can melt and flow away from the ice as a slurry of sediment and water. Thus, it is not always possible to determine exactly how the jumbled mix of grain sizes (till-like material) we see today was deposited. To describe a till-like mixture of grain sizes without implying anything about its origin, not even whether it was deposited by glacial ice, many geologists now use the term *diamicton*. Because the term till is still commonly used and is simpler to remember, however, we use till in this publication for all jumbled mixtures of grain sizes thought to be deposited by glaciers. Nevertheless, if you should hear someone use the term diamicton, you will know what it means. **Figure 5** Till exhibits a variety of grain sizes packed tightly together. This photograph shows an area of till outcrop approximately 2 feet by 3 feet. (Photograph by Richard C. Anderson.) **Figure 6** Outwash of sorted sand and gravel is illustrated in this outcrop from the “ridged drift” area of southern Illinois. (Photograph by Myrna M. Kiley.) Where we find a broad area of coarser (larger) grains such as gravel, we can be reasonably sure that the front of the ice once stood close by. We also know from drilling that layers of outwash commonly are buried beneath and often alternate with layers of till. Such sequences of layers of till and outwash tell us that glaciers came and went across the area several times. **Loess** At times, especially during winter when glacial melting was greatly reduced, the sediment-choked beds of meltwater streams would often dry out enough that winds could pick up the finer particles of silt, clay, and fine sand and deposit them over the landscape. This wind-deposited material is called loess (fig. 7). We occasionally see the same process today when strong winds pick up loose soil from dry, freshly plowed, unplanted fields, blow it across the landscape, and create dust storms. Eventually the dust may be deposited as low ridges across fields and highways. **Lake deposits** In some places, glacial meltwater was temporarily dammed between the ice front and morainic ridges (see fig. 12 on p. 17) and formed quiet-water lakes and ponds in which fine silt and clay (mud) settled out—just as occurs in many lake bottoms today. Eventually these lakes disappeared as the volume of meltwater lessened and stream erosion lowered the level of the lake outlets. ![Figure 7](image.png) **Figure 7** Loess has a uniform grain size and tends to stand in vertical slopes, as shown. (Photograph by Joel M. Dexter.) former lakes and ponds have been identified on today’s land surface by their uniformly fine-grained deposits left in a very flat plain; these lake-deposited silts and clays are called *lacustrine* deposits by geologists. Some of these sediments show thin alternating layers, called *rhythmites*, that represent cyclical fluctuations in sediment deposition (figs. 8 and 9). **Erratics** Boulders are scattered across Illinois (fig. 10); they may be seen piled in the corners of farm fields or used for landscaping. When we examine the boulders closely, we discover that many of them are *igneous* and *metamorphic rocks* quite unlike the *sedimentary rocks* that make up the bedrock of Illinois. These boulders are called *erratics* because of their erratic occurrence far from areas where igneous and metamorphic bedrock is exposed at the surface. But if they are unlike the sedimentary rocks found in Illinois bedrock, where did they come from, and how did they get here? It turns out that similar igneous and metamorphic rocks occur at the bedrock surface in much of Canada, Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, and Upper Michigan. The only way such large boulders could have been transported to Illinois naturally was by the continental gla- **Figure 8** Rhythmites of interbedded silt and clay deposited in an ice-contact lake, capped by outwash sediment and loess, Jubilee Creek, Jubilee College State Park, northwest of Peoria, Illinois. (Photograph by C. Pius Weibel.) **Figure 9** These layers of interbedded clay (dark layers) and sand (light layers) were deposited in a spit by longshore currents in ancestral Lake Michigan. (Photograph by Ardith K. Hansel.) **Figure 10** This large igneous boulder is called an erratic because it is unlike the bedrock of Illinois. Erratics were carried from Canada and northern states into the Midwest by glaciers. (Photograph by David L. Reinertsen.) ciers of the Ice Age, because no rivers existed that could roll such large boulders across such distances. Erratics may be somewhat rounded by abrasion during transport by the glacier. **Scratches on bedrock** Although scratches on bedrock (called *glacial striations*) do not actually consist of earth or rock material left behind by the ice, some scratches (fig. 11) are additional evidence that continental glaciers advanced into Illinois. In several places, where bedrock is exposed at the ground surface, especially in limestone and dolomite quarries in northeastern Illinois, the bedrock displays a smooth, almost polished surface that bears numerous scratches, most of them oriented in a northeast-southwest direction. The most convincing explanation for this scratched and polished bedrock surface is that granite and other hard igneous and metamorphic rocks frozen into the base of the glacier abraded the underlying, softer bedrock as the ice dragged them along. The orientation of the striations tells us the ice generally moved southwestward across Illinois (fig. 3). **Landforms Left by the Ice** Distinctive landforms typical of continental glaciation were left as part of the modern landscape. Although these landforms are discussed further in the chapter “The Illinois and Wisconsin Episodes,” they are ![Figure 11](image) *Figure 11* Striations (scratches) on polished bedrock caused by rocks frozen into the base of a glacier that pushed relentlessly across the land surface, Fairmount Quarry, Vermilion County. A window in the till exposes the striated bedrock. (Photograph by W. Hilton Johnson.) Evidence for Multiple Ice Advances Giovanni Arduino’s time classification, which placed alluvial (river) and lacustrine (lake) deposits in the Quaternary time period, provided the impetus for the initial classification of geologic features. This system was based on observations in the Alpine region of Europe where large erratics (boulders unlike the local bedrock) rested nearly 60 miles from their likely source in the Alps. Elsewhere, whalers had noticed rocks and boulders in icebergs breaking off the glaciers that covered much of Greenland. From these observations, some thought erratics resulted from drifting icebergs during a great flood (interpreted by some to be the Biblical flood). Thus, the boulders and sediments resulting from these supposed drifting icebergs were called “drift” and were thought to be deposited by water. Natural scientists in the late 1700s and early 1800s, however, observed that erratics, scratches on polished bedrock surfaces, and ridgelike end moraines on valley floors could also be plainly seen in the vicinity of existing Alpine glaciers. The idea that glaciers once existed over a much broader area began to evolve. Once the glacial origin of sediments in northern areas of North America and Europe was accepted, geologists quickly recognized that within these sediments were beds of plant remains, wood, and other organic deposits, as well as recognizable remains of soil horizons similar to those found in modern soils today. Geologists also found buried fossils, including shells, bones, and teeth of animals now extinct. All such discoveries pointed to warmer and glacier-free periods. As more and more places containing zones of weathering, old soils, and organic material were discovered within the sequence of glacial sediments, it became obvious that there had been many ice advances, each separated by a warming period during which soils formed and plants and animals lived on the land surface. briefly introduced here because they are important evidence that continental glaciation took place in Illinois. End moraines Huge, curved ridges of till outline where the outer margin, or end, of the lobe-shaped glacier once stood. These *end moraines* (fig. 12) were formed along the edge of the ice when the rate... of ice advance approximately equaled the rate of melting for a period of time, allowing the ice margin to remain stationary. The ice within the lobe kept moving forward, however, delivering more rock debris to the ice front, where it piled up. These end moraines (more commonly just called “moraines”) sometimes exhibit a hummocky land surface characterized by rounded knolls and depressions called knob-and-kettle topography. Examples of moraines that exhibit this kind of surface are the Marseilles, Bloomington (fig. 13), Valparaiso, and Shelbyville Morainic Systems (see fig. 35 on p. 56 for a map of moraines in Illinois and p. 63 for additional discussion). **Kames and kettles** Mounds of sand and gravel, called *kames*, formed when meltwater traveled in channels beneath the ice or plunged from the ice surface into *crevasses* near the ice front and deposited its load of sediment (figs. 14 and 15). As the glacier melted away, the sand and gravel gradually collapsed into a gentle mound on the landscape. Numerous examples exist in Illinois such as Blue Mound and Long Mound on the Macon-Christian County border. Several others occur in the “ridged drift” complex (described on pp. 53–54). Depressions on the landscape, called *kettles*, formed where blocks of ice—detached from the main ice sheet and surrounded by rock debris from the melting glacier—themselves finally melted (figs. 16 and 17). The depressions left on the landscape today may be swampy or dry. Dry depressions may hold water for a while after prolonged and Figure 14 A kame is formed when glacial meltwater plunges into crevasses and depressions near the ice front and deposits its load of sediment. Figure 15 A kame, a low mound composed of sand and gravel, in southern Champaign County. (Photograph by David L. Reinertsen.) Figure 16 A kettle is formed when blocks of ice become detached from the main glacier and are surrounded by rock debris from the melting glacier. When the ice blocks melt, they leave depressions on the landscape. Figure 17 A shallow kettle holds some water during wet periods. (Photograph by Wayne T. Frankie.) Figure 18 An esker is formed when a stream of meltwater carrying sediment and rock debris develops beneath or within a glacier. As the meltwater gradually slows, the rock debris is deposited. When the ice melts away, the sediment and rock debris are left as a long, narrow, winding ridge that marks the course of the former meandering subglacial stream. Small faults result from collapse of the layers of sediment along the sides of the ridge when the ice walls no longer exist to support them. Figure 19 A long, tree lined ridge of an esker. (Photograph by David L. Reinertsen.) heavy rains, and deep kettles may actually contain lakes. Kettles can be found in the knob-and-kettle topography of some end moraines. Eskers A type of glacial landform less commonly found in Illinois is an esker, a long, narrow, winding ridge of sand and gravel deposited by a stream of meltwater flowing at the base of or within a glacier (figs. 18 and 19). These streams carried sand and gravel and also meandered a little, just as some streams do today, as they wound their way at the base of the ice toward the ice front. The sand and gravel were deposited as the meltwater stream gradually slowed and could no longer carry its load of debris. The ice then melted away, leaving these sediments in place to mark the course of the former subglacial stream. Several eskers occur along the course of the Kaskaskia River in Bond, Fayette, and Clinton Counties, and a group of small eskers exists on the backslope of the Bloomington Morainic System in Bureau County. Because kames and eskers are easily accessible sources of sand and gravel, many, such as the Kaneville esker in Kane County, have been mined and no longer exist. **Glacial lake plains** Exceptionally flat areas, called *glacial lake plains*, may occur between end moraines. These plains are the surfaces of lacustrine silt and clay deposited in the quiet waters of temporary meltwater lakes that were dammed between an end moraine and the edge of the retreating ice front. Examples include a large area in Grundy and southern Kendall Counties between the Marseilles Morainic System to the west and the Minooka Moraine to the east, and in central Douglas County between the Arcola Moraine to the south and the Pesotum and West Ridge Moraines to the north (see fig. 35 on p. 56 for a map of moraines). **Other Ice Age Evidence** More evidence that much colder temperatures were once widespread across Illinois and the Midwest takes several forms, including fossils, pollen, *ice-wedge casts*, and *patterned ground*. Every now and then, newspapers carry a story describing a new find of partial skeletons of mastodons or mammoths, usually in northeastern Illinois. These animals, close relatives of modern elephants, roamed --- **Figure 20** An artist’s conception of life near the margin of the Wisconsin Episode ice sheet about 14,000 years ago. Mastodons browsed on spruce, pine, and other plants that thrived in a cold climate. (Reconstruction painting by R.G. Larson, used with permission of the Illinois State Museum, Springfield, Illinois.) the open meadows, forests, and *tundra*-like Illinois landscape within a few miles of the glacier. Mammoths grazed on the grass and vegetation that existed on the tundra, and mastodons browsed on saplings in the partly forested landscape (fig. 20). As the climate became warmer and their environment changed, the mastodons and mammoths disappeared, becoming extinct about 7,500 years ago. The existence of an Ice Age environment can also be demonstrated by examining fossil pollen, which is often found in the fine-grained sediments and peat deposited in glacial lakes. The fossil pollen indicates that, at the end of the last glaciation, much of northern and central Illinois resembled the forest and tundra landscape that exists today in northern Canada. Forested areas were dominated by spruce, pine, and sedge. The more open tundra-like areas were dominated by arctic, aquatic, and wetland plants. The fossil pollen in younger sediments shows widespread changes from species that thrive in colder environments to those that grow in warmer, drier conditions; those changes signal the time that the climate was becoming more like today’s. Finally, special features called ice-wedge casts and patterned ground have been found on the Illinois landscape. These features are also found in areas where *permafrost* exists today, suggesting that the Illinois landscape once had similar conditions. **Ice-wedge casts** Sediment-filled fissures (fig. 21) known as ice-wedge casts formed when ice or hoar frost (tiny ice crystals) filled narrow cracks in sediment that resulted from thermal contraction at the ground surface. These features are most commonly found in the central and northern half of Illinois. *Figure 21* A sediment-filled ice-wedge cast in east-central Illinois. (Photograph by W. Hilton Johnson.) Figure 22 Aerial photograph taken near Clinton in De Witt County, Illinois. The patterned ground surface (mottled surfaces) is typical of that in poorly drained areas where intensive frost action has taken place. Light and dark rectangles and strips are farm fields. (Photograph by W. Hilton Johnson.) Patterned ground Polygonal patterns, known as patterned ground, develop on the ground surface in poorly drained areas where intensive frost action takes place. The polygons, best seen in aerial photographs (fig. 22), are outlined by slightly darker soils that accumulated in the swales (sunken areas) surrounding the polygons. Patterned ground is found in areas that had tundra-like conditions during the last major glaciation. The prehistoric hunters who lived near the Ice Age glaciers left no records of the landscape they saw, so scientists must do the next best thing—study as much evidence as they can find about this fascinating chapter in Earth’s history. Advances in understanding the world around us must come through rigorous application of the scientific method—making observations, devising hypotheses to explain the observations, and then testing the hypotheses. Yet, in attempting to find out what happened during the Ice Age, creativity and imagination are also vital. A geologist with creativity and imagination can envision how things might once have been. **The Need to Know** Advances in science are often driven by the need to know something, but just as often they are driven by simple curiosity. Both curiosity and the need to know have been forces behind the desire to understand as much as possible about the Ice Age. The need to know comes from society’s demand for water, sand and gravel, and other mineral resources; the need to dispose of waste in the safest possible environment; and the need to understand as much as possible about geologic hazards in order to lessen their effects. In the Midwest, drilling into the earth usually encounters glacial deposits before reaching bedrock. Deposits of sand and gravel can yield significant amounts of groundwater. Those near the surface can provide the raw materials for construction projects such as roads and buildings. Tills can be excellent natural repositories for holding waste. The economic and environmental importance of glacial deposits makes it necessary for us to understand and map their character, distribution, and extent. In addition, curiosity kicks in: What must the area have looked like? How fast did the ice move? How many times did it come and go? How did it deposit materials in the sequences we see today? Can our growing understanding of these materials help us predict their depth, character, and occurrence in various places? If so, how can this understanding help us interpret and reconstruct the events of the Ice Age and possibly help us predict future climate changes? What Geologists See Recognition that much of the Midwest had been covered by glaciers provided the basis for systematic study of the deposits and landforms left behind. Beginning in the 1860s, Illinois geologists, including A.H. Worthen and Frank Leverett, published comprehensive surveys of the state’s geology. Since that time, geologists have built upon the observations and studies of these natural scientists and - noted and mapped landforms, including their location, extent, shape, orientation, and relationships to one another; - described the glacial deposits exposed in outcrops (such as in road and railroad cuts, creeks, stream banks, and mining excavations), including their color, texture, and vertical sequence from the lowest units to the uppermost unit that contains the modern soil, especially noting special features such as the remains of buried soils and lateral changes in sedimentary facies; and - described the sequence and characteristics of the deposits brought to the surface by drilling and, where possible, studied the relationships of the deposits to one another and to the bedrock. As they describe outcrops or drilling samples, geologists take samples and then - analyze them for percentages of pebbles, cobbles, boulders, and the finer material that encloses these larger rocks; - analyze the types and percentages of minerals in them; - note and describe any fossils they contain; and - make use of modern radiometric age dating and other techniques for age determinations, where possible, to arrive at estimates of actual ages for certain types of sediments and deposits. Deciphering the Ice Age Story Observing landforms and earth materials can tell us much about the existence of glaciers in Illinois. Geologists also make use of well-established principles and sophisticated scientific techniques to learn more about glacial deposits. The most important of these are described. Age Dating Geologists need to understand as much as possible about the rates at which geologic processes occur in order to assess the impacts these processes may have on human activities. For example, landslides may occur quickly, as a sudden slump or fall of rock or glacial material, or may occur slowly as a creep of saturated soil down a slope. Rates of stream and wave erosion in different kinds of geologic materials help determine whether it is safe to build in certain areas or what kinds of protective structures or techniques might help reduce damage to structures already built. Knowing something about the rates of soil formation and wind erosion helps people plan for conservation of this valuable resource. Many geologic processes take place gradually, including the advance and retreat of glaciers. Techniques have been developed that help geologists understand the ages when various materials were deposited by the glaciers covering Illinois and the rates at which these materials were deposited. Relative age dating One of the basic principles geologists use to determine the ages of rocks and sediments relative to one another is the law of superposition. This law states that in any undisturbed sequence of sedimentary beds, or deposits, the bed at the bottom of the sequence was deposited first and is the oldest, and the bed at the top of the sequence was deposited last and is the youngest. Therefore, in a sequence of undisturbed glacial materials overlying bedrock, the one lying directly on the bedrock surface was deposited first, and each succeeding layer is younger than the one below it. As an example, let’s consider an outcrop where a bed of clay and silt underlies a glacial till; above the till is a sand layer. We see no evidence that these sediments have been disturbed. From the clay and silt, we can infer that a lake once covered the site. A glacier then advanced across the landscape and deposited the till. After the glacier retreated, sand was deposited, perhaps as a beach at the shore of a lake or as river alluvium. Radiometric age dating In contrast to relative age dating, which tells us only that a layer of sediment or rock is older or younger than adjacent layers, radiometric age dating allows us to say with a degree of certainty how old organic material in a layer of sediment or rock actually is. An age is expressed in years and is calculated from the quantitative determination of radioactive elements and their decay products. Carbon-14 dating is one of the most useful techniques for dating Ice Age events occurring in about the last 50,000 years. Carbon-14 dating is based on the known, fixed rate of decay of radioactive carbon-14, which naturally occurs in the atmosphere. All living things contain carbon-14 in the same concentration as in the atmosphere. When the plant or animal dies, the exchange of carbon-14 with the atmosphere ceases, but the radioactive carbon-14 in the dead organism continues to decay. By measuring the amount of carbon-14 left in the wood, shell, peat, or bone, the age of the material and of the enclosing sediment can be estimated assuming the organic material has been left in place in its original sediment and not transported. Other techniques not commonly used in Illinois, such as studying reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field, have been used elsewhere to assign approximate ages to older glacial sediments. Through regional correlation with Illinois glacial deposits, some of our older glacial materials can be dated. More information about radiometric and other age dating techniques, magnetic reversals, plate tectonics, and related topics can be found in geology textbooks. **Drilling** Tens of thousands of borings have been drilled into glacial drift to search for water or simply to understand the succession of geological units below ground (fig. 23). Depending on the needs of the client, drillers record the types of earth materials encountered. In some instances, they collect samples of the materials for study. Even though a drillhole can be likened to a mere pinprick on the broad surface area of Illinois, the records (logs) and samples from these holes provide a wealth of detailed information about what is beneath our feet. This invaluable information can be obtained in no other way. In recent years, geophysical methods, such as seismic surveys, have been used alongside drilling to increase the amount of information scientists can obtain. Using seismic surveys, geophysicists measure the velocity of ![Figure 23](image.png) *Figure 23* Geologists can interpret the glacially deposited sediments extracted from this borehole as part of a three-dimensional mapping project to understand the occurrence and distribution of aquifers in northeastern Illinois. (Photograph by Michael L. Barnhardt.) sound waves traveling through different materials (fig. 24). These measurements show the variations in subsurface geology and help geologists interpret the distribution of deposits between test holes. **Lithologic and mineralogical analysis** By analyzing the composition of glacial sediments recovered from outcrops and drillholes (fig. 25), geologists can usually determine the general path traveled by the ice. For example, because tills may contain igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic pebbles similar to those at the bedrock surface in parts of Canada and northern states, the paths traveled by the ice can sometimes be traced back to areas in the north where these rock types crop out at the land surface. Geologists know that limestone composes much of the bedrock to the northwest of Illinois and that dolomite predominates to the northeast. By **Figure 25** ISGS staff examine cores from east-central Illinois at one of the many ISGS controlled drilling project sites. **Figure 24** Seismic information provided by the ISGS landstreamer helps geologists refine geological interpretations of glacial materials based on borehole drilling. The geologists are placing geophones at specified intervals to detect the return of sound waves. comparing the ratios of limestone to dolomite pebbles in the tills, geologists concluded that tills with greater amounts of limestone pebbles were probably deposited by glaciers originating from the northwest, and tills with greater amounts of dolomite pebbles were probably deposited by glaciers originating from the northeast. Similarly, by determining the types of minerals in the clay portion of till and knowing where shale (a type of bedrock) containing similar clay minerals occurs, geologists can determine the general areas traversed by the ice. For example, older tills in western Illinois contain significant amounts of a group of clay minerals that expand when wet; so do Cretaceous and younger rocks in western Iowa and Minnesota and eastern parts of North Dakota and South Dakota. Geologists can conclude, therefore, that these older tills in western Illinois were deposited by a glacier that originated in central Canada and took a southeastward path into the Midwest and western Illinois (fig. 3). In contrast, clayey tills in northeastern and east-central Illinois contain a great deal of the clay mineral called illite (named for Illinois). The Paleozoic shale bedrock of the Lake Michigan region and areas to the northeast contains a great deal of illite. Therefore, we can infer that these clayey tills were deposited by glaciers that traversed these northern and northeastern areas. Sometimes the orientation and dip direction of pebbles and cobbles within a till (known as its fabric) can reveal the direction the glacier came from. Oblong pebbles and cobbles tend to be deposited with their long axes parallel to the direction of ice movement and dipping in the up-ice direction. Usually this orientation of pebbles is similar to that of bedrock glacial striations, which also parallel glacier flow. The orientations of these pebbles and cobbles can therefore be used to determine the direction of ice movement even where striations on rock surfaces are absent. **Buried soils** In many places we can see the remains of a soil buried beneath layers of glacial sediment. Soils develop very slowly as geologic materials are exposed to weathering. Therefore, the most important thing about buried soils is that they record a climatic warm period between glacial cold periods. Sometimes the characteristics of the soil itself and the plant remains it contains can also tell us about the interglacial climate. And, of course, by using the principles of relative age dating, we know that the material in which the soil has developed is older than any overlying sediments and younger than the underlying ones. Putting It All Together Early in the history of glacial studies in Illinois, geologists placed a heavy emphasis on describing landforms and using that description as the basis of their interpretation of the processes of glaciation. Many interpretations were also made from the materials exposed in outcrops. Later, as the value of borehole information became more apparent and the methods of analysis became more sophisticated, a more complete understanding of Ice Age events in Illinois emerged. The multitude of individual observations and analyses, considered independently, tell only about the individual sites described. However, geologists have been trained to observe how the earth materials at one outcrop are similar to those described at another and how vertical sequences of materials at one location are repeated elsewhere, often with only minor differences. It was then a short step to compile these observations and information from various locations into a coherent story that explained Ice Age materials in Illinois. This understanding of geology is continually being refined and improved by new facts, observations, and techniques. Telling the Story Geologists compile and present their observations and data in horizontal and vertical formats to tell the story of glaciation in Illinois. *Geologic maps* show the horizontal or *areal distribution* of various kinds of geologic units that occur across the landscape (fig. 26). *Cross sections* show the vertical sequence, extent, thickness, shape, and relationships among geologic units from the ground surface downward (fig. 27). In addition, geologists analyze the data that have been collected over the decades from many sites in many states and assemble them into tables to show generalizations and draw preliminary conclusions for further research and publication. Such tables may display data about grain size, clay mineral composition, pebble orientation, and pollen percentages. Altogether, over a century of geological investigations has revealed a great deal about the Ice Age in Illinois. We know about (1) the landscape that existed before the glaciers came, (2) the areas covered by the different glaciers, (3) the soils that developed during warm periods between advances of the continental ice sheets, and (4) the ways the glaciers deposited materials and created the landforms we see today. Figure 26 The horizontal extent of the rock and earth materials at the surface of Illinois. The line of the cross section in figure 27 is shown. Figure 27 Cross section showing the general vertical succession of pre-Illinois, Illinois, and Wisconsin Episode deposits in the subsurface along a line from Quincy on the west, through Peoria, to Chicago on the east. How to Read a Cross Section There are many reasons why we need to know what is beneath the ground surface—searching for water and mineral resources and siting waste disposal facilities, among others. To visualize and understand the distribution of the layers below the ground surface, geologists construct cross section profiles of a vertical section of the Earth (fig. 27). The cross sections show what is known about the vertical sequence and lateral extent of rocks and sediment and provide the necessary third dimension across the area of interest. This area may be as small as a local factory site where the rate and direction of flow of some contamination infiltrating the ground must be determined for cleanup, or it may be as large as a state or even several states in order to achieve a regional picture of the extent and variability of major subsurface rock and sediment units. Cross sections are critical for interpreting the relationships among the various layers of sediment deposited across an area. The vertical and horizontal dimensions on the cross section are drawn to different scales. The scale of a map indicates the proportion (expressed as a fraction or ratio) between the distance on the map and the corresponding actual distance of the land being mapped; for example, 1 inch on a map may correspond to several hundred feet, a mile, or tens of miles of actual distance. On the cross section in figure 27, the scale bar indicates that 1 inch on the map represents about 23.5 miles of actual distance. Because the landscape in the Midwest is relatively flat, if the vertical scale of a map were the same as a horizontal scale, the hills and valleys would appear as only very shallow bumps and dips, and the underlying strata could hardly be seen at all. To recognize Illinois landscape features and subsurface strata, the vertical scale is often considerably exaggerated. Figure 27, for example, shows a generalized southwest-to-northeast cross section from Quincy to Peoria to Chicago. Perhaps the most striking feature of the cross section is that both the landscape and the bedrock surface are shown with steep slopes, deep valleys, and nearly vertical walls. The Illinois landscape across this area is not this rugged. These apparently steep features are the result of intentional vertical exaggeration. On the cross section, 1 inch in the vertical direction represents almost 300 feet; 1 inch in the horizontal direction represents about 23.5 miles. Now the following features can be easily noticed: (1) till and other fine-textured sediments predominate in the glacial cover over the bedrock; (2) most of the sand and gravel occurs in the deeper bedrock valleys; (3) the glacial cover is, in general, thicker between Peoria and Chicago than it is between Quincy and Peoria; (4) most of the additional thickness is due to deposits left during the last glaciation; (5) the bulk of the glacial sediment from Quincy to Peoria consists of pre-Illinoian deposits with a comparatively thin cover of Illinoian sediment; (6) Illinoian glacial deposits disappear toward Chicago; and (7) sediments of the Wisconsin glaciation directly overlie bedrock in eastern Illinois and the Chicago area. Imagine exploring Illinois before the Ice Age. You would have roamed a landscape far different from today’s. You would find hills and valleys, plateaus, and large rivers flowing westward through central Illinois and southward through north-central Illinois. Wouldn’t it be fascinating to be able to take a picture of that ancient land surface and compare it to the surface that geologists today have portrayed through painstaking compilation of thousands of bedrock elevations from drill cores and samples? Investigating Bedrock in Illinois Today In Illinois and much of the Midwest, the term “bedrock” refers to the solid rock buried beneath the un lithified glacial sediment. Is the bedrock a flat surface composed of one type of rock? Or are there hills and valleys on a buried surface consisting of several different types of rock? How do we find out? The first step is to go to where bedrock is exposed. Bedrock occurs at or very close to the ground surface in three areas of Illinois—the northwestern corner (Jo Daviess, Stephenson, and Carroll Counties), western Illinois (Adams, Pike, and Calhoun Counties), and the southern part of the state (Union, Johnson, Pope, Hardin, Alexander, Pulaski, Massac, and portions of Jackson, Williamson, Saline, and Gallatin Counties) (fig. 26). We have little difficulty believing that in these areas the landscape before glaciation probably looked similar to the way it does today. Elsewhere in the state, where the cover of glacial drift is thin, bedrock can also be seen in some road cuts, in the bottoms and banks of streams, and where erosion has removed the overlying glacial cover. Most of the rest of Illinois, however, is mantled by glacial sediment ranging up to several hundred feet thick, and we might think there is little we could find out about the pre-Ice Age landscape. Over the years, however, many thousands of holes have been drilled through the glacial drift into bedrock in the search for water, oil, coal, and other resources or just to gather more detail for mapping. The records, or logs, of earth materials encountered in these drillholes provide the next step in investigating bedrock. Drillers’ logs tell us about both the types of bedrock that underlie the glacial drift and their elevations above mean sea level (msl). By plotting the elevations of the buried bedrock surface and interpreting the bedrock surface between these locations, geologists have been able to assemble a fairly complete picture of the landscape before the glaciers (fig. 28). **Studying Buried Bedrock** Evidence from thousands of holes that have been drilled deep into bedrock tells us that beneath the glacial drift many layers of sedimentary rock from 2,000 to about 15,000 feet thick overlie a “basement” of ancient igneous and metamorphic rocks, mainly granite. These basement rocks extend deep into the Earth’s crust. None is exposed at the ground surface or even found at the bedrock surface anywhere in Illinois, although they can be seen in the Missouri Ozarks and in central Wisconsin. The overlying sedimentary rocks, mainly shale, sandstone, limestone, coal, and dolomite (fig. 29), range in age from about 510 million years old (Cambrian) to 290 million years old (end of Pennsylvanian time) (fig. 1). Pennsylvanian age rocks are the youngest bedrock across most of the state. The sediments from which these rocks were formed were deposited in coastal swamps and shallow seas whose margins fluctuated across what is now Illinois. Over time, the sediments were gradually *lithified* by compaction and cementation. Later, Cretaceous gravel beds (about 144 to 65 million years ago) were deposited in extreme southern and western Illinois as part of an *embayment* (a deep indentation or recess of a shoreline forming a bay) that extended all the way from the present-day Gulf of Mexico to the southernmost tip of Illinois. Cretaceous sand deposited in a delta overlies the gravel. During Tertiary time, between about 65 and 1.8 million years ago, coastal plain and deltaic sediments were deposited at the extreme southwestern tip of the state. **The Bedrock Landscape** Except for localized areas where glacial ice scoured the bedrock surface, this surface was primarily shaped by river erosion. A very long time intervened between deposition of Pennsylvanian age sediments (approximately 290 million years ago) and deposition of Ice Age sediments beginning about 1.8 million years ago (fig. 1). If other sediments were deposited during this time, they must have been eroded away, because no physical record of them remains. We must assume that erosion was the dominant process that affected the preglacial landscape during the intervening 288 million years. As with today’s landscape, the bedrock surface can generally be divided into uplands and valleys. Figure 28 Shaded relief map of the shape (topography) of the bedrock surface in Illinois. Compare this map with figure 37 on p. 62. Bedrock Uplands Great mountain ranges of folded and faulted (broken) rocks never existed in Illinois, according to all available evidence. Instead, sedimentary rocks that were fairly resistant to erosion, such as limestone, dolomite, and sandstone (fig. 29), formed *cuestas* and uplands, especially in the northeastern, northwestern, western, and far southern parts of the state. The highest parts of the preglacial bedrock surface are still exposed in the state’s northwestern corner and in the Shawnee Hills region of southernmost Illinois (fig. 28). There, the elevation of the bedrock surface is about 800 feet to more than 1,000 feet above msl. In western and northeastern Illinois, where bedrock is also dominated by limestone, sandstone, and dolomite, bedrock surface elevations of 600 to 800 feet above msl are common. Over much of the rest of the state, Pennsylvanian shale forms the bedrock surface. This shale was easily eroded and formed extensive areas of low elevations ranging from 400 to 600 feet above msl over much of the southern two thirds of the state. Bedrock Valleys Considering the vast amount of time during which the bedrock surface was exposed to erosion, it is not surprising that a major drainage system developed on it. One of the most striking features of the preglacial landscape is a large valley system in central and east-central Illinois (fig. 28) known as the Mahomet Bedrock Valley. This valley enters the state from west-central Indiana and meanders westward to join the ancient Mississippi Bedrock Valley in Tazewell and Mason Counties. Generally these two valleys lie between 200 and 400 feet above msl. Much of the drainage of the continental interior in preglacial times converged into these and other major preglacial valleys in Illinois and then entered the embayment area that extended from the southernmost tip of Illinois to the present-day Gulf of Mexico. The Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments at the southern tip of the state (fig. 29) reflect the northernmost extent of these embayment sediments. Other major drainageways on the bedrock surface include the ancient Iowa River (the present Mississippi River valley from the west end of Rock Island County to the mouth of the Illinois River) and tributaries to the Mahomet Bedrock Valley or the ancient Mississippi Bedrock Valley. Most of these drainageways also occur at elevations between 200 and 400 feet above msl. Parts of the bedrock valleys coincide with present-day river valleys and have been reoccupied by today’s rivers, such as the lower Illinois and Kaskaskia Rivers. These well-established Figure 29 Geologic map of the types of rocks that occur at the bedrock surface in Illinois. Mya, million years ago. ancient drainage systems were disrupted at various times and in various ways by the repeated advances of the continental glaciers. These disruptions are discussed in the following chapters. **The Driftless Area** Jo Daviess County and parts of Stephenson and Carroll Counties are part of a larger area extending into southwestern Wisconsin, northeastern Iowa, and southeastern Minnesota that is called the Driftless Area because no glacially deposited sediments have been found to overlie the bedrock. Some evidence suggests that one of the oldest glaciers may have at least partially crossed the area. Some high-elevation sand and gravel (outwash) has been found, but if till was deposited there, it has been eroded or not yet found. The Driftless Area is a hilly, rugged landscape mantled only by loess and stream alluvium. Its driftless condition seems curious. The drift that surrounds this region proves that glaciers were present in the area at one time or another during the Ice Age. However, the bedrock surface in this area, ranging from about 800 to more than 1,000 feet above msl (fig. 28), is higher than the land surface anywhere else in the state. Because glacial ice seeks the path of least resistance as it moves, the ice was likely deflected by this high area. Although it is tempting to imagine the area as an island of rock surrounded by ice, it is more likely that ice moved past it from various directions at different times during the Ice Age but never completely surrounded it at any one time. Today, this rugged area shows us how other parts of Illinois may have appeared before the glaciers came. **Did You Know?** Charles Mound, the highest point in the state at an elevation of 1,235 feet above msl, is located in the Driftless Area. Imagine standing on the bluffs of the ancient Mississippi River valley somewhere between what is now Peoria and Beardstown about 800,000 years ago. You might well have seen the leading edges of two vast continental ice sheets, one advancing from the northeast and one from the northwest, facing each other across the broad river valley. **Deciphering the Earliest Glaciations** Early study and classification of glacial deposits and ancient buried soils led geologists to propose that there were four major glaciations in North America during the Ice Age: (1) the oldest glaciation, the Nebraskan, was followed by the Aftonian interglacial interval; (2) the second glaciation, the Kansan, was followed by the Yarmouth interglacial interval; (3) the Illinoian glaciation was followed by the Sangamon interglacial interval; and (4) the Wisconsin glaciation was followed by the present warm interval. These glaciations were named after the states where their deposits were first studied or are best exposed. Until the early 1970s, Illinois geologists recognized these classic four subdivisions of the Ice Age. More recent studies of glacially deposited sediments in North America and Europe, especially cores of ocean sediments from the North Atlantic, revealed a much more complex picture; major glaciations occurred several more times than previously recognized. Many geologists now think that at least 7 and perhaps as many as 12 or even 15 continental glaciations occurred before the Illinoian and the Wisconsin glaciations in the continental United States. These estimates are based on ice core records from Greenland and Antarctica and oceanic records as well as analysis of mineralogical composition and physical characteristics of subsurface glacial sediments recovered from borings from one area to another, careful study of ancient soils that developed in these early glacial deposits, and techniques such as reversed magnetic polarity, amino acid racemization, and radiometric dating that can help date and correlate sediments from one place to another. Because much work remains to be done to identify, characterize, and trace these early glacial sediments, they are not given formal names and are grouped together. Because they were all deposited before the Illinoian glaciation, these sediments are often referred to as pre-Illinoian sediments (fig. 30). When they have been characterized, dated, | Period | Epoch | Years before present | Glacial and interglacial episodes and time-distance diagram | Sediment record | Dominant climate conditions | |--------|-------|----------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------|----------------|----------------------------| | | | | | | Dominant land-forming and soil-forming events | | QUATERNARY | Pleistocene | 10,000 | HUDSON EPISODE | River, lake, wind, and slope deposits. | Warm; stable landscape conditions. Formation of modern soil; running water, lake, wind, and slope processes. | | | | 25,000 | Michigan Subepisode | Till and ice-marginal deposits; outwash and glacial lake deposits; loess. | Cold; unstable landscape conditions. Glacial deposition, erosion, and land-forming processes (e.g., formation of end moraines, outwash plains, valley trains, proglacial lakes, kettles), plus running water, lake, wind, and slope processes. | | | | 75,000 | Athens Subepisode | Loess; river, lake, and slope deposits. | Cool; stable. Weathering, formation of Farmdale Geosol and minor soils; wind and running water processes. | | | | 125,000 | SANGAMON EPISODE | River, lake, wind, and slope deposits. | Warm; stable. Weathering, soil formation of Sangamon Geosol; running water, lake, wind, and slope processes. | | | | 180,000 | ILLINOIS EPISODE | Till and ice-marginal deposits; outwash and glacial lake deposits; loess. | Cold; unstable. Glacial deposition, erosion, and land-forming processes, plus proglacial running water, lake, wind, and slope processes; possible minor soil formation. | | | | 425,000 | YARMOUTH EPISODE | River, lake, wind, and slope deposits. | Warm; stable. Long weathering interval with deep soil formation (Yarmouth Geosol); running water, lake, wind, and slope processes. | | | | 610,000 | PRE-ILLINOIS EPISODE | Till and ice-marginal deposits; outwash and glacial lake deposits; loess plus nonglacial river, lake, wind, and slope deposits. | Alternating stable and unstable intervals of uncertain duration. Glacial deposition, erosion, and land-forming processes, plus proglacial and interglacial running water, lake, wind, and slope processes; interglacial weathering and soil formation. | | | | 778,000 | | | | | | | 830,000 | | | | | | | 1,800,000 and older | | | | **Figure 30** Timetable illustrating the glacial and interglacial events, sediment record, and dominant climate conditions of the Ice Age in Illinois. Blue areas illustrate the ice margin fluctuations during the glacial episodes. and traced more precisely, these sediments will be correlated with sediments of similar ages elsewhere and assigned specific lithostratigraphic names. The sediments deposited by the first glaciers to enter Illinois have been severely eroded by running water and more recent glaciers. Today only scattered remnants of these sediments are found, generally buried beneath younger glacial deposits. Therefore, it is much more difficult to learn about these earliest glaciations than about the later Illinoian and Wisconsin glaciations. No distinct landforms have yet been identified that are composed of glacial sediments older than those of the Illinois Episode. **Origin of the Early Glaciers** In the absence of evidence such as distinctive lobe-shaped moraines that can indicate the direction of ice advance, we must rely directly on the sediments themselves to learn where the glaciers originated. In the deposits of these earliest Ice Age visitors, we find evidence for both northeastern- and northwestern-source areas (fig. 2 on p. 2; fig. 31, no. 2). **Northwestern-Source Glaciers** Pre-Illinoian sediments can be found directly beneath the loess that blankets the land surface in a strip of western Illinois approximately 70 miles long (from Hancock County on the north to Pike County on the south) and from 2 to about 15 miles wide (from the Mississippi ![Figure 31](image) **Figure 31** The extent of pre-Illinois Episode glaciations and interglacial drainage in Illinois. Classifying and Naming Geologic Deposits and Times Over the years, geologists have developed sets of terms to classify rocks and sediments. These classification systems help people communicate when discussing geologic history or referring to specific layers of rock and sediment (called strata). Because our understanding grows as new data become available and new ideas and techniques develop, classification systems are continually being modified. Commissions of geologists periodically review and modify the guidelines (called stratigraphic codes) for classifying geologic strata and time. **Strata** Geologists describe the *lithologic* (physical) characteristics of strata that allow them to be mapped and traced regionally. A unit is named after a place where it is well exposed and the lithologic characteristics are typical (the “type locality”). For example, the Kankakee Formation (a bedrock formation) was named for the Kankakee River near the city of Kankakee, where the strata of the typical dolomite lithology crop out in the river banks. Such units are known as lithostratigraphic units. The basic unit in lithostratigraphic classification is the *formation*, which must be identifiable on the basis of easily recognized physical properties and must be widespread and thick enough to be mappable on a regional scale. A formation may be subdivided into smaller units called *members*, and several formations can be combined into larger units, called groups. **Geologic time** Geologists have subdivided geologic time into various named intervals. For example, the Pleistocene Epoch (or Great Ice Age) is part of the Quaternary Period and is subdivided into smaller intervals, such as the Illinoian and Wisconsinan Ages, which are represented by deposits of different major glaciations. Originally, the sediments of the Ice Age were not classified in the same way as bedrock. That is, formations and members of glacial sediments were not named. Instead, geologists named the major glaciations after the states (Kansas, Nebraska, Illinois, and Wisconsin) where deposits of those glaciations were well exposed. Endings of “-an” were added to the state names (except Wisconsin) when referring to the associated time, sediments, landforms, or the glaciations themselves. Between 1960 and 1970, geologists from Illinois were among the first to classify the Ice Age deposits into formations and members. They also subdivided the Quaternary Period into glacial and interglacial ages and subages on the basis of glacial and interglacial deposits, and applied adjectival endings to all these units (for example, Illinoian Age, Sangamonian Age, and Wisconsinan Age). **New time classification** In the most recent stratigraphic code, geologists provided new guidelines for subdividing geologic time in cases where the sediment units on which the time is based are clearly *time-transgressive*, that is, when deposition of a single distinctive unit clearly began and ended earlier in one place than another (see sidebar, p. 57). Such is the case with most glacial and interglacial units. Radiometric age dating indicates that the last glaciation began earlier in Canada than it did in Illinois and ended in Illinois before it did in Canada. Recently geologists have introduced a modified classification system for Quaternary time in which glacial and interglacial intervals are referred to as episodes rather than ages. Episodes are sometimes subdivided into smaller intervals called subepisodes and phases. Unlike most time units in the present system, those in the new system do not have adjectival endings. | Alternative time systems | |--------------------------| | Wisconsinan Age | Wisconsin Episode | | Sangamonian Age | Sangamon Episode | | Illinoian Age | Illinois Episode | | Yarmouthian Age | Yarmouth Episode | | pre-Illinoian ages | early glacial episodes | This publication uses the new terminology for classifying Quaternary time. But, if you should read somewhere about the Wisconsinan Age of glaciation, be assured that it refers to essentially the same time interval as the Wisconsin Episode. River bluffs eastward; fig. 26 on p. 31). Because they are closer to the surface in this area, these sediments are generally more easily studied here than elsewhere. By means of samples taken from outcrops and drillholes, geologists can trace these sediments beneath younger deposits to the east. Glaciers coming from a northwestern-source area would have crossed Iowa before entering Illinois. Iowa geologists have determined that correlative deposits in their state have a predictable sequence, consisting of two distinct bundles of tills. The older, underlying bundle of tills was named the Alburnett Formation, and the younger, overlying bundle was named the Wolf Creek Formation. These deposits in the same sequence have been traced from Iowa across the Mississippi River and western Illinois nearly to the Illinois River (fig. 27 on pp. 32–33). There is no specific evidence as yet that the northwestern-source glaciers crossed the Illinois River (ancient Mississippi River) valley. Sediments from northwestern-source glaciers are distinguished by more ground-up limestone (a rock composed of the mineral calcite that reacts readily with dilute hydrochloric acid) and small amounts of the clay mineral illite. The mineralogical composition of sediments from these northwestern-source glaciers contrasts with that of sediments from the northeastern-source glaciers. **Northeastern-Source Glaciers** Although deposits of early northeastern-source glaciers have been eroded away in many parts of the state, they can be found deeply buried throughout parts of central and east-central Illinois, especially in some of the deeper bedrock valleys. Over the past 40 years, geologists have studied samples from thousands of drillholes that reached bedrock and have traced and correlated these earliest glacial sediments over broad areas. In a few places where bedrock is comparatively near the surface, such as in Vermilion County, pre-Illinoian deposits have actually been exposed in coal strip mines, such as can be seen in Kickapoo State Park. As mentioned, northeastern-source sediments generally have a mineralogical composition that is different from that of the northwestern-source sediments. Pre-Illinoian tills in eastern Illinois generally contain large amounts of illite and more ground-up dolomite and dolomite pebbles than ground-up limestone and limestone pebbles. One till in eastern Illinois, however, is unique among the northeastern-source tills. Named the Hillery Till Member, it is a distinctive deep reddish brown and contains so much ground-up limestone that it reacts more strongly than other northeastern-source tills when a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is placed on it. This till is thought to have been deposited by a glacier advancing out of a source farther to the northeast and east than the Lake Michigan basin area, possibly out of the Lake Erie area, in which case it would have ground up some of the limestone bedrock traversed between there and eastern Illinois. Because of its distinctive color and composition, the position of the Hillery Till Member in the sequence of pre-Illinoian deposits in east-central Illinois is relatively well known so that when it is encountered, other (usually gray) tills above and below it can be identified and correlated according to their relative age and characteristics. **Time Relationship between Pre-Illinois Deposits** We do not yet have the means to tell whether the glaciers entered Illinois from the northwest and from the northeast at the same time. The most commonly used radiometric age dating technique, carbon-14 dating, does not reach back far enough in time, and other techniques may not be precise enough. Nor does there appear to be any evidence that the tills of western Illinois are found in eastern Illinois or that they can be correlated to any tills there. So far, then, we do not know the time relationship between the pre-Illinoian eastern and western tills. **Other Sediments** Our discussion of early glaciations has focused almost exclusively on tills because where we find till, we know that ice once covered that area. Tills are also widespread and are the type of glacial deposit most easily traced and correlated by texture and mineralogical composition in Illinois. Nevertheless, logs of drillholes through glacial sediments record many beds of silt, clay, and sand and gravel interspersed within and between layers of till. Thick deposits of sand and gravel fill many parts of the bedrock valleys. These sediments indicate that glacial rivers sorted and deposited rock debris; coarser material was dropped closer to the ice front, and finer debris was carried farther downstream. Where we find sand and gravel within tills, we can hypothesize that they were deposited in a meltwater stream beneath or near the ice. These sand and gravel beds are of great importance because they are commonly saturated with water and can serve as *aquifers* that supply drinking water for communities, industries, farms, and households. Deposits of sand and gravel generally do not have distinctive characteristics that can be correlated over long distances. However, experience has shown that if the tills above and below major sand and gravel beds can be traced and correlated from one region to another, the continuity of major deposits of sand and gravel lying between these tills can generally be evaluated, and drilling for water can be guided by this information. Locally, some sand and gravel beds may display certain characteristics, such as the presence of grains of a certain mineral, that can be used to correlate these bodies. Undoubtedly, the most significant aspect of pre-Illinoian sand and gravel units is their thickness and extent in the major bedrock valleys, which makes them useful as potential sources of major water supplies for nearby communities. Perhaps the best-known example is the Mahomet Bedrock Valley, which was probably formed and occupied by a series of preglacial rivers and glacial meltwater streams (fig. 31, nos. 1 and 3 on p. 42). Up to 150 feet of sand and gravel fills parts of this broad valley. Elsewhere, in the deepest parts of the ancient Mississippi Bedrock Valley (fig. 28 on p. 36 and fig. 31, no. 1), a sand with abundant distinctive polished pink and red quartz grains occurs. Wherever pre-Illinoian outwash sands containing reddish quartz grains occur, they can probably be correlated to each other, thus providing one more clue to piecing together the story of the earliest glaciations in Illinois. **Ancestral River Systems** After the earliest glaciations (fig. 31, no. 3), the ancient Mississippi River flowed along the west side of the Driftless Area in Illinois as far as Fulton in Whiteside County. From there, it followed a southeastward course to the present big bend of the Illinois River valley in Bureau County. With one exception, the river then essentially followed the present course of the Illinois River valley southward to its confluence with the ancient Iowa River at Grafton in Jersey County. The exception is the present, very young valley near Peoria and Pekin where the ancient Mississippi River valley lies a short distance east of the Peoria-Pekin area. This segment of the bedrock valley is called the Mackinaw Segment, named for the village of Mackinaw that lies above it. Another ancestral river, the ancient Iowa River (figs. 28 and 31, no. 1), with headwaters in east-central Iowa, followed the present Mississippi River valley below Muscatine, Iowa, southward to its confluence with the ancient Mississippi River at what is now Grafton in Jersey County. Today, its valley is occupied by the modern Mississippi River. Drilling logs show that the lowest parts of the Mahomet Bedrock Valley and its tributaries are filled with sand and gravel, lake silts, and even a few tills of the earliest glaciers to advance into Illinois. From this evidence, we can deduce that the filling of this major valley system began with these earliest glaciers. **The Yarmouth Soil: A Distinguishing Role** A long interval of warmer climate called the Yarmouth Episode (fig. 30 on p. 41) occurred after the last of the early ice sheets melted away. The thick soil that developed on the pre-Illinoian deposits was named the Yarmouth Soil after the village of Yarmouth in Des Moines County, Iowa. Although in many areas this thick soil was at least partially truncated (planed off) by later glaciers, what is left can still be seen in outcrops in western Illinois and in samples from drillholes elsewhere in the state. Perhaps the most distinctive parts of the Yarmouth Soil formed where clay and silt slowly accumulated in low, wet, poorly drained areas of the landscape. Today these accumulations of weathered clay and silt are dark gray to black, massive, dense deposits that are called gley or accretion gley; in many areas, the Yarmouth gleys are overlain by sediments of later glaciations. In areas where the Yarmouth Soil remains complete, it is well developed and about twice as thick as the Sangamon Soil discussed in the next chapter. The Yarmouth’s thickness suggests lengthy and significant intervals of warm climate conditions contributed to its formation (fig. 30). **Finding Out More** Most of our information about pre-Illinoian deposits comes from subsurface samples and logs. Many samples and cores from drilling in western and eastern Illinois have yet to be studied. In addition, excavations for construction of new highways may open up new exposures of glacial sediments to study, and cores from new engineering test holes frequently become available. Whenever and wherever such exposures or borings may occur in the future, geologists will study, describe, sample, and analyze them to learn how these new pieces of information fit into the puzzle. The Importance of Buried Soils The word “soil” means different things to different people. To the average person, soil is the material at the ground surface in which plants grow. To the engineer, soil generally refers to all sediments that can be easily differentiated from rock. To the soil scientist, a soil is a sequence of zones of alteration in a sediment or rock (called the parent material). These zones, called *soil horizons* (fig. 32), result from weathering of the parent material. Weathering is exposure to the various chemical, physical, and biological processes that affect geologic materials at and near the Earth’s surface. The sequence of soil horizons is called the soil profile. The characteristics of the various soil horizons, briefly outlined here, that appear in old buried soils within glacial deposits can provide geologists with important evidence for climatic and other events that occurred as the soil was forming. The upper part of a soil profile is the most intensively weathered because it is most exposed to surface processes. This top horizon **Figure 32** Shallow soil profile showing A, B, and C horizons. (Photograph by Leon R. Follmer.) is called the A horizon. It is generally the darkest in color because it contains the largest amount of decomposed organic remains. Below the A horizon in some soils is a subsurface horizon called the E horizon, which has the lightest color in the soil profile because the colored materials have been removed by leaching. *Leaching* is the process by which minerals dissolve and are carried downward by infiltrating water from snow and rain into the underlying B horizon. The B horizon is the zone of accumulation of clay particles (sometimes called claypan) carried down from the A horizon by infiltrating water. Beneath the B horizon is the C horizon, which generally is blocky, massive, and only slightly altered from the original sediment or rock. Untouched by weathering processes, the original parent material is called the D horizon. Unweathered rock, in contrast to sediment, is called the R horizon. Soil horizons were first recognized and studied in the soils existing on today’s land surface. When old soils buried within the sequence of glacial sediments were recognized, geologists realized that these soils also could reveal information about Ice Age events. Old buried soils indicate that warm intervals occurred between advances of continental glaciers and that the land surface was stable for a very long time—that is, little erosion took place, and no significant amounts of new sediment were deposited. Often, the buried soil horizons we find are incomplete. Sometimes another continental glacier advanced and overrode the stable land surface represented by this buried soil and sheared off (truncated) part of the soil, leaving only the lower horizons in place. By tracing the overlying and underlying tills across the landscape, we can correlate exposures of an old buried soil from place to place because some exposures reveal a more complete sequence of soil horizons than others, and those tell us more about the nature of the warm interglacial interval during which it formed. In Illinois, there are many similarities between modern soil and ancient buried soils, such as the types and characteristics of soil horizons. From these similarities, we can conclude that the topography and climate under which soils were formed during the warm interglacial intervals were similar to the conditions under which modern soils have formed in Illinois. The thickness of a buried soil and the degree of development of its soil horizons also tell us something about the length of the interglacial interval. Because we know how much time has passed since the retreat of the last ice sheet, we can get an idea of how long an earlier interglacial interval lasted by comparing the depth of alteration of the underlying parent material to the depth of modern soil development. There are even places where a new soil developed on top of an old soil. For example, the Illinoian glacier never overrode the very old Yarmouth Soil in parts of Adams and Pike Counties in western Illinois, so during the warm interglacial interval that followed the Illinoian glaciation, the Sangamon Soil formed within sediments that had already been altered during formation of the Yarmouth Soil. In some places in the same area, no glacier overrode the Sangamon Soil, so modern soil formed in these earlier soils. A soil scientist can tell a great deal about the history of weathering and soil formation in such areas. On a clear day about 200,000 years ago, if you had stood atop Bald Knob in Union County at more than 1,000 feet above sea level and looked toward the northeast, you might just barely have been able to see the edge of the Illinois Episode glacier on the horizon. And if, about 20,000 years ago, you had stood near where the tiny hamlet of Oilfield in Clark County is located today and looked northward, you would have seen a low ridge of bluish gray ice on the horizon, perhaps fading into a lowering dark gray sky to the north. You would have been looking at the front of the Wisconsin Episode ice sheet as it stood at its maximum southward extent. Today, the ridge of higher ground you can see against the horizon from this location is the end moraine of that glacier. The evidence of the last two major glaciations in Illinois—the Illinoian and Wisconsin glaciations—is much easier to interpret than that of the earlier glaciations, because the deposits of these glaciations are directly accessible over much of the state, and the landscape left behind can be studied in detail. **Illinois Episode Glaciation** **Source Area** During the Illinois Episode, glaciers advanced southwestward out of the Lake Michigan basin from areas in the Great Lakes basin far to the northeast and east. We know the glaciers came from these areas (1) because the tills contain relatively high amounts of the clay mineral illite and the carbonate mineral dolomite, both of which are dominant in the rocks of the Lake Michigan basin area, (2) because of the direction of glacial striations, and (3) by the orientation of rock fragments (the fabric) within the tills. **Extent of Illinoian Deposits** At the end of the long warm interval called the Yarmouth interglacial episode about 180,000 years ago (fig. 30 on p. 41), the climate again changed, and a continental ice sheet once more invaded the Midwest. During at least one of the three major advances of the next glacial episode (fig. 33, no. 2), the glacier extended farther south than any other major glacier in the continental United States; at its maximum extent, ice covered nearly 90% of Illinois. For this reason, this episode is called the Illinoian glaciation. The extent of Illinoian sediments is easily traced because they occur directly beneath the loess blanketing most of the state. In the northeastern quadrant of Illinois, however, these glacial deposits are covered by deposits of later Wisconsin Episode glaciers or were eroded away by them. Illinoian sediments extend from Stephenson and Winnebago Counties on the Illinois-Wisconsin state line into the southern Illinois counties of Jackson, Williamson, Johnson, Saline, and Gallatin (fig. 26 on p. 31). These sediments also extend westward across the Mississippi River in the vicinity of Hancock and Adams Counties. Over much of the southern part of the state, the Illinoian tills and associated deposits average less than 50 feet thick. The surface of these deposits is usually deeply weathered, and end moraines are not apparent along their southern margin. From these facts we can speculate that perhaps the glacial deposits extend over such a large area because of a relatively rapid surge of ice that then stagnated and melted in place, rather than because of a continuous flow of ice that brought rock debris to the glacial margin and deposited it in an end moraine. Or perhaps the glacier stopped where it did only because the climate along the southern margin was warm enough to halt the ice advance or because the surging ice no longer possessed enough energy to override the bedrock cuestas of the Shawnee Hills area, which rise to elevations of 800 to 1,000 feet (fig. 28 on p. 36). Whatever the complete story may be, the great distance covered by Illinois Episode glaciers remains as impressive evidence of climate fluctuations during the Ice Age. **Ice Advances** Deposits of three major glacial advances have long been recognized in Illinois Episode sediments (fig. 33). These deposits are classified as members of the Glasford Formation. The first major lobe of ice to advance out of the Lake Michigan basin deposited silty tills. The relatively large amounts of expandable clay minerals in these tills reflect the erosion and incorporation of older loesses, soils, and sediments into the base of the advancing Illinois Episode glacier. It is not yet clear how far south this first lobe advanced, but it reached its maximum western extent in Iowa, crossing the ancient Mississippi River valley (fig. 33, no. 1). A brief warm interval of weathering must have occurred after this first Illinois Episode ice advance because a soil developed in these early deposits, although it is not as deep and widespread as the underlying Yarmouth Soil. The ice of the second major lobe to enter the state during the Illinois Episode extended almost as far west as the first lobe and reached farther south than any North American Ice Age glacier (fig. 33, no. 1). The till deposits are sandier than those laid down during the first advance. They also have lesser amounts of expandable clay minerals and more illite than do the older and younger Illinoian tills. Apparently the ice of this advance also stagnated, or gradually melted in place, because the surface of these sediments is marked by the “ridged drift,” a system of elongate ridges and knolls, consisting largely of sand and gravel. Only a weakly developed, unnamed soil is found locally on this surface, where it is buried by younger Illinoian deposits, suggesting that a relatively short interval occurred between the middle and late Illinoian glaciations. The last of the three major Illinois Episode glaciers to enter the state was not as extensive as either of the first two (fig. 33, no. 1). Only in central and northwestern Illinois do its deposits extend beyond the late Wisconsin Episode glacial boundary, but they can be traced beneath the overlying Wisconsin Episode drift. In general, these latest Illinoian tills are more variable in texture. In some areas, the till is fairly sandy; in other areas, where the ice overrode lake silts and incorporated them into the till, it is fairly silty. Of the three Illinoian tills, the youngest contains the largest amount of the clay mineral illite. In north-central Illinois, the last interglacial soil is recognizable in tills of the Winnebago Formation, formerly attributed to the Wisconsin Episode. These tills are now attributed to a late re-advance of the Illinois Episode. **Illinoian Landscape** The loess-blanketed deposits of the Illinoian glaciation present a unique landscape known as the Illinoian till plain. In the southern third of Illinois, north of the Shawnee Hills area, this till plain is remarkably flat, interrupted only by southeast- or southwest-trending valleys and low ridges. The flatness may be due (1) partly to the fairly low relief of the bedrock surface, which ranges from 400 to 600 feet above msl across broad areas (fig. 28 on p. 35); (2) partly to the nature of the ice, which was probably somewhat plastic and mobile enough to fill in low areas and subdue the remaining topography; and (3) partly to the glacier reaching so far south that it melted in place rather than advancing, retreating, and readvancing, which would have built up a rolling topography marked by moraines. Another process undoubtedly contributing to the flat till plain is solifluction, the slow, viscous, downslope flow of waterlogged sediment and rock debris. The essentially featureless parts of the Illinoian till plain contrast with the sharp ridges, greater relief, and generally uneven topography of the “ridged drift” area. Interestingly, the land surface covered by till from the third Illinois Episode glacial advance in central Illinois (fig. 33, no. 1) has more relief than the surface covered by the older Illinoian tills. For one thing, the glacial margin is locally marked by morainal topography somewhat like the moraines of the later Wisconsin Episode advances. Another reason for its greater relief may be that streams flowing into the ancient Mississippi River valley during the following Sangamon interglacial episode dissected and eroded the landscape. Similar erosion by Wisconsin Episode and modern streams draining into the Illinois River drainage system probably also contributed to the greater relief in this area. **The “Ridged Drift”** An interesting series of features on the southern part of the Illinoian till plain is collectively called the “ridged drift.” This extensive complex of ridges and kames is composed of sand, sand and gravel, silt, and gravelly till that trends northeast-southwest from the boundary of Wisconsin glaciation in Shelby County nearly to the Mississippi River in St. Clair County (fig. 26 on p. 31). The origin of the ridged drift is controversial. The ridges and knolls may have originated as eskers. Another possibility is that crevasses in the thin ablating ice may have been infilled with sand and gravel-laden meltwater, forming a series of kames and *kame terraces*. A third explanation is that the ice of the second major Illinois Episode advance may have been deflected westward by one or more lobes advancing simultaneously from farther east, possibly out of the Lake Huron basin. In this case, the ridged drift may have been formed in the area between the two ice lobes (called an “interlobate” area) in a complex coalescing of the ice margins during which this eastern lobe extended to the present Mississippi River valley from St. Louis southward. The deflected Lake Michigan lobe spread westward across what is now the Illinois River. valley and crossed the present Mississippi River valley into Iowa in the area from Hancock County to Carroll County. **Changing the Course of Major River Systems** When each of the Illinois Episode glaciers reached the bedrock valley near Princeton in Bureau County, the ice dammed the ancient Mississippi River (fig. 33, no. 1). Evidence indicates these diversions were only temporary, however, and following each blockage meltback of the glacial front permitted the river to resume its former southeastward course (fig. 33, no. 2). This course was maintained until the Wisconsin Episode glacier entered the area (fig. 34, no. 2). By the close of the Illinoian glaciation, the Mahomet Bedrock Valley in east-central Illinois had been completely filled with sediment. **After the Illinoian Glaciation** Another major interval of warm climate and soil development took place after the last of the Illinoian ice sheets melted away. The soil that developed during this interglacial interval is called the Sangamon Soil after Sangamon County, Illinois, where it was first described. The Sangamon Soil is one of the most thoroughly studied buried soils because it is so widespread. It has been traced westward into the Great Plains region, southwestward to Texas, and eastward to Ohio. In Illinois, it typically shows development of soil horizons, just as modern soil does, and it often has a strong reddish brown color. In poorly drained areas, it exhibits a greenish gray to black, dense, massive, ![Figure 34](image) *Figure 34* The sequence of Wisconsin Episode glaciations and interglacial drainage in Illinois. mucky character just as the older Yarmouth Soil does. Although much of the Sangamon Soil in northeastern Illinois was apparently truncated or completely removed by overriding Wisconsin Episode glaciers, elsewhere in the state it is well preserved and serves as an excellent identifiable marker bed. A marker bed has characteristics that are distinctive enough to be traceable over long distances in the subsurface and, thus, can serve as a *stratigraphic* reference. **The Wisconsin Episode** In the early and middle parts of the Wisconsin Episode, glaciers did not advance into Illinois; we can deduce this because we find no tills left by these glaciers in Illinois. Sediments in Illinois from this interval are loesses and river, lake, and slope deposits (mainly silt). A unique sediment that helps to distinguish Wisconsin Episode sediments from older underlying deposits is a thin, distinct, and widespread organic silt deposit called the Robein Member. The Robein Member is the most widely radiocarbon-dated marker bed in Illinois. Samples have generally yielded ages from 28,000 to 20,000 years before present, well within the time of the Wisconsin Episode (fig. 30). In drilling logs, mention of a black silt or a similar sediment gives geologists a needed signpost to determine the relative age of sediments above and below it. The Robein Member, in combination with the greenish gray, poorly drained Sangamon Soil on which it rests, provides the unique marker that separates Illinois and Wisconsin Episode deposits both in outcrop and in the subsurface. **Source Area** The Wisconsin Episode glaciers also entered Illinois from the Lake Michigan basin, as indicated by rock striations, the mineralogical composition of the sediments, the fabric of pebbles and cobbles within the tills, and the orientation of the end moraines (fig. 35). The clay mineral illite, found in the shales of the Lake Michigan basin, dominates the clay portion of all the Wisconsin Episode tills, and ground-up dolomite and numerous dolomite pebbles and cobbles from the Silurian age bedrock in northeastern Illinois also point to the northeast-southwest path taken by the ice. **Deposits** Wisconsin Episode deposits occur at the ground surface in the northeastern quadrant of Illinois, and the margin of these deposits is marked by a prominent end moraine. These sediments, currently assigned Figure 35 Wisconsin Episode moraines arc across northeastern Illinois and indicate the positions of temporary stationary ice fronts as the ice margin retreated. to the Wedron Group, are exposed in many road cuts, rock quarries, sand and gravel pits, and creek banks. Because they are comparatively young, these deposits have been only slightly altered by weathering and erosion. Wisconsin Episode deposits give us the most complete and easily studied clues to what happens before, during, and after the advance of an active continental ice sheet. **When Did the Wisconsin Glaciation Happen?** A unique feature of the Wisconsin glaciation in Illinois is that this ice advance occurred recently enough that carbon-14 radiometric dating can be used to date materials deposited then. This method can reliably determine the age of organic matter as old as 50,000 years. Thus, in addition to being able to date these beds of till, sand and gravel, and lake silts and clays in relation to each other using the law of superposition, where organic matter occurs, we can sometimes bracket the actual time that the sediments were deposited. **Time-Transgression** Time-transgression means that a layer of sediment with distinctive characteristics was deposited in an environment that shifted geographically with advancing time. Consequently, the age of the deposited layer varies from place to place. For example, consider the area of the last glaciation. We know that the Wisconsin glaciation began earlier in Canada than it did in Illinois and ended in Illinois before it did in Canada. As we know from radiometric age dating, the Wisconsin Episode ice began advancing into northeastern Illinois about 25,000 years ago, reached its southernmost extent near Shelbyville about 20,000 years ago, and then finally melted back into the Lake Michigan basin between about 14,000 and 13,000 years ago. Therefore, the earliest Wisconsin Episode till was deposited in the Chicago area some 5,000 years earlier than it was deposited at Shelbyville. Near Shelbyville, till was deposited over about a 2,000-year span. At Chicago, tills may have been deposited over about a 12,000-year span. Wisconsin Episode till was deposited about 5,000 or 6,000 years later in the Chicago area than it was at Shelbyville. For these reasons, deposits such as the tills of the last glaciation are said to be time-transgressive. For example, wood found in a zone of organic silt just beneath Wisconsin Episode till deposits in northeastern Illinois has been dated to about 25,000 years before present. This tells us that ice began to advance into the state at about that time, because the organic silt underlies till deposited by the Wisconsin Episode ice. At the farthest southward advance of that ice, near Shelbyville, wood has been found beneath the till that dates to about 20,000 years before present. We infer, then, that it took approximately 5,000 years for that glacier to reach its maximum extent. In abandoned beaches of Lake Michigan, where the lake level was higher as the ice front was retreating into the lake basin, wood has been found that dates from 14,000 to 13,000 years ago. Thus, in Illinois, the deposits of the Wisconsin Episode that contain wood and other organic material are anchored in time, and we know that the glacier deposited its load of rock debris in Illinois over a period of about 12,000 years (between 25,000 and 13,000 years ago). **Clues from Wisconsin Episode Sediments** In exposures of these deposits from the most recent ice advance, we not only can see the sediments themselves but also find clues as to how they were deposited. Till that is dense, massive, and overconsolidated was deposited directly at the base of the ice and compacted by the weight of the glacier moving over it. Till-like sediments that are neither massive nor overconsolidated may have flowed off the ice as a muddy mass. Layered (bedded), fine-grained sediments were probably deposited in a lake bed; thin layers (rhythmites) of clay, silt, and sand --- **Ice Age Dust Clouds** For tens of thousands of years, as glaciers crept into the Great Lakes and headwaters of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, those rivers carried vast quantities of meltwater and sediment to the Gulf of Mexico. Melted at their base by the heat of the Earth and on their surface by the Sun, the glaciers issued forth first trickles, and then torrents that carved and flooded the river valleys to the south. At times the meltwater floods reached from bluff to bluff across the valleys. When floodwaters receded, they left barren, sediment-covered islands and temporarily empty stream channels exposed to winds. These sediment surfaces dried quickly. In the brisk, dry, winter winds, sand grains began to move, accumulating first in ripples and then in small migrating dunes that moved across the land surface. The sand grains in turn kicked up smaller silt- and clay-sized grains that rose into the turbulent air and were suspended and carried downwind in dust clouds. The clouds moved the suspended silt far downwind, much like the dust clouds that occasionally rise from freshly plowed spring fields today. As the dust clouds traveled away from their source in the big river valleys, moved by winds that usually blew from the northwest, the largest particles fell first as clouds dispersed and winds dissipated. The finest particles were carried tens of miles. As the dust cloud passed, the silt settled to the ground. Trees and grasses slowed the wind near the ground and trapped the dust. Most of the time, the dust accumulation was almost imperceptible, but gradually deposits thickened. On average, less than 1/25 inch fell each year in the areas closest to the valleys where deposition was fastest. Elsewhere, the dust fell even more slowly. It took almost 1,000 years for about 3 feet of dust to accumulate. Not only did the dust accumulate slowly, it also probably accumulated at variable rates. Some of the dust storms may have been heavy and dark and may have lasted for weeks. But mostly the dust fell gradually. Near the Mississippi and Illinois River valleys, this wind-blown dust, called “loess” by geologists, is over 100 feet thick in places (fig. 36 on p. 60). Farther from these valleys, the loess is thinner. Much of southern Illinois is covered by at least 5 feet; western Illinois has more, about 10 feet on average. Loess is thinnest in northeastern Illinois where the glaciers stood while the loess accumulated elsewhere. Eventually the climate warmed, the glaciers retreated, and dust deposition ceased. The upper part of the loess now began to be weathered into the silty topsoil and subsoil that form the fertile fields of Illinois. Illinois owes the richness of its soils to these ancient dust storms. indicate cycles of deposition. Vertically graded and sorted sediments indicate that sediments were carried and deposited by running water of different velocities. For example, a sequence of layers that goes from coarse sand and gravel to fine sand indicates the sediments were carried by water that gradually slowed down. Faster moving water can carry both coarse- and fine-grained material. As the water slows, it can no longer carry the coarser grains, which settle out first. Because the sediments from older glaciations may have been weathered or partially eroded, overridden, and compacted by younger ice sheets, many of these depositional clues are missing, buried, or dis- **What Loess Tells Us** In its mineral composition, loess records the changing composition of the debris carried by its source valleys. The most dramatic change in mineral composition records a time about 20,500 years ago when the glaciers flowing from the Lake Michigan basin reached the Illinois River near Peoria, blocked the river, and diverted the ancient channel of the Mississippi River to its present channel along the west side of the state (fig. 34, no. 2 on p. 54). Huge floods, probably from temporary lakes held back in the glacier-dammed river valley, broke loose and filled the valleys to the south deeper than they have ever been filled in historic times. The fine sediment in the valleys was picked up and carried along with the wind. When it fell from the passing dust clouds, the dust gradually buried and preserved snails, wood, pine and spruce needles, and traces of grasses. These fossils are found today. In the dust deposits are also found the burrows of ground squirrels and crayfish and the traces of roots and burrowing worms and insects. During periods of slow accumulation, the dust was altered by weathering. The record of loess accumulation during the last glaciation in Illinois tells us that, from about 50,000 to about 12,500 years ago, our big rivers were carrying glacial meltwater. The earliest meltwater carried debris that was reddish due to the red sediment entering the headwaters of the Mississippi River from the Lake Superior area. This sediment, when picked up and redeposited by the wind, became the reddish brown loess called the Roxana Silt deposited between about 50,000 and 28,000 years ago. Between about 28,000 and about 25,000 years ago, the glaciers retreated into the Great Lakes basin, loess accumulation slowed, and weathering and soil-forming processes kept up with the accumulation for a while. A distinct weathered zone from that time (the Farmdale soil, fig. 30 on p. 41) is found in the loess near the source valleys. But, about 25,000 years ago, the glaciers re-advanced and emerged from the southern end of ancestral Lake Michigan. The renewed pulse of meltwater carried yellowish brown and gray debris, and the new loess that resulted, the Peoria Silt, was yellowish brown in color. Similar loess was deposited along the Illinois, Wabash, Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri River valleys. About 12,500 years ago, loess deposition ceased along the Mississippi River valley. Today the Peoria Silt can be traced from Minnesota to Louisiana and from Nebraska to Ohio. Loess deposits from several earlier glacial episodes are also present in deposits along the big rivers of Illinois. In places near the river valleys, loess can be seen in deep stream valleys or quarries that have cut through younger sediments. Near Collinsville in southwestern Illinois, three older loesses offer silent witness of earlier cycles of the Ice Age during which glaciers sent forth ice tongues and spewed meltwater torrents, and winds blew dust clouds across the land. The weathering of soils in the upper surfaces of the buried loesses tells of warm periods like that of today that intervened only to be followed by another frigid glacial episode that buried the soils with more loess or debris from the advancing ice. Study of the loess deposits of Illinois offers insights into past climate changes, the advance and retreat of glaciers, the composition and formation of soils, the effect of erosion on the stability of ancient landscapes, and the plant and animal life that inhabited the past landscapes of Illinois. Figure 36 The drift that blankets Illinois becomes thinner east of the major river valleys in the state. torted. Therefore, the evidence for determining how they were deposited is often much less clear, as well as less accessible, than that of more recent or modern glaciers. Nevertheless, the processes responsible for the compaction, layering, and sorting that we see in sediments exposed at the ground surface today were likely the same for the older, more deeply buried sediments from earlier glaciations. **Glaciers Change Major River Systems** During the Wisconsin Episode advance, the Mississippi River was permanently diverted westward to occupy the valley of the ancient Iowa River along the west side of what is now Illinois, a course it still follows (fig. 34, no. 2 on p. 54). Its former valley, known as the Princeton Bedrock Valley (fig. 28 on p. 36), was buried by drift, including a great thickness of outwash sand and gravel. The great torrents of glacial meltwater flowing away from the ice contributed to the widening and deepening of the Mississippi River valley. **Recognizing Wisconsin Episode Deposits** As with the deposits of earlier glaciations, it is the layers of tills and marker beds deposited during the Wisconsin Episode glaciation that are traceable and that can be correlated across long distances. Wisconsin Episode tills can be distinguished because they occur above the easily recognized Sangamon Soil or the Robein Member marker bed (mentioned on p. 55); because they are exposed in many road cuts, stream banks, and quarries; and because they have distinctive colors, grain sizes, and mineralogical compositions. Three bundles of tills have been distinguished. The oldest (lowest) generally exhibits a unique pinkish brown color and is fairly sandy, the next is gray and siltier, and the uppermost till is also gray but very clayey, as a result of the ice gouging out shale and lacustrine sediments in the Lake Michigan basin area. Like the tills left by earlier glaciers, those of the Wisconsin glaciation contain some sand and gravel beds that serve as aquifers, supplying water for many individual households, farms, and small communities throughout the northeastern quadrant of the state. **Landscape Differences between These Last Two Glaciations** If you look carefully at both the topography of the Illinoian till plain and the topography of the landscape in northeastern Illinois (fig. 37), where the younger Wisconsin Episode deposits underlie the loess, you Surface Topography Map Five main landscape areas are recognizable. 1. The very flat floodplains of the Mississippi, Illinois, Wabash, and Ohio Rivers and the Green River and Havana lowlands are represented by large gray areas of little to no contrast between light and dark. The higher elevations are referred to as upland areas. 2. The most complex patterns of light and dark appear in the rugged unglaciated areas of northwestern Illinois, southern Illinois, and the narrow peninsula of land between the Mississippi and Illinois Rivers; these hilly areas have been subject to erosion since well before the Ice Age. Intricate patterns of light and dark near the major river valleys represent areas where streams in small valleys flowing into main river valleys have dissected the landscape. 3. Across much of the southern third of the state, north of the rugged unglaciated hills, are tree-like branching drainage patterns. These dendritic patterns developed by erosion after the melting of the Illinoian glaciers about 125,000 years ago. 4. The northeast quadrant of the state is broader and flatter than elsewhere, except for the major river floodplains. Visible in this quadrant are the curved moraines with interspersed flatter areas and less well-developed stream valleys. 5. In western Illinois between the Mississippi and Illinois Rivers is a striking parallel pattern of east-northeast to west-southwest drainage. This pattern may be related to the crevasse patterns that developed on the wasting Illinoian ice. The valleys may later have been deepened by meltwater running off the Wisconsin glacier as it stood at its maximum extent. Figure 37 This map is based on the map of Luman et al. (2003) generated from Digital Elevation Models (DEM) with vertical exaggeration and shading added. The map shows the landforms of Illinois as if the sun were shining from the northwest at about 30° above the horizon. The vertical dimension has been exaggerated 20 times in order to show detail better. will see some striking differences. For one thing, you can see evidence of a longer period of erosion and dissection of the land surface (for example, well-developed drainage patterns) on the Illinoian till plain because this land surface was exposed to these processes for a much longer time. For another, the flat Illinoian till plain contrasts with the end moraines, formed of till, that arc across northeastern Illinois (fig. 35 on p. 56) and record the pulsations, or short-interval advances and retreats, of the Wisconsin Episode ice front. This pattern of curved moraines distinguishes the Wisconsin Episode landscape from other landscapes of the state. It is easy to imagine the curved outer ends, or edges, of the ice lobes where the ground-up rock debris was carried to form these ridges. Wisconsin Episode end moraines may stand 50 to 100 or more feet above the flatter, slightly undulating surface of the *till plain* between them. The end moraines may be a few to several tens of miles long and from one-half to several miles wide (fig. 35 on p. 56). Glacial lake plains are usually several miles in length and width. Kames and kettles may be several tens to a hundred feet across. Kames rise a few tens of feet above the surrounding landscape and may be somewhat isolated on till plains. Kettles are depressions of somewhat lesser depth below the surrounding landscape. Both can often be found as part of the knob-and-kettle topography of some end moraines. **Sediments Other Than Till** Like the deposits of the earliest glaciations, those of the Illinoian and Wisconsin glaciations contain numerous *lenses* and beds of sand and gravel, as well as beds of silt and clay. The sand and gravel beds may serve as aquifers, supplying water for municipalities, industry, farms, and households. In some areas, extensive beds of sand and gravel, probably deposited by meltwater in front of the advancing glacier, underlie the Illinois and Wisconsin Episode deposits. These deposits serve as major water sources for some communities. **After the Wisconsin Glaciation** As the climate again warmed, the Wisconsin Episode ice retreated from Illinois for the last time, about 14,000 to 13,000 years ago, although it remained active for another 3,000 to 5,000 years north of Illinois. Modern soil began forming across the landscape, and other geologic processes such as erosion and deposition by wind and water continued. As the ice front melted back into the Lake Michigan basin, meltwater periodically ponded between the ice front and the moraines. bordering the lake; several successively lower lake stages formed before the level of modern-day Lake Michigan was reached. As the ice margin continued to recede northward, Lake Michigan and the other Great Lakes gradually began to assume their present configuration. **Glacial Meltwater Floods** As the Wisconsin Episode glacier stood building the broad belt of moraines that rim the southern end of Lake Michigan, its meltwater flooded into the Kankakee and Fox River valleys (fig. 34, no. 3, on p. 54), which could not contain such large volumes of water. The meltwater floods pouring down the valleys were so great that they ripped up and carried slabs of bedrock along with them. Meltwater floods also scoured some of the deposits laid down by previous glaciers. Long bars of rubble that accumulated along the floods’ courses remain visible today. Rubble and slabs of bedrock below the ground surface in the valley indicate that those floods were just the last of a series that began earlier in the Wisconsin Episode. **Glacial Lake Sediments** Glacial meltwater continued to pond between moraines and the ice front, even after the ice had retreated well back into the Lake Michigan basin. Lake sediments were deposited across what is now the greater Chicagoland area, and the city of Chicago is built on a glacial lake plain. The existence of beaches, bars, and spits attests to former lake shores. The higher ground now occupied by the village of Blue Island actually was an island in a lake. In the southeastern part of the state, so much outwash was deposited by meltwater coming down the Wabash River that the valley could not contain it all. Water backed up into the valley’s tributaries, creating lakes in which up to 20 feet or more of silt and clay accumulated. **Sand Dunes** Broad areas of outwash provided material that was picked up by the wind and was redeposited, resulting in tracts of sand dunes along the middle Illinois River valley, along the Mississippi River valley (especially in Rock Island, Mercer, and Henderson Counties), in the Green River and Havana lowlands, and along the Kankakee River valley in the eastern parts of Kankakee and Iroquois Counties. We know this process took place shortly after the deposition of the outwash and the waning of the meltwater floods because most of the dunes are now anchored in place by vegetation. Researchers who study modern climate change are delving deeply into evidence left from the Ice Age. Cores of ocean sediments and of relatively undisturbed ice from Greenland and Antarctica are being studied intensively to determine the mechanisms responsible for rapid climate shifts during the Great Ice Age. There are no definite answers to this question. As we now know, during the Ice Age, Illinois repeatedly alternated between cold glacial climates and warm interglacial climates that were often warmer than today’s climate. Research into the causes of Ice Age climatic change may also shed light on the combined impact of natural climate change and human influences on climate. Much research must yet be done in order to answer all of the questions remaining about past glaciations in Illinois. Understanding more about these glaciations and the reasons behind their occurrence will aid in answering the question of whether or not we are still living in the Ice Age. Ongoing study of Ice Age deposits allows scientists to continue to add to the store of knowledge about the nature and extent of these deposits. As understanding of the Ice Age deposits and processes grows, we can map the deposits more accurately, heighten public awareness of potential geologic hazards, and use the land and its mineral and water resources more intelligently for ourselves and for future generations. Two ISGS publications that illustrate how geologic information can improve these types of societal decisions are *Illinois Groundwater: A Vital Geologic Resource* and *Land-Use Decisions and Geology: Getting Past “Out of Sight, Out of Mind.”* These publications provide general information about glacial geology and its implications for society. Abert, C.C., 1996, Shaded Relief Map of Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey, Illinois Map 6, 1:500,000. Bauer, R.A., B.A. Trent, and P.B. DuMontelle, 1993, Mine Subsidence in Illinois—Facts for Homeowners: Illinois State Geological Survey, Environmental Geology 144, 16 p. Bergstrom, R.E., ed., 1968, The Quaternary of Illinois—A Symposium in Observance of the Centennial of the University of Illinois: University of Illinois, College of Agriculture, Special Publication 14, 179 p. Chrzastowski, M.J., 1991, The Building, Deterioration, and Proposed Rebuilding of the Chicago Lakefront: Shore & Beach, v. 59, no. 2, p. 2–10. Chrzastowski, M.J., M.M. Killey, R.A. Bauer, P.B. DuMontelle, A.L. Erdmann, B.L. Herzog, J.M. Masters, and L.R. Smith, 1994, The Great Flood of 1993—Geologic Perspectives on the Flooding along the Mississippi River and Its Tributaries in Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey, Special Report 2, 45 p. Earthquakes in Indiana: Bloomington, Indiana, Indiana Geological Survey and Indiana State Emergency Management Agency, 6 p. Embleton, C., and C.A.M. King, 1975, Glacial Geomorphology (2nd ed.): London, England, Edward Arnold, 573 p. Embleton, C., and C.A.M. King, 1975, Periglacial Geomorphology (2nd ed.): London, England, Edward Arnold, 203 p. Eyles, N., ed., 1983, Glacial Geology: New York, Pergamon Press, 489 p. Flint, R.F., 1971, Glacial and Quaternary Geology: New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 892 p. Goldthwait, R.P., ed., 1975, Glacial Deposits: Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, 464 p. Guide to the Geologic Map of Illinois, 1961: Illinois State Geological Survey, Educational Series 7, 24 p. Hall, D.K., 1989, Get Close to Glaciers with Satellite Imagery: The Science Teacher, November 1986, p. 23–38. Hallberg, G.R., T.E. Fenton, T.J. Kemmis, and G.A. Miller, 1980, Yarmouth Revisited: Iowa Geological Survey Guidebook, 27th Field Conference, Midwest Friends of the Pleistocene: Iowa City, Iowa, Iowa Geological Survey, 130 p. Hansel, A.K., and W.H. Johnson, 1996, Wedron and Mason Groups, Lithostratigraphic Reclassification of Deposits of the Wisconsin Episode, Lake Michigan Lobe Area: Illinois State Geological Survey, Bulletin 104, 116 p. Harbaugh, J.W., 1968, Stratigraphy and Geologic Time: Dubuque, Iowa, W.C. Brown Company, 113 p. Herzog, B.L., B.J. Stiff, C.A. Chenoweth, K.L. Warner, J.B. Sieverling, and C. Avery, 1994, Buried Bedrock Surface of Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey, Illinois Map 5, 1:500,000. Horberg, L., 1950, Bedrock Topography of Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey, Bulletin 73, 111 p. Horberg, L., 1953, Pleistocene Deposits below the Wisconsin Drift in Northeastern Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey, Report of Investigations 165, 61 p. Horberg, L., 1956, Pleistocene Deposits along the Mississippi Valley in Central-Western Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey, Report of Investigations 192, 39 p. Ice Age Geology—Illinois and Michigan Canal National Heritage Corridor, 1998: National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, brochure. Imbrie, J., and K.P. Imbrie, 1979, Ice Ages—Solving the Mystery: Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 224 p. Jackson, J.A., 1997, Glossary of Geology (4th ed.): Falls Church, Virginia, American Geological Institute, 784 p. John, B.S., 1977, The Ice Age, Past and Present: London, England, Collins, 254 p. Johnson, W.H., 1976, Quaternary Stratigraphy in Illinois—Status and Current Problems, *in* W.C. Mahaney, ed., Quaternary Stratigraphy of North America: Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, p. 161–196. (ISGS Reprint 1977-K.) Killey, M.M., and R.C. Berg, 2004, Land-Use Decisions and Geology: Getting Past “Out of Sight, Out of Mind: Illinois State Geological Survey, Geoscience Education Series 18, 62 p. Killey, M.M., J.K. Hines, and P.B. DuMontelle, 1985, Landslide Inventory of Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey, Circular 534, 27 p. Killey, M.M., and D.R. Larson, 2004, Illinois Groundwater: A Vital Geologic Resource: Illinois State Geological Survey, Geoscience Education Series 17, 61 p. Kim, S.M., R.R. Ruch, and J.P. Kempton, 1969, Radiocarbon Dating at the Illinois State Geological Survey: Illinois State Geological Survey, Environmental Geology Note 28, 19 p. Kolata, D.R., compiler, 2005, Bedrock Geology of Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey, Illinois Map 14, 1:500,000. Luman, D.E., L.R. Smith, and C.C. Goldsmith, 2003, Illinois Surface Topography: Illinois State Geological Survey, Illinois Map 11, 1:500,000. Masters, J.M., 1978, Sand and Gravel and Peat Resources in Northeastern Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey, Circular 503, 11 p. Meents, W.F., 1960, Glacial-Drift Gas in Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey, Circular 292, 58 p. Meier, M., and A. Post, 1988, Glaciers—A Water Resource: Reston, Virginia, U.S. Geological Survey, 23 p. Mueller, P., 1994, Viewing an Ancient World from a Frozen Lake, *in* The Living Museum: Springfield, Illinois, Illinois State Museum, v. 56, no. 1, p. 3–5. Nuhfer, E.B., R.J. Proctor, and P.H. Moser, 1993, Citizens’ Guide to Geologic Hazards: Arvada, Colorado, American Institute of Professional Geologists, 134 p. Palmer, A.R., 1983, The Decade of American Geology—1983 Geologic Time Scale: *Geology*, v. 11, p. 503–504. Palmer, A.R., and J. Geissman, 1999, 1999 Geologic Time Scale: Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America. Pielou, E.C., 1991, After the Ice Age: Chicago, Illinois, University of Chicago Press, 366 p. Prior, J.C., 1991, Landforms of Iowa: Iowa City, Iowa, University of Iowa Press, 153 p. Ray, L.L., 1992, The Great Ice Age: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992-307-568, 15 p. Schuberth, C.J., 1986, A View of the Past—An Introduction to Illinois Geology: Springfield, Illinois, Illinois State Museum, 181 p. Sharp, R.P., 1988, Living Ice—Understanding Glaciers and Glaciation: New York, Cambridge University Press, 225 p. Short, N.M., and R.W. Blair, Jr., eds., 1986, Glaciers and Glacial Landforms, in Geomorphology from Space—A Global Overview of Regional Landforms: Scientific and Technical Information Branch, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, SP-486, p. 521–596. Thelin, G.P., and R.J. Pike, 1991, Landforms of the Conterminous United States—A Digital Shaded-Relief Portrayal: Reston, Virginia, U.S. Geological Survey, 16 p. plus map, I-2206. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1990, The Greenhouse Effect—What Can We Do about It?: EPA Journal, v. 16, no. 2, 60 p. Wiggers, R., 1970, Geology Underfoot in Illinois: Missoula, Montana, Mountain Press, 304 p. Williams, R.S., Jr., 1983, Glaciers—Clues to Future Climate?: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office 1983-381-618/102, 21 p. Willman, H.B., and J.C. Frye, 1970, Pleistocene Stratigraphy of Illinois: Illinois State Geological Survey, Bulletin 94, 204 p. Willman, H.B., H.D. Glass, and J.C. Frye, 1963, Mineralogy of Glacial Tills and Their Weathering Profiles in Illinois, Part I, Glacial Tills: Illinois State Geological Survey, Circular 347, 55 p. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1989, The Oceans and Global Warming: Oceanus 32 (Summer), 96 p. Definitions are based on a variety of sources. The *Glossary of Geology*, fourth edition, published by the American Geological Institute, was especially useful. **ablation** The processes by which snow or ice is lost from a glacier, including melting, evaporation (sublimation), and wind erosion. **accretion gley** *See* gley. **alluvium** Sediment eroded from adjacent areas and deposited by running water in and along rivers and streams. **aquifer** A saturated sediment or rock that is porous and permeable enough to be useful as a source of water and that provides a generally sustainable yield of suitable quantities of groundwater. **areal distribution** Refers to the geographic area over which a rock or sediment unit occurs, either buried or exposed at the surface. **bed** A layer of sediment or sedimentary rock. *See* strata. **bedrock** The solid rock that underlies unlithified sediment of glacial and other origins. **correlate** To tie together similar types of geologic structures or formations in separate locations on the basis of physical characteristics and stratigraphic position. **crevasse** A deep, nearly vertical crack in a glacier or ice mass caused by stresses resulting when the ice moves over an uneven surface. **cross section** A diagram or drawing that shows the sequence of rocks and sediment layers as they occur in a vertical plane; commonly drawn from the ground surface down to some selected depth, such as the bedrock surface. **cuesta** A ridge with a gentle slope on one side and a steep slope on the other. **diamicton** A general term for unsorted, unstratified rock debris composed of a wide range of particle sizes; use of this term carries no suggestion about how such debris was formed or deposited. **dolomite** A sedimentary rock (calcium magnesium carbonate) similar to limestone (calcium carbonate) and especially common in the bedrock of northeastern Illinois. **drift** *See* glacial drift. **embayment** A deep indentation or recess of a shoreline that forms a bay. **end moraine** A ridge formed by the accumulation of glacial drift at the edge of a glacier. In Illinois, most end moraines are composed predominantly of till. **erratics** Boulders and other rock fragments transported by glacial ice from their place of origin to an area where the bedrock is different. **esker** A long, narrow, sinuous ridge of sand and gravel deposited by a meltwater stream flowing upon, within, or beneath a glacier that is melting away. **fabric** The preferred orientation and dip direction of elongate pebbles within a till. Fabric can be used to determine the direction of ice movement. **facies** The characteristics of a rock unit that differentiate it from surrounding units and usually reflecting the conditions of its origins. **formation** The basic unit of lithostratigraphic classification. A formation must be identifiable on the basis of easily recognized physical properties and widespread enough to be mapped at a regional scale. A formation can be divided into smaller units, called members, where these, too, are recognizable and mappable. Formations can also be combined into groups when useful and appropriate. **geologic map** A diagram or drawing on a horizontal plane of part of the Earth’s surface showing by means of lines, colors, symbols, and orientation the distribution of selected features such as particular surface or subsurface units or rocks or sediments. **glacial drift** A general term for all rock material carried and deposited by glaciers or glacier meltwater. **glacial lake plain** A large flat area underlain by fine-grained sediment that was deposited in a lake formed by ponded meltwater from a glacier. **glacial striations** A series of long, generally straight and parallel scratches or furrows on a bedrock surface that were caused by the dragging and scraping of rock fragments that were frozen into the base of an overriding glacier; striations are usually oriented in the direction of ice movement. Glacial striations are also formed on erratics (rock fragments) transported by the ice. **gley or accretion gley** Sediment that has accumulated (accreted) slowly in low, wet, poorly drained areas of the landscape; gley is often dark gray to black, massive, and dense. **group** The major lithostratigraphic unit next higher in rank than a formation; a group consists of two or more associated and adjoining formations having significant lithologic features in common. **horizons** Zones of successively greater alteration that develop in a geologic material upon exposure to the physical and chemical processes of weathering. **ice-wedge cast** A vertical wedge of sediment (or cast) that filled a crack in frozen ground formerly filled by an ice wedge; the wedge of ice was water that had frozen in a narrow crack that was produced by thermal contraction in permafrost. **igneous rock** Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling of molten rock, called magma. **kame** A low, steep-sided hill or mound composed mainly of poorly sorted sand and gravel that was deposited by meltwater plunging into crevasses and depressions near the front of a glacier. **kame terrace** A terrace-like ridge consisting of stratified sand and gravel deposited by a meltwater stream between a melting glacier or stagnant ice lobe and a higher valley wall or lateral moraine. The ridge is left standing after the disappearance of the ice. **karst terrain** Characterized by closed depressions, sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage networks produced by the action of water on limestone or dolomite, karst terrain is also susceptible to sinking and sudden collapse. **kettle** A shallow basin- or bowl-shaped depression on the landscape formed when a large block of ice became detached from the main glacier; the ice block was gradually buried by outwash from the retreating ice and left a depression in the outwash when it eventually melted. **lacustrine** (“lac” is French for “lake”) Formed or deposited in a lake. **leaching** The dissolution and removal of soluble minerals by water from rain and snow that infiltrate downward through a soil. **lens** A geologic deposit with surfaces that converge toward each other; a lens is thick in the middle and thins out toward the edges. **lithified** Changed over time from a loose sediment into a coherent and solid rock by means of cementation, compaction, and compression. **lithologic** The physical character of rocks or sediments, including mineralogical composition, grain size, color, and structure. **lithostratigraphic** Pertaining to the classification of rock and sediment that is based solely on lithologic similarities within a unit and on lithologic differences between adjacent rock or sediment units. **loess** (pronounced “luss”) Windblown dust; a widespread, homogeneous, massive, unconsolidated but slightly coherent, fine-grained deposit that blankets much of today’s Illinois landscape. In Illinois, loess deposits range from about 100 feet thick on the east sides of major rivers to less than 5 feet over much of the eastern half of Illinois. **member** A lithostratigraphic unit of subordinate rank; a recognizable and mappable subdivision of a formation. **metamorphic rock** Those rocks changed in composition, mineral content, texture, or structure by the application of heat or pressure; they originally may have been sedimentary, igneous, or other metamorphic rocks. **organic matter** Biologically derived materials (for example, wood, shells, peat, and bone) containing carbon as an essential component, usually bonded with hydrogen. outcrop Part of a glacial deposit or bedrock that is exposed and visible at the Earth’s surface. outwash Stratified sand and gravel that was washed out from a glacier by meltwater streams and deposited in front of, or beyond the margin of, an active glacier. overburden Sediment or rock that overlies an economically useful deposit and that must be removed prior to mining that deposit. overconsolidation Sediment that is more consolidated than would be expected from the existing overlying sediments. In the case of tills, overconsolidation resulted from compaction by the extremely heavy glacier overriding the sediment. patterned ground Ground surface having polygonal or circular patterns that develop in poorly drained areas subject to intensive frost action; the patterns are defined by contrasting soils. permafrost Soil or rock at or near ground surface in arctic or subarctic regions that has been continuously frozen for a long time. proglacial Immediately in front of, or just beyond the outer edge of, a glacier; proglacial refers to lakes, streams, deposits, and other features produced by or derived from glacial ice. Quaternary (pronounced Quat-ter’-nah-ree”) The name for the period from the beginning of the Ice Age to the present and the sediments deposited during this time. radiometric age dating A method for calculating the age of a specimen by measuring the amount of radioactive element remaining in the specimen. The method is based on the known, fixed rates of nuclear decay of certain natural elements, such as carbon-14 and potassium-40. relief The general unevenness of the Earth’s surface. The vertical difference in elevation between hilltops and valleys of a given region. A region showing little variation in elevation has low relief. rhythmites A repetitive succession of rock or sediment units in which the layers indicate a frequent and predictable pattern of the same sequence of conditions. No thickness or time (for example, seasonal variation) is implied by this term. sedimentary rock Those rocks formed by the compaction and cementation of sediment or by the precipitation of dissolved minerals from salt or fresh water. seismic Pertaining to a vibration in earth materials that may be induced artificially or by an earthquake. Seismic methods used in investigating the subsurface include the generation, reflection, refraction, detection, and analysis of elastic waves in the earth. soil horizons See horizons. soil The unconsolidated mineral or organic material on the immediate surface of the Earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants. solifluction The slow, viscous, downslope flow of waterlogged sediment and rock debris; solifluction especially occurs in regions underlain by frozen ground that acts as a downward barrier to water percolation. strata Single and distinct layers, or beds, of sediment or sedimentary rock that are easily distinguishable from layers above and below them. stratigraphic, stratigraphy The systematic definition and description of major and minor natural divisions of rocks and their arrangement according to composition, distribution, correlation, and mutual relationships. stratigraphic code A set of guidelines developed by a commission of geologists to aid in communication when referring to the layers of rock and sediment and to geologic history. Periodically updated and modified, the code contains guidelines to follow when classifying deposits and time. texture The size, shape, and arrangement of the component particles of a sedimentary deposit such as till. till Unsorted, unstratified rock debris composed of a wide range of particle sizes that was deposited directly by and underneath a glacier. till plain A gently rolling ground surface underlain by till deposited beneath a glacier. It is usually bordered by end moraines. time-transgressive A deposit that varies in age according to its geographic position; reflecting a depositional environment over a period of time during which the ice advanced and withdrew across a particular geographic area. topography The general shape of a surface, such as the land surface, including its relief and the position of its natural and human-made features. truncate To scrape off or plane off the top portion of a buried soil or other deposit by an advancing glacier. tundra A treeless level to undulating plain that is characteristic of arctic and subarctic regions. It usually has a marshy surface that supports a growth of mosses, lichens, and numerous low shrubs; it is underlain by a dark, mucky soil and permafrost. unlithified Sediment that has not been changed into a coherent and solid rock. weathering The process of physical disintegration and chemical decomposition whereby earth and rock materials are changed in color, texture, composition, firmness, or form upon exposure to the atmosphere. The Geoscience Outreach Program of the Illinois State Geological Survey uses many channels to inform the public about the geology and mineral resources of the state and the results of the Survey’s research projects. The Survey distributes nontechnical publications, offers sets of rock and mineral specimens to Illinois schools and educational groups, presents lectures and exhibits, responds to inquiries, conducts workshops for teachers, and leads field trips. The program’s full-day field trips, each given in widely separated areas of the state, offer teachers, students, and the public the opportunity to learn about the geologic processes that shaped the land and formed the rocks and glacial deposits. The outreach program is specifically designed to assist in the teaching of earth sciences and to help citizens understand how the research programs of the Illinois State Geological Survey protect the environment and strengthen the economy of Illinois. Illinois State Geological Survey 615 East Peabody Drive Champaign, Illinois 61820-6964 217/333-4747 http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu Equal opportunity to participate in programs of the Illinois Department of Natural Resources (IDNR) and those funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and other agencies is available to all individuals regardless of race, sex, national origin, disability, age, religion, or other non-merit factors. If you believe you have been discriminated against, contact the funding source’s civil rights office and/or the Equal Employment Opportunity Officer, IDNR, One Natural Resources Way, Springfield, Illinois 62702-1271; 217/785-0067; TTY 217/782-9175. This information may be provided in an alternative format if required. Contact the IDNR Clearinghouse at 217/782-7498. Figure 1: Topography of the study area (source: USGS).
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The use of videotape, 16mm film, or personally conducted programs in the Dallas Public Library story hours was studied to determine the effectiveness of the three methods in improving the listening skills of preschool children of varying socioeconomic levels. This report of the 1981/82 research project provides information on sample size throughout the study, and on post-testing procedures using the Test of Basic Experiences (TOBE) and a final protocol test. A statistical analysis of data and findings looks at the TOBE and protocol scores as they relate to six hypotheses. Seventeen tables are included. A brief list of references precedes a discussion of the study and a summation of conclusions, implications, and recommendations for further research. A study dissemination plan is given which involves presentations, a slide/tape package, a monograph, and articles for publication; an examination of reasons why established study goals were not met; a note of the project's duration; and an explanation of expenditures. Four appendices comprise a list of films and corresponding books used at story hours during the project, a list of questions for the post-test protocol, and two sample cover letters sent with the study monograph to academic institutions and public or state libraries. (ESR) A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THREE TYPES OF PUBLIC LIBRARY STORY HOUR PROGRAMS IN IMPROVING THE RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE OF CHILDREN THREE, FOUR, AND FIVE YEARS OF AGE by Frances A. Smardo North Texas State University NIE Grant #G81-U013 Final Report July 1982 I. SUMMARY OF OVERALL PROGRESS, WITH RESULTS, AS COMPARED TO THE ESTABLISHED GOALS The storyhour programs which began September 11, 1981, were completed on April 6, 1982. Children in the "live", the video, and the 16mm film storyhours received twenty-four weekly storyhour experiences and were each exposed to the same stories. (See Appendix A for a list of the films and stories used in storyhours). Children in the control group received no storyhour treatment. The Test of Basic Experiences, (TOBE), 2, Revised, Language, Level K, Kindergarten/Prekindergarten, published by CTB/McGraw Hill was administered as a post-test to all children between April 13 and 26. The third and final story protocol test was administered to a representative sample of the children on April 7 and 8. Data from both test instruments were scored and analyzed; findings and conclusions were stated; and implications drawn. A description of the final sample size, the post-testing, the analysis of data, the findings, conclusions, and discussion, implications, and recommendation for further research follows. In addition, this report describes dissemination aspects and other pertinent information. SAMPLE: The final sample contained 327 children. This number represents a loss of 110 children, (or 25 percent), from the 437 children who were in the original sample, who were pretested and who were attending storyhours in September, 1981. Of these 110 children, 50 subjects (or 12 percent of 437) "dropped" from the center, while 60 subjects accumulated at least five absences from storyhour sessions which eliminated them from inclusion in the statistical analysis. In regard to daycare center affiliation, of the 327 subjects who completed the study, 129 were from Happiness House; 49 were from Children's Place; 50 were from Oak Cliff Head Start; and 99 were from Sunny View Head Start. The final sample contained 99 children who were between the ages of 36 and 47 months; 141 children who were between the ages of 48 and 57 months; and 86 children who were between the ages of 58 and 71 months, as of September 1, 1981. As mentioned in the First Quarterly Report of November, 1981, at the time of assignment of subjects into treatment groups, it was learned that Head Start centers technically enroll no five-year old children. Therefore, age is reported in terms of age in months as noted above. See Table I, which follows, for a comparison of the sample distribution at the beginning of the study (at pretesting in September) and at the completion of the study (at post-testing in April) by daycare center affiliation and age level in months. The final sample contained 75 subjects in the "live" treatment group; 89 in the video group, 82 in the film group; and 81 in the control group. See Table II which follows, for a description of the final sample distribution in April, 1982 by age level in months and treatment group. As stated in the First Quarterly Report of November, 1981, the proposed goal had been to obtain a sample size of 480 children. However, this goal was deficient by 43 children (or 9 percent). Therefore, taking into account this initial shortage plus the actual "loss", a total of 153 subjects (or 32 percent) were lost. However, this percentage falls within the estimated amount noted in the addendum to the proposal -- i.e. a 40 percent loss rate. Table I COMPARISON OF SAMPLE BY CENTER AND AGE LEVEL -- IN SEPTEMBER, 1981 AND IN APRIL, 1982 | Centers | 36-47 Months | 48-57 Months | 58-71 Months | Totals | |---------|--------------|--------------|--------------|--------| | | SEPT. | APR. | SEPT. | APR. | SEPT. | APR. | SEPT. | APR. | | Hap. H. | 57 | 46 | 64 | 51 | 40 | 32 | 161 | 129 | | Ch. P. | 29 | 18 | 26 | 17 | 21 | 14 | 76 | 49 | | HS OC | 20 | 14 | 42 | 24 | 18 | 12 | 80 | 50 | | HS SV | 28 | 23 | 66 | 58 | 26 | 18 | 120 | 99 | | TOTALS | 134 | 100 | 198 | 141 | 105 | 86 | 437 | 327 | Table II DESCRIPTION OF FINAL SAMPLE DISTRIBUTION IN APRIL, 1982 BY AGE LEVEL AND TREATMENT GROUP | TREATMENT | 36-47 Months | 48-57 Months | 58-71 Months | Totals | |-----------|--------------|--------------|--------------|--------| | LIVE | 26 | 29 | 20 | 75 | | VIDEO | 29 | 33 | 27 | 89 | | FILM | 25 | 38 | 19 | 82 | | CONTROL | 20 | 41 | 20 | 81 | | TOTALS | 100 | 141 | 86 | 327 | POST TEST: TOBE: All 327 children were post-tested on the Test of Basic Experiences (TOBE), 2, Revised, Level K, Prekindergarten and Kindergarten, Language Section. Testing began April 13 and continued through April 26. The same procedures were employed in the post-testing as had been employed in the pretesting. That is, children were tested in the mornings at the four daycare sites; three-year olds were tested individually by the Principal Investigator and four- and five-year olds were tested in groups of four by a preschool teacher hired as a part-time temporary for this purpose. See prior Tables I and II for a description of the final sample distribution by age level in months, treatment group, and daycare center affiliation, post-tested on the TOBE. POST TESTING: PROTOCOL: In accordance with the revisions which NIE recommended, and the subsequent addendum, the reading consultant for this project, Dr. Diane Schallert, and three of her assistants administered the third and final protocol testing on April 7 and 8. The third protocol test was conducted in the same manner, at the same time of day, at the same two Dallas Public Library community library sites, and, for the most part, by the same testers as were the first and second protocol tests. That is, the final protocol test was given in the morning by four testers, three of whom had also tested the children in September and in January. Each tester worked individually with a child for approximately ten minutes, asking comprehension questions, based on the story protocol, first without and then with picture cues as "prompts", and tape recorded children's responses. As was the case in the two prior protocol administrations, the Principal Investigator selected a ten-minute story to be used as the protocol, and then told this story to children in groups of twelve children per group. While children waited to be individually tested, they played with puzzles in the library. The storybook selected for the post-test protocol was Petunia's Treasure, written and illustrated by Roger Duvoisin. After revising the text, this story was equivalent to the two other protocol stories in regard to length, complexity of vocabulary, reading level, plot, theme, structure, number of characters and incidents, and degree of unfamiliarity to most of the subjects. See Appendix B for a list of the third protocol questions. The original goal had been to administer the protocol test to 96 children, eight children per each of the three age levels (three-, four-, and five-year olds) per each of the four treatment groups. Both Head Start, located in the lowest socioeconomic area, and Children's Place, located in the highest socioeconomic area, were to be equally represented in terms of numbers of children who were administered the protocol. However, the third protocol was administered to 80 children. Of these 80 subjects, 43 were from Head Start and 37 were from Children's Place. The "live", the video, and the film groups each had 21 children represented. in the third protocol, while 17 were from the control group. See Table III, which follows, for a description of the sample distribution by age level in months, treatment group, and daycare center affiliation, tested in the third protocol. Table III DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE DISTRIBUTION BY AGE LEVEL IN MONTHS, TREATMENT GROUP, AND DAYCARE CENTER FOR THIRD PROTOCOL | TRMT. | 36-47 MONTHS | 48-57 MONTHS | 58-71 MONTHS | SUBTOTALS | TOTALS | |-------|--------------|--------------|--------------|-----------|--------| | LIVE | HDST. | CH'S.P. | HDST. | CH'S.P. | HDST. | CH'S.P. | 21 | | | 4 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 9 | 21 | | VIDEO | | | | | | | | | | | 3 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 10 | 11 | 21 | | FILM | | | | | | | | | | | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 9 | 12 | 21 | | CONTROL | | | | | | | | | | | 4 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 0 | 12 | 5 | 17 | | TOTALS| | | | | | | | | | | 14 | 14 | 14 | 11 | 11 | 12 | 43 | 37 | 80 | Due to the fact that subjects "dropped" from daycare centers, were absent at storyhours more than three times between either the first and second or second and third protocol administrations, or were absent on the actual testing dates of any of the three protocols, comparable protocol score data for all three protocols were unavailable for 38 of the 96 subjects. There were 58 children who took the protocol pretest in September, the interim protocol test in January, and the final protocol test in April. For these 58 children, three comparative protocol test scores could be analyzed. Protocol scores for the interim protocol and either the pre or the post protocol test were available for analysis for another 23 subjects. Therefore, comparison of protocol scores representing receptive language skill acquisition after 12 storyhours presented over half the duration of the experimental treatment (i.e., 3 months) could be made for 81 subjects (58 + 23). Comparison of protocol scores representing receptive language acquisition after 24 storyhours presented over the full duration of the experimental treatment could be made for 58 subjects. See Table IV, which follows, for a description of the protocol sample by treatment group and age level in months tested on all three protocols or the interim and either the pre or the post protocol. As indicated in Table IV, scores are available from the September and the April protocol test for 16 subjects in the "live" group; 18 subjects in the video group; 14 subjects in the film group; and 10 subjects in the control group. | TRMT. | 36-47 MONTHS | 48-57 MONTHS | 58-71 MONTHS | TOTALS | |-------|--------------|--------------|--------------|--------| | | ALL 3 PROT. | INT & PRE OR POST | ALL 3 PROT. | INT & PRE OR POST | ALL 3 PROT. | INT & PRE OR POST | | LIVE | 6 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 7 | 1 | 16 | 4 | | VIDEO | 6 | 1 | 6 | 2 | 6 | 1 | 18 | 4 | | FILM | 5 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 7 | 1 | 14 | 8 | | CONTROL | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 10 | 7 | | TOTALS | 20 | 8 | 14 | 12 | 24 | 3 | 58 | 23 | ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS: TOBE SCORES: HYPOTHESIS #1: The primary purpose of this research was to determine the most effective of the three types of public library storyhour programs upon the acquisition of receptive language of children. Hypothesis #1 was related to this purpose. It stated that there would be a significant difference in the adjusted post-test TOBE mean scores as follows: a. Group A ("Live" Group) will be greater than Group B (Video Group) b. Group A ("Live" Group) will be greater than Group C (Film Group) c. Group A ("Live" Group) will be greater than Group D (Control Group) d. Group B (Video Group) will be greater than Group C (Film Group) e. Group B (Video Group) will be greater than Group D (Control Group) f. Group C (Film Group) will be greater than Group D (Control Group). To test for Hypothesis #1—significant differences among the four treatment groups, a one-way analysis of covariance was conducted on the TOBE scores using the SPSS ANOVA procedure (Hull and Nie, 1981; Nie, et al., 1975). The two covariates were the pretest TOBE and age in months as a continuous variable. The criterion variable was the TOBE post-test (Borg and Gall, 1979; Campbell and Stanley, 1963; Huck, Cormier and Bounds, 1974; Roscoe, 1975). Data for all three hundred twenty-seven subjects were included in these analyses. Prior to these analyses, a test for homogeneity of regression coefficients was conducted which indicated that the assumption of equal regression slopes was tenable (p = .790). No interaction occurred between the two covariates and the independent variable. Data relative to Hypothesis #1 are found in Tables V, VI, and VII. TABLE V MEANS BY TREATMENT GROUP FOR PRETEST TOBE AND AGE AS A CONTINUOUS VARIABLE AS COVARIATES AND POST-TEST AS A CRITERION VARIABLE | TREATMENT | N | PRETEST TOBE MEAN | SD | AGE IN MOS. MEAN | SD | POST-TEST TOBE MEAN | SD | ADJ. MEAN | |-----------|-----|-------------------|----|------------------|----|---------------------|----|-----------| | LIVE | 75 | 13.09 | 4.97 | 50.71 | 8.62 | 19.16 | 4.71 | 19.63 | | VIDEO | 89 | 14.08 | 5.42 | 52.00 | 9.23 | 18.72 | 5.37 | 18.55 | | FILM | 82 | 13.82 | 4.98 | 51.01 | 8.60 | 19.44 | 4.17 | 19.49 | | CONTROL | 81 | 14.36 | 5.95 | 52.52 | 8.81 | 18.64 | 5.07 | 18.29 | ### Table VI **Summary Table for One-Way Analysis of Covariance with Two Covariates (Pretest TOBE and Age in Months as a Continuous Variable)** | Source of Variation | SS | DF | MS | F | Level | |---------------------|--------|------|-------|-------|--------| | Between (TRMT.) | 107.40 | 3 | 35.80 | 2.95 | .033* | | Within | 3900.65| 321 | 12.15 | --- | --- | | Total | 7680.61| 326 | 23.56 | --- | --- | *p < .04 ### Table VII **Multiple Comparison Using Single Degree of Freedom F-Test of Post-Test Adjusted Means for the Four Treatment Groups** | TRMT. | ADJ. MEANS | CONTROL | VIDEO | FILM | LIVE | |-------|------------|---------|-------|------|------| | | | 18.29 | 18.55 | 19.49| 19.63| | CONTROL| 18.29 | --- | 3.07 | 4.77**| 5.76***| | VIDEO | 18.55 | --- | --- | .23 | 3.94* | | FILM | 19.49 | --- | --- | --- | .07 | | LIVE | 19.63 | --- | --- | --- | --- | *p < .05 **p < .04 ***p < .02 df = (1, 321) Significant differences were found in the one-way analysis of covariance in the adjusted post-test TOBE mean scores among treatment groups (df = 3, 321; F = 2.95; p < .04). Specific multiple comparisons using "simple" contrasts, or protected t-tests between treatment groups were conducted to determine where the group differences were. Results indicated that significant differences existed between the control group and the "live" group (df = 1,321; F = 5.96; p < .02); between the control group and the film group (df = 1,321; F = 4.77; p < .04); and between the video group and the "live" group (df = 1,321; F = 3.94; p < .05). The adjusted post-test TOBE mean for the "live" group was 19.63; for the film group 19.49; for the video group 18.55; and for the control group 18.29. Both the "live" and the film storyhour methods were significantly more effective than the control, and the "live" storyhour method was significantly more effective than the video storyhour method in the acquisition of receptive language skills, as measured by the TOBE, when initial differences among treatment groups in pretest TOBE scores and in age in months were controlled. Therefore, storyhours methods, in order of effectiveness, in receptive language acquisition from highest to lowest, were: "live", film, video, and control, as measured by the TOBE data. In regard to Hypothesis #1, then, the following were found to be true. There were significant differences in the adjusted post-test TOBE mean scores such that: Group A ("Live" Group) was greater than Group B (Video Group); Group A ("Live" Group) was greater than Group D (Control Group); and Group C (Film Group) was greater than Group D (Control Group). Hypothesis #2: A secondary purpose of this research was to determine the most effective of the three types of public library storyhour programs upon the acquisition of receptive language of three-year old children; of four-year old children; and of five-year old children. Hypothesis #2 was related to this purpose. It stated that significant differences in the adjusted post-test TOBE mean scores would hold for three-year old children, for four-year old children, and for five-year old children. No analysis was made to determine this hypothesis, since age in months as a continuous variable was used as a covariate in the one-way analysis of covariance to test differences between storyhour treatment groups. Age in months was used as a covariate variable rather than as a classification variable because it was necessary to equate groups according to age, since no children from Head Start centers were technically five years of age. Yet children from Children's Place and Happiness House were five years of age. The fact that some Head Start children were younger would have probably placed them at a comparative disadvantage in terms of lower test scores, had not age in months been used as a covariate. Hypothesis #3: Another secondary purpose of this research was to determine if receptive language skills would change for three-year olds, four-year olds, and five-year olds over the period of the study. Hypothesis #3 was related to this purpose. It stated that the post-test TOBE mean scores would be significantly greater than the pretest TOBE mean scores for three-year olds, four-year olds, and five-year olds. To test for Hypothesis #3, differences between TOBE means were analyzed by using t-tests for correlated samples. Data for all three hundred twenty-seven subjects were included in these analyses. Data relative to Hypothesis #3 are found in Table VIII. **TABLE VIII** T-TEST FOR PRE AND POST TOBE FOR THREE AGE LEVELS IN YEARS | AGE | N | PRE TOBE MEAN | S.D. | POST TOBE MEAN | S.D. | t | LEVEL | |-----|----|---------------|------|----------------|------|-----|-------| | 3 YR.| 100| 10.98 | 4.15 | 16.76 | 4.16 | 17.38 | .001* | | 4 YR.| 183| 13.73 | 4.61 | 18.90 | 4.75 | 15.67 | .001* | | 5 YR.| 44 | 20.91 | 4.11 | 24.41 | 1.34 | 6.51 | .001* | *p < .01 Results indicated that post-test TOBE means were significantly greater than pretest TOBE means for three-year olds (df = 99; t = 17.38); for four-year olds (df = 182; t = 15.67); and for five-year olds (df = 43; t = 6.51). The level of significance was .01. Receptive language, as measured by the TOBE, significantly improved for three-year old, for four-year old, and for five-year old children over the period of the study. Three-year olds experienced a mean gain on the TOBE of 5.78 points; four-year olds experienced a mean gain of 5.17 points; five-year olds experienced a mean gain of 3.50 points. In regard to Hypothesis #3, the post-test TOBE mean scores were significantly greater than the pretest TOBE mean scores for three-year olds, for four-year olds, and for five-year olds. **Hypothesis #4:** Another main purpose of this research was to determine if there was a difference in the receptive language of children three, four and five years of age who attended public library storyhour programs as compared to children the same age who did not attend storyhour programs. Hypothesis #4 was related to this purpose. It stated that the adjusted post-test TOBE mean scores of children in the experimental groups as a whole will be significantly greater than the adjusted post-test TOBE mean scores for children in the control group, and that this difference would hold for children ages three, four and five. To test for Hypothesis #4, a complex multiple comparison was conducted using the SPSS ANOVA procedure with "difference" contrasts. Data for all three hundred twenty-seven subjects were included in this analysis. Means relative to Hypothesis #4 are found in Table V. Results indicated that the adjusted post-test TOBE mean scores for an equally weighted combination of the three experimental groups were significantly greater than the adjusted post-test TOBE mean scores for the control group (df = 1,321; F = 4.34; p < .04). Therefore, in regard to Hypothesis #4, there was a significant difference in the receptive language of children, as measured by the TOBE, who attended storyhour treatment as a whole, as compared to children the same age who did not attend storyhours, when initial differences among treatment groups in pretest TOBE scores and in age in months were controlled. Since age in months was used as a covariate, no qualifying statement can be made in regard to whether this finding holds for three-, four-, and five-year old children, as originally stated in the hypothesis. Hypothesis #5: Hypothesis #5 stated that there will be no significant difference in mean gain scores on the TOBE between Head Start (lower socioeconomic level) and non-Head Start (higher socioeconomic level) children who are three and four years of age in the "live," the video, the film, and the control group. Testing for Hypothesis #5 involved conducting t-tests for independent samples in order to compare the TOBE mean gain scores for each of the four treatment groups for the combined total of three- and four-year old children in Head Start centers (lower socioeconomic level) with the TOBE mean gain scores for each of the four treatment groups for the combined total of three- and four-year old children in non-Head Start centers (higher socioeconomic level). As mentioned previously, no children from Head Start centers were technically five years of age as of September 1, 1981. For this reason, five-year old children were not included in these particular analyses. Data for two hundred eighty-eight subjects were included in these analyses. Data relative to Hypothesis #5 are found in Tables IX, X, and XI. TABLE IX PRE AND POST TOBE MEANS FOR FOUR TREATMENT GROUPS FOR THREE- AND FOUR-YEAR OLD CHILDREN IN HEAD START CENTERS (LOWER SOCIOECONOMIC LEVEL) | TREATMENT GROUP | N | PRE TOBE MEAN | S.D. | POST TOBE MEAN | S.D. | |-----------------|-----|---------------|------|----------------|------| | LIVE | 36 | 10.33 | 3.54 | 16.54 | 4.72 | | VIDEO | 43 | 10.81 | 3.86 | 15.56 | 4.91 | | FILM | 35 | 11.54 | 3.60 | 16.57 | 3.55 | | CONTROL | 35 | 11.83 | 4.13 | 15.00 | 3.84 | TABLE X PRE AND POST TOBE MEANS FOR FOUR TREATMENT GROUPS FOR THREE- AND FOUR-YEAR OLD CHILDREN IN NON-HEAD START CENTERS (HIGHER SOCIOECONOMIC LEVEL) | TREATMENT GROUP | N | PRE TOBE MEAN | S.D. | POST TOBE MEAN | S.D. | |-----------------|----|---------------|------|---------------|------| | LIVE | 30 | 14.33 | 4.47 | 20.83 | 3.28 | | VIDEO | 33 | 15.55 | 4.28 | 20.45 | 3.94 | | FILM | 37 | 14.78 | 5.00 | 20.95 | 3.28 | | CONTROL | 34 | 13.71 | 5.35 | 20.26 | 4.06 | TABLE XI T-TEST FOR MEAN GAIN ON THE TOBE FOR THREE- AND FOUR-YEAR OLD HEAD START (LOWER SOCIOECONOMIC LEVEL) AND NON-HEAD START (HIGHER SOCIOECONOMIC LEVEL) CHILDREN IN THE FOUR TREATMENT GROUPS | TREATMENT | HEAD START (LSEL) | NON-HEAD START (HSEL) | LEVEL | |-----------|-------------------|-----------------------|-------| | | N | MEAN GAIN | S.D. | N | MEAN GAIN | S.D. | t | | | LIVE | 36 | 6.22 | 3.68 | 30 | 6.50 | 3.90 | .30 | .77 | | VIDEO | 43 | 4.77 | 4.94 | 33 | 4.91 | 3.57 | .16 | .87 | | FILM | 35 | 5.03 | 3.92 | 37 | 6.16 | 3.73 | 1.26| .21 | | CONTROL | 35 | 3.17 | 4.20 | 34 | 6.56 | 3.61 | 3.59| .001* | *p < .01 Results indicated no significant differences in mean gain scores on the TOBE between Head Start children (lower socioeconomic level) and non-Head Start children (higher socioeconomic level) who were three and four years of age, in the "live" group (df = 64; t = .30; p = .77); in the video group (df = 74; t = .16; p = .87); and in the film group (df = 70; t = 1.26; p = .21). There was no significant difference in mean gain in receptive language acquisition, as measured by the TOBE between Head Start children (lower socioeconomic level) three and four years of age who attended storyhours and non-Head Start children (higher socioeconomic level) the same age who attended storyhours. Head Start and non-Head Start children who were three and four years of age in the "live", video, and the film groups improved equally in their respective groups. Results also indicated a significant difference in the mean gain scores on the TOBE between Head Start children (lower socioeconomic level) who were three and four years of age in the control group and non-Head Start children (higher socioeconomic level) who were three and four years of age in the control group \((df = 67; t = 3.59; p < .001)\). The level of significance was .01. The mean gain on the TOBE for three- and four-year old Head Start children in the control group was 3.17; while the mean gain on the TOBE for three- and four-year old non-Head Start children in the control group was 6.56. Mean gain in receptive language acquisition, as measured by the TOBE, was significantly greater for three- and four-year old non-Head Start children (higher socioeconomic level) in the control group than for Head Start children (lower socioeconomic level) the same age in the control group. Non-Head Start children three and four years of age who did not attend storyhours achieved significantly greater mean gains in receptive language as measured by the TOBE than did Head Start children the same age who did not attend storyhours. In regard to Hypothesis #5, there was no significant difference in the mean gain scores on the TOBE between Head Start (lower socioeconomic level) and non-Head Start (higher socioeconomic level) children who were three and four years of age in the "live" group (Group A); in the video group (Group B); and in the film group (Group C). **ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS: PROTOCOL SCORES:** **Hypothesis #1:** One-way analysis of covariance was also conducted on the protocol data to test Hypothesis #1, in order to determine the most effective of the three types of public library storyhour programs upon the acquisition of receptive language of children. The SPSS ANOVA procedure was used. The two covariates were the protocol pretest and age in months as a continuous variable. The criterion variable was the protocol post-test. Data for fifty-eight subjects were included in these analyses. As previously mentioned, protocol scores were expressed in terms of proportions. Prior to this analysis, a test for homogeneity of regression coefficients was conducted, which indicated that the assumption of equal regression slopes was tenable \((p = .109)\). Therefore, no interaction occurred between the two covariates and the independent variable. Data relative to Hypothesis #1 are found in Tables XII and XIII. TABLE XII MEANS (EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF PROPORTIONS) BY TREATMENT GROUP FOR PRETEST PROTOCOL AND AGE IN MONTHS AS A CONTINUOUS VARIABLE AS COVARIATES AND POST-TEST PROTOCOL AS A CRITERION VARIABLE | TRTMT. | N | MEAN | S.D. | MEAN | S.D. | OBS. MEAN | S.D. | ADJ. MEAN | |--------|----|------|------|------|------|-----------|------|-----------| | LIVE | 16 | .46 | .30 | 52.06| 11.32| .50 | .26 | .49 | | VIDEO | 18 | .45 | .28 | 53.50| 8.40 | .58 | .26 | .57 | | FILM | 14 | .47 | .32 | 53.79| 11.36| .57 | .29 | .55 | | CONTROL| 10 | .44 | .22 | 52.30| 8.53 | .50 | .18 | .55 | TABLE XIII SUMMARY TABLE FOR ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE WITH TWO COVARIATES (PRETEST PROTOCOL AND AGE IN MONTHS AS A CONTINUOUS VARIABLE) | SOURCE OF VARIATION | SS | DF | MS | F | LEVEL | |---------------------|-----|----|-----|------|-------| | BETWEEN (TRTMT.) | .06 | 3 | .02 | 1.02 | .138 | | WITHIN | .49 | 52 | .01 | --- | --- | | TOTAL | 3.64| 57 | .06 | --- | --- | No significant differences were found in the adjusted post-test protocol means among treatment groups (df = 3, 52; F = 1.02; p = .138). Therefore, on the basis of the protocol data, in regard to Hypothesis #1, no particular method of storyhour was more effective than another upon the acquisition of receptive language of children, when initial differences among treatment groups in the pretest protocol scores and in age in months were controlled. Hypothesis #2: Hypothesis #2, regarding the most effective of the three types of public library storyhour programs upon the acquisition of receptive language of three-year old, four-year old, and five-year old children was not tested using protocol data, due to the fact that age in months was used as a covariate rather than as a classification variable in testing for Hypothesis #1. As stated previously, age in months was used as a covariate rather than as a classification variable because it was necessary to equate groups according to age, since none of the children from Head Start centers were technically five years of age. Hypothesis #3: Hypothesis #3 stated that the post-test protocol mean scores would be significantly greater than the pretest protocol mean scores for three-year olds, four-year olds, and five-year olds. In order to determine if receptive language skills changed for three-year olds, four-year olds, and five-year olds over the period of the study, in terms of protocol data, significant differences between the pretest protocol means and the post-test protocol means were analyzed by using t-tests for correlated samples. Data for all fifty-eight protocol subjects were included in these analyses. Data relative to Hypothesis #3 are found in Table XIV. TABLE XIV T-TEST FOR PRE AND POST PROTOCOL (EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF PROPORTION SCORES) FOR THREE AGE LEVELS IN YEARS | AGE | N | PRETEST | | POST TEST | | LEVEL | |-----|----|---------|----------|-----------|----------|-------| | | | MEAN | S.D. | MEAN | S.D. | | | 3 YR.| 20 | .22 | .18 | .33 | .18 | 4.88 | .001* | | 4 YR.| 28 | .49 | .24 | .59 | .19 | 3.65 | .001* | | 5 YR.| 10 | .80 | .10 | .86 | .05 | 3.02 | .014* | *p < .02 Results indicated that protocol post-test means were significantly greater than protocol pretest means for three-year olds (df = 19; t = 4.88); for four-year olds (df = 27; t = 3.65); and for five-year olds (df = 10; t = 3.02). The level of significance was .02. Receptive language, as measured by the protocol, significantly improved for three-year old, four-year old, and five-year old children over the period of the study. Three-year olds experienced a mean gain of .11 on the protocol; four-year olds experienced a mean gain of .10; and five-year olds experienced a mean gain of .06. In regard to Hypothesis #3, the post-test protocol mean was significantly greater than the pretest protocol mean for three-year olds, for four-year olds, and for five-year olds. Hypothesis #4: Hypothesis #4 stated that the adjusted post-test protocol mean scores of children in the experimental group as a whole would be significantly greater than the adjusted post-test mean scores for children in the control group, and that this difference would hold for children ages three, four, and five. This hypothesis was not tested using protocol data, since it would involve a specific multiple comparison follow-up test between the adjusted post-test protocol mean scores of children in the control group and the adjusted post-test protocol mean scores of an equally weighted combination of children in the three experimental groups. as a whole, and in testing protocol data for Hypothesis #1, no significant differences were found in the adjusted post-test protocol means among the four treatment groups. Since no significant difference was found for the main effect of treatment group in regard to protocol data, follow-up comparisons between specific groups were not made. Hypothesis #5: Hypothesis #5 pertained only to TOBE data. Hypothesis #6 Hypothesis #6 stated that there would be no significant difference in the protocol mean scores between three- and four-year old Head Start (lower socioeconomic level) and non Head Start (higher socioeconomic level) children, regardless of treatment group. The purpose which related to this hypothesis was to determine if three- and four-year old children from varying socioeconomic levels performed equally in terms of receptive language acquisition, regardless of treatment group. To determine this, according to protocol data, a three-way analysis of variance \((4 \times 2 \times 3)\) (treatment group by center or socioeconomic level by test) with repeated measures on the last dimension, was conducted on the protocol data. The "unweighted means solution" for unequal cell frequencies was used. This analysis was made to determine if there were significant differences in protocol means before prompting for each of these three independent variables: (1). treatment group (Since the one-way analysis of covariance procedure previously conducted had already determined that no significant differences existed among treatment groups, this present three-way analysis of variance was conducted to verify this initial finding); (2). center or socioeconomic level (As has been previously defined, Children's Place was considered to be of a higher socioeconomic level, while Head Start was considered to be of a lower socioeconomic level. Also, as stated earlier, Happiness House Center did not participate in the protocol testing.); and, (3). test (As described previously the protocol test was administered three times - i.e. - as a pretest, as an interim test, and as a post-test, whereas the TOBE test was administered only as a pretest and as a post-test). In order to include the interim protocol test in the analysis of data, the three-way analysis of variance with repeated measures on the dimension of test, was conducted. Data for thirty-three protocol subjects--i.e., three- and four-year olds only, were included in these analyses. Data relative to these analyses are found in Tables XV, XVI, and XVII. A significant main effect was found for the second factor of center or socioeconomic level \((df = 1,25; F = 9.29; p < .01)\). Subjects in Children's Place (higher socioeconomic level) obtained an unweighted mean score of .41, while subjects in Head Start (lower socioeconomic level) obtained an unweighted mean score of .20. Therefore, in regard to Hypothesis #6, three- and four-year old children in the higher socioeconomic level (Children's Place Center) performed significantly better in receptive language, as measured by the protocol test, than did subjects in the lower socioeconomic level (Head Start Center) who were the same age. This finding held regardless of test or treatment group, as indicated by the lack of significant interaction between center (socioeconomic level) and test, and between center (socioeconomic level) and treatment group, respectively. No significant main effect was found for the first factor of treatment group \((df = 3,25; F = .62; p = .609)\). A significant main effect was found for the third factor of test \((df = 2,50; F = 53.45; p < .01)\). The overall unweighted mean for the protocol pretest was .20; for the protocol interim test was .32; and for the protocol post-test was .41. No interaction occurred between the test and treatment group, or between center (socioeconomic level), test, and treatment group. **TABLE XV** MEANS (EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF PROPORTIONS) AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THREE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR TREATMENT GROUPS, CENTERS (OR SOCIOECONOMIC LEVEL) AND TEST, FOR THREE- AND FOUR-YEAR OLD CHILDREN ON THE PROTOCOL TEST | TRMT. LIVE | CIR. C.P. (HSEL) N = 4 | MEAN | .27 | .43 | .41 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | S.D. | .24 | .30 | .25 | | | H.S. (LSEL) N = 5 | MEAN | .21 | .30 | .33 | | | S.D. | .26 | .29 | .21 | | VIDEO | C.P. (HSEL) N = 6 | MEAN | .43 | .61 | .65 | | | S.D. | .31 | .18 | .17 | | | H.S. (LSEL) N = 6 | MEAN | .05 | .14 | .33 | | | S.D. | .05 | .13 | .20 | | FILM | C.P. (HSEL) N = 2 | MEAN | .11 | .27 | .49 | | | S.D. | .03 | .11 | .27 | | | H.S. (LSEL) N = 4 | MEAN | .10 | .16 | .27 | | | S.D. | .07 | .14 | .13 | | CONTROL | C.P. (HSEL) N = 4 | MEAN | .30 | .42 | .55 | | | S.D. | .21 | .20 | .18 | | | H.S. (LSEL) N = 2 | MEAN | .03 | .17 | .27 | | | S.D. | .04 | .09 | .12 | | OVERALL TEST UNW. MEAN | .20 | .32 | .41 | | OVERALL TEST S.D. | .23 | .25 | .22 | ### TABLE XVI **SUMMARY TABLE FOR THREE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE BY TREATMENT GROUP, CENTER (OR SOCIOECONOMIC LEVEL), AND PROTOCOL TEST (WITH TEST AS THE REPEATED MEASURE) FOR THREE- AND FOUR-YEAR OLD CHILDREN** | SOURCE OF VARIATION | SS | DF | MS | F | LEVEL | |--------------------------------------|------|-----|------|-------|-------| | BETWEEN SUBJECTS | 4.72 | 32 | -- | -- | -- | | TREATMENT GROUP | .20 | 3 | .07 | .62 | .609 | | CENTER (SEL) | .99 | 1 | .99 | 9.29 | .005* | | TRT. GRP. X CIR. (SEL) | .31 | 3 | .10 | .98 | .418 | | ERROR BETWEEN | 2.66 | 25 | .11 | -- | -- | | WITHIN SUBJECTS | 1.25 | 66 | -- | -- | -- | | TEST | .73 | 2 | .36 | 53.45 | .001* | | TRT. GRP. X TEST | .06 | 6 | .01 | 1.54 | .184 | | CENTER (SEL) X TEST | .01 | 2 | .01 | .96 | .391 | | TRT. X CIR. (SEL) X TEST | .05 | 6 | .01 | 1.20 | .323 | | ERROR WITHIN | .34 | 50 | .01 | -- | -- | *p < .01 ### TABLE XVII **COMBINED UNWEIGHTED MEANS (EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF PROPORTIONS) AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THREE PROTOCOL TESTS FOR HEAD START (LSEL) AND CHILDREN'S PLACE (HSEL) CENTERS FOR FOUR TREATMENT GROUPS FOR THREE- AND FOUR-YEAR OLD CHILDREN** | TREATMENT GROUP | CHILDREN'S PLACE (HSEL) | HEAD START (LSEL) | |-----------------|-------------------------|-------------------| | | N | UNW. MEAN | S.D. | N | UNW. MEAN | S.D. | | LIVE | 4 | .37 | .25 | 5 | .28 | .24 | | VIDEO | 6 | .56 | .24 | 6 | .17 | .18 | | FILM | 2 | .29 | .18 | 4 | .18 | .13 | | CONTROL | 4 | .42 | .21 | 2 | .16 | .13 | | | 16| | | 17| | | | OVERALL CENTER | | .41 | | | .20 | | | OVERALL CENTER | | | .22 | | | .17 | References Borg, Walter R. and Gall, M.D. *Educational Research: An Introduction*. Third Edition, New York: Longman, 1979. Campbell, David, and Stanley, J. *Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs For Research*. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1963. Huck, Schuyler W; Cormier, William H; and Bounds, William G., Jr. *Reading Statistics and Research*. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1974. Hull, C.H. and Nie, N. H. SPSS (Statistical Package For the Social Sciences) Update 7-9; *New Procedures and Facilities for Releases 7-9*. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1981. Nie, N. H.; Hull, C. H.; Jenkins, J.G.; Steinbrenner, Karin; and Bent, D.B. *SPSS: Statistical Package For the Social Sciences*. Second Edition, New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1975. Roscoe, John. T. *Fundamental Research Statistics For the Behavioral Sciences*. Second Edition, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975. Conclusions: A summarization of the findings, in regard to receptive language acquisition, from both the protocol and the TOBE data is as follows: 1. "Live" and film public library storyhours are the most effective methods as measured by the TOBE, with "live" storyhours more effective than film storyhours. 2. Both "live" and film storyhours are significantly more effective than no storyhours, as measured by the TOBE. 3. Any type of storyhour is more effective than no storyhour, as measured by the TOBE. 4. "Live" storyhours are significantly more effective than video storyhours, as measured by the TOBE. 5. Video storyhours are not significantly more effective than no storyhour experience, as measured by the TOBE. 6. Protocol data were not sensitive to any differences between storyhour treatment groups. 7. Children of all age levels significantly improved over the period of the study, as measured by both the TOBE and the protocol data, with younger children attaining a greater mean gain than older children. 8. The performance of three- and four-year old non-Head Start (higher socioeconomic level) children on the protocol was significantly better than the performance of Head Start children (lower socioeconomic level) who were the same age. This finding held regardless of treatment group. 9. Both Head Start (lower socioeconomic level) and non-Head Start (higher socioeconomic level) children three and four years of age, in each of the three experimental treatment groups, improved equally on the TOBE. 10. Non-Head Start (higher socioeconomic level) three- and four-year old children in the control group achieved a significantly greater gain on the TOBE than Head Start (lower socioeconomic level) children in the control group who were the same age. Discussion: Storyhour Methods: Hypothesis #1 stated that storyhours would rank in this order from highest to lowest, in terms of effectiveness upon the acquisition of children's receptive language: "live", video, film, and control. This hypothesis had included that video storyhours would rank second in effectiveness and would be significantly more effective than film storyhours, or than no storyhours (control group) in the acquisition of children's receptive language. However, on the basis of the one-way analysis of covariance of the TOBE data, storyhours ranked in this order of effectiveness, from highest to lowest: "live", film, video, and control. In other words, video storyhours (not film storyhours) ranked third. Moreover the TOBE analysis resulted in finding no significant difference between the video group and the control group. At least part of the reason for this finding (i.e., that film storyhours rather than video storyhours ranked third), and consequently hypothesized comparisons between groups involving those two types of storyhours were found to be untenable, may be due to the fact that children in the film storyhours had the advantage of viewing a larger image than did the video group. The films were "blown up" on a sizeable portion of a wall or screen, whereas the video group saw a small image on a 21" television screen. Another reason for the discrepancy between the first hypothesis and the findings based on the TOBE data may be that the video group had the disadvantage of viewing a videotape produced with only one camera. This meant children in the video group usually saw either a close-up of the storyteller telling a story or a close-up of the book illustrations, but not both storyteller and book illustrations simultaneously. Also, the "live" audience was seen on the television screen by the video group only between stories when finger plays or similar "stretching" activities were done: If the video storyhour had been "enhanced" by producing it with two cameras simultaneously and then the videotape was shown on a large video screen (blown up), the videotaped storyhour method might have been found to be equally effective with the film method in terms of acquisition of children's receptive language. However, neither of these two "improvements" were made in this study, since the purpose was to make the video storyhour as closely as possible resemble what children would see on cable television if they viewed storyhours from their homes or from a daycare center. Still another contributing factor toward the increased effectiveness of the film storyhour in comparison to the video storyhour, according to the TOBE data, may be related to this fact observed by the Principal Investigator (storyteller). That is, children from Head Start centers (primarily Black) seemed to particularly enjoy the film storyhours, especially when they included background music in the soundtrack. Not only did Head Start children almost always clap after each film each week, but they also spontaneously moved their torso, sang, or clapped in seemingly perfect rhythm to the musical beat when music was included during or after the actual story on film. Since "live" storyhours did not include music, naturally the videotaped storyhours (produced during the "live" ones) did not include music either. At any rate, the fact that Head Start children seemed to be naturally attuned to music and at least outwardly seemed to listen more attentively when films included music, could be useful in developing further research designs. Advantage might be made of Head Start children's seemingly spontaneous ability and proclivity toward rhythm and music, in further studies of the comparative effectiveness of various methods of teaching and learning. In regard to the video group, children seemed to listen more attentively when the storyteller invited active involvement through finger plays; asking introductory questions about the story, such as identifying story characters; and suggesting that children help tell the story by repeating a common portion of the dialogue or sound effects. However, in portions of the storyhour during which none of these techniques were implemented, the attention of the video audience seemed to dwindle. Therefore, video storyhours might be more effective if the amount of audience interaction were increased. The innovative capability of cable television's "interactive cube" technique might be one feasible method of incorporating children's active participation in the storyhour programs on the screen. While greater audience interaction might also increase the effectiveness of a "live" storyhour, the "live" group storyteller does have the advantage of being able to gauge the attention of the particular audience before him/her, and tailor fit interaction techniques to the needs of the moment -- which may not be identical to those of another audience at another time -- such as in the case of the video group. Although it was not the purpose of this research to evaluate the type of storyhour which children enjoyed most, one comment seems noteworthy in regard to the expressed interests of children. Notwithstanding the fact that children in both the "live" and in the film group seemed to enjoy those particular types of storyhours more than children in the video group enjoyed video presentations, (based upon their smiles, facial expressions, verbal feedback, etc.), the adage of "the grass is always greener on the other side of the fence", seemed to be at least partially true in the case of children's occasional comments. Sometimes children in the "live" group wanted to know (forlornly) why they couldn't "watch tv stories". Sometimes video children (forlornly) wanted to be able to see "the movies on the screen." Sometimes film storyhour children wanted to "hear a story". At other times, all other possible combinations of the above were voiced. In essence, whichever types of storyhours were not designated for a particular group were just the types in which that group wanted to participate! This curious observation was learned by accident, when equipment was inadvertently visible to a storyhour audience and seen by the group for which it was not intended. For example, when the television screen used for the video group, the film screen used for the film group, or "props" used for the "live" group were left in the auditorium and a group other than the one for which the equipment was designated saw it, the types of comments mentioned above were made. Discussion: Miscellaneous Observations: Although it was also not the purpose of this research to evaluate a developing "sense of story" on the part of the children, this observation was noticeable. About at the midpoint of the study, two stories happened to be included which did not fit the traditional format of characters with particular problems or abilities taking actions toward a specific goal. In other words, there were no defined characters, theme, plot, consequences, etc. One such story was the cumulative tale, *This Is the House That Jack Built*. The other story of this type was *Rich Cat, Poor Cat*, by Bernard Waber. In the latter story the advantage of being a "rich cat" is continually contrasted with the disadvantages of being a "poor cat", until at the very end of the story "poor cat" is taken in by a family and becomes a "rich cat". When both stories were almost finished, two children commented: "When will the story begin?" Evidently these children could tell that a discrepancy existed somewhere, as all that seemed to be happening was that characters were being identified or their problems described with no action or dialogue. Since storyhours took place at community library sites, and the participating children had not previously visited the library as a group from their particular daycare centers, going to the library was no doubt a first experience for many children. During the course of the project, several children delightedly told the Principal Investigator that they had come to the library that week with their parents and checked out books with a new library card. Feedback from librarians at particular community libraries verified the fact that, indeed, as a result of the project, some children, parents, and even daycare personnel had registered for library cards and become library users. Discussion: Protocol: No differences were found among treatment groups on the basis of the protocol test data. Yet differences among treatment groups were found on the basis of the TOBE test score data. Several factors may have contributed toward this finding. These factors may include the following: length, content, and type of protocol test in comparison to the TOBE test; possible contamination between experimental treatment and test in regard to the protocol; size of the protocol sample in comparison to the TOBE sample; ethnic identity of the testers in comparison to the children tested in the protocol; and sites for protocol testing in comparison to those used for the TOBE testing. The protocol test may have been too lengthy, as it included forty questions. Attention span of three-year old children in particular may have been too short to even allow a serious response. (The TOBE test had twenty-six items or questions). This problem may have been compounded since the protocol test was completely verbal, whereas the TOBE test consisted of pictures for the child to compare and then select the correct picture as a response to each test item. In addition, the protocol questions were somewhat repetitious: (What did she decide to do next? Who came by then? What did she decide to do next?). However, no two TOBE test questions were alike in type. Perhaps no significant difference between the experimental treatment group and the control group was found because listening to a storyteller tell a story may have been a novel experience for the control group. Any improvement in receptive language due to storyhour treatment on the part of the experimental group might have been overridden or masked by the control group's improved performance on testing. In other words, perhaps the experimental treatment contaminated the protocol testing, or vice versa. Perhaps the control group, unused to ever hearing a story at all at the library, may have increased their attentiveness to the protocol story, and hence exhibited better story recall than the experimental group(s) which had come to weekly storyhours. Similar reasoning might be applied to the video and to the film group, and could account for lack of improvement in protocol test scores over the "live" storyhour group. The video and the film group, which were both accustomed to hearing/seeing stories on the television screen or film screen, respectively, may have listened especially well to the "live" story protocol. On the other hand, the children in the "live" storyhour group may have been so accustomed to listening to a "live" story that they may not have been especially interested in hearing another story. The size of the protocol sample was fifty-eight subjects or about fifteen percent of the total sample who were tested on the TOBE (three hundred twenty-seven children). The protocol sample size may have been too small to detect differences between the four treatment groups as well as between each of the three experimental treatment groups and the control group. The protocol test may not have measured the same thing as the TOBE test. Therefore, similar findings would not be likely. Whereas the protocol test consisted of specific recall questions based on a particular story, the TOBE test consisted of general items or questions not necessarily presented during the storyhour treatment, but believed to be a measure of receptive language. Head Start children performed significantly lower than non-Head Start children in the protocol, regardless of treatment group. This may have been partially due to the fact that none of the protocol testers were Black, yet one half of the sample chosen to receive the protocol were from Head Start and were Black. This could have put Head Start children less at ease than Children's Place subjects, who were almost entirely Caucasian. This possible uneasiness on the part of Head Start children taking the protocol may have been compounded for children in the control group, who were not used to coming to the library site for storyhours, and therefore, were probably not familiar with the library site at the time of the protocol testing there. Also, since the TOBE was administered at child care sites, children would not have felt this same possible uneasiness due to a strange location, during the TOBE testing, as in the protocol testing. Implications: 1. Public libraries should offer preschool storyhours using a variety of presentation methods, but concentrating on providing "live" storyhours; since this type was found to be the most effective upon the acquisition of children's listening skills or receptive language. 2. Since there was no significant difference in the acquisition of receptive language between children who participated in "live" storyhour presentations and those children who participated in film storyhour presentations, public libraries could provide film storyhours as an acceptable substitute for "live" storyhours. 3. Since there was no significant difference in the acquisition of receptive language for those children who participated in the video storyhour and those children who did not receive public library storyhours, video storyhours are of negligible value for public libraries to provide, in regard to helping children acquire receptive language skills. However, if video storyhours were enhanced, as mentioned in the previous discussion, this might not be the case. 4. Public libraries should make special efforts to work with daycare center personnel, providing storytelling and workshop demonstrations, for example, so that daycare staff would be better able to incorporate storytelling within their daily schedule. 5. Based upon the fact that Head Start children (lower socioeconomic level) in the control group did not achieve as large a gain on the TOBE as did non-Head Start children (higher socioeconomic level) who were the same age in the control group, it becomes obvious that Head Start children need organized storyhours in order to achieve listening skills comparable to those of non-Head Start children. This is also substantiated by protocol findings. Therefore, public library storyhours should especially be provided for children of lower socioeconomic levels. 6. Since three-, four-, and five-year old children gained in receptive language over the period of the study, public library storyhour should be provided for children in each of these age levels. Moreover, since the gain in receptive language acquisition decreased with age, public library storyhours should be offered for young children (three-year olds) in particular. Recommendations For Further Research: 1. Present 16mm film storyhours via television in order to equalize the size of the image, clarity, etc., with the video presentation. Then compare the effectiveness of both the film and the video storyhours methods upon receptive language acquisition of young children. 2. Include background music in all three methods of storyhour presentation and compare their effectiveness upon the acquisition of receptive language of young children. 3. Revise the protocol test in regard to shorter length, inclusion of pictures with each question when testing, administering it to a larger sample, etc. Then evaluate the effect of the three types of storyhours upon the acquisition of receptive language of young children. 4. Provide periodic public library storyhours via 16mm film, "live", and video tape, and at the conclusion of a series compare library usage (in regard to frequency of visits to the library, number of materials checked out--especially 16mm films, books, and videocassettes; number of library programs attended; etc.) before enrollment in storyhour and after participation in storyhour programs. DISSEMINATION PLAN: PRESENTATIONS: In accordance with the dissemination plan, proposals for presentation of this research at annual conferences have been submitted to professional library, education, and reading related organizations. The proposal was accepted by the National Association For the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) for presentation at the annual conference in Washington, D.C. during November 11-15, 1982. Proposals have recently been submitted to the International Reading Association for consideration in presentation at the annual convention in May, 1983. However, selections will not be made until November, 1982. The proposal has also been accepted by the Texas Association For the Education of Young Children (TAEYC) for presentation at the annual conference in October, 1982, in Fort Worth, Texas. The Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI), to which the proposal had been sent several months ago, has stated that decisions will not be made until September regarding entries to be presented at the annual Spring conference. DISSEMINATION PLAN: SLIDE/TAPE PACKAGE: As mentioned in the Second Quarterly Report of March, 1982, (Part III, p. 4) a slide/tape package is being developed which can be used to explain the project to any interested individuals or groups. The packet consists of 83 color slides and recorded narration on a cassette tape. The slides are packaged in a carousel and a typed copy of the script is included. Presentation time is approximately fifteen minutes. The slide/tape package is in the process of being registered for copyright in the name of the Dallas Public Library. Thirteen copies of the slide/tape packet are being made and will be distributed as follows: one copy will be sent to the NIE Library; two copies will be sent to ERIC; one copy will be given to each of the four participating daycare centers; two copies will be kept at North Texas State University's College of Education; three copies will be kept by the Dallas Public Library; and one copy will be sent to the Register of Copyrights at the Library of Congress. The daycare centers will use their copies to explain the project to parents, children and staff. North Texas State University will use the copies in disseminating the research findings to students and faculty. The Dallas Public Library will use their copies to explain the project to their own staff and patrons, as well as to other interested library systems nationwide. The availability of the slide/tape package will be announced in the monograph as well as in the accompanying cover letter sent with the monograph distributed to the institutions noted in the following paragraph. See Appendix C and Appendix D for the accompanying cover letter sent to either public libraries or to academic institutions, with the monograph. Availability of the slide/tape packet will also be announced in professional library journals, such as: American Libraries, Top of the News, Public Library Quarterly, Public Libraries, and Library Journal. The slide/tape packet will be available for short-term loan to other institutions at a cost of $8.00 which will cover mailing, handling, and insurance of same. DISSEMINATION PLAN: MONOGRAPH: Writing, printing, and distributing a monograph was stipulated by NIE as part of this grant. As of the date of this report, the completed draft of the monograph is at the Printing Department at North Texas State University. Arrangements have been made with that department to print 1,500 copies of the monograph, with the printer to do the typeset and the artwork required for photographs. The length of the monograph is 97 pages. It will include 16 black and white photographs depicting children in the various storyhour treatments, being transported in vans from the daycare centers to the library sites, etc. Approximately 50 copies of the monograph will be mailed to major public library systems in the United States. Another 50 copies will be mailed to state libraries; 100 copies to public libraries in Texas; 150 copies to Schools of Library Science at colleges and universities in the United States; and 150 to Schools of Education at colleges and universities in the United States. The monograph is also in the process of being registered for copyright. Copyright will be jointly held in the name of the two institutions of the Dallas Public Library and North Texas State University. In accordance with the wishes of the Dallas Public Library, and having obtained permission from Joel Anthony, Grant and Contract Specialist at NIE for this project, the Dallas Public Library will be making 1,000 additional copies of the monograph available to any interested individuals or institutions, at a cost of $4.00, which solely covers the price of production, postage, and handling. The purpose of this procedure is to allow maximum dissemination of the monograph, especially in the light of anticipated requests following the dissemination of the 500 copies freely as described above. DISSEMINATION PLAN: ARTICLES FOR PUBLICATION: Arrangements have been made with the editors of these two journals for the manuscripts regarding the research to be written and published: Public Libraries and Public Library Quarterly. The manuscript for the former will be approximately four pages of print and will include other related research studies. The article will appear in the Spring issue of 1983. The manuscript for Public Library Quarterly will solely deal with this research and will be longer (about eight pages of text) and more detailed. It is anticipated that additional articles will be written, especially for a readership of practitioners, in educational and reading-related journals. II. REASONS WHY ESTABLISHED GOALS NOT MET SAMPLE: The size of the final sample diminished from the original number of 437 subjects to 327 subjects. Reasons for this loss include the fact that 50 subjects "dropped" out of the center (i.e., are no longer enrolled) and that 60 subjects were absent five or more times from storyhour sessions -- which eliminated their tests scores from inclusion in the analysis of data. POST-TESTING: TOBE: Post-testing of the subjects on the TOBE proceeded as planned, with the same two exceptions as were noted for the pretesting TOBE administration. That is, as in the pretest situation in September, children who were three years old as of September 1, 1981 were tested individually and the tester marked in the test booklet the pictured response which the child indicated by pointing with his or her finger on the page. This change was made to make the test experience more compatible with the attention span and physical capabilities of three-year old children. Also, a temporary person was hired to assist in testing because Dr. Sue Francis, a consultant named in the proposal, was unable to assist, due to her responsibilities as a school principal. POST TESTING: PROTOCOL: Because children were absent on the days of protocol testing, had "dropped" from the center, or had been absent from storyhours more than three times since the interim (January) protocol, 80 children rather than 96 were tested in April on the third and final protocol. For these reasons, three protocol scores (pre, post, and interim tests) were available for only 58 subjects, rather than for the goal of 96 subjects. ANALYSIS OF DATA: As noted in the First Quarterly Report of November, 1981 (Part II, p. 4) when the sample subjects were actually being assigned into treatment groups in August it was learned that the Head Start centers did not have enrolled any child who is five years of age as of September 1. Therefore, children from Head Start who were designated as "five-year olds" were actually five years of age as of November 1, 1981, rather than as of September 1, 1981, which was the case for five-year olds from the non-Head Start centers. In order to "correct" statistically for the younger age of "five"-year old children in Head Start centers, the data were analyzed using age in months as a continuous variable as a covariate. It was also noted in the First Quarterly Report that this procedure would be employed in the analysis of data. In other data analysis, however, five-year olds were excluded, in order that findings could at least be stated in terms of three-and four-year olds. In cases where differences in mean gain were analyzed separately for three-year olds, for four-year olds, and for five-year olds, the discrepancy in Head Start "five"-year olds could not affect the analysis in any way, and therefore, in this particular type of analysis, age in years for all three age levels was used. Due to the fact that age in months was used as a covariate, rather than as a classification variable, in testing for Hypothesis #1, differences in the adjusted post-test means between treatment groups, the related Hypothesis #2, that these differences between treatment groups would hold for three-year olds; for four-year olds; and for five-year olds, was not tested. For this same reason, in regard to Hypothesis #4, that the adjusted post-test mean scores of children in the experimental groups, as a whole, would be significantly greater than the adjusted post-test means for children in the control group, the qualifying statement that "this difference would hold for children ages three, four, and five" was not tested. The original proposal included only children of low socioeconomic status. Therefore, one of the original purposes of the study was to determine the most effective of the three types of storyhour programs in improving the receptive language of children of low socioeconomic status. However, in gathering the sample, children of varying socioeconomic status were found, as noted in the addendum to the proposal. Two daycare centers were Head Start, low socioeconomic level, by virtue of the fact that families did not pay for enrollment of children at these centers. Two other centers were non-Head Start, higher socioeconomic level, by virtue of the fact that families did pay for enrollment of children at these centers. Therefore, the data were analyzed in order to include all subjects,—i.e., children from all four centers, representing both higher and lower socioeconomic levels. The qualifying statement in regard to which type of storyhour was most effective for subjects of a specific socioeconomic level was not tested. It was decided not to analyze the data using centers as a classification variable for two reasons: the size of each cell would be so small as to make findings questionable; the "discrepancy" in the age of "five"-year olds from Head Start centers would put the lower socioeconomic level subjects at a disadvantage and make their overall test scores lower than those for subjects of higher socioeconomic centers in which five-year old children were actually some months older. Yet we wanted to be able to make the best use of the fact that subjects in the sample represented varying socioeconomic levels. For this reason, Hypotheses #5 and #6 were added to the proposal, and differences in improvement in terms of mean gain scores for three- and four-year olds only, between Head Start and non-Head Start, were tested. DURATION OF THE PROJECT: The ending date for this grant was April 30, 1982. An extension was requested and granted through July 31, 1982. The main reasons for the extension, as described in the letter to Joel Anthony, Grant and Contract Specialist, were: additional time was needed to complete the monograph and the slide/tape presentation, neither of which had been included in the original proposal; additional time was needed to analyze the data due to the fact that the experimental treatment was begun later and therefore ended later; and also more time was needed because protocol test data was delayed in being received. III. OTHER PERTINENT INFORMATION, INCLUDING EXPLANATION OF EXPENDITURES The part-time temporary clerical, 20 hours per week for 32 weeks, was not hired due to the fact that assistance had not been needed. Clerical help was needed only in testing the children on the TOBE, and for this purpose, a clerical was hired for a total of 104 hours. With the unused money allocated for the clerical, the slide/tape packet was developed and additional copies of the monograph printed. Cost of the TOBE tests increased again since January, 1982. Although at the time the proposal for this research was written, it was anticipated that the assistance of the following two individuals as consultants would be needed but this was not the case: Dr. Sue Francis (Receptive Language and Early Childhood specialties); and Dr. Sara Lundsteen (Early Reading Behavior expertise). However, the assistance of a statistician, Dr. William Brookshire, from North Texas State University's College of Education, was needed in the analysis of data. Therefore, consultant monies were used for Dr. Brookshire rather than for Dr. Francis and Dr. Lundsteen. Travel expenses for the subjects, i.e., reimbursement of daycare centers for mileage in transporting children in daycare vans to the library sites, was less than anticipated because the distance from centers to library sites was shorter than projected. However, travel expenditures for the Principal Investigator were greater than anticipated because more trips to North Texas State University in Denton were needed in order to: develop the slide/tape packet, write the monograph, analyze the data, and consult with the Printing Department concerning the monograph production, as well as pick up and return the galley proofs. The total cost of the protocol testing--development, administration and scoring by Dr. Schallert and her assistants was more than allotted, i.e., approximately $3,800.00 rather than $3,500.00, as the time for performing these tasks was underestimated. | TITLE OF BOOK/FILM | AUTHOR | FILM DISTRIBUTOR AND RUNNING TIME IN MINUTES | |------------------------------------|--------------|---------------------------------------------| | ALLIGATORS ALL AROUND | Sendak | Weston Woods (2) | | ANANSI THE SPIDER | Mc Dermott | Texture (10) | | ANATOLE | Titus | Macmillan (9) | | ANDY AND THE LION | Daugherty | Weston Woods (10) | | BEAST OF MONSIEUR RACINE | Ungerer | Weston Woods (9) | | BIG RED BARN | Brown | Aims (8) | | BLUEBERRIES FOR SAL | McCloskey | Weston Woods (9) | | BREMEN TOWN MUSICIANS | Grimm | Films, Inc. (16) | | CAMEL WHO TOOK A WALK | Tworkov | Weston Woods (6) | | CAPS FOR SALE | Slobodkina | Weston Woods (5) | | CHARLIE NEEDS A CLOAK | De Paola | Weston Woods (8) | | CHICKEN SOUP WITH RICE | Sendak | Weston Woods (5) | | CIRCUS BABY | Petersham | Weston Woods (5) | | CURIOUS GEORGE RIDES A BIKE | Rey | Weston Woods (10) | | CURL UP SMALL | Warburg | Sterling (7) | | DRAGON STEW | McGowen | BFA (13) | | DRUMMER HOFF | Emberley | Weston Woods (6) | | FAST IS NOT A LADYBUG | Schlein | BFA (11) | | FIVE CHINESE BROTHERS | Bishop | Weston Woods (10) | | FOOLISH FROG | Seeger | Weston Woods (8) | | FOX WENT OUT ON A CHILLY NIGHT | Spier | Weston Woods (8) | | FREDERICK | Lionni | Distribution 16 (6) | | FROG WENT A COURTIN' | Langstaff | Weston Woods (12) | | GALLANT LITTLE TAILOR | Grimm | Carmen (10) | | GEORGIE | Bright | Weston Woods (6) | | GEORGIE TO THE RESCUE | Bright | Sterling (10) | | GINGERBREAD MAN | Traditional Tale | Perspective (10) | | GOGGLES | Keats | Weston Woods (6) | | HANSEL AND GRETEL | Grimm | Tom Davenport (16) | | HAPPY OWLS | Piatti | Weston Woods (6) | | HARE AND THE TORTOISE | Aesop | Encyclopedia Britannica (11) | | HAROLD AND THE PURPLE CRAYON | Leisk | Weston Woods (9) | | HAROLD'S FAIRY TALE | Leisk | Weston Woods (8) | | HERCULES | Gramatky | Weston Woods (11) | | HOUSE THAT JACK BUILT | Traditional Tale | Sterling (6) | | IRA SLEEPS OVER | Weber | Phoenix (17) | | LENTIL | McCloskey | Weston Woods (9) | | LEOPOLD, THE SEE-THROUGH CRUMB-PICKER | Flora | Weston Woods (9) | | LETTER TO AMY | Keats | Weston Woods (7) | | TITLE OF BOOK/FILM | AUTHOR | FILM DISTRIBUTOR AND RUNNING TIME IN MINUTES | |------------------------------------------|--------------|---------------------------------------------| | LITTLE GIRL AND THE GUNNY WOLF | Traditional Tale | PCI (6) | | LITTLE RED LIGHTHOUSE AND THE GREAT GRAY BRIDGE | Swift | Weston Woods (9) | | LITTLE TIM AND THE BRAVE SEA CAPTAIN | Ardizzone | Weston Woods (11) | | MADELINE'S RESCUE | Bemelmans | Macmillan (7) | | MAKE WAY FOR DUCKLINGS | McCloskey | Weston Woods (11) | | MIKE MULLIGIN AND HIS STEAM SHOVEL | Burton | Weston Woods (11) | | MILLION OF CATS | Gag | Weston Woods (10) | | NOISES IN THE NIGHT | Alexander | BFA (9) | | NORMAN THE DOORMAN | Freeman | Weston Woods (12) | | ONE MONDAY MORNING | Shulevitz | Weston Woods (10) | | ONE WAS JOHNNY | Sendak | Weston Woods (3) | | ONE WIDE RIVER TO CROSS | Emberley | CRM/McGraw (6) | | PETER'S CHAIR | Keats | Weston Woods (6) | | PETUNIA | Duvoisin | Weston Woods (10) | | PICTURE FOR HAROLD'S ROOM | Leisk | Weston Woods (6) | | RICH CAT, POOR CAT | Waber | CRM/McGraw (8) | | ROSIE'S WALK | Hutchins | Weston Woods (5) | | SHOEMAKER AND THE ELVES | Grimm | Films, Inc. (15) | | SMALLEST ELEPHANT IN THE WORLD | Tressett | Lucerne (6) | | SNOWY DAY | Keats | Weston Woods (6) | | STONE SOUP | Traditional Tale | Weston Woods (11) | | A STORY, A STORY | Haley | Weston Woods (10) | | STORY ABOUT PING | Flack | Weston Woods (10) | | STREGA NONNA | De Paola | Weston Woods (9) | | SWIMMY | Lionni | Distribution 16 (6) | | THREE LITTLE PIGS | Traditional Tale | Walt Disney (9) | | THREE ROBBERS | Ungerer | Weston Woods (6) | | TIKKI TIKKI TEMBO | Mosel | Weston Woods (9) | | TIME OF WONDER | McCloskey | Weston Woods (13) | | WHEEL ON THE CHIMNEY | Brown | Weston Woods (7) | | WHERE THE WILD THINGS ARE | Sendak | Weston Woods (8) | | WHISTLE FOR WILLIE | Keats | Weston Woods (6) | | WITCH WHO WAS AFRAID OF WITCHES | Low | LCA (12) | APPENDIX B QUESTIONS FOR POST-TEST PROTOCOL Based on: Petunia's Treasure written and illustrated by Roger Duvoisin 1. Who was the story mostly about? 2. At the beginning of the story, what was Petunia doing? 3. What did she find deep under the water? 4. What did she think (feel, say) about the treasure? -- What did she feel it would make her? 5. Where did she go after she had found the treasure trunk? 6. What did she say to the animals in the farmyard? -- What did she say to them about her money? 7. Who (what animal) talked to her? 8. What did he ask Petunia? -- What did he want her to buy for him? 9. What did he say he would do with a pair of wings? 10. What did Petunia say about the horse and the wings? 11. Who talked to her next? 12. What did he ask Petunia? -- What did he say he wanted her to buy for him? 13. Why did he need an alarm clock? 14. What did Petunia say about the alarm clock for the rooster? 15. Who talked to Petunia next? 16. What did she ask Petunia? -- What did she want Petunia to buy for her? 17. What did she say she would do with a large mirror? 18. What did Petunia say about the mirror for Clarabelle the cow? 19. Who talked to Petunia next? 20. What did he ask Petunia? -- What did he want her to buy for him? 21. What did he say he would do with the tightrope and umbrella? 22. What did Petunia say about the goat and the tightrope and umbrella? 23. Who talked to Petunia next? 24. What did he ask Petunia? -- What did he want her to buy for him? 25. What did he say he would do with a loudspeaker? 26. What did Petunia say about the loudspeaker for the dog? 27. Did Petunia buy the gifts everyone wanted right away? 28. Why not? (or Why?) 29. What happened to the animals who were waiting for their gifts? 30. Why did the animals become angry at Petunia? 31. Why did the animals begin to fight each other? 32. How did Petunia feel when she saw all the animals fight each other? 33. What did she do? -- Where did she go? 34. What had happened to the treasure trunk? 35. How did Petunia feel when she saw that she had never had a treasure? 36. Why did she feel happy? 37. What happened when she walked into the farmyard again? -- What did Petunia tell everyone? 38. Were the animals happy or sad that Petunia no longer had a treasure? 39. What lesson did Petunia and all the animals learn from what had happened to them? (Why were all the animals happy that Petunia no longer had a treasure?) 40. What did everyone do at the very end of the story? | SUB-COMPONENTS OF STORY COMPREHENSION | QUESTION NUMBER | |--------------------------------------|-----------------| | Character Identification | 1, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23 | | Initiating Events | 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 27, 33, 37 | | Causal Connections | 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 28, 30, 31, 36, 39 | | Internal Reactions | 4, 10, 14, 18, 22, 26, 29, 32, 35, 38 | | Moral or Theme | 35, 36, 38, 39, 40 | | Action Consequences | 10, 14, 18, 22, 26, 29, 34, 40 | APPENDIX C COVER LETTER TO ACCOMPANY MONOGRAPH SENT TO ACADEMIC INSTITUTIONS The Dallas Public Library, in conjunction with North Texas State University, recently conducted a cooperative research project which concerned the effectiveness of three types of public library storyhour programs upon the receptive language (listening skills) of preschool children of varying socioeconomic levels. This research was performed pursuant to a research grant awarded by the National Institute of Education (NIE). Funding for this project and for the development and dissemination of a descriptive monograph of this study was provided by the Office of Libraries and Learning Technologies. Enclosed is a complimentary copy of this monograph, entitled, "What Research Tells Us About Storyhours and Receptive Language," which we are sending to you in order to share the results of this research in the area of public library service to young children. We hope that you will make this monograph available to your faculty, staff and students. Additional copies of this monograph may be obtained at a cost of $4.00, which includes the cost of production, handling and mailing. A fifteen-minute color slide/tape packet, entitled, "Storyhours Do Make a Difference," which describes the study, is also available on short-term loan, for a cost of $8.00, which includes the cost of postage, handling and insurance. Inquiries regarding the loan of this packet or additional copies of the monograph should be directed to: Dr. Frances A. Smardo, Librarian for Early Childhood Services, Dallas Public Library, 1515 Young Street, Dallas, Texas 75201. Thank you for assisting in disseminating this information among the educational communities of colleges and universities in the United States. Sincerely, Richard L. Waters Associate Director, Public Services Dallas Public Library Enclosure (1) APPENDIX D COVER LETTER TO ACCOMPANY MONOGRAPH SENT TO PUBLIC AND STATE LIBRARIES The Dallas Public Library, in conjunction with North Texas State University, recently conducted a cooperative research project which concerned the effectiveness of three types of public library storyhour programs upon the receptive language (listening skills) of preschool children of varying socioeconomic levels. This research was performed pursuant to a research grant awarded by the National Institute of Education (NIE). Funding for this project and for the development and dissemination of a descriptive monograph of this study was provided by the Office of Libraries and Learning Technologies. Enclosed is a complimentary copy of this monograph, entitled, "What Research Tells Us About Storyhours and Receptive Language," which we are sending to you in order to share the results of this research in the area of public library service to young children. We hope that you will make this monograph available to your library staff and patrons. Additional copies of this monograph may be obtained at a cost of $4.00, which includes the cost of production, handling and mailing. A fifteen-minute color slide/tape packet, entitled, "Storyhours Do Make a Difference," which describes the study, is also available on short-term loan, for a cost of $8.00, which includes the cost of postage, handling and insurance. Inquiries regarding the loan of this packet or additional copies of the monograph should be directed to: Dr. Frances A. Smardo, Librarian for Early Childhood Services, Dallas Public Library, 1515 Young Street, Dallas, Texas 75201. Thank you for assisting in disseminating this information among the service areas of public and state libraries. Sincerely, Richard L. Waters Associate Director, Public Services Dallas Public Library Enclosure (1)
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Topic 3 - Thermal Physics Temperature → We can think of temperature as: - the degree of "hotness" or "coldness" - measure with a thermometer ⇒ calibrated in °C or K 0°C ⇒ melting/freezing 100°C ⇒ boiling/condensation - SI unit is the kelvin (K) Transfer of heat (thermal energy) Heat flows from areas of higher temperature to areas of lower temperature. Temperature determines the direction of the thermal energy transfer between two objects. ↑ Another way to define temperature. * It is only temperature that determines the direction of thermal transfer. The direction of thermal transfer is NOT determined by the amount of internal energy in a body. * The direction of thermal transfer is determined by temperature alone ⇒ high temp to low temp. (heat flow) Two bodies are in "thermal contact" if thermal energy can be exchanged between them. The direction of heat flow does not depend on: - the mass of the bodies - the internal energy of the bodies - the size of the bodies Heat flow only depends on temperature! Thermal Equilibrium Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if, when they are in thermal contact, there is no transfer of thermal energy between them. Since thermal energy flows between two bodies when they are at different temperatures, then the two bodies must be at the same temperature if they are in thermal equilibrium. Kelvin & Celsius Temperature Scales Boyle's Law - The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at a constant temperature is inversely proportional to its volume. \[ P \propto \frac{1}{V} \] Isothermal Process - A process which is done at constant temperature. i.e. Boyle's Law would not apply to a bicycle pump since it gets warm when compressing the air inside. (Ok if done very slowly) Charles's Law - The volume of a fixed mass of gas at a constant pressure depends linearly on its temperature (\( ^\circ C \)). Gay-Lussac's Law (Pressure Law) - The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at a constant volume depends linearly on its temperature (\( ^\circ C \)). Extrapolation of pressure + volume graphs back to zero: Charles' Law \[ V \propto T \] Gas A Gas B Gay-Lussac's Law \[ P \propto T \] Gas A Gas B \[ \text{for an "ideal" gas} \] The Kelvin temperature scale The kelvin is the SI unit for temperature. The zero of kelvin is taken to be at -273°C and the size of the kelvin is the same as the size of the Celsius degree. There are 273 kelvin between -273°C and 0°C. Converting between kelvin and degrees Celsius. \[ T/K = t/°C + 273 \] Example: \[ 350K = (350 - 273) = 77°C \] \[ 100°C = (100 + 273) = 373K \] Note that temperature changes are the same i.e. a temperature increase of 40°C = a temperature increase of 40 K. Better version? \[ \Delta T = \frac{\Delta V}{V_0} \] Absolute Zero - The temperature at which both the volume and pressure of a gas will be zero. - The Laws of thermodynamics show that absolute zero (-273°C or 0 K) is the coldest temperature and it can never be reached. Near absolute zero, some strange things happen: - Superconductivity (electrical resistance is zero) - Superfluidity (viscosity of a fluid is zero) - At about $10^{-9}$ K => Bose Einstein condensate (a new state of matter) Formula for temperature It can be shown using kinetic theory (more... later), that the temperature in Kelvin is related to the mean translational kinetic energy per particle. $$E_k = \frac{3}{2} kT = \frac{1}{2} m v^2$$ $k =$ Boltzmann's constant $= 1.38 \times 10^{-23} \text{ J K}^{-1}$ Conversions: 1. 27°C to kelvin $$300 \text{ K}$$ 2. 100 K to degrees Celsius $$-173^\circ \text{ C}$$ 3. -100°C to kelvin $$173 \text{ K}$$ 4. A change in temperature of 100°C to kelvin $$100 \text{ K}$$ 3.1 Thermal concepts (may 8).notebook May 09, 2013
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SIXTH GRADE PERSONAL SAFETY The issue of child abuse is discussed in relation to the Pennsylvania Child Protective Services Law. The video, Abuse: If It Happens to You, is used to discuss the dynamics of child abuse and how a child can get help. TIME REQUIRED: 40-45 minutes, one class period OBJECTIVES: • Students will identify and give examples of the various types of child abuse identified by the Law – physical, verbal, sexual and neglect • Students will recognize the differences between child abuse and discipline or accidental harm • Students will recognize and respect their own and everyone’s right to be safe • Students will identify persons and resources they can ask for help instead of keeping abuse a secret • Students will recognize that they are not to blame if someone behaves in a way that is abusive toward them OUTLINE: 1. Definition and discussion of child abuse – review of PA law 2. Video and discussion 3. Discussion of the options the students can exercise to stop abuse and get help 4. Handout and closure MATERIALS: Video: Abuse: If It Happens to You HANDOUT: Bill of Rights FACILITIES: Individual classroom Ability to play a DVD White/chalkboard FIFTH/SIXTH GRADE FAMILY VIOLENCE PROGRAM The video, *Innocent Eyes*, is used to discuss the dynamics of domestic violence and the help that is available for victims and their families. **TIME REQUIRED:** 40-45 minutes, one class period **OBJECTIVES:** - Students will recognize the abusive and controlling behaviors characteristic of domestic violence - Students will place the blame for the violence on the abuser. - Students will recognize the cycle of abuse - Students will learn about the options and resources available to persons victimized by domestic violence - Students will learn the effects domestic violence has on each member of the family and why they may choose to stay. **OUTLINE:** 1. Introduce and define four types of child abuse (if not done in previous program) 2. Introduce domestic violence 3. Begin video, *Innocent Eyes*, pausing periodically for discussion 4. Handouts and closure **MATERIALS:** - Video: *Innocent Eyes* - Family Violence Facts **HANDOUTS:** - Hotline Cards **FACILITIES:** - Individual classroom - Ability to play a DVD - Magnetic board SIXTH GRADE SAFE SCHOOLS Using the video, Safe Schools, the topics of harassment, bullying and sexual harassment are introduced and discussed. Students are given options for stopping harassment that may be happening to them. The depth of discussion varies according to the maturity level of the students. TIME REQUIRED: 40-45 minutes, one class period OBJECTIVES: • Students will recognize their own role making the school community safer • Students will learn and practice certain strategies that help with creating a safe school environment OUTLINE: 1. Introduce and discuss the four safe school strategies 2. Play video, Safe Schools, pausing after each clip for discussion 3. Role plays of various responses to bullying MATERIALS: Video: Safe Schools Role Plays and Scenarios FACILITIES: Individual classroom Ability to play a DVD White/chalkboard SIXTH/SEVENTH GRADE INTERNET SAFETY This internet lesson encourages students to recognize motivations for posting comments and images online and to consider the role of privacy in the digital world. TIME REQUIRED: 40 to 45 minutes or one class period. OBJECTIVES: - Students will consider how online behavior affects privacy for themselves and others - Students will become aware of how they decide what to post online - Students will identify risks to avoid online - Students will formulate responses to potentially dangerous online situations - Students will be reminded to be a responsible online citizen OUTLINE: 1. Introduction of the topic of internet safety 2. Discussion of what guides decision to post something online 3. Video: 6 Degrees of Information 4. Cyberbullying discussion 5. Decision-making practice through scenarios 6. Handout MATERIALS: Video: Prezi with slides and 6 Degrees of Information Question Cards and Scenarios. HANDOUTS: Digital Citizen Cards FACILITIES: Individual classroom with capacity for group activity breakout Ability to play a DVD SEVENTH GRADE RELATIONSHIPS This program provides an introduction to safe dating relationships as it explores the differences between flirting and hurting. Students learn to define their own boundaries and recognize that other people are entitled to their own boundaries. TIME REQUIRED: 40 to 45 minutes or one class period OBJECTIVES: - Students will recognize the distinction between flirting and sexual harassment. - Students will take responsibility for crossing someone else’s boundaries. - Students will identify persons and resources that could help them in a sexual harassment situation. OUTLINE: 1. Introduction of the topic of relationships, / Flirting Do’s and Don’ts group activity 2. Flirting or Hurting video and large group discussion 3. Scenarios 4. Handout MATERIALS: Flirting Do’s and Don’ts Video: Flirting or Hurting Scenarios HANDOUTS: Sexual Harassment/Flirting FACILITIES: Individual classroom with capacity for group activity breakout White/chalk board/Magnetic Board Ability to play a DVD SEVENTH GRADE BULLYING/HOW TO HANDLE YOUR ANGER Using the video to drive the lesson, the topic of bullying is introduced and discussed. Students are given options on how to constructively handle the emotions and anger associated with bullying. The depth of discussion varies according to the maturity level of the students. TIME REQUIRED: 40 to 45 minutes or one class period OBJECTIVES: - Recognize that anger is a normal response to being bullied and identify positive ways to express anger - Consider bystander responsibility for taking action against bullying in school - Identify and discuss sexual harassment and how it relates to bullying OUTLINE: 1. Introduction topic of bullying 2. Use video to discuss anger management and bystander intervention 3. Handouts and closure MATERIALS: Video: Bullied: How to Handle Anger HANDOUTS: 20 Things to Do Instead of Hurting Someone Back FACILITIES: Individual classroom White/chalkboard Ability to play a DVD EIGHTH GRADE SEXUAL HARASSMENT Using a variety of scenarios, the topic of sexual harassment is introduced and discussed. Students are given options for stopping sexual harassment that may be happening to them or others. TIME REQUIRED: 40 to 45 minutes or one class period OBJECTIVES: - Students will be able to define sexual harassment - Students will identify and discuss behaviors recognized as sexual harassment - Students will see respect as recognizing the boundaries of others - Students will recognize that sexual harassment happens to boys and girls - Students will learn strategies that can help to stop sexual harassment OUTLINE: 1. Introduction & video clips 2. Definition of sexual harassment 3. Discussion of dynamics of sexual harassment and examples of each 4. Scenarios 5. Discussion of strategies to stop sexual harassment 6. Handouts 7. Closure MATERIALS: - Sexual Harassment video - Sexual Harassment Scenarios HANDOUTS: - Sexual Harassment/Flirting FACILITIES: - Individual classroom - White/chalkboard - Ability to play a DVD EIGHTH GRADE HEALTHY RELATIONSHIPS This lesson explores the dynamics of healthy relationships. Using an activity called “Daisy,” students will identify differences between caring and controlling behaviors. TIME REQUIRED: 40 to 45 minutes or one class period OBJECTIVES: - Students will recognize and discuss the characteristics of healthy relationships - Students will begin to problem solve, evaluate and think critically about their relationships - Students will begin to recognize and respect their own rights and those of others; - Students will identify resources and persons who could help them. OUTLINE: 1. Introduction - using the Star Activity 2. Video: If I Was Your Girlfriend 3. Introduction of daisy activity & distribution of petals 4. Discussion of petals and situations as students place them on “LOVES ME” “LOVES ME NOT” flowers 5. Handouts and closure MATERIALS: Video: If I Was Your Girlfriend Daisy Activity and Star of Life HANDOUTS: Being Controlled FACILITIES: Individual classroom with capacity for group activity breakout White/chalkboard/magnetic board Ability to use DVD EIGHTH GRADE UNHEALTHY RELATIONSHIPS The students discuss the dynamics of dating violence and how to get help. TIME REQUIRED: 40 to 45 minutes or one class period OBJECTIVES: - Students will identify “red flags”, warning signs of an unhealthy relationship - Students will begin to understand the root causes of dating violence - Students will place responsibility for the abusive behavior on the abuser - Students will learn the options available to victims of dating violence - Students will be encouraged to notice and take action against abusive behavior of peers OUTLINE: 1. Introduction of the topic of abusive dating relationships through video. 2. Discussion of warning signs and options 3. Closure MATERIALS: - Video: Crossing the Line - Red Flags - Role Plays FACILITIES: - Individual classroom - White/chalkboard - Ability to play a DVD SEVENTH/EIGHTH GRADE INTERNET SAFETY: SAFE ONLINE TALK This program debunks common myths and stereotypes about internet predators and educates students about common ways teens are approached and exploited on the internet. TIME REQUIRED: 40-45 minutes, one class period OBJECTIVES: • Students will contrast myths and realities when it comes to internet “stranger danger” • Students will identify situations in which chatting and flirting online may become risky for young teens • Students will learn strategies for dealing with uncomfortable situations when communicating online OUTLINE: 1. Discussion of myths and realities of online predators 2. Sheyna’s Situation activity with students answering questions in small groups 3. Recap of how to respond to an uncomfortable online situation MATERIALS: “Predator in the white van” image Questions to Consider Advice for Uncomfortable Situations. HANDOUT: Sheyna’s Situation FACILITIES Individual classroom Ability to play a DVD White/chalkboard/magnetic board MEDIA LITERACY 1 This is a one day program that takes a close look at media stereotypes and exploitation. By using video and class discussion the issue of media manipulation of our buying habits, values and very lives is explored. The materials used will be different but age appropriate for middle school or high school. TIME REQUIRED: 40-45 minutes, one class period OBJECTIVES: • Students will understand what media literacy means and why it is important • Students will realize the ways media normalizes violence and reinforces as well as constructs stereotypical ideas about gender and relationships • Students will understand how much the media influences us and our society OUTLINE: 1. Alphabet Logo Activity 2. Media stereotypes discussion 3. Video clips or examples of advertisements 4. Analyzing ads MATERIALS: Video: Clips from Generation M or news clips dealing with relevant topic Magazine ads FACILITIES: Individual classroom TV/VCR or DVD player White/chalkboard MEDIA LITERACY 2 This is a one day program that examines gender stereotypes in the media. TIME REQUIRED: 40-45 minutes, one class period OBJECTIVES: • Students will understand what media literacy means and why it is important • Students will realize the ways media normalizes violence and reinforces as well as constructs stereotypical ideas about gender and relationships • Students will understand how much the media influences us and our society OUTLINE: 1. Logo Activity 2. Video clips and small group discussion of media stereotypes and their harmful effects, MATERIALS: Video: Clips from Shrek, Music video It’s Different for Girls FACILITIES: Individual classroom TV/VCR or DVD player White/chalkboard MIDDLE SCHOOL SEXTING PROGRAM This is a program that encourages students to examine cultural influences relating to “sexting,” as well as legal ramifications and social/emotional consequences. TIME REQUIRED: 40-45 minutes, one class period OBJECTIVES: • Students will be able to define “sexting.” • Students will consider legal, social, and emotional consequences of teen sexting. • Students will discuss cultural influences and gender stereotypes that relate to sexting. • Students will learn strategies to properly handle sexting dilemmas. OUTLINE: 1. Small group discussion activity 2. Questions to consider before hitting the “send” button 3. Questions to ask yourself if you are the receiver. MATERIALS: Group Discussion Questions Questions to Consider FACILITIES: Individual classroom Whiteboard/Chalkboard CONFLICT RESOLUTION This is a program that helps students resolve conflicts in constructive manner. TIME REQUIRED: 40-45 minutes, one class period OBJECTIVES: Students will: • See that a certain amount of conflict is normal, even between friends • Learn that conflict can be an opportunity for growth and learning • Recognize certain behaviors as “conflict starters” and learn ways to avoid them • Identify certain behaviors as “conflict solvers” and learn ways to use them OUTLINE: 1. The students will begin by defining conflict and listing examples 2. Next list words/phrases that can start and solve conflicts 3. Show clips from the DVD Conflict Resolution: You Can Solve It! 4. Have students do role plays, listening for the conflict starters and solvers 5. Go over the handout MATERIALS: Video: DVD of Conflict Resolution: You Can Solve It! Role plays of conflict situations List of conflict starters and conflict solvers HANDOUT: Conflict Starters OR Conflict Solvers FACILITIES: Individual classroom Ability to play a DVD White/Chalkboard RELATIONAL AGGRESSION This program examines how friendships can change over time, and how a person can identify not only the change, but how to navigate the decisions on whether this friendship is healthy and supportive. The video outlines warning signs of an unhealthy or exploitive relationship, how to discuss problems, and how to end the friendship if needed. TIME REQUIRED: 40-45 minutes, one class period OBJECTIVES: Students will learn: • The characteristics of healthy and unhealthy relationships • The importance of good communication skills and strong self-esteem • That all persons have a right to respect and to set boundaries for themselves • That relationships are mutual; requiring give and take OUTLINE: 1. The students will begin by defining relational aggression 2. Next go over what is most important in a friendship (use handout) 3. Show clips of Relationships; When They Help and When They Hurt 4. Have students do role plays, listening for the breaks in the friendships involved 5. Go over how to be assertive with a friend with the outline and role play MATERIALS: Video: DVD of relationship clips: Relationships: When They Help and When They Hurt Role plays of relational aggression HANDOUT: What Counts the Most? FACILITIES: Individual classroom Ability to play a DVD White/Chalkboard PERSONAL BOUNDARIES This program encourages students to focus on their own personal boundaries and boundaries of others. Students will be given opportunities to practice problem solving skills. TIME REQUIRED: 40-45 minutes, one class period OBJECTIVES: Students will learn: • To define personal boundaries • To consider where their personal boundaries lie • To express their boundaries • To respect the boundaries of others OUTLINE: 1. 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Do You Dig Wetland Soil? Summary How is wetland soil like a box of crayons? Students make and use a wetland soils color chart, then dig a hole in a wetland area to study the physical characteristics of the soil. Objectives Students will: • describe physical differences between wetland and upland soils. • use keys to recognize wetland soils. Materials Part I: • Crayola® Crayons, 64-color boxes • scissors • paste • posterboard or manila folders • copies of the Color Me Wet! student pages (grades 4-12, p. 237; grades K-3, p. 236). Part II: • clay cat litter premixed with water to make a paste (see “How Thirsty Is the Ground?” p. 239) • spade or narrow shovel • yard (meter) stick • pencils • hand lenses • copies of the Soils Data Chart, p. 235. • copies of Key to Soil Texture by Feel (for older students), p. 238. Making Connections Students may have dug holes in the ground and noticed variations in soil coloration, but they may not know what causes these colors, or how soil colors are important for keying out soil type. In this activity, students will learn to recognize common wetland soil types and begin to locate wetlands in their communities. Background There are many different types of soils, as well as sophisticated classification systems to categorize them. Most soil types are well-drained, nonwetland varieties. Because of the prolonged presence of water, wetland soils are physically different from nonwetland (often called upland) soils. Wetland (hydric) soils are saturated, flooded, or “ponded” long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in upper layers. That is, wetland soil is at times so saturated with water that it cannot hold much, if any, oxygen. The prolonged presence of water, and the resultant lack of oxygen, causes chemical reactions that eventually affect the color of the soil. The study of a soil sample’s color can determine if it is hydric soil even if the sample is not wet at the time of the investigation. By “reading” color characteristics, a soil scientist can tell how long or how frequently an area has been wet. You and your students can learn to recognize some wetland soils in this manner, too. There are two major types of wetland soils: organic and mineral. Organic wetland soils are those that contain a noticeable amount (more than ten percent) of partially decomposed plants within at least 1.5 feet (0.46 meters) of the ground’s surface. In waterlogged spots, organic materials accumulate. The lack of oxygen results in a decrease in bacterial decomposition, and plants do not decompose as they do in aerated situations. Wet organic soils look like black muck or black to dark brown peat. Soils that contain little or no organic material are classified as mineral soils. Mineral soils usually consist of a wide range of materials such as sand, silt, and clay. Mineral wetland soils can be gleyed (pronounced "glade") or mottled. Gleyed soils are usually formed when the soils are saturated all of the time (and thus anaerobic). These soils are usually neutral gray, greenish, or bluish gray. Mottled soils are formed in areas that have wet (anaerobic) conditions, followed by periods of dry (aerobic) conditions. These conditions alternate continuously, possibly seasonally. The basic (matrix) soil color often includes concentrated splotches of brown, orange, red, or yellow. When the soil is very wet, minerals such as iron and manganese collect in spaces in the soil. When air moves into the soil during dry periods, these mineral concentrations oxidize. The iron rusts, leaving a permanent indicator of this process. Oxidized iron concentrations are various shades of red, orange, and yellow, while manganese mottles are black. When you dig a hole to study wetland soil, you may find horizontal banding of colored materials in the soil profile. The soil types you find will depend on the area studied; you may want to contact your county Natural Resources Conservation Service office for expert help in identifying soil types. Wetland scientists use sophisticated tools such as the Munsell Soil Color Charts to identify wetland soils. Each color chip in the Munsell book represents a combination of hue (color), value (lightness or darkness), and chroma (purity) that reflects the degree of wetness in the soil. The color chart developed in Part I of this activity is a simplified version of the Munsell book. Keep in mind that the soils on many properties have been altered by human activities. Tilling for agriculture, filling for development, and stripping for mining are a few examples of activities that change soils. Try to find a relatively undisturbed site, if possible. If you are looking at soil in a city, a suburban housing community, or near farmland, you may have to dig deeper to find undisturbed soils, including the original hydric soil. (Remember to ask for permission to dig, and be sure you fill up holes when you're done.) Part I of this book contains other information on soils (p. 12) and helpful hints about finding wetland study sites (see chapter 6). **Procedure** **Warm Up** Do students have a garden or flower box at home? Have they ever noticed the color of soil? Explain that chemical reactions in water-bearing soils cause color changes, and that soil color can therefore be used as an indicator of the frequency and duration of wetness. You might have your more advanced students study these reactions. Younger students should understand that the presence of water causes chemical changes that make wetland soils look different from other soils. **The Activity** Part I: Make Your Own Soil Color Chart Hand out copies of the appropriate color chart student page for your grade level and review the directions. Explain that this is a very simplified version of the Munsell book. Have students color the chart using the Crayola® Crayon color names given. (It is important to use the indicated colors in order to identify the soils correctly.) Have students complete the other steps to prepare the charts. They will use them for Part II. **Part II: Dig In!** 1. Before going outside, show students the premixed cat litter. Have each student feel the mixture's texture. Give each student a copy of the Soils Data Chart student page. 2. At the wetland, use the spade to dig a hole about two feet deep to find and study wetland soils. *Note:* If you do not find indications of wetland soils, try another spot. 3. Avoiding the topmost layer of surface material, pick at the inside surfaces of the hole with the end of a yardstick to reveal the true structure of the soil. Remove golfball-sized pieces of soil from a side of the hole at the indicated depths (see data chart). Ask students to examine both the outside and the inside of these samples (break the soil balls into two or three pieces). 4. Have students record soil characteristics and observations in the Soils Data Chart, using the color chart from Part I and the word lists that accompanies the data chart. Older students can use the Key to Soil Texture by Feel on p. 238 to identify soil types. **Wrap Up and Action** After the data charts have been completed, use the Dig In! questions below for group discussion. DIG IN! 1. **What soil characteristics did you observe?** Share data and observations from students’ completed charts. Wetland soils may have any of the characteristics listed below. If you were able to dig down to wetland soil, the students’ charts should in one way or another match these descriptions. - some shade of dark brown or black (see color chart) - feels like sticky clay and is some shade of gray, green, or darker color (see color chart) - made up of peat or organic material, sand and/or other minerals, clay, silt, loam, or some combination of these materials in layers or mixtures - when squeezed, sticks together or oozes out of fingers in a ribbonlike strand - broken surfaces of the samples reveal mottles or splotches of color throughout the sample in some shade of red, orange, or yellow (see color chart) - shades of red or orange “rusty” soil surrounding roots and root channels (the oxygen that wetland plants send to their roots often “leaks” out, oxidizing the iron in the soil) - no earthworms in very wet, saturated soil (they would drown or suffocate!) - sulfur gas from anaerobic activity; smells like rotten eggs 2. **How did soil at the bottom of the hole differ from soil near the surface in color and texture?** This depends on the type of wetland you were in and the level of the water table in your sample area. You may have observed layering of soils similar to the diagram shown here. Most wetland soils have a dark layer of (aerobic) organic soil at the top, where oxygen is exchanged with the atmosphere, and (anaerobic) mineral or organic soils below. 3. **Can you find evidence around your sample area that shows where the soil particles came from?** Most organic topsoil is the result of the breakdown of fallen leaves and dead plants, as described in “Nature’s Recyclers.” Organic wetland soil is the accumulation of organic material that has not decayed because of the anaerobic soil condition. Mineral soils are formed over time from weathering of rocks. Wetland soils on the banks of streams and rivers may have been formed through the gradual deposition of soil particles that were carried in (and eroded) by water. 4. **Can you tell where the water and soils in this area are coming from? What watershed drains to this spot?** Have the students look at factors that bring water into the area, since it is the degree of wetness and how it affects the condition of the soil that we are most interested in here. Look at topographic features of the area and weather conditions. For example, if the wetland lies in a depression at the bottom of a slope, runoff from the slope will end up in the wetland, eventually seeping into the soil to make or keep it wet. 5. **Did you find anything that was not natural (i.e., human-made) in the soil? How do you think it got there?** In many cases, human products (e.g., litter, chemical pollutants) enter a wetland just as deposited soil and other natural materials do—with the inflow of water. These materials are introduced to the environment at some point, whether intentionally or unintentionally. Discuss these possibilities with the class. Have students speculate on the source of any human-made materials they have found. 6. **Compare wetland soil to soil you have observed at home and around school. How do the soils differ, and what makes them different?** The primary difference is that wetland soil is wet or saturated for an extended period, and upland soil is not saturated. The colors of the two soils are different because chemical reactions that occur in anaerobic (saturated) soils differ from those that occur in aerobic soils. The differences that students may observe in wetland and upland soils depend on the areas sampled—there are many possibilities. Organic soils are wetland soils, if the overall matrix of the soil throughout the hole is organic. Assessment Have students: - observe soil samples and record their observations. - classify soil types through color analysis. - identify environmental and human-made factors that influence soil conditions. Extensions If you find clay or sticky soil while outside, have students make small wetland sculptures to take home! Invite an extension agent or soil scientist to visit the class to discuss the results of the field work. Ask this visitor to share aspects of his or her career with students. Nature in Your Neighborhood: Be a Wetland Watchdog! Are there wetlands in your neighborhood that need protecting? Find a stream or other body of water—or even a puddle that stays wet for a week or more. Dig a small hole in the ground and use your color chart to see if it may be a wetland. How are people using the land in and around this spot? Check areas where the ground has been plowed to build a road, house, or other building. If the soil is gray or very dark, it could be a wetland. Ask officials if the construction there is legal. Devise a neighborhood plan to make the area even better. You might clean up the area, or plant wetland plants to prevent erosion and attract more wildlife. See chapter 6 for more ideas. Soils Data Chart Record the words or phrases that apply to each soil sample in the chart below. **Texture/moisture:** Rub the soil between your fingers. Choose words that describe how it feels. - dry, moist, wet, very wet, or drippy - falls apart, sticks together, sticky (sticks to fingers) - feels like clay (easily molded into shapes) - slippery, oozes (extrudes between fingers when you squeeze it) **Soil particles:** Draw the size and shape of the particles. What is the sample made of? - sand (feels gritty) - minerals (tiny bits of rock) - clay (like the cat litter sample) - silt (like flour or powder; slippery when wet) - pebbles - organic matter (bits of leaves, twigs, bark, etc.) **Color:** Use color chart **Other features or creatures:** What does the soil smell like? List or describe any rocks, dead plants, or other nonliving materials in the soil. List or describe any living things such as worms, roots, or insects. Do you see any roots with “rusty” red or orange soil around them? | Depth From Soil Surface | Texture/Moisture (describe how it feels) | Soil Particles (describe or identify them) | Color # (use color chart) | Other Features or Creatures | |-------------------------|------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------|---------------------------|-----------------------------| | 2 inches (5 cm) | | | | | | 4 inches (10 cm) | | | | | | 6 inches (15 cm) | | | | | | 12 inches (30 cm) | | | | | | 18 inches (45 cm) | | | | | Color Me Wet! 1. Use Crayola® Crayons (a box of 64) to color in the squares on the chart below. It is very important to use the right colors! 2. Fold the rectangle in half and cut out the dark circle. 3. Use your chart when studying soil. Your chart is similar to the complicated color charts wetland scientists use to identify wetland soils. Hold the chart in one hand and hold a sample of soil behind the hole with your other hand. Try to match the color of the soil to one of the squares. If it nearly matches a box above the diagonal line, it may be wetland soil. Color Me Wet! Use Crayola® Crayons to color in the squares on the chart below. It is very important to use the right colors! Press firmly when coloring, unless the name says “light.” Cut out the whole chart and paste it to a piece of posterboard or half of a manila folder. Carefully cut out the black circles, through all thicknesses. Use this color chart when studying soil in the field. Wetland scientists use similar but much more complicated color charts to identify wetland soils. Hold the chart in one hand; in the other hand hold a sample of soil behind the chart, so that it is visible through one of the holes. Your soil sample may contain bits of rock, organic material, and mineral concentrations. You must key out only the dominant soil color and ignore all other materials. Move the sample around until you find one or two colors that nearly match or approximate the dominant color. Numbers 1, 5, 6, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, and sometimes 2 are probably wetland soils; the others are probably not wetland soils. Any soil with a basic (matrix) color that is a shade of dark brown, black, or gray may be a wetland soil. You will probably see other colors and materials within the matrix soil color. These colorful streaks may be the result of certain minerals. They appear as shades of red, orange, and yellow (associated with iron in the soil), or black (associated with manganese, not to be confused with dark organic material). These areas are good indicators of seasonal wetlands and other wetlands that are not always wet. Do not use these color mottles to key out the soil, but recognize that they are an additional indicator of wetland conditions. WETLAND SOILS COLOR CHART 1. Gray (light) + White 2. Olive green (light) + White 3. Peach 4. Goldenrod 5. Gray 6. Brown + Gray 7. Tan 8. Bittersweet 9. Black 10. Black + Sepia 11. Olive green + Raw sienna 12. Indian red 13. Sea green + Gray 14. Forest green + Gray 15. Pine green + Gray 16. Sky blue + Cornflower + Gray Key to Soil Texture by Feel Begin at the place marked "Start" and follow the flow chart by answering the questions, until you identify the soil sample. 1. Place approximately 2 teaspoons of soil in your palm. Add water by drops and knead the soil until it is moldable and feels like moist putty. 2. Does soil remain in a ball when squeezed? - YES: Add drops to make soil wetter. - NO: Is soil too dry? 3. Is soil too wet? - YES: SAND - NO: Place ball of soil between thumb and forefinger. Gently push the soil with thumb, squeezing it upward into a ribbon. Form a ribbon of uniform thickness and width (1/8th inch). Allow the ribbon to emerge and extend over forefinger until it breaks from its own weight. Does soil form a ribbon more than one inch long? - NO: LOAMY SAND - YES: Does soil make a weak ribbon less than two inches long before it breaks? - YES: Wet a small pinch of soil in palm until it is very wet. Rub soil around with your finger. - NO: Does soil make a medium ribbon two to three inches long before it breaks? - YES: Does soil make a strong ribbon three inches or longer before it breaks? - YES: HI % SAND LO - NO: Does soil feel very gritty? - YES: SANDY LOAM - NO: Is the soil really neither gritty nor smooth? - YES: LOAM - NO: Does soil feel very smooth? - YES: SILTY LOAM - NO: Does soil feel very gritty? - YES: SANDY CLAY LOAM - NO: Is the soil really neither gritty nor smooth? - YES: CLAY LOAM - NO: Does soil feel very smooth? - YES: SILTY CLAY LOAM - NO: Does soil feel very gritty? - YES: SANDY CLAY - NO: Is the soil really neither gritty nor smooth? - YES: CLAY - NO: Does soil feel very smooth? - YES: SILTY CLAY - NO: HI % CLAY LO
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HAPPY BRAILLE LITERACY MONTH! In honor of the birth month of Louis Braille, the inventor or the braille code, every January is braille literacy month. Why is having a dedicated month for braille literacy so important? - To spread awareness about the importance of the braille code and how it changes the lives of those living with blindness by offering them the same access to literacy as individuals with sight - To advocate for the inclusion of and access to braille in all public places such as schools, libraries, restaurants and more - To support organizations that provide braille resources to individuals and families who need access by donating money, braille books or transcription services Below are ten organizations that provide braille books to children and adults across the country. Visit their sites to order books, or to donate: 1. National Braille Press (www.nbp.org) 2. Seedlings Braille Books (www.seedlings.org) 3. Beulah Reimer Legacy (www.beulahreimerlegacy.com) 4. National Library Service (www.loc.gov/nls/) 5. Braille Institute (www.brailleinstitute.org) 6. Braille Superstore (www.braillebookstore.com) 7. APH & Dolly Parton’s Imagination Library (www.aph.org) 8. American Action Fund (www.actionfund.org) 9. Read How You Want (www.readhowyouwant.com) 10. Bookshare (www.bookshare.org) MARK YOUR CALENDAR! COMING SOON VICTORIA WATTS CYR.U.S. SYSTEM BEST TOGETHER PODCAST FEBRUARY 1 6:30PM-7:30PM CT PARENT CONNECT VIRTUAL SUPPORT GROUP MONTHLY MEETING FEBRUARY 7 7:00PM CT NFB TN PARENT DIVISION MEETING FEBRUARY 8 6:00PM CT APH FAMILY CONNECT PROCEDURAL SAFEGUARDS AND PARENTAL RIGHTS SERIES 2023 NFB Bell Academy Now Open for Applications The National Federation of the Blind is offering a three-week virtual program as part of its Bell Academy again this year. Bell Academy is a summer program aimed at helping blind and low vision children enhance their education in the summer months. This is an annual summer program for any blind or low vision student age 4-12 who may need extra braille support or exposure, and who would enjoy connecting with other blind students and adult role models. In-person locations will be held as well in three state locations: Idaho, Louisiana and Tennessee. Limited spaces are available. Apply now at the link below or visit nfb.org for more information. Options are available for beginner, intermediate and advanced students and the program will run from July 24th to August 11th, 2023. National Braille Press Valentines Now Available This year's NBP braille valentine features a rocket blasting into space with fire and hearts coming out of the engine. Above the rocket are the words, "You're out of this world, Valentine!" and a smattering of stars on a blue-gray background. The rocket has a pink tip, a white body, two pink fins, and a round window. On the back of the card is a "braille decoder" to help friends and family read the message in braille. Order yours now at the link below before it's too late! The BEST Sensory Space Is a Great Tool for Children with CVI The "Little Room" was designed by Lilli Nielsen to support infants and young children with blindness, low vision, delayed development, and/or combinations of disabilities in developing skills such as reaching, grabbing, exploring, sensory engagement and tactile exploration as well as the understanding of concepts such as body awareness, directionality and space. It is important to provide a sensory space that feels secure, blocks out external distractions and that is motivating to the child. At BEST, we create sensory spaces modeled after the Little Room, built in a size that best fits each child and outfitted with objects of various sizes, shapes, textures and colors which are hung from the overhead bars and/or on the sides. BEST provided a custom sensory space for Ameen, a two-year old who has been diagnosed with a brain-based visual impairment, or CVI. Ameen is working on using his central vision and his "little room" has helped to block out peripheral distractions and draw his visual attention to one desired object at a time. Ameen is drawn to the color red and bright light, as many children with CVI are. In these photos you can see him hard at work on strengthening his brain-to-eye connection as he visually attends to the objects. His family and TVI make sure to swap out items often to keep him interested and engaged without creating visual clutter. Ameen's developmental therapist helps position him outside the sensory space to allow him to work on both gross motor goals and visual goals at the same time. Way to go, Ameen and team! Learn More About Becoming a TVI! Have you ever thought about becoming a Teacher of the Visually Impaired? With shortages in the profession across the country, the time to do it is now -- we need you in our field and as part of our mission to support children with visual disabilities! Vanderbilt University's Department of Special Education offers a master's degree in Visual Disabilities in Nashville. Learn more about the program and this rewarding career by joining one of two information sessions being offered over the next few months. The first session is this Tuesday, January 31st at 4:30pm CT. The second session will be held on Tuesday, March 28th at 5:00pm CT. Links to register are below. Pre-Order the BrailleDoodle Now! The TouchPad Pro Foundation, led by President and CEO Daniel Lubiner, has developed the BrailleDoodle, a simple, high-quality device made to expose those who are blind or low vision to tactile art, braille literacy, technology, and other educational opportunities. The BrailleDoodle is about the size of an iPad and made in durable plastic. The BrailleDoodle is an array of hundreds of holes, placed tightly together, covering the surface. Each hole contains a tiny element that can be pulled to the surface by a magnetic stylus and locked into place to create a touchable effect. The user erases a creation by pushing the elements back down with a satisfying "pop." The other side of the BrailleDoodle is an open canvas for creating, while the other side features the braille alphabet, numbers and contractions for teaching and practicing the braille code. If you are interested in purchasing a BrailleDoodle visit the link below for more information. WHAT WE'RE LOVING THIS MONTH! Lidzy is a sensory and tactile toy with various shaped pieces, each featuring a unique texture and sensory experience. Unscrew the lid to discover a mirror, squeak sound, spinner or raised bumps. Teach fine motor skills and work on hand-to-hand coordination for ages 12 months and up. Lidzy is recommended for ages 12 months and up.
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Iowa State University Extension and Outreach connects the needs of Iowans with Iowa State University research and resources. We are working with the people of Hancock County for what we all want: a strong Iowa. **Hancock County Extension Council** Every Iowa county has an elected extension council that guides local educational programming by partnering with staff. From needs assessment through program implementation and evaluation of outcomes, the council represents the issues and people of the county. We have identified these local issues as priority topics for current and future programming: - K12 Youth Outreach - Agriculture and Natural Resources - Community and Economic Development - Health and Well-being - Reaching Out in a New Way - 100 Year Celebration **Extension Council Members** We want communities and farmers to thrive, and families and children to be healthy. And eventually we want to turn the world over to the next generation better than we found it. | Name | Title | |--------------------|------------------------------| | Mary Greiman | Council Chair | | Floyd Cutshall | Council Vice Chair | | Darcy Ristau | Council Secretary | | Heidi Konz | Council Treasurer | | Bryan Whaley | Regional Director | | Ryan Eekhoff | Council Member | | Julie Barickman | Council Member | | Cory Greiman | Council Member | | Kody Trampel | Council Member | | Ray Tlach | Council Member | **Hancock County Shows Growth in Youth Outreach** ISU Extension and Outreach in Hancock County Extension reached 703 youth in 53 workshops offered from October 2017 - August 2018. Staff-planned workshops are used to introduce youth to a new project area or a possible career path. We build partnerships with local businesses and organizations to utilize and share their expertise. Some workshops provide the opportunity to learn a new technique in a project area and complete a static exhibit project that could be exhibited at the fair. Many workshops provide opportunities for youth to enhance their knowledge in the areas of science, technology, engineering, arts, and math. ![Number of youth reached through camps/workshops](image) ![Number of camps/workshops offered](image) The fall semester was about exploring bugs. They learned that insects have six legs, three body segments and usually a four stage life cycle. They invented their own insects, explored arachnids, engineered their own insect habitats, examined an ant farm, and discovered all about bees from 4-H’er Keifer Carlson! To top it off the semester ended with a visit from ISU Extension and Outreach’s Insect Zoo. **Youth Afterschool Programs** ISU Extension and Outreach in Hancock County offers several different afterschool programs throughout the year. **Clover Kids** Clover Kids is for K-3rd graders. There are nearly 100 Clover Kids in Hancock County. Because of the overwhelming number of youth wanting to be involved we have had to break the sessions down by grade. We have two sessions that meet in West Hancock on Mondays and two sessions that meet after school on Tuesdays at Garner Hayfield Ventura. Our theme this year was World of Science. The kids explored basics of science in the everyday things we do. **After School Kids Club** After School Kids Club (ASK) is for 3rd-4th graders and meets for eight weeks in the spring and fall. Mondays are at Garner Hayfield Ventura and Tuesdays are at West Hancock. The spring semester was about edible science. The semester was packed with rock candy, fizzy lemonade and pop rock science. The kids transformed into junior scientists, allowing them to learn all about chemistry in the kitchen. **The Cool Kids Club** New to our 2018 program lineup was the Cool Kids Club for Garner Hayfield Ventura 5-6th graders. The Cool Kids Club is an eight week afterschool 4-H club that will provide hands-on learning, snacks, team building and games with fellow classmates. Our sessions are based on a focus group made up of kids to get ideas of what this age group would be interested in. They are learning about a variety of fun topics such as prosthetics for pets, ice cream, theater arts, chemistry and more. **The Britt Bakers** The Britt Bakers is a new four week afterschool program offered for West Hancock 5-6th graders. The Britt Bakers focused on the science behind holiday goodies! They learned the difference between hardball and softball candy, what baking powder and baking soda can do for different recipes and how flavoring enhances food. Club Workshops Again in 2018 we provided project workshops for our 4-H clubs. Staff went to club meetings to lead a project workshop of the club’s choice so the kids could leave with a completed fair project and goal sheet. Some of the workshops were Pringles can vases, wind chimes and kindness rocks. First Lego League Hancock County has 12 First Lego League teams: 7 junior teams for grades K-3 and 5 teams for grades 4-8. This year’s topic for the older group is Into Orbit. Teams need to solve a problem concerning life in space and present it to the judges on tournament day, along with programing their robots to solve the missions on the mat. Some space problems the teams are working on are how the loss of gravity affects things, food shortage for astronauts, atrophy, improving medical kits and doing CPR in space, and more. Jason Lackore, Hancock County Naturalist, was able to blow up the space lab and give the kids a presentation about space. Our teams are traveling to compete against other teams across Iowa. The topic for the junior teams is Mission Moon. Teams are looking at what it would take to live on the moon, exploring what they would need to know to live there, what they would eat and drink, how they would get energy, how they would breathe, what they would do for fun, and what other problems they would have to solve. Teams will make a poster and use it along with their moon base to share what they learn about making rules and thriving in a new environment and exploring all that is around them. Youth Cattle Clipping Clinic Fitting For The Finish was a two day cattle clipping clinic held for youth in and surrounding Hancock County. We had 12 youth plus parents participate in this two-day clinic, coming from Hancock, Winnebago, Wright and Kossuth counties. The kids learned about products, equipment, daily hair care, showmanship, and walked through step-by-step how to clip and fit your calf from start to finish. Brittany Weaver, a Hancock County alumni beef exhibitor, lead the clipping and fitting demonstration. Agriculture and Natural Resources ISU Extension and Outreach in Hancock County together with Winnebago County hosted a Master Now to Market Later grain marketing series. About 20 participants met once a week for four weeks. The series concluded with the participants leaving with a rough marketing plan. Community and Economic Development ISU Extension and Outreach in Hancock County hosted a Customer Service Training in September. We had 15 participants who came to listen to Steve Adams, an ISU Extension and Outreach Community Development specialist. We had several employees from Winnebago and Stellar Industries attend. Steve did a great job gearing the information to fit manufacturing needs from the audience. Health and Well-Being In May Iowa State University Extension and Outreach Family Life Specialist Mackenzie Johnson partnered with Brenda Clark Hamilton, a nationally recognized speaker, to provide It’s Not Just Caregiving, a two-series program designed to help caregivers understand the importance of their own physical and emotional care. Mackenzie pulled materials from Iowa ISU Extension and Outreach’s Powerful Tools for Caregiving and combined it with Brenda’s topic about making sure “you as the caregiver” enjoy your life, too. Reaching Out in a New Way In September ISU Extension and Outreach in Hancock County started its own video tip series called Inside Wire. The series covers tips and tricks for everyday life that ISU Extension and Outreach can help with. All of our resources and materials come from ISU Extension and Outreach publications. 100 Year Celebration This year Hancock County celebrated 100 years of organized county extension work. We celebrated in many ways big and small. We added a 100 year celebration corner to our 4-H static exhibit building. Local banks sponsored red 100 year T-shirts for all 4-12th grade 4-Her’s. We created a 100 year calendar featuring current and past 4-H families and volunteers. Our big event was an open house celebration the Saturday afternoon of our county fair. We had a small ceremony to receive the plaque, a 100 year cake made out of round bales, face painting, balloon animals, and to top it off Cy came to visit! Hancock County Extension Staff Trace Lonneman Office Administrator Victoria Schmidt County Youth Coordinator Nikki Renner Youth Enrichment Coordinator Taylor Nelson County Program/Youth Coordinator ISU Extension and Outreach Hancock County 327 W 8th St. Garner, IA 50438 641-923-2856 www.extension.iastate.edu/hancock Iowa State University Extension and Outreach does not discriminate on the basis of age, disability, ethnicity, gender identity, genetic information, marital status, national origin, pregnancy, race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, or status as a U.S. veteran, or other protected classes. Direct inquiries to the Diversity Officer, 515-294-1482, firstname.lastname@example.org. ADV: 18.04H September 2018
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An Enhanced Automated Carbon Exchange (EACE) About fifteen years ago, a land reform in Brazil distributed plots of land in the Amazon to tens of thousands of farmers. Even with Modern technologies the Amazon’s soil turns out to be next to impossible to cultivate because fertilizer is washed in the deep underground during the rainy season. Those who try to farm it today generally practice slash and burn techniques, moving deeper into the jungle after two or three crops, as the soil on previous plots deteriorates. Therefore, the vast majority of the farmers who received Amazonian plots went predictably bankrupt after the third year when the land was exhausted. However, a minority had remarkably abundant crops. The secret turned out to be the soil: they had been lucky enough to receive plots with “Terra Preta do Indio”, literally “black earth made by the Indians”. When scientists examined this soil, they realized that what differentiated it was not the land itself but what people, long ago, had done to it. The history of that soil is a remarkable, tragically unsung saga. An Advanced Pre-colombian Civilization in the Amazon? When the Spanish landed in what is now Ecuador in the 16th century, the indigenous people told them about a mythical land filled with gold deep in the thick jungle beyond the Eastern slopes of the Andes. Thus was born the legend of Eldorado. The Spanish sent many explorers looking for this civilization, the first being Francisco de Orellana. From 1541-42, Orellana traveled from Quito, Ecuador, all the way down the Amazon River in search of this civilization. Friar Gaspar de Carvajal, the expedition’s chaplain and scribe, recorded their journey through an amazing and complex civilization lining the Amazon with large cities and temples interconnected by roads “where four horses could ride abreast”. Among their many adventures, they were attacked by a group of women-warriors, similar in their mind to the Amazons of Greek mythology, an episode which gave that name to the world’s longest river. It did not, however, appear to have any gold. When another expedition tried to trace back Orellana’s path from the mouth of the river more than a decade later, they found only a few tribes scattered in a dense rainforest. Orellana’s description was from then on dismissed as a fantasy. This conclusion was further reinforced during the 20th century on the basis of the argument that a complex civilization could never have existed there because it would require intensive and permanent agriculture to feed cities, something which was known to be impossible in the Amazon…until the rediscovery of the Terra Preta do Indio. We now have proof that an ancient people with advanced pottery and other artifacts had changed the Amazonian soil from one of the poorest on the planet to one of the richest, mainly by adding charcoal produced by burning biomass at a low temperature, some of it carbon dated as early as 800 BC. This was a process Carvajal had described in his account as “local Indians burning their fields”. A civilization now estimated at over a million people thrived for over 1000 years off the black earth its people created. Scientists have mapped the plots of Terra Preta and found them to line the rivers he traveled, the areas in which he described the civilization that disappeared. Lacking the stones that preserve evidence of civilization, this society seems to have been wiped out in a few years from the influenza and smallpox the Spanish brought from the Old World, leaving only a few isolated tribes in its wake. The Amazonian rainforest then erased in a few years their cities made only of earth and wood… Terra Preta is also referred to scientifically as “anthropogenic Amazonian Dark Earths” (ADE). It is a full of organic matter and, specifically a lot of charcoal. The charcoal acts as a kind of sponge, holding nutrients near ground level instead of letting them sink. Furthermore, these particles of charcoal form a basis for very active microbial life, creating the equivalent of a living reef under ground. The resulting soil is incredibly fertile. Austrian soil-scientist Christoph Steiner - who has worked for the past four years on Terra Preta research at the Embrapa research station in Manaus, Brazil and at the Institute of Soil Science at the University of Bayreuth, Germany - has found that this charcoal combined with mineral fertilizer increases yield by some 880% from just using fertilizer, and even more compared to the usual slash and burn, in which the land would be depleted after a few harvests. The implications of this re-discovery are vast. Companies like America’s Eprida, agricultural research institutes in various countries and universities\(^1\) and Kansai Electric(one of the largest power companies in Japan)\(^2\), are working to apply the principles of the Terra Preta or ADE outside its Amazonian home to the rest of the world that badly needs to sequester carbon on a large scale to reverse the global climate change process. From biomass that is currently wasted, this process produces not only charcoal useable as fertilizer while sequestering carbon for the long-term, but also energy (in the form of hydrogen, ethanol, methanol or biodiesel) and some valuable natural oils as well. To be precise, for every 10 tons of biomass processed, 3.2 tons of biodiesel and 1.2 tons of charcoal become available! The scientific aspects of the processes involved are documented elsewhere.\(^3\) The Kyoto Treaty on climate change has become legally binding for 141 countries since November 2004 (Australia and the USA are the only exceptions among the developed nations). Its Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allocates a specific amount of carbon credits to various countries and industries, but allows them to be bought and sold freely. A company that produces more greenhouse gasses than is allocated to it needs to purchase carbon credits sold by another producer that has reduced its emissions beyond what is required in some other part of the world. International trading in carbon contracts on the basis of the CDM protocol of the Kyoto treaty has successfully started. The value of these carbon credits has rapidly increased on the European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading System from a few Euros to about 25 Euros per ton of CO\(_2\), and is expected to rise to 200 Euros per ton by the end of the decade. The volume of trading is estimated at 35 to 50 Billion per year. In the US, the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX) has also started operations, and the States of New Mexico and New York announced their intentions to participate in the carbon credit mechanism. As a consequence, corporations with manufacturing facilities on a global scale will increasingly need to purchase carbon credits in order to offset their own greenhouse gas emissions. The exciting potential of the discoveries about the Terra Preta, and their possible applications in countries all over the world, means that small farmers anywhere would be able to sequester carbon on a large scale and thereby obtain carbon credits they can sell in the world market. Better still, we propose that these credits could become the basis of a complementary currency system that connects farmers with the companies that produce the equipment and technology they need to keep them in business during the 21\(^{st}\) century. This complementary currency would --- \(^1\) Active charcoal research is done by the Terra Preta Nova project involving Wenceslau Geraldes Teixeira, Gilvan Coimbra Martins and Murilo Rodrigues de Arruda and Jose Pereir da Silva at the Embrapa Amazonia Occidental in Manaus, Brazil); K.C. Das at the Bioconversion Research Center of the University of Georgia, Athens, GA; Johannes Lehman, Rondon Marco, Jacqueline Greenwood and Julie Major of the Department of Crop and Soil Science at Cornell University; Don Reicosky at the USDA Soil Conservation, Morris, MN; Matthew Realf and Ling Zhang at Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA; and Prof. Siregar at the Forest and Nature Conservation Research and Development Center of Indonesia; \(^2\) Dr. Okimura from Kansai Electric is involved in projects in Australia and Thailand for utilizing charcoal additions to soil to create carbon credits. Plans include a one million hectares soil restoration project in Australia for growing cash crops, while creating carbon credits. \(^3\) See www.eprida.com and Bruno Glaser and William I. Woods, Eds.: *Amazonian Dark Earths: Explorations in Space and Time*. (Berlin Heidelberg New York: Springer Verlag, 2004) be used in an Enhanced Automated Carbon Exchange (EACE) system, inspired by the automatic trading system that has successfully operated for the chemical industry called Chemconnect. The EACE has three main objectives: - Provide a systematic incentive for farmers and forestry managers around the world to participate in an independently verifiable and financially self-sustaining mechanism for carbon sequestration scalable to the global level, so that they can contribute to the reversal of climate change, deforestation and land degradation that is currently ongoing in much of the world; - Maximize and stabilize the income for participating farmers, including protection against the vagaries of the purchasing power of national currencies. - Improve the transparency of international trade, including in the trade of copyrighted or patented goods. The EACE system would be an Internet-based information exchange system in which information about the carbon credit producers is made available to potential buyers. The information would go beyond the quantity of credits on offer, but also identify their geographical GPS location, the type of crop from which it is produced, some history about the producer(s), soil and other relevant biological information. Carbon-backed currency units are credited to farmers or biomass processors that are meeting the standards for CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) protocol of the Kyoto treaty. Verifiability of carbon sequestration being a key criterion of this protocol, the sequestration process would be independently verifiable by satellite, tracer systems, and/or soil sampling. An algorithm forecasting the output of carbon credits for particular types of farmers and crops in specific regions makes it possible to provide credit ratings for carbon credits in advance of their production. This would enable manufacturers of goods for the farming community to sell equipment based on future carbon production. The interest-free nature of these carbon credits would be a desirable way for farmers to obtain the necessary equipment, fertilizers or supplies that would enable them to increase their production capacity, thereby further enhancing their capacity to sequester more carbon in the future and further increase their income. Here is how it would work in practice: in China, Farmer Lu works a plot of land in the southeast. He learns about the process of carbon sequestering and uses the biomass processor from his cooperative to process the extra biomass from his land—the sheaths, the weeds, the bamboo—instead of burning it or letting it rot. The resulting charcoal he produces reinvigorates his soil, making it more productive in the future. The process also produces some valuable oils and hydrogen which could become the basis of China’s future hydrogen-based economy. For now, however, it serves a different purpose. Indeed, hydrogen is the main component for ethanol, methanol or biodiesel, which he can sell in the local market, thereby doubling or tripling his income, as the bio-energy is often even more valuable than his agricultural crop itself. His charcoal provides him with another interesting revenue source. The entire process sequesters carbon for the long-term because the biomass takes carbon from the atmosphere. However, instead of burning or letting his biomass rot like most farmers do in today’s practice, re-emitting it thereby in the atmosphere, Lu sequesters his organic waste back into his soil in the form of charcoal. This action under the Kyoto Protocol earns him carbon credits verifiable according to the standards set by the CDM (Clean Development Mechanism). Satellite and GPS technology would allow for accurate measurement of Lu’s carbon levels and thereby number of carbon credits he earns. The EACE would then link Farmer Lu’s specific needs (e.g., a tractor or other supplies) with a company that can meet those needs and would like to exchange them for carbon credits. Because we can predict with reasonable accuracy the amount of carbon credits Lu will be able to create over the next few years, Lu could enter into a contract that would allow him to exchange not only his current carbon credits, but also those which he will earn in the future. Assuming both Farmer Lu and the tractor company can come to mutually satisfactory terms, each can obtain what they require through an interest-free loan in carbon credits, without having to rely on the unstable currency markets of their respective national currencies. The payment system for such exchanges could use some highly advanced technologies, more secure and more cost effective on a decentralized basis than what is currently used even in centralized, bank operated credit or debit card payments. An operational example of such a technology is the ViA stored value card which provides state of the art security against fraud for payments by guest workers in the Middle East, a population which is typically not considered bankable.\(^4\) Currently the vast majority of the valuable content of the biomass available in the world is dramatically underutilized, wasted, or disposed of in a way that contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. The technologies now available to process biomass from agricultural, forestry and natural growth can efficiently produce the charcoal that sequesters carbon as fertilizer, as well as produce bioenergy and various other valuable derivatives. The plan is to implement these technologies on a large scale, initially in China and various developing countries, providing for the first time to billions of farmers in the Third World a long-term, predictable income flow in carbon credits. It is therefore opportune to start planning for the design of an Enhanced Automated Carbon Exchange by creating an international alliance among corporations that would be interested in participating in a system that would enable them to use their purchases of carbon credits as a tool to increase their global market penetration. Share The organization structure and mode of operation for the EACE would follow the approach pursued for the creation of the VISA credit card alliance among financial institutions.\(^5\) VISA was started by seven participating banks. Today it is by far the largest financial institution in the world consisting of an alliance of more than 20,000 financial institutions, with an annual volume of US$1.2 trillion. The seven original members of the alliance had the opportunity to design the VISA system, by creating the set of contractual rules of operation of the system --- \(^4\) Credit and debit card security systems is focused only on point-to-point exchanges, i.e. between systems and within systems if they have a secure storage. Two Swedish innovators, Lars Olof Kanngard and Bengt Arnesson have developed a secure payment system for electronic stored value cards that is protecting the transaction END-TO-END, i.e. from the originator to the final user without interruption of the security flow. This technology named STS – Secure Transaction String™ introduced by their company ViA Int’l Co Ltd (www.via.ac) gathers all the information for a transaction (the identification of the payer and the payee, the amount, the currency code and the PIN number) in a low-cost handheld device which is used to create three blocks of information, each separately encoded with a different automatic key. The final result is a totally secure exchange between all parties, unbreakable by hackers of criminal code breakers. Such advanced levels of security are important to preclude fraud in carbon credit exchanges in a highly automated EACE where the participants may otherwise never be in personal contact with each other. \(^5\) See Hock, Dee: a two to the *Birth of the Chaordic Age* (San Francisco: Berrett Koehler, 1999). (including the rule on how to change the rules) which all subsequent members signed. The early participants in the alliance for creating the EACE would have therefore a similar substantial advantage in shaping the system for their own needs. Therefore, the next steps in designing an EACE system would be to identify a group of corporations interested in exploring their interest in participating in designing such a system, and decide what role they would like to play in it. Then, farmers would be educated in the system at the same time as the biomass processing is introduced, so that they can use it to their best advantage.
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Kentville PLAYS KIT Youth Kit #2 12 - 16 PARKS & RECREATION Kentville Kit Overview This week’s kit expands on some of the activities and items we used last time, and also provides you with new items and hobbies to explore! Journaling ................................................................. 3 Planting ........................................................................ 4 Fitness ........................................................................... 5 Skipping ..................................................................... 5 Fitdeck ....................................................................... 7 Sock Ball Games ...................................................... 9 Chalk Challenges .................................................... 10 Sidewalk Twister .................................................... 10 Chalk bullseye ....................................................... 10 Snakes & Ladders .................................................. 11 Build a Shelter .......................................................... 12 Mindfulness ............................................................... 13 Making Mindful Bubbles ...................................... 13 Stress Ball ............................................................. 14 Friendship Bracelets .................................................. 15 Pottery .......................................................................... 16 Coloring ....................................................................... 17 Sudoku ......................................................................... 29 Deck of Cards ............................................................ 31 Tricks ....................................................................... 31 Games ...................................................................... 32 We Need Your Feedback! ........................................ 35 Included in this week’s kit: Skipping rope Chalk Seeds Soil Sponge Mini yarn Beads Dice Paint – white and black Crayons Gum Clay Flour Balloons What you’ll need from Kit 1: Paint Your Pot Scissors Journaling Hopefully you’ve been making daily use of your journal! Don’t forget to use your journal to set goals, reflect on the activities you explore in your kit, and your daily life in general. Here are a few more prompts to keep you motivated. Try and do one each day or every other day! - What did you do today? - What are three things you can’t go without? - When do you feel happiest? - What current event or issue do you feel very strongly about? - What period of your life do you look back upon most fondly? - Finish this thought: *Nobody knows that I …* - Have you ever done something that you thought you couldn’t? - What would you like to tell your future self? - How have you learned from your biggest mistakes? - What do you love most about life? - List 30 things that make you smile. - What do you think your body would say if it could talk? Grab your crayons to add a splash of color! Doodle or add drawings to add to your reflections. Planting Mint is a tasty perennial (which means it lives for more than two years), with a refreshing scent that you’ll be sure to recognize. It makes a great intro for beginner gardeners, so get out your newly decorated pots from last week and get planting! You may have noticed a hole at the bottom of your pot. This is a drainage hole to make sure water doesn’t build up at the bottom and ruin your plant. Outdoors, this will be less of an issue, but since you should at least start your plant indoors, make sure you cover the hole with something that lets the water seep through without soil making it to the floor. If you have it at home, you could use a once-folded piece of newspaper or a coffee filter. Or you can keep it in the sink or over another dish until the water is no longer dripping. Then you can hang it back up in your macramé holder! Step 1: Once you’ve lined the bottom of your pot (should you choose to), you can pour your soil into it! Step 2: Space your seeds out so that they are 1cm or half an inch apart (get out your ruler if you like!) Step 3: Your seeds don’t need to be buried very deep at all! Just 3mm into the soil. Step 4: Water your mint and hang in your macramé holder! Continuing care Hang or place your mint somewhere where it has access to sun. Water your mint regularly. Your soil should always be somewhat moist. Starting indoors, your mint should start to sprout within 10 -15 days. Your mint will need regular water to keep it moist. It’s something you can take care of and watch grow over time. Enjoy it! Try logging its growth in your journal. Draw what it looks like when you start, as it sprouts, and any other times that you notice a difference. Write down when you start to notice its scent. Once it’s big enough, you can trim the leaves and add flavour to your water, cooking or a cool glass of lemonade on a hot day. Yum! Fitness Let’s get moving! Take out your journal. Take a look at your fitness goals over the past few weeks. Did you meet your objectives? Was it a little too hard? Maybe it was too easy! Before you get started on your goals for this week, reflect on what you think went well and what you can keep improving on. Here are a few questions you can try and answer in your journal: Have you noticed any patterns in your exercise routine? Are some days easier than others to get motivated? Are some days easier than others when you’re actually doing your workout activity? Do you ever dread a workout or activity and then feel way better afterwards? Try and write down things you think make it easier or more challenging for you personally. Maybe you find it really hard to get motivated or to get the energy to move your body at certain times of day. Try and pinpoint when you enjoy exercising most and what workouts are your favorite. Skipping This week, your kit includes a new skipping rope so hop to it! This old-school recess favorite has great fitness benefits for youth and adults. Jumping rope is an effective cardio exercise that works your arms, legs, and core, helps strengthen your bones, and improves balance. Here’s a jump rope routine to get you back into a bouncy fitness rhythm: Begin each move standing with your knees slightly bent, holding the rope at about hip height, with your palms facing your body. With each jump, push evenly off the balls of your feet, keeping your knees soft and your torso upright. Resist the urge to bounce between jumps. Move 1: Basic Jump Swing the rope over your head and jump as it passes your feet (see left below). You don’t have to jump high, just enough to clear the rope (see right below). Land evenly on both feet. Continue for one minute, then rest for one minute. Move 2: Alternate-Foot Jump Swing the rope over your head and jump as it passes your feet (left). Land on your right foot (right). On the next rotation, land on your left. Continue this, as if you were running in place, for one minute. Rest for one minute. Move 3: Combo Jump Repeat the alternate-foot jump for eight turns of the rope (near right). Next, do eight basic jumps (far right). Continue this alternating pattern for one minute, rest for one minute, then repeat the sequence one more time. Move 4: High Step Repeat the alternate-foot jump (near right), but this time raise each knee to a 90-degree angle while jumping (far right). Continue for one minute, then rest for one minute. Move 5: Endurance Jump Do either the basic jump or the alternate-foot jump for five minutes. If you can’t keep it up that long, start by jumping for one minute, resting for one minute, and repeating for five sets. Aim to complete at least 600 jumps total. Fitdeck Pull out your fitdeck! This kit includes a new set of exercises to try out! In addition to this new set of exercises, you can amp up your workout and include cardio by warming up with or incorporating your skipping rope. You can assign each of the activities below to the card suits like you did in your first kit. Sit-ups are often confused with crunches. Sit-ups engage a variety of muscles around the core, including the back, neck, chest and hips, whereas crunches focus exclusively on the abdominal muscles. Neither one is better than the other, but both offer a great workout! 1. Lie down on your back. 2. Bend your legs and stabilize your lower body. 3. Cross your hands to opposite shoulders, or place them behind your ears without pulling on your neck. 4. Lift your upper body from the ground. Exhale as you rise. 5. Return to your starting point. Inhaling as you lower back down. Keep your back straight as you move up and down as shown in the pictures to the right. This is what strengthens your core! Tricep Dips are an exercise that you can use to build your arms at home, at the gym, or even on a park bench during your morning run. The dip’s accessibility makes it a versatile exercise, but you need to be careful about form to stay safe and get the best results. Try tricep dips on a park bench, or the ground and see what works best for you. The instructions below outline the bench dip, but the only differences between the two are that your bum may touch the ground if starting on the floor, and your knees will be bent the whole time. 1. Scoot off of your seat, supporting yourself with your hands. Drive your weight into the palms of your hands and the soles of your feet, with straight arms as shown. Your legs should still have a slight bend so as not to lock your knees! 2. Slowly begin to lower yourself until your arms reach a 90-degree angle, engaging your core and leg muscles. As you lower, think about keeping your elbows from flaring out. They should stay pointed directly behind you. 3. Don’t let your bum touch the ground! Pause for a moment once your elbow reaches 90 degrees. Slowly return to your starting position and repeat. Lunges can help you develop lower-body strength and endurance. When done correctly, lunges can effectively target your lower-body muscles without placing added strain on your joints. 1. Stand tall with feet hip-width apart. Engage that core! 2. Take a big step forward with right leg. Start to shift your weight forward so heel hits the floor first, but still keeping your back straight. 3. Lower your body until right thigh is parallel to the floor and right shin is vertical. It’s ok if your knee shifts forward a little as long as it doesn’t go past your toe. If mobility allows, lightly tap left knee to the floor while keeping weight in right heel. 4. Press into your right heel to drive back up to the starting position and repeat on the other side (on the spot) OR step from one side forward into the other (walking lunges). Leg Raises, despite the name, work your abs more than your legs. They can also improve strength and flexibility in your back and hips. We’ve done core exercises before, but this one focuses specifically on the lower abs, which makes it especially challenging. Try it out! 1. Lie on your back, legs straight and together. 2. Keep your legs straight and lift them all the way up to the ceiling until your butt comes off the floor. 3. Slowly lower your legs back down till they’re just above the floor. Hold for a moment. 4. Raise your legs back up. Repeat. Keep logging your workouts and setting new goals! Don’t forget to reflect each week on your challenges and improvements! Active for Life Sock Ball Games 1. PREPARE YOUR PLAY AREA Remove breakable objects such as lamps, electronics, flower vases, etc. The play area can be a bedroom, living room, or anywhere there is enough space to throw, catch or kick a ball and swing a simple bat. Objects like pillows, chairs, sofas and boxes can be used as goals or targets for some games. 2. MAKE A SOCK BALL Roll and fold a pair of socks inside each other. For larger balls, use 3-4 pairs of socks, or use heavy adult-size work socks. 3. GET READY TO PLAY! SOCCER One player: Practice shooting on a “goal” (living room sofa, door opening, laundry hamper laid on its side). Two or more players: Play a game 1-versus-1 or 2-versus-2 (use sofas, doorways, etc. as goals). THROW AND CATCH Stand 3-5 metres apart and throw to each other. Start with gentle underhand throws. As throwing and catching improve: throw faster, throw overhand, and even try trick throws (throw from behind your back, under your legs, from behind your head, etc.). BASKETBALL One player: Practice shooting on a “basket” (laundry hamper, small cardboard box, or other container turned upright). Two or more players: Play 1-versus-1 or 2-versus-2 in a competitive shootout challenge. Take turns shooting from different distances. No blocking allowed. DODGE BALL Make two or three sock balls per person. Players are allowed to pick up balls from opponents and throw back at them. Players are only permitted to throw from their “home base” (sofa, bed, or other designated place). No “elimination” when you are hit—keep playing. BOWLING Set up 6 empty milk cartons or plastic bottles as bowling “pins.” One player: One child can play alone after a parent shows how to setup the bowling pins. Two or more players: Play against each other in a competition. BASEBALL BATTING Use a cardboard tube, roll a newspaper with tape, or get a plastic vacuum cleaner pipe to use as a baseball bat. Take turns pitching and batting the sock ball. With three or more players, extra players are “fielders” who try to catch the ball after it has been hit. After 10 hits, change batters. Chalk Challenges You can use your chalk for SO many different things! It’s an awesome tool not only for any artistic patterns you can come up with, but also to get you and your friends or family moving together, and from a safe distance! Here are just some of the countless ways you can use your chalk. Playing outdoors can make your experience more fulfilling, and using chalk will allow you to socialize with friends while maintaining social distancing for games like tic tac toe or traditional boardgames like snakes & ladders. You could even take one of your suduko puzzles and map it outdoors! Sidewalk Twister A fun spin on an old classic! Get outside and get twisted. This activity lets you test your strength, flexibility, and coordination, through some fun competition. You can have family members challenge each other by calling out left/right hand/foot to each color, use your dice and assign different values or make your own rules! Not recommended to play with those outside your bubble! Here’s a set of rules you can start with: 1 – 6 = left 7 – 12 = right Odd number = hand Even number = foot 1 – 3 = green 4 – 6 = yellow 7 – 9 = blue 10 – 12 = red Example: if you rolled a 7, you’d call right hand blue. Alternatively, you can roll the dice three times to determine left/right, hand/foot, and your color. Chalk bullseye Time for target practice! Draw yourselves a bullseye and assign values to each circle. As far as throwing goes, you can find rocks to throw into the target, use your dice from earlier or, if it’s a hot day, grab your sponge and bucket of water to toss in the rings. Be sure to mark where the throw line is. Come up with new angles and distances to challenge each other to throw from! If you want, make it into a game of horse, where everyone has to hit the same target. After everyone throws, have each participant tally their own scores. At the end, add them all up to see who wins! Snakes & Ladders Make your own snakes and ladders board! You can use markers for each player, or you can walk the course yourself! Roll the dice to see who goes first. If you land at the bottom of a ladder, move up to the other end. If you land at the top of a snake, you’ll slide back down. The winner is whoever gets to the final square first! Hopscotch Have you ever had a piece of chalk and not played hopscotch? I don’t think so! Have fun creating elaborate courses and jumping through them. Hopscotch makes you practice your balance and fundamental movement skills like jumping. Try drawing them on sidewalks nearby for folks in your neighbourhood to jump through on their journey! If you want to kick things up a notch, you can create a hopscotch (or plain) obstacle course using exercises covered in your fitdeck, as well as your frisbee, and skipping rope! Try combining activities, see what other ones you can come up with and have yourselves a Chalk Challenge Olympics! Play Tic-tac-toe! What else can you think of? Try and come up with 5 new games or ways to use your chalk! Build a Shelter Connect with nature and learn a new skill! The following instructions will help you build an A-Frame Shelter. A-Frame Shelters are awesome because they’re easy to build and all you need is nature! It’s an awesome skill to have and gives you a space all to yourself wherever you are. How to Build the Shelter: 1. Find one long, sturdy branch. It should be a few feet longer than your height. 2. Prop one end of branch up on a tree stump or log. Alternatively, you can prop it up on two shorter branches, making an A shape. 3. Lean shorter branches against the branch. Now you have a frame. 4. Now cover the frame with leaves, branches, or other brush. You can also make this survival shelter against fallen trees. Or, for a larger A frame shelter, prop up both ends of your long branch. With this method though, wind can blow in from the sides and it also won’t trap your body heat as well. Mindfulness Mindfulness is often associated with yoga, but mindfulness can be practiced anytime and anyplace. We can practice mindfulness by focusing on the present, taking things one thing at a time, and paying attention to ourselves and our surroundings. This helps us take a step back from the things that are stressing us out. Sometimes when we’re stressed, it can feel like we’re trapped inside a bubble. Taking a moment to practice mindfulness can give us another perspective that makes life seem a little less overwhelming. The following exercises can help you refocus on the present moment when life gets to be too much. If you feel like it, try writing down how you feel beforehand in your journal, then again after your mindfulness activity. Do you notice any difference? This mindfulness exercise can be used to focus attention to your breathing and to calm your body. Use it throughout your yoga practice from your first kit, and in everyday life when you need a moment to reset. Making Mindful Bubbles Breakout your pack of gum and get chewing! For two minutes try blowing bubbles with your gum. It’s okay if you don’t make the best bubbles. Just keep trying! Focus on your breath, what happens to your bubbles if you change the way you breathe? Let go of any judgement of yourself or those around you. Stress Balls Sometimes mindfulness just isn’t enough! Here’s a guide to making your own stress ball when you just need to squeeze something! 1. Grab an old plastic bottle, your balloons, flour, scissors and a piece of paper. 2. Take your piece of paper and make a cone funnel. 3. Pour your flour through the funnel, into the bottle. 4. Blow up your balloon to give it some stretch (not all the way). Twist the end, so it doesn’t deflate. 5. Secure the balloon on the top of the bottle, flip the bottle over and squeeze all the flour into the balloon. 6. Slowly deflate the balloon, cut off the end. Take a second balloon, cut off its end so that it covers the hole of the first balloon. Repeat with your third balloon and you’re done! Friendship Bracelets It can be hard to find ways to connect with others right now, especially while distancing ourselves. Create a friendship bracelet for someone you miss or want to show appreciation for! What you’ll need: Scissors Mini yarn Beads Something to keep your bracelet in place Getting Started: 1) First, cut 60cm of your mini yarn and hold the end in place with tape, a clipboard, or whatever you have available. Then, cut a second, 100cm piece. Connect the pieces with a knot that marks the midway point of the long cord, and that’s 6cm from the top of the first cord, as shown in the photo below. 2) Make fourteen square knots (take a look at your knot guide from kit 1!) with the two outer cords. 3) Slide a bead onto the middle cord. Tie another square knot after it. 4) Continue sliding one bead at a time and securing it with the square knot until you are happy with how it looks. 5) Tie thirteen more square knots, then trim the excess of the outer cords, making a little knot to clean them up. 6) Line up and overlap both ends of your middle cord. Cut another 15cm and tie six more square knots around the middle cords. Then cut off any extra cord and tie a knot. Trim any bits that are messy! You’re done! Now give your gift to whomever you choose! Pottery Your kit this week comes with air dry clay. You can create lots of awesome things with it, but since it doesn’t go in a kiln or oven, it is not food safe, so don’t make a mug or bowl that you plan on eating from! We’re going to print plants in clay! This activity is a simple one to introduce you to pottery, but it will take place over a few days, as the clay takes a long time to dry! If you have any clay leftover once you’re done, put it in a ziplock bag with a sprinkle of water to keep it fresh, and think of what else you can make! Before you begin: Your clay comes with instructions on the back of the package, as well, but FIRST, we need to get outside collect some nature for our art! Go for a trail walk or gather materials while you’re outside doing another activity. Anything that catches your eye will work, but gather some flowers, grass, leaves, shells, pinecones, whatever you like. This is what we’ll be pressing into our clay. Once you’ve collected your nature, make sure you have a clear space that you don’t have to worry about getting messy. Get yourself a bowl of warm water, a cloth or paper towel to clean as you go, and a rolling pin (anything you can roll with – like a smooth water bottle) or something to press your clay down flat with like a book. Make sure you dress for the mess! Getting Started: 1) After you unwrap your clay, you’ll want to dip your hands in water as you start to handle it. Notice the texture. How does it feel in your hands? As you knead it with your fingers, start to flatten it out. Grab whatever you have at home to flatten it, you’ll want it to be no more than 1cm thick. Don’t use too much clay, and make sure it’s in a shape you like. You can add a hole or groove in the back if you think you’d like to hang it or give it to someone as jewelry. 2) Take your collection of nature and start pressing it into the clay (dried plants are fine, but fresh ones will make for sharper, more pronounced lines) with whatever you’re using to press it down. 3) Once it’s pressed down, remove all of your materials from the clay. You may need to pick some pieces out with your fingers or a pair of tweezers if you have them. If you want, you can press stones or even beads from your bracelet activity into it to make a border! 4) Now you’ll leave your piece to dry for at least one day, maybe longer if it still doesn’t feel dry enough. You might want to leave it in under a flat heavy object to make sure the clay doesn’t curl or warp as it hardens. This piece may also act as a mold if you want another set of prints that look like they’re coming out at you. It will be delicate as it dries, but don’t worry, you have plenty of clay for multiple attempts. The pictures shown use far more than is needed! 5) If you would like to, make a second print by using your now completely dry original. Keep in mind, it will be delicate! 6) Depending on the shape you’ve made, you may be able to make a piece of jewelry out of it! You can use your bracelet making materials, as well as the leftover paint from kit 1 (You’ve received black and white this time so you can play with shades and tones even more)! Once it dries, hang it, place it or give it to someone! You’re done! Coloring Coloring may seem like a mindless activity at times, but think again! Here are some of the great benefits of coloring in youth and adulthood. Reduce Stress & Anxiety Coloring has the ability to relax the fear center of your brain, the amygdala. It induces the same state as meditating by reducing the thoughts of a restless mind. This generates mindfulness and quietness, which allows your mind to get some rest after a long day at work. Improve Motor Skills & Vision Coloring goes beyond being a fun activity for relaxation. It requires the two hemispheres of the brain to communicate. While logic helps us stay inside the lines, choosing colors generates a creative thought process. Improve Sleep We know we get a better night’s sleep when avoiding engaging with electronics at night, because exposure to the emitted light reduces your levels of the sleep hormone, melatonin. Coloring is a relaxing and electronic-free bedtime ritual that won’t disturb your level of melatonin. Improve Focus Coloring requires you to focus, but not so much that it’s stressful. It opens up your frontal lobe, which controls organizing and problem solving, and allows you to put everything else aside and live in the moment, generating focus. You don’t have to be an expert artist to color! If you’re looking for an uplifting way to unwind after a stressful day at work, coloring will surely do the trick. Pick something that you like and color it however you like! Convinced yet? The next few pages offer some templates for you to get coloring! 19 You are amazing! MISS JENNY Doodle Art Alley © 27 Seasons Greetings Sudoku Remember the rules from your first kit? Here are six more sudoku puzzles to solve! You can find the solutions on the next page. Easy 1 | 7 | | 9 4 | |---|---|-----| | 1 9 2 | | 7 | | 5 4 | 3 | 2 | | 6 | 8 7 5 | 4 1 | | 9 6 | | 5 | | 3 | 4 | 6 | | 7 | 2 | 3 | | | 5 | 8 9 | Easy 2 | 8 | 2 9 | 5 4 | |---|---|-----| | 3 2 | | 7 8 | | 5 | | | | | 4 9 | 6 5 | | 3 | | | | 7 8 1 | | | | 8 | 5 | 9 | | 7 3 | | 5 | | 2 1 7 | | | Medium 1 | 6 | 9 | | 1 | 4 | 8 | |---|---|---|---|---|---| | 1 | | 2 | 5 | | | | 9 3 | 7 4 | 2 1 | 6 | | 5 | 6 | 8 | | | 3 | | | 8 | | | | 7 | | | 5 | | | | | Medium 2 | 7 | | | 2 | 3 | 5 | |---|---|---|---|---|---| | 8 | | | | 3 | 8 | | 9 5 | | | 1 | 2 | | | 4 | 5 | 1 | | | | | | 8 | | | | | | 2 | | | | | 4 | | 5 | 4 | | 9 8 | | 6 | | 3 | | | 7 2 | 1 | | Hard 1 | 6 | | 5 | | | | |---|---|---|---|---|---| | | 5 9 7 | | | | | | 8 | | 4 | | 9 6 | | | 4 7 8 | | | 9 6 | 2 | | 2 3 9 | | | | 5 | | 9 | | 2 | | | 1 | Hard 2 | | | 3 | | 1 | |---|---|---|---|---| | | 8 | | 5 | 4 | | | | | 6 7 | | | 5 | | | 9 2 | 3 | | 3 9 | | 2 | | | | 2 | | 3 | 8 | | | 4 9 | | | | | | 3 | 7 | 6 | 1 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 9 | 4 | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | 4 | 5 | 8 | 3 | 9 | 7 | 1 | 6 | 2 | | 1 | 9 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 3 | | 5 | 4 | 7 | 9 | 3 | 1 | 6 | 2 | 8 | | 6 | 2 | 3 | 8 | 7 | 5 | 9 | 4 | 1 | | 8 | 1 | 9 | 6 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 7 | | 9 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 4 | 8 | 2 | 1 | 6 | | 7 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 9 | 4 | 3 | 5 | | 2 | 6 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 3 | 8 | 7 | 9 | | 7 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 9 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 4 | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 9 | | 4 | 5 | 9 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 3 | | 3 | 1 | 7 | 4 | 2 | 9 | 6 | 5 | 8 | | 2 | 9 | 8 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 4 | 7 | 1 | | 5 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 1 | 3 | 9 | 2 | | 8 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 7 | 9 | 3 | 6 | | 1 | 7 | 3 | 9 | 6 | 2 | 8 | 4 | 5 | | 9 | 6 | 5 | 8 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 7 | | 3 | 5 | 9 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 7 | 1 | 2 | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | 6 | 7 | 2 | 9 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 8 | | 8 | 1 | 4 | 7 | 3 | 2 | 9 | 5 | 6 | | 9 | 3 | 6 | 8 | 7 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 5 | | 7 | 4 | 8 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 9 | | 5 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 9 | 3 | 8 | 4 | 7 | | 4 | 9 | 7 | 1 | 5 | 6 | 2 | 8 | 3 | | 1 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 8 | 7 | 5 | 9 | 4 | | 2 | 8 | 5 | 3 | 4 | 9 | 6 | 7 | 1 | | 3 | 7 | 6 | 8 | 5 | 9 | 4 | 2 | 1 | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | 1 | 8 | 2 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 3 | 9 | 5 | | 9 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 6 | 7 | 8 | | 4 | 6 | 9 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 7 | 8 | 2 | | 7 | 2 | 3 | 9 | 8 | 4 | 1 | 5 | 6 | | 8 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 7 | 9 | 3 | 4 | | 2 | 9 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 5 | 8 | 6 | 7 | | 5 | 1 | 7 | 6 | 9 | 8 | 2 | 4 | 3 | | 6 | 3 | 8 | 4 | 7 | 2 | 5 | 1 | 9 | | 6 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 8 | 2 | 7 | 9 | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | 2 | 4 | 5 | 9 | 7 | 6 | 1 | 8 | 3 | | 7 | 8 | 9 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 5 | 9 | 3 | 6 | 4 | 2 | 7 | 1 | 8 | | 1 | 2 | 8 | 5 | 3 | 7 | 9 | 6 | 4 | | 4 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 1 | 5 | 3 | 2 | | 8 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 9 | 6 | 4 | 7 | | 9 | 1 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 5 | | 3 | 7 | 4 | 2 | 6 | 5 | 8 | 9 | 1 | | 2 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 3 | 9 | 8 | 5 | 1 | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | 3 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 8 | 6 | 7 | 9 | 2 | | 9 | 7 | 8 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 3 | 6 | 4 | | 4 | 8 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 6 | 7 | 9 | | 5 | 9 | 3 | 6 | 7 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 8 | | 6 | 1 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 5 | | 1 | 3 | 9 | 5 | 6 | 8 | 2 | 4 | 7 | | 7 | 2 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 3 | 9 | 8 | 6 | | 8 | 6 | 4 | 9 | 2 | 7 | 5 | 1 | 3 | Deck of Cards Here are a few ways to keep using your deck of cards! Tricks Card tricks are a fun way to entertain others, but the practice it takes to get good is done solo. Try practicing these card tricks when you’re at a loss for what to do on a rainy day. Amazing Aces The spectator takes a pack of cards and deals them into four piles. When the dealing process is finished, one ace is found on top of each pile. Explanation: Before the trick begins, secretly remove the four aces and place them on the bottom of the deck. Offer the deck to your spectator and ask them to deal the cards into four piles one card at a time. While it isn’t important if your volunteer deals a few cards consecutively in the same pile, it is important that the last four cards (the aces) are dealt singularly onto each of the piles. A helpful idea to accomplish this is to say “really think about where you deal each card,” as you volunteer comes closer to the bottom of the deck. If you’re not comfortable with this, simply instruct your spectator to deal the cards one at a time into four piles. Once the dealing sequence is complete, ask them to turn over the top card of each pile to reveal that they’ve found the four aces! A Coincidence The magician removes two predictions from the pack and sets them on the table. A volunteer is invited to deal through the deck face down until they’re satisfied. At this point either prediction is selected and placed face up on the dealt cards. The balance of the deck is placed on top. The procedure is then repeated. After the second prediction has been lost, the magician spreads the cards and locates the two face-up predictions. After taking the single cards immediately above the predictions, it is revealed that the spectator has placed each prediction next to their mates in the deck! Explanation: As you look through the deck to find your two “predictions,” note the top and bottom card of the pack. Let’s say in this example that the top card is the Eight of Hearts, and the bottom is the Five of Spades. In this situation your predictions should be the mates of these two cards (Eight of Diamonds and the Five of Clubs). Place the predictions face up on the table and invite a spectator to deal through the deck face down until they are satisfied. When they stop dealing, invite them to place either prediction face-up on the dealt cards and drop the balance of the deck on top of the prediction. Repeat this process for the second prediction. After this is complete, ribbon spread the deck revealing where the spectator has chosen to place the two predictions, then take the card immediately above both face-up cards. You’re now ready to reveal that the spectator has placed the cards you selected next to their mates. Pick a Card, Any Card A classic of card magic. The magician offers the cards to a spectator and asks for a selection to be made. After noting their card, the spectator is invited to return the card to the deck. The magician then goes through the pack and is able to easily divine the identity of the selection. Explanation: Before the trick begins, separate the cards into red and black halves. When the spectator selects his card, note whether or not his selection comes from the red or black portion of the deck. If they’ve selected a red card, when the spectator places their card back in the deck, make sure they return their card to the black half. The opposite applies if the selection is a black card. It’s now easy to figure out what the selection is; simply go through the pack and find the card in the wrong group. Blind Three Card Monte The Queen of Hearts and two black Aces are removed from the deck and placed face-up in front of the spectator. The magician then turns his/her back and invites the spectator to think of any of the three cards, flip them face down and mix them up. After looking at each card, the magician is able to tell exactly which of the three cards the spectator is thinking of. Explanation: Lay the cards face-up as follows: Ace of Spades, Queen of Hearts, Ace of Clubs. Turn your back and invite the spectator to think of any of the three cards, and then switch the positions of the two cards that they’re not thinking of (i.e. if the Ace of Spades is the mental selection, then the spectator switches the positions of the Queen and the Ace of Clubs). Instruct your volunteer to turn all three cards face down. When this is complete turn around and look at the three face down cards. At this point you instruct the spectator to mix all three cards on the table. What you must do is follow the card in the center. When the spectator is finished shuffling look at the card you’ve followed. If the card you’re looking at is the Queen of Hearts, their mental selection was the Queen. If you are looking at the Ace of Spades, then their mental selection is the Ace of Clubs. Should you be looking at the Ace of Clubs, their mental selection is the Ace of Spades. Reveal their thoughts, and they’ll be guessing for days. Games As things start opening up, you may be starting to spend time with others outside of your household. Here are a few games you can play with your deck of cards! Go Fish Requires: 2-6 players, standard deck of cards (no Jokers) If there are three or more players, each player is dealt five cards. If there are only two players, deal 7 cards to each. The remaining cards are placed in a pile between all the players. Starting with the player to the left of the dealer, each player takes a turn asking another player if they have a specific card rank (e.g. “Phoebe, do you have any nines?” or “Joe, do you have any Queens?”). If asked for a rank he has in his hand, a player must hand over all of the cards of that rank. The asker then gets to take another turn. If a player has no cards of the requested rank, he responds, “Go fish.” The asker then draws a card from the pile. If he happens to draw the card he was requesting, the asker shows the card to the group as proof and takes another turn. How do you win? Players try to form sets of four-of-a-kind. When they do, the four cards are immediately placed on the table face up. Play continues until all books have been made. Winner is the player who makes the most books. Concentration Requires: 2+ people (the more the merrier!), one deck of cards, jokers removed. Game play Make sure the deck is well shuffled before laying out the cards, facedown, in four rows of 13 cards. Each player takes turns flipping two cards face-up — if they are of the same number and color (e.g., 9♣ and 9♣, or Q♥ and Q♦), then that player wins the pair and gets another turn. If the cards are not of the same number and color, they are turned back facedown, and it becomes the next player’s turn to pick two cards. The game continues until players have picked up all the pairs; the winner is the player with the most pairs. Objective: Turn over more pairs of matching cards than your opponent. Mix it up Any Color: Good for young children. Any number pairings are a match, regardless of color. Zebra: Pairs match with opposite colors (J♦ would match with J♠ or J♣, but not J♥) Two Decks: For a much longer game, lay them out in 8 rows of 13 cards. Pairs must be same number and same suit (10♣ with 10♣). Fancy: The card layout can be in any formation the dealer may choose — circle, triangle, or pyramid. Spaghetti: Cards are strewn about randomly on the floor in no shape or pattern, making the card locations tougher to remember. Crazy Eights Requires: 2 to 5 players can play with one deck (shuffle in a second deck for more players), no jokers Game play Deal 8 cards to each player. Place the remaining cards facedown in the center of the table. Turn the top card face-up next to the stack. The player to the dealer’s left will then play a card that matches either the rank or suit of the face-up card. For example, if the face-up card is 4♥, then the player can play any 4 or any heart. If a player cannot play on the face-up card, then he draws facedown cards from the stockpile until he finds a playable card. Whenever the stockpile runs out, the top card is removed from the face-up pile and the cards are reshuffled. All 8s are wild and players can use them when they don’t have another card to play or at other strategic times. The person who plays the 8 calls out what suit they want it to represent and the next player must play a card of that suit. If the Q♣ is played, the following player picks up 5. If a 2 is played, the next player picks up 2 cards, if they lay another 2 (or multiples) the next player picks up the accumulative number (2, 4, 6, 8). Objective: The first player who runs out of cards wins the game. Make it more fun Spice it up with your own rules. Make 4s reverse the order of play. Or have Kings skip the next player. Make it sillier by having 7s mean the players have to touch their nose. Let your imaginations run wild. Grab a pen and paper and write everyone’s names down for Crazy Eight Countdown. Once a player gets rid of all their cards deal 7 cards. 8s are now normal, and 7s are crazy. Repeat with 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1. The first player to get rid of all their cards at each number wins! American Sign Language Alphabet It’s never too early, or late to learn a new language. Learning sign language is a great way to help build more inclusive and accessible communities. Start practicing by trying to spell your name! We Need Your Feedback! To make sure we’re meeting your needs please fill out this form to return to your kit provider during the next drop off. This will help us identify what folks are most interested in. Feel free to use the back of this page if you need more room. Look back through your journal when thinking about your answers! If you have online access and prefer to submit electronically, you can contact firstname.lastname@example.org for a link to the form. Do you have regular/home access to: Phone yes / no Computer yes / no Internet/data yes / no Smartphone or tablet yes / no 1. What was your favorite activity in this kit? 2. What was your least favorite activity in this kit (that you participated in)? 3. Were there any activities you chose not to participate in? 4. If yes, which ones? Why did you choose not to try that activity? 5. Are there any items you did not use in this kit? 6. Since receiving your kit, have you found any other uses for the items provided? 7. When using your kit, did you run out of any of the supplies before completing any activity? 8. Were there any activities you would like to see included again? 9. Overall, do you feel equipped to repeat the activities in this kit on your own moving forward? 10. Have you found any new interests or hobbies since receiving your kit? 11. Was there anything that made it particularly easy or difficult to use your kit regularly?
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The Minnesota Heritage Songbook compiled and edited by Robert B. Waltz in cooperation with the Fort Snelling State Park Association. This project has been financed in part with funds provided by the State of Minnesota through the Minnesota Sesquicentennial Commission’s Grants Program. www.MNHeritageSongbook.net Copyright ©2008 Robert B. Waltz Minnesota became a state in 1858. This book came into being in 2008. Those dates are not coincidence — the purpose of this book is to celebrate Minnesota’s sesquicentennial, and to help us remember the lives and times of the people who made the state what it is. To do this, we’re using folk music — here defined as songs which people preserved by singing them, not just by listening. These are songs that people passed on to other people, and which still exist because people sang them to their children, their friends — eventually, to total strangers. Most states have had folk song collectors travel them looking for these songs. Relatively little of this has been done in Minnesota, and what has been done was mostly done after the best singers were gone. To a large extent, this book relies on printed sources and occasional manuscript collections, though we’ve tried to find singers who still remember their family songs. The most important of the printed sources is certainly Michael Cassius Dean’s *The Flying Cloud*. Dean was a sailor on the Great Lakes, and in 1922, he gathered together the songs he had learned on the Lakes and had them published. The great folk song scholar D. K. Wilgus said of Dean, “The book certainly seems to be a slice of the repertoire of the Northern folksingers… the editors of random-text collections have consciously and unconsciously followed the organization and texts of *The Flying Cloud*” (D. K. Wilgus, *Anglo-American Folksong Scholarship since 1898*, Rutgers University Press, 1959, p. 210). Dean’s book is long out of print, and it contains words only, with no tunes and no source information (not even composer information); this book tries to follow its best traits of selection while adding organization, background information, additional songs from other sources — and, of course, tunes. This is a key element of the songs in this book: They are meant to be sung. A song only becomes a folk song by singing. So any song in this book is one that has a solid tune, worthy of people’s voices. Sometimes this means leaving out a song with much historical value if it doesn’t sing well. And we have included a few very singable songs whose Minnesota connections are questionable, as long as they illustrate Minnesota’s heritage. One noteworthy omission in this book is the music of the Dakota, Ojibwe, and other native peoples. This is not because I’m unaware of its significance — rather, it is because it is so great a subject that it needs specialist treatment. The first great work in this area was done by Minnesota native Frances Densmore, and other publications have appeared since; I urge you to consult those volumes. For the same reason, the native-language songs of the immigrants to Minnesota are under-represented, though I’ve included a few well-known examples to give a feel for these songs. Folk songs have more influence than most of us realize. The legend of Robin Hood began in songs and ballads; though none are known in Minnesota, there was a version of “Robin Hood and Little John” collected in Ohio; other Robin Hood songs have been found in Virginia, the Appalachians, New England, and eastern Canada. There would have been no “Beggar’s Opera” (and hence no “Threepenny Opera”) had John Gay not used folk tunes. In more recent times, Wallace Stegner wrote a novel inspired by the hobo song “The Big Rock Candy Mountain,” and the Finnish epic *The Kalevala* inspired J. R. R. Tolkien — indeed, I think one of his Entish songs was was influenced by “Eikä ne haaven lehdeht lakkaa,” which Marjorie Edgar heard sung on the Iron Range. One of the interesting things about folk song is how the songs often stay relevant long after they were composed. No one will ever vote for Thomas Jefferson or Abraham Lincoln, of course, but a song like “When This Cruel War Is Over” is just as meaningful in 2008 as when it was written during the Civil War. We hope you will find these songs as beautiful, and as meaningful, as we do. This project isn’t finished! We had only a limited time to put this book together, meaning that I had to rely primarily on my personal library. There was little time to look over the Edgar papers at the Minnesota Historical Society, and none to look over the Morris Collection at the Minneapolis Public Library. And we managed only two “collecting sessions.” We couldn’t even include all we found, because this book had to be limited to 80 pages due to budget constraints. But we intend to do more. Work is already underway on a CD-ROM which will include more songs, MIDI files of every song in this book, MP3 recordings of many of them, a database of all folk songs found in Minnesota (whether they’re in this book or not), an annotated copy of Dean in PDF format, and whatever else we can think of. We hope to make this CD available as a supplement to this book. Watch the Minnesota Heritage Songbook web site (www.MNHeritageSongbook.net) for details. This site also includes the MIDI files and other resources for use with the songbook. And don’t forget that you can be part of this! If your family has a tradition of folk songs (songs handed down from generation to generation), we want them — both for the Heritage Songbook project and for the Traditional Ballad Index, the author’s bibliographic project of traditional song. If you have something, please contact me! Robert B. Waltz firstname.lastname@example.org How to Use This Book If you have just picked up this book, and want to go out and start singing — great. That’s how you keep songs alive. But we’ve tried to put the songs in context. Each of the several chapters in this book consists of three parts: A short introductory essay describing some aspect of Minnesota’s life or history, historical background on the songs, and the songs themselves. The essays are keyed to the songs by sidebars in the text showing which songs illustrate which general themes. The notes on the individual songs describe how the song came to be — e.g., if it is a work song, it describes what sort of work it was used for, and the source or sources used to compile this version. The chapters, although loosely based on Minnesota history, are not intended to be chronological, and are not intended as a history of the state — rather, they are a “sidebar” to the history. The first few chapters are in historical order (and include most of the songs we can’t prove were sung in Minnesota), because they are intended to illustrate how Minnesota became a state. After all, this is a celebration of Minnesota statehood! But the later sections are organized more by theme — immigration, or work, or home life. The songs themselves are often preceded by a quotation intended to give some sort of feel for what they are about. If you want to find songs about a particular topic (say, the Civil War), or of a particular type (e.g. Swedish songs, or logging songs), the Topical Index, found inside the back cover, is for you. You can look up a particular subject, such as “Civil War,” and then find the songs in the collection which are related to that subject. A person reading the song notes with care will observe that I have “fiddled” with a lot of the songs. This is something folk song scholars quite properly disapprove of. But this is a songbook, not a dissertation. If a Minnesota text of a song has no tune, one must be supplied — from another version of that song if possible; from some other source if not. If a text is damaged beyond use, the missing material must be replaced. The source notes document all such changes, so the reader can find the original versions if needed. COPYING THIS BOOK. This book is copyrighted (that’s Copyright © 2008 by Robert B. Waltz, to be official about it.) But we are reserving only one right: You may not sell copies of this book or charge for any portion of it. All songs in this book are public domain, and all arrangements are available for use at no charge. You may sing these songs freely, and you may make copies of any or all pages of this book. We ask only that you not charge for the book, except nominal fees for printing or copying. These songs came from the people, and we want the people still to be able to sing and enjoy them. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank the following for their help with this project: The Friends of Fort Snelling, for sponsoring the book. The Minnesota Sesquicentennial Commission. Without them, there would have been no funding for printing this book. Informants John Healy and Odell Bjerkness, for family songs (“In Good Old Colony Days” and “Oleana”). Members of the Ballad-L Internet mailing list, including Deborah Rubin, Simon Furey, Malcolm Douglas, Jonathan Lighter, Paddy Tutty, Ben Schwartz, John Garst, Jerome Epstein, Steve Gardham, and others, who cheerfully can be relied upon to find information about almost any old song, and who all helped to proofread the final draft of this work. Paul Stamler deserves special note in this regard; he truly proofread above and beyond the call of duty. Stephen Osman, formerly of the Minnesota Historical Society, who guided us to many useful materials in the collection and who personally found and donated the broadside of the First Minnesota Song to the Society. Deborah Miller of the Historical Society, for help in using the collections. The illustrations in particular owe much to her generous assistance. David Grabitske of the Historical Society, for making the appeal for Minnesota songs from the local historical societies. The Historical Society itself, for making available much of the material — and for maintaining the Stanchfield Papers. Curtis and Loretta, www.CurtisAndLoretta.com, for putting together a concert program of songs from the Heritage Songbook. Ross Sutter, for suggestions about Swedish songs and help in learning them. Susan Kocher, Marcie Zachmeier-Ruh, and Sharon Wilson, for providing words, music, and literal translation for “Es Klappert die Mühle Am Rauschenden Bach.” Signe Betsinger and Rita Juhl, for sharing their books and knowledge of Danish songs. Karen Jacobson, for sharing the songs of her childhood. Linda Radimecky, for books. And, finally, to Fred and Dorothy Waltz, for research assistance, making contact with many of the sources for non-English songs, help in laying out the book, financial support, and even occasional arguments. None of them, of course, bear any responsibility for any errors remaining in the book. Robert B. Waltz, September 2008 Much of Minnesota’s early history is lost. This is not because anyone set out to hide it. But the early residents, the Dakota, were a semi-nomadic people. They have songs and legends, but songs and legends can only tell so much. And when the first Europeans came to the area, they often kept what they learned deliberately secret — many could not read or write, and in any case they were out for profit of one sort or another. Mostly, they wanted furs — which meant trading posts and trade routes. Initially the French did most of the exploring, working their way up the Great Lakes from Quebec. René Robert Cavalier de la Salle was the first to really explore the upper Lakes. He built a ship, the *Griffin*, in 1675, and sailed up the largely uncharted waters of Lakes Erie, Huron, and Ontario. The boat was eventually lost, but de la Salle and his men — including Father Louis Hennepin — had by then gone on to explore the Mississippi River. Even before that, a French explorer, Etienne Brûlé, described a body of water west of Lake Huron which some think was Lake Superior. As the years passed, a new kind of French fur trader came to the area. These were the *voyageurs*, who regularly came to the area to collect furs from the natives. They were mostly poor, uneducated men, but they learned about the rivers and woods of Minnesota and Canada. Consider how many places in Minnesota still bear French names: The St. Croix River. Grand Marais. Mille Lacs (lake). Lac Qui Parle. In Wisconsin, there were places such as Prairie du Chien and the Big and Little Eau Pleine (which we shall meet later). And as the *voyageurs* worked and explored, they sang. Singing helped pass the time, and it also helped with the rhythm of paddling. Theirs were the first European songs ever sung in Minnesota. Mostly they sang simple tunes about women and home (not too surprisingly for men a thousand miles from the nearest woman who spoke their language and perhaps four thousand miles from home). As the British established more of a foothold in North America, they set out to explore in more detail. *Voyageurs* were often part of these explorations. Alexander Mackenzie was accompanied by *voyageurs* when he became the first European to see the Arctic Ocean north of Canada. When it came time to map the Arctic coast, *voyageurs* accompanied expeditions by John Franklin, Simpson and Dease, and George Back to map the region from the Coppermine River to Bathurst Inlet, plus the region of Chantry Inlet. Those explorers were searching the Arctic for something they had wanted to find in Minnesota: the Northwest Passage — that is, a sea route from the Atlantic to the Pacific north of Canada. At one time, it was hoped that the Great Lakes or the Minnesota River would lead there. Obviously, they didn’t. Explorers eventually realized that the Passage was far north of Minnesota, too far north to use; the ice blocked the passage. John Franklin in fact died in the 1840s when the ships of his expedition were trapped in the ice, as is told in “Lord Franklin”: *With a hundred seamen he sailed away To the frozen ocean in the month of May. To seek the passage around the pole, Where we poor sailors must oftentimes go. Through cruel hardships they mainly strove; On mountains of ice their ships were drove. Only the Huskimaw (Eskimo) in his skin canoe Was the only one who ever came through.* Disasters like that didn’t do much for British control of North America. If you had been gambling, around 1700, on which nation would end up controlling the area that is now Minnesota, you probably would have bet on France. The British had colonies on the Atlantic seaboard of North America, of course, and fishermen based in Newfoundland, and the Hudson’s Bay Company had been founded in 1670 to exploit trade in the far north. But the French, through the *voyageurs* and the Saint Lawrence river and their settlement in Quebec, controlled the best route to the Atlantic from what is now the Midwest, and were the ones with “boots on the ground” in Minnesota. Had things been allowed to take their course in the New World, the French would probably have eventually settled Minnesota. Events in Europe changed that. France and England were in almost constant conflict in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The most important of those wars, at least for North America, was the Seven Years’ War, known on this side of the Atlantic as the French and Indian War. In the course of that war, the British captured Quebec and Montreal (Borneman, pp. 204-279), and the portion of Minnesota east of the Mississippi river became British territory. It is unlikely that anyone in either nation really cared about that part of the continent; even the American Revolution went almost unnoticed in what would later be Minnesota. No battles were fought in Minnesota; there were, as far as we know, no Colonials in the entire area in the 1770s. But the peace following the Revolutionary War was significant: The British, rather than trying to maintain their hold on land they could hardly reach, freely granted the United States all their lands south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi. Although the region was poorly mapped, the territory the British gave up contained a significant portion of Minnesota, including most of what is now the city of Saint Paul, part of Minneapolis, Duluth, and the areas in between. Song Notes *A la claire fontaine* A typical *voyageur* song, originally from France and first published in 1704. Fowke/Mills/Blume declares it to have been popular in Quebec “since the days of Champlain.” Note that the French version of this song and the next repeat the last line of the previous verse to start the next verse. This makes the song much longer, but it’s easier to remember. **Source:** I learned this mostly from the singing of Lillian Labbé. The French text (identical as far as I can tell at a casual glance) can be found either in Fowke/Mills/Blume (who had it from Gagnon) or Nute (who had it from Gibbon). Note that this is *voyageur* French, which is not the same as the language of modern France; I’ve followed Fowke’s and Nute’s texts even where it looks funny to a French speaker. *C’est l’aviron* This song originated in France, although the chorus is from the *voyageurs*. It’s the kind of song they liked, given that they lived far away from women: The guy got the girl, she was pretty, and he didn’t really have to do much to deserve her. La Rochelle is a city on the Bay of Biscay in southern France. **Source:** The words are from Edith Fulton Fowke and Richard Johnston, *Folk Songs of Quebec*, pp. 72-73. The French version was collected by E. Z. Massicote. The music is as I learned from the singing of Lillian Labbé, compared against Fowke/Johnston. *Brave Wolfe* James Wolfe led the attack on Quebec in 1759, while still in his early thirties and unmarried. There is a story, probably apocryphal, that courtiers said before his appointment that he was mad. King George II, irritated at the ineffectiveness of most of his other senior officers, supposedly declared, “Mad, is he? Then I wish he would bite my other generals.” Part of this song is true: Shortly before the Quebec campaign began, Wolfe hurried back to England to propose to Katherine Lowther. Then he returned to Canada. Not all historians are impressed with his performance there; it was quite some time before he dreamed up the campaign that led his troops up to the Plains of Abraham. Never very healthy, he seemed on the brink of death before the final campaign. It was a high-stakes gamble which paid off: He put eight or nine thousand troops on the Plains of Abraham without the French stopping him. The defenders had many more troops in the area, but the French commander, Montcalm, hurried to confront Wolfe with the troops he had immediately at hand. These were relatively few, and not very well-trained; Wolfe’s regulars beat them easily, though Wolfe was killed in the battle and Montcalm mortally wounded. Contrary to the song, they did not meet before the battle. **Source:** The text is a composite based on versions I’ve heard; I started from the text in Fowke/Mills/Blume, *Canada’s Story in Song*, pp. 48-49. Music: There are several tunes for this song. This is probably the best-known, originally sung as “The Blacksmith.” The song has not been found in Minnesota, but versions were known from Michigan and Ontario, so there is a high likelihood that it was heard here. *Old Granny Wales* This is one of the curiosities of Minnesota folk song: It’s a song of Irish origin about the American Revolutionary War which somehow made its way to Minnesota. Granny Wales, or Granny O’Whale, is a distortion of the Irish name “Granuaile.” Granuaile was a real person, Grace O’Malley, who lived in the time of Elizabeth I, but her Irish name came to be used as a symbol for Ireland. Around her grew up a whole genre of poetry called the “aishing”; they are poems about visions — usually a vision in which Granuaile meets the poet by the river and talks about Ireland’s wrongs. Obviously this version has undergone a lot of changes; it refers to American grievances against Britain in the 1770s. The song mentions several high officials of the period. Lord North was Prime Minister under George III from 1770-1782, and passed the Tea Act which resulted in the Boston Tea Party (though, contrary to what most Americans think, the Tea Act in fact reduced most taxes on the Americans!). Granville is clearly George Grenville, the Prime Minister 1763-1765. It was he who imposed the much-hated Stamp Act. “Infamous Bute” was the Third Earl of Bute, a former tutor of George III, who was Prime Minister 1762-1763 and continued to have power behind the scenes after that. Collectively, the three of them were largely responsible for implementing the policies of George III which caused so much trouble with the colonies. **Source:** This is a rare song, although a few printed copies are known. It appears that only one tune was ever found. Bessie Mae Stanchfield collected the song from Elma Snyder McDowell of Saint Cloud, who learned it from her father in the nineteenth century. Stanchfield published the text in the October 1945 edition of *California Folklore Quarterly*, along with some rather misleading annotations (none of the people she asked about the song had ever heard of Granuaile, so she conjectured that the song was about Benjamin Franklin!). The text is as she published it, except as noted. But she did not print the tune with the text. As best I can tell, it has never been published; Stanchfield left several manuscript copies of it in her papers in the Minnesota Historical Society archives. Unfortunately, it seems very likely that the transcription is wrong. Oh, it’s probably what McDowell sang, literally transcribed. But I’m sure it’s not what she learned! It’s two measures too long for the text! I’m guessing that Stanchfield was fooled by the tendency of some folksingers to play fast and loose with the timing — especially since Stanchfield didn’t realize the Irish roots of the song. Once it is regularized, the Irishness is especially clear. I have cut two verses from the (very long) text, and used the melody I think McDowell meant; if you want to see the original tune and the full McDowell text, it is in the online appendix. A la claire fontaine “Oh! were she but as true as fair, ’twould put an end to my despair, Instead of that she is unkind, and wavers like the winter wind.” Jockey was a piper’s son, he fell in love when he was young, But all the springs that he could play was, o’er the hills, and far away. “O'er the Hills and Far Away,” first found in Pills to Purge Melancholy, 1706 French: A la claire fontaine, M’en allant promener, J’ai trouvé l’eau si belle, Que je m’y suis baigné. Refrain: Lui ya longtemps que je t’aime, Jamais je ne t’oublierai. J’ai trouvé l’eau si belle, Que je m’y suis baigné. Sous les feuilles d’un chêne, Je me suis fait sécher. Sous les feuilles d’un chêne, Je me suis fait sécher. Sur la plus haute branche, Le rossignol chantait. Sur la plus haute branche, Le rossignol chantait. Chante, rossignol, chante, Toi qui as le coeur gai. Chante, rossignol, chante, Toi qui as le coeur gai. Tu as le coeur à rire, Moi je l’ai-t-à-pleurer. Tu as le coeur à rire, Moi je l’ai-t-à-pleurer. J’ai perdu ma maîtresse Sans l’avoir mérité. J’ai perdu ma maîtresse Sans l’avoir mérité. Pour un bouquet de roses Que je lui refusai. Pour un bouquet de roses Que je lui refusai. Je voudrais que la rose Fût encore au rosier. Je voudrais que la rose Fût encore au rosier. Et moi et ma maîtresse Dans les mêm’s amitiés. English: By the clear flowing fountain, I chanced one summer day, The water looked so lovely, I bathed without delay. Refrain: For so long now I have loved you, Always in my heart you’ll stay. Up in an oak tree shady, Birds flitted on the wing; As I dried off by its branches I heard a nightingale sing. Its song was clear and lovely; Its music sweet and gay; I said, “O bird, keep singing, Though I must weep all day.” “Your heart is full of music, My heart is full of pain; I lost my own true lover In such a foolish way.” “She wanted the red roses I’d picked one summer day, I gave her not the roses; Now I must pine away.” “I wish those lovely flowers Bloomed on the bush today, While I and my beloved Walked hand in hand always.” The nightingale is a European bird not found in Minnesota or any part of North America. C’est l’aviron (It’s the Oars) Blow, northerne wind, send thou me my sweeting [sweetheart]. Blow, northerne wind, Blow, blow, blow! British Library MS. Harley 2253, folio 72b. Thought to be from circa 1320. Riding along the road to Rochelle city, M’en revenant de la jolie Rochelle, I met three girls, and all of them were pretty. J’ai rencontré trois jolies demoiselles. Pull on the oars as we glide along together, C’est l’aviron qui nous mène qui nous mène, Portaging a canoe, c. 1880. Minnesota Historical Society. French Lyrics M'en revenant de la jolie Rochelle, M'en revenant de la jolie Rochelle, J'ai rencontré trois jolies demoiselles. C'est l'aviron qui nous mène, qui nous mène, C'est l'aviron qui nous mène en haut. J'ai rencontré trois jolies demoiselles J'ai rencontré trois jolies demoiselles J'ai point choisi, mais j'ai pris la plus belle. J'ai point choisi, mais j'ai pris la plus belle J'ai point choisi, mais j'ai pris la plus belle J'y fis monter derrièr' moi, sur ma selle. J'y fis monter derrièr' moi, sur ma selle J'y fis monter derrièr' moi, sur ma selle J'y fis cent lieues sans parler avec elle. J'y fis cent lieues sans parler avec elle J'y fis cent lieues sans parler avec elle Au bout d'cent lieues, ell' me d'mandit à boire. Au bout d'cent lieues, ell' me d'mandit à boire Au bout d'cent lieues, ell' me d'mandit à boire Je l'ai menée auprès d'une fontaine. Je l'ai menée auprès d'une fontaine Je l'ai menée auprès d'une fontaine Quand ell' fut là, ell' ne voulut point boire. Quand ell' fut là, ell' ne voulut point boire Quand ell' fut là, ell' ne voulut point boire Je l'ai menée au logis de son père. Je l'ai menée au logis de son père Je l'ai menée au logis de son père Quand ell' fut là, ell' buvait à pleins verres. Quand ell' fut là, ell' buvait à pleins verres Quand ell' fut là, ell' buvait à pleins verres A la santé de son père et sa mère. A la santé de son père et sa mère A la santé de son père et sa mère A la santé de ses soeurs et ses frères. A la santé de ses soeurs et ses frères A la santé de ses soeurs et ses frères A la santé d'celui que son coeur aime. English Lyrics Riding along the road to Rochelle City, Riding along the road to Rochelle City, I met three girls, and all of them were pretty Pull on the oars as we glide along together, Pull on the oars as we glide along. By chance I chose the one who was the beauty, By chance I chose the one who was the beauty, Lifted her up so she could ride beside me. With never a word we rode along together, With never a word we rode along together, After a while, she said, "I'd like a drink, sir." Quickly I found a spring from out the mountain, Quickly I found a spring from out the mountain, But she'd not drink the water from the fountain. On then we went to find her home and father, On then we went to find her home and father, When we got there, she drank... but not of water. Many a toast she drank to her dear mother, Many a toast she drank to her dear mother, Toasted again her sister and her brother. When she had drunk to sister and to brother, When she had drunk to sister and to brother, Turning to me, she toasted her own lover. Engraving of a Voyageur by C. S. Reinhart. From Harper's Magazine. Minnesota Historical Society. And ye that love fighting shall soon have enough, Wolfe commands us, my boys, we shall give them Hot Stuff. "Hot Stuff," reportedly by Ned Botwood, printed in Rivington's New York Gazetteer, 1774 Now God be praised, I will die in peace. Last words of James Wolfe, according to a contemporary (but perhaps fictional) account Love here’s a diamond ring, Long time I’ve kept it, ’Tis for your sake alone, If you’ll accept it. When you the token view, Think on the giver. Madam, remember me; I’m yours forever. Love, here’s a diamond ring, long time I’ve kept it. ’Tis for your sake alone, if you’ll accept it. When you the token view, think on the giver. Madam, remember me; I’m yours forever. Brave Wolfe raised up his head as the guns did rattle, And to his aide he said, “How goes the battle?” “Quebec is all our own; none can prevent it.” Then answered that brave youth, “I die contented.” Then forth went this brave youth across the ocean. To free Amerikay was his intention. He landed in Quebec with all his party, The city to attack, being brave and hearty. Brave Wolfe drew up his men in a line so pretty, On the Plains of Abraham before the city. The French came marching down, resolved to meet them. In double numbers round, resolved to beat them. Montcalm and that brave youth together walkéd. Between two armies they like brothers talkéd. Then each one took his post, and did retire. ’Twas then these numerous hosts commenced their fire. The drums did loudly play, and the balls were flying, The purple gore did flow, and men lay dying. Then shot from off his horse was our brave hero. We’ll long lament his loss, that day in sorrow. James Wolfe Old Granny Wales The tears of grief fell from her eyes full as large as hail. None could express the deep distress of poor old Granuail. On her harp she leaned and thus exclaimea, “My royal Brien is gone Who in his day he drove away the tyrants every one.” “A New Song Called Granuaile.” “Brien” is Brian Boru, who beat the Norse at Clontarf in 1014 but died in the battle. Old Granny she rose in the morning so soon, She slipped on her petticoat, apron and gown, Saying, “Very bad news last night came to me, They’re wronging my children that’s o’er the sea. Old Granny she rose in the morning so soon She slipped on her petticoat, apron, and gown Saying, “Very bad news last night came to me, They’re wronging my children that’s o’er the sea.” Old Granny then mounted her gelding in haste, And to fair London city — it was her first place, As she was prancing up fair London street ’Twas there with Lord Cornwall she chanced for to meet. “Noble Granny,” says Cornwall, “Come tell me in haste Have you any good news from the east or the west?” “Oh, bad news,” says Granny, “that [makes?] me complain They’re wronging my children that’s o’er the main.” “That news is too true,” Lord Cornwall says, “They’re enslaving your children too soon I’m afraid. There’s Lord North, Granville, and Infamous Bute That brought on this Tea Act that’s now in dispute.” Old Granny remounted her gelding in rage And to fair Dublin city it was her next stage As she was prancing on fair Dublin street ’Twas there with Lord North, Granville, and Bute she did meet. “You’re the three villains that I understand That’s wronging my children in yon foreign land; And it’s reported and told for a fact, That you’re the three villains that made this Tea Act.” “You’re wrongly informed,” says these gentlemen, “To enslave your children we n’er did intend, But the land is our king’s we solemnly say We make our laws and your sons must obey.” They say, “Noble Granny don’t make such an event We will cool your sons’ courage and make them repent. With our ships of war and our men in the field We’ll cool your son’s courage and make them to yield.” “Oh I’d not have you think to frighten my sons For at Lexington Battle they made your men run. They are men of experience in every respect And never will yield to your bloody Tea Act.” “Besides them,” says Granny, “give me leave to tell Of a Battle once fought and it was on Bunker Hill Where twelve hundred Britains lay dead on the ground And five hundred more have since died with their wounds.” “You need not tell us about Bunker Hill Our troops were few and you gained the field But then you had Warren, but now he is slain You have no more Warren that’s over the main.” “Well, well,” says Granny, “though Warren is dead There’s a Washington living and our enemy he’ll head He’ll handle your troops polite as you please And he’ll pay them the trouble for crossing the sea.” “I have millions of sons in America born To submit to your laws, they hold it in scorn They are men of experience in every degree And they will see your great ships of the helm [=line?] a lee.” “Too late you’ll repent of your desperate crime, To mourn and lament to the end of your time. That ever you sent your troops over the flood To spill my dear innocent children’s blood.” “Then sing, bubor oh, bubor,” says Granny O’Whale, “There’s a fox in the trap and he’s caught by the tail My sons are true blue that never will fail Success to the sons of Granny O’Whale.” The Louisiana Purchase and the War of 1812 Despite all the fighting in the East, it had been pretty much “All Quiet on the Minnesota Front” for forty years after the French and Indian War. Even though the land east of the Mississippi was officially American, the British continued to send fur traders into the area. They might still be doing it had it not been for a man who wasn’t even an American. Napoleon Bonaparte, widely known in English as “Boney,” would shake up nations from Russia to the American Midwest. Napoleon came to rule France in the aftermath of the French Revolution, just about the time the United States experienced something that was almost a second revolution of its own: The Federalist party, which had ruled the country from Washington’s time until 1800, was voted out of office and replaced by a party called the Republicans (though they weren’t the same party as today’s Republicans). The first Republican President was Thomas Jefferson, and when he replaced John Adams, it was the first real transfer of power in American history. Soon after Jefferson took office, Napoleon made him an offer he couldn’t refuse. Napoleon had a history of Big Plans. One of those Big Plans brought France ownership of the Louisiana country — all the land west of the Mississippi which drained into the Mississippi river. But then came a slave revolt in the Caribbean. After that, Louisiana didn’t look so useful to France. And Napoleon always needed money. He sold Jefferson the Louisiana country. Instantly, the United States doubled in size. Included in the Purchase was the larger part of Minnesota. Americans set out to survey the area. One survey was conducted by Lewis and Clark. Another exploration party, which moved up the Mississippi toward Minnesota, was headed by Lieutenant Zebulon Pike (1779-1813). At Prairie du Chien he put his men in two bateaux (low, shallow-bottomed boats) and sailed north. He camped at Pike Island where the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers meet, raised the American flag (possibly the first time it was raised in Minnesota), and “bought” the land that would later house Fort Snelling. He then headed up the Mississippi seeking its headwaters. He failed to find them (it was Henry Schoolcraft who put Lake Itasca on the map a quarter of a century later), but Pike did at least take his men far enough north to make an (unsuccessful) show of force against British posts in the Brainerd area (Blegen, pp. 87-89). The Louisiana Purchase wasn’t the only time Napoleon influenced American history. For more than a decade, the British and French fought. Napoleon wanted desperately to conquer Britain, which was bankrolling his other enemies. As long as the British Navy could control the seas, Britain was safe from invasion. But to control the seas required ships and sailors. The British recruited sailors by a system known as “impressment” — like a modern draft, but rougher: They sent out groups of men known as press gangs and grabbed sailors off the streets or off merchant ships. Including, sometimes, American ships, if they thought there were British deserters aboard. They also demanded that American ships trade through them, rather than to the continent. It made the Americans very angry. Finally they declared war on Britain. For the British, the War of 1812 was a sideshow. The big fight was with Napoleon. They sent only a few soldiers, mostly to defend Canada, and a few ships to blockade the American ports. They still held the Americans to a draw for two years. Much of this was due to American impetuosity: The Americans kept trying to invade Canada, and kept digging themselves holes. (Zebulon Pike was killed on one of those expeditions.) One of the great battles of the war, for instance, was fought at Lundy’s Lane. Like the war as a whole, it was a bloody draw. The commander at Lundy’s Lane was Jacob Brown. It was Brown who, in 1819, issued the orders which sent Lt. Colonel Henry Leavenworth to found what became Fort Snelling (Folwell, p. 135). Napoleon kept the British busy for all of the two terms of President Jefferson, and through the first term of his successor James Madison. But eventually the French wars ended and Napoleon went into exile: *Oh, Boney’s away from his wars and his fightings, He is gone to a land where naught can delight him. And there he may sit down and tell the scenes he’s seen-o, While alone he does mourn on the isle of Saint Helena.* The British then were able to turn their full might on the U. S. In 1814, they burned Washington. But Fort McHenry, outside Baltimore, held them up (incidentally inspiring “The Star Spangled Banner”), and peace commissioners started meeting. The British could surely have won the war had they been willing to pay for it — but their economy had been strained to the breaking point by the French wars. Both sides agreed to go back to the way things were in 1812. The War of 1812 did have one important effect: It caused the British to finally leave the northern United States. That was due in part to the fact that the Americans had beaten them in the one major battle on the Great Lakes, the Battle of Lake Erie. Gradually, the Americans moved into the vacated territory. In Minnesota, the single most important act was probably the building of a fort near the present site of the Twin Cities. The first soldiers were sent out in 1819, under Lt. Col. Henry Leavenworth. He was replaced soon after by Col. Josiah Snelling, who decided to build the fort at a different site, at the junction of the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers. The fort, completed in 1824, would eventually be renamed Fort Snelling (Blegen, pp. 99-102). Song Notes **Boney** This song is interesting both for its form and for its content. In form, it is a sea chanty (or shanty; however you spell it, it’s pronounced “shanty”). These were songs sailors used for a particular task — for example, to help them time their hauls on a rope or their shoves on a capstan. Stan Hugill, the last real expert on chantys, thought this both a halyard song and a short haul chanty. This version is a short haul chanty; the sailors would pull on *Yup!* and *Swar!* To get the feeling across, you could have kids clap on the haul syllables. The song is a good short summary of the later career of Napoleon: His chief enemies on land were Russia, Prussia, and Austria (all of whom also allied with him at one time or another as well). In 1812, he invaded Russia, and reached Moscow, but saw his army destroyed. Two years later, having failed to defend France, he went into exile on Elba, only to return for the “Hundred Days” in 1815, ending in the Battle of Waterloo. He fled into British custody, was taken into exile on the *Bellerophon*, and died on Saint Helena. **Source:** I have heard many recordings of this; I think the one I know best is by John Roberts and Tony Barrand. I have used their tune. The fullest set of lyrics is in Hugill’s authoritative *Shanties from the Seven Seas*, but this text is a combination of what I remember with the version in Joanna C. Colcord’s *Songs of American Sailormen*. **Jefferson and Liberty** These days, politicians have television ads and public debates. In the early days of the Republic, they had campaign songs: the candidates sat at home and wrote letters, while local people staged rallies on their behalf. John Adams had a song called “Adams and Liberty,” notable for being absolutely terrible and for using the tune of the drinking song “To Anacreon in Heaven”; the “Adams and Liberty” version was the basis for “The Star-Spangled Banner.” Versions of Jefferson’s song also had lousy lyrics, but it was easier to sing. The “reign of terror” reference is almost certainly to the Sedition Act of 1798, probably the strongest attack on the rights of American citizens in history — it was an overt attempt to suppress freedom of speech and the press. Jefferson was firmly against it, and it was not renewed. **Source:** Known from broadsides (single-sheet printings of the words). I’ve selected a subset from the text on page 165 of Vera Brodsky Lawrence’s *Music for Patriots, Politicians, and Presidents: Harmonies and Discords of the First Hundred Years*. The tune is said to be the Irish melody “The Gobby-O.” I learned the song in my youth, from a forgotten recording. Appropriately, the form is a Virginia Reel. **Billie Johnson of Lundy’s Lane** The Battle of Lundy’s Lane took place on July 25, 1814, during one of several American invasions of Canada in the War of 1812. General Jacob Brown took his forces across the Niagara River on July 3. After some minor fighting, Winfield Scott’s brigade ran into a British force, and both sides brought up reinforcements. The battle was bloody, and both Brown and Scott were wounded (as were the top British generals). Both sides claimed victory, but the officer left in command of the American forces decided to retreat. It was the last time the United States seriously threatened to capture part of Canada. Brown would be important for Minnesota history; he sent the troops that founded Fort Snelling. Scott would go on to even bigger things: He was the American commander in chief during the Mexican war, and was responsible for the campaign that captured Mexico City and won the war; he was still in charge of American forces at the start of the Civil War 47 years after Lundy’s Lane. (He would retire within a year, but his strategy would largely be responsible for winning the war.) Clearly the veteran was going to visit General Scott to ask to fight for the Union again — though no sane general would have wanted him; even had he been fit, his insistence on using his old musket (which could hardly hit the wall of a barn, let alone an enemy rifleman) would have made him completely useless in Civil War-era combat. This song, said to be by Bayard Taylor, was written in the Civil War seemingly to encourage patriotism. **Source:** The words are from Dean, one of only three collections in tradition. The melody is based on the tune collected by Frank Warner from “Yankee” John Galusha, 1941 and printed in Warner, p. 69. Galusha was very old at the time he was recorded, and his timing seems to have been influenced by his need to breathe. His pitch is known to have been affected by his age. I have fiddled slightly with the tune somewhat as a result, both as to timing and pitch. **James Bird [Laws A5]** Chances are, if you’ve heard anything about the War of 1812, you’ve heard of the Battle of Lake Erie, at which Oliver Hazard Perry declared, “We have met the enemy and they are ours.” This is a song about a sailor in the battle — one who fought bravely, but then deserted out of, it seems, boredom. **Source:** Though it was composed as a poem, “James Bird” became a very popular song. Several tunes exist. This one, which is peculiar in its lack of modality, was sung by George M. Haskins of Gordon, Wisconsin; he told Rickaby that he learned it in Minnesota around 1874. The tune is as given by Rickaby, though I suspect that measures 7 and 8 should be combined into one. I have supplied chords, but I think this tune works best when sung *a cappella*. Rickaby did not give Haskins’s full lyrics, so I have used a text furnished to me by Doris Chriswell of Palmyra, New York, who found a copy written by her great-grandfather John James Johnson in 1881. He reportedly was farming near the Ohio/Indiana border at the time, making it the oldest known traditional version from the midwest. The text is written rather poorly; I have corrected errors and supplied missing lines in brackets. Boney To delight in war is a merit in the soldier, a dangerous quality in the captain, and a positive crime in the statesman. George Santayana Boney was a warrior, Way-ay YUP! A warrior and a tarrier, John Fran-SWAR! Boney fought the Rooshians, The Rooshians and the Prooshians. Boney went to Moscow, And lost his army in the snow. Boney went to Elbow (=Elba) And Boney he came back again. Boney went to Waterloo And there he got his overthrow. Then they took him off again Aboard the Billy Ruffian (=Bellerophon). Away in Saint Elen-i-a (=Helena) Boney broke his heart and died. The Bellerophon carrying Napoleon into exile on Saint Helena in 1815. Jefferson and Liberty A state without the means of some change is without the means of its conservation. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, 1790 The gloomy night before us flies, The reign of terror now is o'er, Its gags, inquisitors, and spies, Its herds of harpies are no more. Rejoice, Columbia's sons, rejoice! To tyrants never bend the knee, But join with heart and soul and voice For Jefferson and liberty. No Lordling here with gorging jaws Shall wring from Industry the food; Nor fiery Bigot's holy Laws, Lay waste our fields and streets in blood. Here strangers from a thousand shores Compell'd by Tyranny to roam; Shall find, amidst abundant stores, A nobler and a happier home. Here art shall lift her laurel'd head Wealth, Industry, and Peace divine; And where dark pathless Forest spread Rich Fields and lofty Cities shine. From Georgia up to Lake Champlain From Seas to Mississippi's Shore; Ye Sons of Freedom loud proclaim, The Reign of Terror is no more. Chorus: Rejoice! Columbia's Sons, rejoice! To tyrants never bend the knee But join with heart and soul and voice For Jefferson and liberty. A 1912 map of the Louisiana Purchase. We formed our lines for battle, the conflict soon began; The cannons loud did rattle, while many a valiant man Lay bleeding in his purple gore, heart-rending were their cries, While the clouds of sulphur, tinged with blood, ascended to the skies. "The Battle of Bridgewater" (another name for Lundy's Lane). From J. H. Cox, Folk-Song of the South, p. 259. An old and crippled veteran to the War Department came He sought the chief who led him through many a field of fame, The chief who shouted "Forward" whenever his banner rose, And bore the flag in triumph behind his flying foes. An old and crippled veteran to the War Department came, He sought the chief who led him o'er many a field of fame, The chief who shouted "Forward!" whenever his banner rose, And bore the flag in triumph behind his flying foes. "Have you forgotten, General," the battered soldier cried, "The days of Eighteen Hundred and Twelve when I fought by your side? Have you forgotten Johnson who fought at Lundy's Lane? It's true I'm old and feeble, but I'd like to fight again." "Have I forgotten?" says the chief, "My brave old soldier, No! And here's the hand I gave you then and let it tell you so: But you have done your share, my friend, you are crippled, old and gray, And we have need of stronger arms and fresher blood today." "I'm not so weak, but I can shoot, and I've a good old gun, To get the range of traitors' hearts and pierce them one by one; And if a bullet should find me out and lay me on my face, My soul will go to Washington, and not to Arnold's place. "I am ready, General, so you let a post to me be given, Where Washington can look down on me as he looks down from Heaven, And say to Putnam at his side, or maybe General Wayne, 'There stands old Billie Johnson, he fought at Lundy's Lane.'" The battle for the mastery of the lake began September 10, 1813. Perry’s ship was flying the motto, “Don’t give up the ship.” The “Lawrence” for two hours bore the brunt of the battle till it was almost a total wreck… Perry now crossed over to the “Niagara…” [He] at once… dashed through the British line. Within ten minutes the flagship and three other British ships had surrendered. J. Franklin Jameson’s Dictionary of United States History, 1894 Sons of freedom, listen to me, And ye daughters too give ear, You a sad and mournful story As was ever told shall hear. Hull you know his troops surrendered And defenseless left the west And Captain Thomas our commander The invader to resist. Among the troops that marched to Erie Were the Kingston Volunteers, And Captain Thomas was our commander To protect our west frontiers. But there was one amongst that number Tall and graceful in his mien Firm his step, his look undaunted Never a nobler youth was seen. One sweet kiss he stole from Mary, Begged his mother’s prayers once more, Pressed his father’s hand and started For Lake Erie’s distant shores. “Where is Bird? The battle rages Is he in the strife or no? Hear the cannons roar tremendous. Dare he meet the dreadful foe?” “Yes — by Perry see him standing In the self same ship he fights [Though] his messmates fall around him Nothing can his [soul] affright. But behold a ball has hit him, See the crimson current flow “Leave the deck,” exclaimed brave Perry, “No,” cried Bird, “I will not go.” “Here on deck I have took my station! Bird will near his colors fly. I’ll stand by you galliant Perry Till we conquer or we die.” Thus he fought both faint and bleeding Till out Stripes and Stars arose. Victory having crowned our efforts All triumphant o’er our foes. Then did Bird receive a pension? Was he to his friends restored? No, nor never to his bosom Clasped the maid his heart adored. But there came most dismal tidings From Lake Erie’s distant shore: “I must suffer for deserting From the brig Niagara. [“Dearest parents,” said the letter, “This will bring sad news to you.] Read this letter, brother, sisters It is the last you’ll have from me.” Though he fought so brave at Erie, Freely bled and boldly dared. Let his courage plead for mercy, Let his noble life be spared. It was a dark and doleful morning, Bird was ordered out to die. Where is the heart not dead to pity But for him would heave a sigh? See him kneeling on his coffin; Sure, his death can do no good. Spare him. Hark — my God they have shot him! See his bosom stream with blood! Farewell, Bird. Farewell forever. Friends and home you will see no more. Now his mangled corpse lies buried On Lake Erie’s distant shore. Fort Snelling was the first permanent American settlement in Minnesota, but it didn’t stay alone for long. The fur traders followed: Jean Baptiste Faribault set himself up at Mendota in 1826, and Henry Sibley, the future governor, arrived in 1834 (Blegen, pp. 132-136). The frontier of American settlement, which had hardly reached Wisconsin at the time of Fort Snelling was founded, had reached through that state and into Minnesota by the 1840s. There aren’t many songs about the fur trade itself, but we have a few from the fur trade period. One of the noteworthy things about the trade was how it had to keep moving westward, into the interior of the United States, as the lands further east were hunted out. We can’t be sure, but it is thought that “The Maid of Prairie du Chien” is about a fur trader (or other resident of southern Wisconsin) who abandoned his home and headed west or northwest to the new territories; he may well have ended up in southeastern Minnesota. The earliest songs sung in Minnesota were mostly old songs from other lands. Many originated in Britain, including the only one of the Great Ballads collected by Francis James Child to be collected in the state, “The House Carpenter.” (Three other Child Ballads, “Barbara Allen,” “Four Nights Drunk,” and “The Golden Vanity,” were almost certainly known here, based on collections outside Minnesota, but there are no Minnesota texts.) One of the few Minnesota songs about colonial days also originated in England under a title such as “The Three Rogues,” though the most common American title is “In Good Old Colony Times”; Minnesota John Healy’s version begins “In Good Old Colony Days.” Most settlers to Minnesota arrived from the east and south, but some arrived from the north — though they weren’t Americans by birth. The regions of Canada west of Ontario at this time were organized not as colonies, nor as provinces, but as the holdings of joint stock companies: The Hudson’s Bay Company ruled the eastern regions, and the North West Company controlled the west. So independent were these companies that they actually went to war with each other on occasion. Needing people to do its work, the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1812 granted land to a Scottish magnate, Lord Selkirk, who for a dozen years had been trying to found a Scottish enclave in North America. Selkirk did manage to found a settlement in the vicinity of modern Winnipeg — but the population wasn’t exactly what he expected. The area was surrounded by Hudson’s Bay Company men, many of them Catholics from Quebec, and their native wives. Their children — who back then were called half-breeds — were the Métis, or mixed people, and they would end up being one of the most persecuted groups in both Canada and the United States. The North West Company used the Métis to attack the settlers, then, in 1820-1821, merged with the Hudson’s Bay Company. Selkirk died about that same time (Blegen, pp. 92-93). Many of these Métis would end up in northwestern Minnesota, though their songs, such as “Falcon’s Song,” were in French and are rarely remembered. *Si vous aviez vu tous ces Anglais* *Et tous ces Bois-Brûlés après* *De butte en butte les Anglais culbutaient,* *Les Bois-Brûlés tjetaient de cris de joie!* *You should have seen those Englishmen,* *And our Bois-Brûlés after them,* *Till one by one we did them all destroy* *While our brave comrades shouted for joy.* (Fowke/Mills/Blume, pp. 122-123). The later fate of the Métis was sad. Persecuted by a racist Canadian government, they tried rebellion under Louis Riel. The rebellion failed. They moved to Saskatchewan, only to find the settlers coming west on the railroad and again taking their lands. They called Riel back from exile to lead another rebellion, but it was crushed at the Battle of Batoche in 1885. Riel would later be executed. Shortly before the failure of the Selkirk colony, the boundary between the United States and Canada west of the Mississippi was settled. In 1783, when the British and Americans had decided what lands would belong to the new country, they had not realized that the Mississippi headwaters were south of the Great Lakes. Since the boundary was supposed to be the Mississippi on the west, and the Great Lakes and Lake of the Woods on the north, this left the boundary indefinite. It was indefinite in the regions further west, too. In 1818, they decided on a boundary of the forty-ninth parallel — except for the oddity of the Northwest Angle of Minnesota, the jut into Lake of the Woods that made Minnesota the northernmost state in the Union until Alaska became a state; the Northwest Angle is a relic of the bad surveying and uncertain boundaries of the pre-1818 period. Still, the decisions of the boundary commission finally placed all of what is now Minnesota in the Union. But the boundary remained unguarded. In the aftermath of Selkirk’s death, many of the persecuted people of his colony migrated down the Red River to take up lands in what is now western Minnesota and the Dakotas. Thank You for previewing this eBook You can read the full version of this eBook in different formats: - HTML (Free / Available to everyone) - PDF / TXT (Available to V.I.P. members. Free Standard members can access up to 5 PDF/TXT eBooks per month each month) - Epub & Mobipocket (Exclusive to V.I.P. members) To download this full book, simply select the format you desire below.
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In earlier days, the forerunners of the piano were the Harpsichord, the Clavichord and the Spinet. These instruments had a tinkling sound compared with the piano of to-day and because they had very little sustaining power, the music written for them contained many graceful ornaments and running passages such as scale and arpeggio figures. The following is an example of the type of music heard on these instruments. Because of their construction it was necessary to play each key with a sharp, decisive finger attack. When playing this piece, use your best possible finger action and try to imitate the effect of a Harpsichord. **Sonatina** *Allegro moderato* --- *Handel at the Harpsichord—Permission of Steinway & Sons* Here is an old tune that was a favorite in your great-grandmother's day. It was heard as background music in the melodramas of that period and later it was put to the same use in silent movies. Use the pedal carefully and play the melody with your best possible singing tone. from Flower Song Gustave Lange (arr.) Andante poco animato Wrist Staccato This song was composed by Patrick Gilmore during the War between the States. He was, at the time, on duty in New Orleans as bandmaster in General Butler's command. It became very popular among the soldiers who made up many verses of their own to sing while on the march. Apply a bouncing wrist staccato in the left hand for the first eight measures. Later the accompaniment appears as a broken chord figure which should be rolled and tossed off sharply. When Johnny Comes Marching Home Allegro con brio Patrick Gilmore (arr.) The Dotted Eighth Note The Dotted Eighth Note is treated exactly the same as other dotted notes you have learned. That is, the dot increases the length of the note by half its value. Always think of the dot as an imaginary Tie which joins the original note to another note of the same pitch but next smaller in size. **Written** The Dotted Half The dot ties the half note to the next smaller note which is a quarter note. The Dotted Quarter The dot ties the quarter note to the next smaller note which is an eighth note. The Dotted Eighth The dot ties the eighth note to the next smaller note which is a sixteenth note. Play the following and notice that the Rhythmical Pattern remains exactly the same whether playing dotted halves, dotted quarters or dotted eighth notes. All that is changed is the speed (Tempo), each example being twice as fast as the one preceding. The Dotted Eighth in Three-Four The following excerpt from Ludwig van Beethoven is a fine example of the dotted eighth note followed by a sixteenth. Beethoven must have been very fond of this theme as he made use of it twice — once in a Sonatina for piano and later in his famous Septet for Violin, Viola, 'Cello, Bass, Clarinet, Bassoon and French Horn. The version shown here is the one used in the Septet. Minuet from "Septet" Ludwig van Beethoven (arr.) Moderato Beethoven From a painting by Schloesser The Dotted Eighth in Four-Four Another example containing dotted eighths. Apply sharp rhythm and keep strict tempo. March Tempo The School Band 1. 2. The melody does not always appear in the upper voice. Sometimes it may be in the bass and sometimes in one of the inner voices — alto or tenor. In the following piece, it will be found in the lower voice of the right hand. Be sure to give it proper significance by making it sing out like a solo part. **The Lily Pond** *Moderato* \[ \begin{align*} &\text{Moderato} \\ &\text{W.M.Co. 7373} \end{align*} \] The Trill The following piece contains many little trill figures which, when properly played, will imitate bird calls. Three sets of fingering are given and all three should be learned — one at a time. After the piece has been thoroughly mastered, try playing it one octave higher than written and you will find the bird effect even more pronounced. Allegretto Bird Song Ped. simile Fine Syncopation Another example in syncopation. Be sure to observe all accents and staccato marks as they have a decided bearing on the rhythm. Jam Session Allegro
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**Largemouth Bass** One of the most sought after freshwater fish statewide, largemouth bass can be found in almost every New Jersey lake, pond, slow moving river or stream. **Where** New Jersey has a wide variety of excellent habitat for largemouth bass including deep clear lakes, shallow stained lakes, lakes with aquatic vegetation, tidal freshwater rivers, and small park ponds. Union Lake, Alloway Lake, Parvin Lake, Lake Lenape (Atlantic County) and the tidal Delaware River offer excellent largemouth bass fishing opportunities. **When** Bass move into shallows in spring and remain through early summer and in late September and October feed heavily in shallow water prior to winter. **How** Largemouth bass bite a variety of baits and lures throughout the year. Crankbaits, jerkbaits, jigs, plastic worms, spinnerbaits, and topwater lures are extremely effective. Live shiners fished with a bait during the spring and summer can produce some giants. --- **Smallmouth Bass** Best known for their airborne leaps and sudden deep dives, smallmouth bass are one of the most exciting species to catch. **Where** Generally smallmouth prefer cool, clear, swift rivers and cool, deep, rocky lakes, however recent stockings in Union Lake and Lake Audrey have proven smallmouth are adaptable to the sand and gravel substrate of Southern New Jersey. **When** The best time is spring through fall, with fall probably the best when smallmouth begin to school up and feed heavily before winter. **How** Minnows, worms, crayfish, and shiners are common live baits. Crawfish imitators including tubes, grubs and soft stick baits (senkos) work well in addition to the same lures used for largemouth bass. --- **Carp** A member of the minnow family, carp are long-lived, hard fighters and grow to over 30 pounds. **Where** Can be found in almost every reservoir, lake, pond, river or stream in New Jersey. The DOD Lake, Salem Canal, Delaware River and Cooper River Park Lake are popular among carp anglers. **When** Spring and summer are the most productive times for catching carp by rod and reel. **How** Use kernels of white corn or dough balls (find recipes on Internet) rigged on a simple bronze #6-#14 barbed hook on field/muler style rig with the least amount of weight possible. --- **Crappie** Though two species of crappie are present in New Jersey (black and white), the black crappie is more widespread. Black and white crappies are excellent table fare. The crappie is a schooling fish and actions can be fast paced whether they are located. **Where** Crappies love structure. They have a tendency to school in open water, relating to stumps, standing timber and artificial structure such as brush piles. Union Lake, Lake Lenape and Salem Canal are popular locations among anglers. **When** Usually spring crappies fish more from the deep areas of a lake to shallow vegetated areas where spawning will occur. Crappies begin to move to slightly deeper, cooler water in early summer. Caught in greater numbers in the colder months with November and March being the noisiest months. **How** Small plastic jigs or hair jigs in a variety of colors. Live bait, such as minnow, killifish, small shiners and worms, can improve catches. Crappies are not always on the bottom so the use of a bobber can be important. Small spinners also work well. --- **Chain Pickerel** Chain pickerel can be found in many largemouth bass waters where like bass, they prefer vegetation and weedy cover. **Where** Chain pickerel live in a wide range of habitats and are one of the few game fish that are able to tolerate the low pH (acid) waters. The majority of the year pickerel can be located in shallow bays and near shorelines. **When** Chain pickerel bite year round and are commonly sought by ice anglers. Spring and fall are excellent times to target chain pickerel since they prefer cooler water. **How** Chain pickerel will eat almost anything that moves at times. Live bait such as killifish, minnows and shiners are great baits. Lures such as in-line spinners, spinnerbaits, jerkbaits, plastic worms and topwater lures are tops. In shallow weedy bays use plastic jerkbaits such as the Shag-go, Fin-S, Flippin’ Shad, and Zoom Phlake. --- **Muskellunge** This largest member of the pike family is a highly prized sportfish for many anglers. Reaching over 4 feet in length, Jersey muskies grow to trophy proportions that rival fish from many of the best waters in the country. **Where** Muskies are generally a shallow-water fish, preferring areas of weeds, lagoons and other cover in both lake and river environments. Muskie fisheries in South Jersey waters are still in the developing stages. Changes in the stocking program include the addition of the DOD Lake and removal of Cooper River Park Lake. Despite being no longer actively stocked, the Cooper River Park Lake and tidal Delaware River still produce an occasional muskie. **When** Fishing is relatively consistent from late spring to mid-fall, with September and October considered two of the best months. **How** Cast large, 5 to 9 inch, sucker or perch colored crankbaits and stick baits or ½ to 1 oz. bucktail spinners or spinnerbaits around available structure and edges of weed beds. Live baits such as large shiners and suckers are also popular. --- **Channel Catfish** The largest member of the catfish family found in New Jersey, this omnivore grows to trophy proportions and is a popular food fish. It is found in the Delaware River and in over 70 waters stocked by the Division of Fish and Wildlife. **Where** Usually found in clear, warm lakes and moderately large to large rivers over clean sand, gravel or rock rubble bottoms. The Division stocks approximately 70 waters and many provide excellent fisheries. **When** Early spring to early fall, with summer the most consistent period. Although channel catfish can be caught at any time of day, nighttime is the most productive. **How** They feed mostly at night but can be caught anytime. The most productive method and baits are those described for brown bullheads. --- **Brown Bullhead** This native catfish is found in numerous waterbodies, large and small, throughout the state. It is a bottom dweller and tolerates very warm water, and low oxygen levels. **Where** Widely distributed in a variety of waters from small urban ponds to larger lakes and rivers. Good brown bullhead fishing opportunities can be found nearly everywhere. **When** Can be caught at any time of day, but most active at night. Summer evenings are the most popular time to fish for them. **How** Fishing technique for bullheads is very simple: a bottom rig consisting of a hook and bait. Popular baits are night crawlers, chicken liver, cut fish and commercial minnow and cheese baits. --- **Yellow Perch** Yellow perch are known for their excellent fight on light tackle and flavorful taste. Perch are one of the premier species targeted by ice anglers. **Where** Lake anglers will find yellow perch around edges of aquatic vegetation and near stumps. Waters below spillways can produce good size perch. **When** Yellow perch are active all year long, however the cooler months of September through May are best. **How** Soft minnows and worms on hook and sinker or bobber in shallow water. Small hair jigs, plastic tubes, twister tails and small spinners and minnow imitators work well. --- **Sunfish** The sunfish is one of the most widespread and abundant freshwater fish in New Jersey. The most commonly sought species are bluegill, pumpkinseed and redear sunfish. **Where** Sunfish are found in most freshwater throughout the state. Good populations of bluegill and pumpkinseed can be found in municipal, county and state park ponds and lakes. **When** The months of May through October are most productive when water temperatures are between 60-80 degrees. **How** The most popular method is hook and bobber with worms or grubs. Any department store or sports shop has inexpensive rod and reel combos, tackle and bait needed to catch sunfish. --- Visit NJFishandWildlife.com for information on fishing in New Jersey. Fishing has never been better in the Garden State. You owe it to yourself to make time to enjoy it. Depending upon conditions and on the water, almost any day could be a good one for the best opportunity to land that big fish of your dreams. New Jersey fishing is available to you, and one of the best sources for getting this interested in outdoor activities. From a family outing, to a pursuit of the thrill of a public park, to a quiet, peaceful game of stills, New Jersey has all it takes to make fishing memorable for all New Jersey anglers. The top 3 reasons why New Jersey fishing is better than ever: - The addition and development of lakesides in a number of popular game fish water in our plentiful mountain, wetlands, wetlands, bays, coastal bays, and ponds. New Jersey anglers now have access to more fishing. - A New Jersey Fishing License can be purchased and printed online at NJfishandWildlife.com or at any license agent location listed on the Web site. When you buy a license you have the satisfaction of knowing that your money goes toward improving fishing in New Jersey and protecting the quality of your state’s waters for both fish and people. - Outstanding marine habitats for largemouth and smallmouth bass, pike, trout and numerous species. - There are tons of great fish just waiting to be caught in our plentiful mountain, wetlands, wetlands, bays, coastal bays, and ponds. New Jersey anglers now have access to more fishing. The Division of Fish and Wildlife Web site, www.NJFishandWildlife.com, has a wealth of information about New Jersey with specific information on water conditions and the date. There is also a how-to-fishing information for both beginners as well as advanced anglers using special topics. Visit NJFishandWildlife.com for information on fishing in New Jersey.
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This guide outlines the kinds of learning opportunities that should be available to Indiana students in high-quality social studies programs, but it is not intended as a prescribed curriculum. The guide defines social studies as the integrated study of the social sciences and the humanities to promote civic competence. Social studies education should provide preparation and practice for lifelong active citizenship. The guide discusses civic decision-making; describes content strands and foundation proficiencies; offers a curriculum model; outlines course descriptions and proficiency statements for grades K-8; presents high school course descriptions and proficiency statements for selected courses; offers additional course descriptions; and provides resources. To achieve the goal of responsible citizenship, students in Indiana will: (1) analyze the political ideas and practices that enable citizens to make rational choices in a democratic society; (2) assess the impact of historical events, personalities, movements, and technological developments on the present and future; (3) describe the geographical patterns and interrelationships of the major physical and cultural features on the earth's surface; (4) analyze the interaction of people and institutions in economic systems; (5) investigate nations and cultures in terms of their diversity, commonalities, and interrelationships; (6) examine the patterns of individual and group behavior; (7) analyze issues and events and hypothesize about their impact upon the present and future; (8) draw conclusions and make decisions based on relevant data derived from a variety of resources and media; and (9) develop a reasoned commitment to the civic values needed to function responsibly in a democratic society. (BT) The Social Studies Proficiency Guide: An Aid to Curriculum Development 1996 Edition Indiana Department of Education BEST COPY AVAILABLE The Social Studies Proficiency Guide An Aid to Curriculum Development in Indiana Schools 1996 Edition Office of Program Development Center for School Improvement and Performance Indiana Department of Education Dr. Suellen Reed Superintendent of Public Instruction Mary Fortney Social Studies Consultant Acknowledgments The Indiana Department of Education appreciates the assistance of the following persons in the development of this Guide and its predecessor. Writing Team - 1996 Edition - The Social Studies Proficiency Guide: David Ballard Indiana Department of Education Gary Millie Bedwell Lew Wallace High School Gary Jill Bowman IPS, School #18 Indianapolis Carrie Burton Floyd Central High School Floyds Knobs Fred Clark Jasper Middle School Jasper Karen Grimes Cooper St. Andrew The Apostle School Indianapolis Dr. Claudia Crump Indiana University New Albany Harlan Day Indiana Department of Education Johnetta Dolan Royerton Elementary Muncie Rosalind Fishman Floyd Central High School Floyds Knobs Marjorie Foster Columbus North High School (retired) Columbus Jerry Greenlee Northside Middle School Columbus Bob Grenert River Forest High School Hobart Barbara Harrison Orchard Drive Elementary Hammond Margaret Harshfield New Albany-Floyd County Consolidated Schools New Albany Rosemarie Kuntz Perry Meridian High School Indianapolis Henrietta Lawrence Northview Middle School Indianapolis Barbara Loverich Hobart High School Hobart Writing Team - 1996 Edition - Social Studies Proficiency Guide Continued: Callie Marksbarry Vinton Elementary Lafayette Carole Mayrose Northview High School Brazil Dr. Lee Morganett Indiana University Southeast New Albany Dr. Julie Joe Mortier Krueger Middle School Michigan City Coordinator, Editor Mary Fortney Indiana Department of Education Preliminary Review-K-8 Teachers and Administrators: Atwood Elementary School Atwood, Indiana Lakeland School Corporation LaGrange, Indiana Madison Elementary School Madison, Indiana Sandra K. Mitchell Perry Meridian High School Indianapolis Charles D. Schallhorn Munster High School Munster Wilma Shackleton Seeger Junior Senior High School West Lebanon Jodie Sidenbender Orchard Drive Elementary Hammond Mount Vernon Middle School Fortville, Indiana Maconaquah School Corporation Bunker Hill, Indiana White Lick Elementary School Brownsburg, Indiana Dr. Carl R. Siler Muncie Community Schools Muncie Clarissa Snapp Belzer Middle School Indianapolis Ted Springer Harrison Middle School Merrillville Jon Theobald Plainfield High School Plainfield Editorial Assistant Eileen K. Mathews Indiana Department of Education Cover Design Elizabeth Magness Indiana Department of Education School City of Mishawaka Mishawaka, Indiana State-wide Review, 1996 Edition, Social Studies Proficiency Guide K-12 Teachers and Administrators Decatur Township Schools Indianapolis, Indiana Evansville-Vanderburgh School Corporation Evansville, Indiana Indianapolis Public Schools Summer Urban Geography Institute Porter Township Community Schools Valparaiso, Indiana Richmond Community Schools Richmond, Indiana Associations - Conference presentations Indiana Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Indiana Council for the Social Studies Special Reviewers William G. Baker Attorney At Law New Castle, Indiana Dorothy W. Drummond, Director GEO Education Center Department of Geography, and Anthropology Indiana State University Evelyn Holt School of Education Indiana State University Terre Haute, Indiana Richard Borries Curriculum Coordinator Evansville-Vanderburgh School Corporation Lisa Ellison Kokomo-Center Township Consolidated School Corporation Dr. Frederick Isele School of Education Saint Mary of the Woods College Special Reviewers Continued: Stan Jochum Greater Jasper Consolidated Schools Jasper, Indiana Dr. Denee Mattioli, Director Ackerman Center for Democratic Citizenship Purdue University Chris McGrew Carroll Consolidated School Corporation Flora, Indiana Dr. John J. Patrick, Director The Social Studies Development Center Indiana University, Bloomington C. Frederick Risinger School of Education Indiana University Bloomington Dr. Joan Schrieber Department of History Ball State University Virginia L. Terpening Deputy Director Indiana Historical Bureau Dr. Michael Watts, Director Center for Economic Education Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana Dr. Devon Yohe, Director Center for Economic Education Ball State University Muncie, Indiana Writing Team - 1987 Social Studies Proficiency Guide: William Bartelt Harrison High School Evansville James Barth Purdue University West Lafayette Roy Crumly Westlane Middle School Indianapolis Claudia Crump IU Southeast New Albany Gretchen Dickinson IPS, School #84 Indianapolis Michelle Dietrich Indiana University Bloomington Dorothy Drummond St. Mary-of-the-Woods College Terre Haute Shirley DuValle IPS, School #60 Indianapolis Ruth Eudaley Wayne High School Fort Wayne Jack Grantham Indiana State University Terre Haute Jerry Greenlee Northside Middle School Columbus C. Frederick Risinger Indiana University Bloomington Christine Sattle Evansville-Vanderburgh School Corp. Evansville Carl Siler Southside High School Muncie Victor Smith Indianapolis Public Schools Muncie Susan Tomlinson Burris Laboratory School Muncie Virginia Mankin McCulloch Middle School Marion Ruby Matthew IPS, School #43 Indianapolis Thomas McGowan Indiana State University Terre Haute Julie Mortier Bailey Middle School Gary Cynthia Myers-Gregory Mt. Comfort Elementary School Greenfield Helen Rodgers Gary Community Schools Gary # TABLE OF CONTENTS ## I INTRODUCTION - Purpose ........................................ Page 1 - Development .................................... Page 1 - Organization ................................... Page 2 ## II DEFINITION OF SOCIAL STUDIES - .................................................. Page 3 ## III RATIONALE - .................................................. Page 3 ## IV CIVIC DECISION-MAKING (CHART 1) - .................................................. Page 4 ## V CONTENT STRANDS AND FOUNDATION PROFICIENCIES ## VI CONTENT STRANDS AND THE CIVIC DECISION MAKING PROCESS (CHART 2) - .................................................. Page 6 ## VII SCOPE AND SEQUENCE MODEL - .................................................. Page 7-9 ## VIII COURSE DESCRIPTIONS AND PROFICIENCY STATEMENTS - GRADES K-8 - Kindergarten ..................................... Page 10 - Grade 1 .......................................... Page 20 - Grade 2 .......................................... Page 31 - Grade 3 .......................................... Page 43 - Grade 4 .......................................... Page 55 - Grade 5 .......................................... Page 67 - Grade 6 .......................................... Page 83 - Grade 7 .......................................... Page 98 - Grade 8 .......................................... Page 111 IX HIGH SCHOOL COURSE DESCRIPTIONS AND PROFICIENCY STATEMENTS - SELECTED COURSES: Economics .......................................................... Page 125 Psychology ......................................................... Page 137 Sociology ............................................................. Page 149 United States Government ........................................ Page 161 United States History .............................................. Page 172 World Geography ................................................... Page 184 World History/Civilization ........................................ Page 197 X HIGH SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES COURSE DESCRIPTIONS ........................................ Page 210 XI RESOURCES Strategies ............................................................. Page 217 Resource Organizations .......................................... Page 224 THE SOCIAL STUDIES PROFICIENCY GUIDE 1996 Edition I INTRODUCTION PURPOSE: *The Social Studies Proficiency Guide* is intended to aid schools in their own curriculum development. It is designed as a guide for teachers, administrators, and community members in their efforts to strengthen social studies curriculum and instruction. It is not intended to be a prescribed curriculum and it does not take the place of local school curricula or teacher course and lesson planning. Instead, it should serve as a tool for year-to-year and long-range curriculum development at the local level. It is intended to outline the kinds of learning opportunities that should be available to students in a high-quality social studies program. It is expected that schools and individual teachers will adapt any materials that they use, including this *Guide*, to the needs and interests of their students and their local communities. DEVELOPMENT PROCESS: The 1996 edition of *The Social Studies Proficiency Guide* builds upon the original *Social Studies Proficiency Guide*, published in 1987. Indiana teachers are the principal authors of both editions (see Acknowledgments). In the summer of 1995, a group of social studies teachers was identified and began to work on an update of the 1987 *Guide*. The teachers were divided into primary, intermediate, middle school, and several high school teams. All teachers on the teams had classroom experience in teaching the grades or subjects for which they were writing. After the work produced in the summer was compiled and organized, writing team members made additions and corrections and the first round of editing was done. The K-8 section of the *Guide* was provided to several schools for preliminary review. Specific high school courses underwent preliminary review by teachers and subject area specialists. Another round of editing took place following the preliminary review and a review draft was produced. This draft was provided to schools, community members, and curriculum specialists for state-wide review during the spring and summer of 1996. Corrections and refinements were made based upon the recommendations of reviewers and the final draft was developed. *The 1996 Edition of the Social Studies Proficiency Guide* was published and distributed to schools throughout the state in the fall of 1996. ORGANIZATION: The 1996 Social Studies Proficiency Guide provides a comprehensive, articulated description of social studies skills and knowledge in grades K-12. The Guide is based on the premise that social studies is the integrated study of the social sciences and the humanities with the goal of helping young people to become competent, responsible citizens. In order to become competent citizens, students must draw upon knowledge, skills, and perspectives from many disciplines and areas of study as they engage in Civic Decision Making And Participation. The Guide attempts to integrate a strong social studies knowledge base with thinking and civic decision-making skills through its organization around Nine Content Strands and Foundation Proficiencies. The Content Strands are the major concepts and skill areas that form the social studies curriculum. They may focus primarily on one or two disciplines, but also may be interdisciplinary in nature. The Foundation Proficiencies are the corresponding goals for student learning at the end of a K-12 social studies program. The Guide provides a Scope and Sequence that should be considered only one of several possible models for organizing social studies content. This model provides a focus for each grade from Kindergarten through Eighth Grade. At every grade, the nine Content Strands are expressed as grade-appropriate Proficiency Statements. These statements describe student learning as it might take place in a rigorous social studies program. Each Proficiency Statement has several Indicators. Indicators are key ideas, concepts, and skills important to a particular Content Strand. They are stated in terms of student learning. Most Indicators have corresponding Sample Student Activities. The sample activities are simply brief suggestions for hands-on activities that might help students to understand a concept or acquire and demonstrate a skill. They are directly related to one or more Indicators and should serve as “springboard” ideas for teachers as they develop their own classroom activities and projects. Teachers and administrators working with parents and other community members are the best decision makers regarding appropriate learning activities for their students. Specific courses at the High School level build upon the skills and knowledge acquired at other levels of instruction. At this point, more specialized and in-depth courses, focusing on one or more disciplines, take center stage. Each course tends to have its own organizing principles based on the major concepts or ideas that form the discipline. The nine Content Strands do not disappear, however. One or more strands may be the major focus of a course while the other strands play supporting roles or become completely integrated. Proficiency Statements and Indicators for high school courses are statements about the main ideas and significant skills that are to be emphasized in the course. They are intended to provide a reference point to teachers as they develop their own courses. They are not presented in chronological or hierarchical order. Teachers and schools are free to organize instruction in the ways that best meet the needs of their students and their communities. Sample Student Activities and Projects presented at the high school level tend to be more project oriented, long-term efforts and may correspond to several Indicators. These activities are brief suggestions provided as an aid to teachers as they develop their own activities and projects. II SOCIAL STUDIES - A DEFINITION Although there are varied definitions of social studies, the following statement by the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) addresses the multidisciplinary nature of this area of the curriculum and highlights the civic purpose and key elements of social studies education: Social Studies is the integrated study of the social sciences and the humanities to promote civic competence. Within the school program, social studies provides coordinated, systematic study drawing upon such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology, as well as appropriate content from the humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences. (*Curriculum Standards for the Social Studies: Expectations of Excellence*, Page 3, National Council for the Social Studies, 1994.) III RATIONALE The fundamental purpose of social studies is to provide preparation and practice for active, lifelong citizenship. Active citizenship in a democratic society requires the development of skills for thinking, decision-making, and participation. Citizens of all ages make decisions that affect themselves, their families, their communities, their nation, and the world. The primary goal of social studies education is to help students develop the ability to make well-informed, well-reasoned decisions and to act responsibly. Well-reasoned decision making and responsible action are based upon the skills of acquiring, evaluating, and using information for the purpose of: - identifying alternative courses of action; - predicting their possible consequences; and - selecting the best alternative. The process of civic decision making is described in Chart 1 on the following page. Chart 2, on Page 6, illustrates the relationship of civic decision making and social studies content knowledge. As the charts demonstrate, students develop the desire and commitment to involve themselves in the democratic process and to become active citizens through the actual practice of citizenship skills (thinking, decision making, and participation) throughout a K-12 social studies program. The goal of social studies education is the development of informed, responsible citizens who actively participate in our democracy. Active participation requires the development of decision-making skills in which students: **ACTIVELY SEEK AND ACQUIRE INFORMATION:** Students who actively seek and acquire information know how to ask questions. They actively seek data and ideas from a variety of sources as they develop a knowledge base. They know how to find, organize, record, and present information. **INTERPRET AND APPLY INFORMATION:** Students who interpret and apply information are able to integrate and apply information to their own situations and to their growing knowledge base. They are able to validate information, communicate data and ideas in various forms, explain relationships, and use data to explore possible solutions to problems. They are able to separate complex ideas or bodies of information into component parts, identify organizing principles, and propose a reasonable course of action. They are able to combine ideas and information to create something that is new (such as a plan, a presentation, or a solution) and to communicate these insights to others. **UNDERSTAND THE IMPORTANCE OF VALUES AND BELIEFS:** Choosing among alternative actions and their consequences requires consideration of values and human needs. For this reason it is essential for students to understand the importance of values and beliefs. Students should be able to identify values and beliefs and understand their role in decision making. Responsible citizens must realize how their decisions and actions affect other individuals and the general welfare. They should be able to weigh the consequences of alternative solutions and courses of action and make choices or decisions that take into account both individual needs and the common good. **PARTICIPATE RESPONSIBLY AS CITIZENS IN A DEMOCRACY:** Choices and decisions are essential components of a participatory democracy. To develop citizenship skills, students must have frequent opportunities to actively practice and participate in the democratic process in ways that are appropriate for their age level and individual development and in ways that allow them to make choices and decisions that affect themselves and others. Through such participation, students not only acquire citizenship skills but also develop the commitment to apply those skills as active, responsible citizens. IV CONTENT STRANDS AND FOUNDATION PROFICIENCY STATEMENTS To Achieve the Goal of Responsible Citizenship, Students in Indiana Schools Will: CITIZENSHIP and GOVERNMENT: Understand and analyze the political ideas and practices that enable citizens to make informed choices in a democratic society; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: Understand and assess the impact of historical events, personalities, movements, and technological developments on the present and the future; GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS: Understand and describe the geographical patterns and interrelationships of the major physical and cultural features on the earth's surface; ECONOMICS: Understand and analyze the interaction of people and institutions in economic systems; WORLD CULTURES: Understand and investigate nations and cultures of the world in terms of their diversity, commonalities, and interrelationships; INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY: Understand and examine the patterns of individual and group behavior; CURRENT EVENTS: Understand and analyze current issues and events and hypothesize about their impact upon the present and the future. INQUIRY SKILLS: Draw conclusions and make decisions based on relevant data derived from a variety of resources and media, including electronic technology; CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICE: Develop a commitment to the civic values needed to function responsibly in a democratic society. Note: These statements reflect what students should know and be able to do after completing a K-12 social studies program. Chart 2 VI Content Strands and the Civic Decision-Making Process LEARNER Seek Information - Civic Ideals & Practice Citizenship and Government - Historical Perspectives - Geographic Relationships - Economics - World Cultures - Individuals & Society - Current Events - Inquiry Skills Participate Responsibly Apply & Interpret Information Understand the Importance of Values & Beliefs VII SCOPE AND SEQUENCE The Social Studies Proficiency Guide presents an approach to teaching social studies which integrates various disciplines and areas of study. The goal of this approach is to help students develop thinking and decision-making skills for responsible citizenship. The Proficiency Guide encourages students to use their growing knowledge base and practice the skills of thinking and participation throughout the social studies program. As a result, students develop the ability to transfer knowledge and thinking skills to other subjects in school and to experiences outside of school. The following outline is provided as one of several possible models for organizing social studies instruction. This model, with a suggested focus for each grade, views the world as a set of interrelated systems rather than as isolated and unrelated pieces of territory. The model is intended to build and expand students' knowledge. For this reason, topics, themes, concepts, and skills are introduced early and are reinforced and expanded from Kindergarten through Twelfth Grade. For example, students in grades K-3 have learning experiences that help them to understand that individuals have both rights and responsibilities. Fourth and fifth graders participate in activities that help them to develop skills in cooperation and consensus building in ways that are appropriate for their age group. They also begin to understand how the United States Constitution defines the role of government and protects individual rights. Older students examine the fundamental ideas of constitutional government in more depth as they participate in gathering data, engage in questioning and debate, participate in civic activities, and take responsibility for their actions. In this way, social studies instruction can introduce students to democratic principles at increasing levels of complexity as it provides opportunities for practicing the skills of citizenship. GRADE LEVEL FOCUS: Kindergarten: Kindergarten focuses on the child in the immediate environment and emphasizes social learning experiences, including interaction with peers and respect for others. Grade 1: In Grade 1, learning is centered on children as they interact with home, school, and neighborhood environments and explore the way people live and work together around the world. Grade 2: Students in Grade 2 examine school neighborhoods, neighborhoods in other countries, and how local communities help to meet people's needs. Grade 3: In Grade 3, students study development and change in the local community and in communities in other states and regions of the world; how people in communities adapt to the environment, develop and use technology, and human and natural resources. Grade 4: Students in Grade 4 study Indiana and its relationships to regional, national, and world communities, including the influence of physical and cultural environments on the state's growth and development. Grade 5: In Grade 5 students study the United States focusing on the influence of physical and cultural environments on national growth and development. Emphasis should be placed upon Native American cultures, exploration, and the early beginnings of the United States. Grade 6: Students in Grade 6 carry out a comparative study of the regions and nations of the Western World, including geographical, historical, economic, political, and cultural relationships. Grade 7: Students in Grade 7 carry out a comparative study of the regions and nations of the Eastern World including geographical, historical, economic, political, and cultural relationships. Grade 8: In Grade 8 students study United States history, with an emphasis on national development up to the late 19th century, and examine principles of the Constitutions of Indiana and the United States. GRADES 9-12: In grades 9-12, at the high school level, specific social studies courses should build upon the skills and knowledge acquired at earlier stages of instruction. High school courses tend to focus on one or more disciplines but may also be interdisciplinary. The organizational structure for each of the high school courses outlined in this edition of the Guide may be somewhat different. Each course tends to have its own organizing principles based on the major concepts or ideas that make up the discipline. The nine content Strands used as organizers for grades K-8 do not disappear, however. In the high school courses, one or more strands may be the major focus of a course while the other strands play supporting roles or become completely integrated into other themes. At the high school level, most students are ready to begin more sustained learning projects. The Sample Student Activities and Projects which correspond to the Proficiency Statements and Indicators may vary from activities that could be accomplished in one or two class periods or blocks to long-term projects that might be completed over a semester. Proficiency Statements and Indicators for high school courses are statements about the important concepts and skills to be emphasized in the course and are intended to serve as reference points. They are not presented in chronological or hierarchial order. Teachers and schools are free to organize instruction in the ways that best meet the needs of their students. The 1996 Social Studies Proficiency Guide provides Course Descriptions, Proficiency Statements, Indicators, and Sample Student Activities and Projects for Economics, Psychology, Sociology, United States Government, United States History, World History/Civilization, and World Geography. These courses were selected because they are high enrollment courses which are subject to the textbook adoption process. All of the courses in the high school social studies curriculum provide valuable skills and knowledge and are important in preparing young people for their future roles as citizens. Course descriptions for all high-school social studies courses are provided at the end of the 9-12 section of the Guide. KINDERGARTEN Focus: Living and Learning Together The goal of social studies education is for children to develop thinking and decision-making skills that will prepare them for responsible citizenship in a democratic society. Children begin to acquire these skills at the kindergarten level through learning experiences that allow them to explore their relationships with the immediate environment. This is the time when children begin to develop an understanding of time and space relationships. Kindergarten students should be introduced to examples of differences and changes in their surroundings and should be learning to describe a sequence of events in a day. They should become familiar with geographic relationships, such as location (here, there, over, under), direction (up, down), size (big, little), and shape. Children should be given opportunities to discover how people are similar and different and how people live and work together in families around the world. Kindergarten students should begin to accept responsibility for their behavior in school and to explain why rules are needed in families and at school. Children in kindergarten should have the opportunity to use a variety of resources (including technology and electronic and print media) as a means of gathering and organizing information. They should have the opportunity to learn through play and participation in large and small groups, as well as through individual learning activities. | FOCUS: LIVING AND LEARNING TOGETHER | KINDERGARTEN | |------------------------------------|--------------| | **Proficiency Statement and Indicators** Students should be able to: CITIZENSHIP and GOVERNMENT Examine the reasons why rules are needed. - Identify rules at school. - Give reasons for specific rules. - Identify responsible actions in themselves and others. - Make appropriate choices and discuss consequences of inappropriate choices. | **Sample Student Activities** Students might: - Draw pictures illustrating important rules at school. - State a rule and suggest reasons why the rule is important. - Identify a “responsible class citizen” at the end of each day. - Identify the best actions to take to solve a classroom problem. | ## FOCUS: LIVING AND LEARNING TOGETHER ### Proficiency Statement and Indicators **Students should be able to:** #### HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Identify different, changing, and expanding environments around them, including the school and neighborhood. - Name their school and classmates; name school personnel and define their roles. - Give examples of how seasonal changes affect the environment. - Identify and describe the school and places in the community. - Begin to identify events that take place in a sequence. - Identify, describe, and participate in events in the school and community. - Distinguish between people, events, and objects of long ago and now. ### KINDERGARTEN | Sample Student Activities | Students might: | |--------------------------|----------------| | • Meet school personnel and discuss jobs and responsibilities. | | | • Take a walking tour of the school and neighborhood and identify things that change with the seasons. Draw pictures of the same location in different seasons. | | | • Draw pictures and name people, places, and things in the neighborhood. | | | • Give examples of events in the school that take place over the year. | | | • Tell stories about regular and special events in the school and community. | | | • Have a parent or grandparent visit the classroom to tell stories of going to school in the “old days.” Separate objects and pictures into categories labeled “past” and the “present” or “today.” | | | FOCUS: LIVING AND LEARNING TOGETHER | KINDERGARTEN | |------------------------------------|--------------| | Proficiency Statement and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS | | | Explore the geographic relationships of home, school, and community | | | • Identify and describe plants, animals, land and water forms and other natural features that are familiar. | • Draw pictures of land and water features. Point out the same types of features in picture books and on maps and globes. | | • Use terms related to location, direction, and distance to find people and things in the classroom. | • Follow directions to find hidden objects in the classroom. | | • Use symbols to represent objects, features, and places. | • Make a drawing using pictorial symbols for things in the classroom. | | • Use terms to describe the relative size and shape of things and places (e.g., big, little, large, small, round, square). | • Sort objects according to size and shape characteristics. | | • Examine pictures of different environments to describe how they are similar and different from their own. | • Categorize pictures of locations by similarities and differences. | 4.4 4.5 | FOCUS: LIVING AND LEARNING TOGETHER | KINDERGARTEN | |------------------------------------|--------------| | **Proficiency Statement and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities** | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **ECONOMICS** | • Using magazine pictures, make a mural or collage of basic needs or goods and services. Label the collage with symbols for food, shelter, clothing, etc. | | Explain how people meet basic economic wants and needs. | | | • Identify goods and services that people need and want. | | | • Describe how people work to obtain food, shelter, and clothing (goods and services). | • Use play dough to make models of goods or people performing services. | | • Describe the economic activities that family members do together. | • Make a pictorial journal of economic activities in which they participate. | | • Identify specific jobs that people do. | • Name and discuss different jobs that people do. | | • Explain that people earn money (income) by working. | • Play “charades,” by acting out the role of individuals earning money by performing various jobs. | | FOCUS: LIVING AND LEARNING TOGETHER | KINDERGARTEN | |------------------------------------|--------------| | **Proficiency Statement and Indicators** Students should be able to: WORLD CULTURES Demonstrate that people have likenesses and differences and that people learn from each other in many different ways. - Identify types of food, shelter, and clothing used by people in different places and suggest reasons for differences. - Identify similarities and differences in families in places around the world. - Describe and compare customs, holidays, and celebrations. | **Sample Student Activities** Students might: - Invite family and community members to share artifacts, customs, food, books, songs, etc. - Make a bulletin board showing pictures of the different kinds of food, clothing, and shelter used by people in other countries. - Draw pictures of holiday activities for each month. Arrange them in a sequence to make a holiday timeline. | ## FOCUS: LIVING AND LEARNING TOGETHER ### Proficiency Statement and Indicators **Students should be able to:** #### INDIVIDUAL & SOCIETY - Identify themselves as unique individuals who interact with other individuals and with many groups, including the family, school, community, state, country, and the world. - Assess their own unique qualities and identify qualities of others that make them unique individuals. - Identify actions or feelings of others that are similar to or different from one's own. - Describe individuals who are important in their lives. - Recall name and home address (street, city, state.) - Identify the name of our country and its president. | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |------------------------------------------| | • Form teams of two persons based on differences (wearing different colors, different shoes, hair styles etc.). Share something special about a teammate with the group. | | • Discuss pictures showing different emotions or actions. | | • Draw pictures of people who are important in their lives. | | • Seated in a circle, orally rehearse, “I am . . . ; I live . . .” | | • Identify the President and other members of government from pictures in magazines and newspapers. Learn songs about our country. | ## FOCUS: LIVING AND LEARNING TOGETHER ### Proficiency Statement and Indicators Students should be able to: #### CURRENT EVENTS Give examples of events that are important to them. - Describe an event that is important to them (e.g., a new tooth, buying something new to wear, etc.) - Describe an event that happened recently (yesterday, last week) in the classroom. - Participate in planning for an event by suggesting things that will be needed, tasks that will have to be done, etc. - Anticipate events that are planned for the future (tomorrow, next week). ### KINDERGARTEN | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |------------------------------------------| | • Make a bulletin board of "headlines" of important events contributed by each child. | | • Make a class book of pictures showing a sequence of events that are important to the class. | | • Keep a weekly or monthly calendar of events. Place symbols on a large class calendar to mark coming events. | | • Plan a field trip and evaluate the results discussing what was seen and done. | | FOCUS: LIVING AND LEARNING TOGETHER | KINDERGARTEN | |------------------------------------|--------------| | **Proficiency Statement and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities** | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **INQUIRY SKILLS** | | | Use a variety of resources (including technology, electronic and print media) to gather and organize information. | • Use charts or boxes for sorting, labeling, and classifying. | | • Separate time, things, events, etc., into classes or categories. | • Share drawings, paintings, and models of experiences. | | • Interpret firsthand experiences by drawing, painting, or making models of things, places, people, and stories. | • Participate in learning centers for classifying and categorizing. | | • Practice matching and finding patterns and relationships in words, shapes, and objects. | • Post and use labels or vocabulary cards on classroom items and areas. | | • Practice using direction and comparison words (e.g., up/down, alike/different, big/little, tall/short). | • Carry out small group demonstrations using manipulatives and pictures. | | • Participate in small groups to explain an idea, event, or story. | | 54 18 55 ## FOCUS: LIVING AND LEARNING TOGETHER ### Proficiency Statement and Indicators Students should be able to: **CIVIC IDEALS & PRACTICE** Practice citizenship skills through participation in group activities. - Follow classroom rules to facilitate participation and sharing. - Discuss classroom rules. - Work cooperatively in small groups. - Practice strategies for working together (sharing materials, speaking quietly, using polite words like “please” and “thank you”). - Work together to find solutions to classroom problems. - Practice consensus procedures (identify various choices such as favorite foods for a party, discuss choices, agree on a selection). Demonstrate through participation that the feelings and needs of others are respected. - Practice using expressions like “Excuse me,” “I’m sorry.” Join in celebrating special events like birthdays. Take turns providing special help to other students when help is needed and wanted. Exercise responsibility for personal safety within the school and community environment. - Practice safety rules; report examples of safety successes to the class on a regular basis. SOCIAL STUDIES GRADE ONE Focus: School and Neighborhood Environments Through learning experiences at the first-grade level, students should be given the opportunity to develop thinking and decision-making skills through participation as members of their school and neighborhood. They should be able to identify events and changes taking place in the school and local community and classify events as taking place "today," "yesterday," and "long ago." They should explore geographic relationships in their immediate environment, make models and maps to show locations of familiar surroundings, and recognize maps and globes as models of the earth. First-grade students should have opportunities to discuss ways in which people are alike and different and how people around the world work and use resources to meet their needs. Students in Grade 1 should be able to explain why rules are needed in groups and apply rules to different group situations. They should have opportunities to practice citizenship skills through participation in a variety of group activities. | FOCUS: SCHOOL AND NEIGHBORHOOD ENVIRONMENTS | GRADE ONE | |--------------------------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | | | Students should be able to: | | | **CITIZENSHIP & GOVERNMENT** | | | Examine the reasons why rules are needed for productive group life in the school and neighborhood. | Sample Student Activities | | Students might: | | | • Identify rules that exist in the classroom and at school and explain and discuss their purposes. | • Develop and list classroom rules on draft paper and tally each rule as it is used. | | • Suggest reasons why specific individuals (e.g., teacher, aide, principal, bus driver, police officer, parent, babysitter) have rules. | • Invite school and community officials to the classroom to discuss rules and how they are made. | | • Discuss the consequences of fulfilling or not fulfilling responsibility to legitimate authority. | • Construct a “web” with a problem in the center and lines leading from the center to alternative actions. Additional lines show the possible consequences leading from each alternative. | | • Apply rules to different group situations (e.g., games, sports, group work, field trips). | • Discuss why rules are necessary and if more rules are needed. | | FOCUS: SCHOOL AND NEIGHBORHOOD ENVIRONMENTS | GRADE ONE | |--------------------------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities** | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES | • Draw a simple timeline of changes in their life since birth. | | Identify different, changing, and expanding environments around them, including the school and neighborhood. | • Recall and classify items from a field trip to a historical museum. | | • Identify things which have changed in their lives. | • Invite family or community member to share items and experiences that are of historical significance; read and retell stories of significant persons. | | • Classify objects from pictures as “things of today” and “things of long ago.” | • Interview senior citizens about changes that have taken place in the community. | | • Identify individuals of past and present significance to the community. | | | • Identify changes in the community, including new/fewer businesses, more/less people, more/less public services. | | | FOCUS: SCHOOL AND NEIGHBORHOOD ENVIRONMENTS | GRADE ONE | |--------------------------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | | | Students should be able to: | | | **GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS** | | | Explore the geographic relationships of home, school, and neighborhood. | | | • Use directional words to locate things in the classroom and school. | | | • Make models and maps to show relative locations of familiar environments (e.g., classroom, school, playground). | | | • Identify the geographic locations of their homes in relation to the school and neighborhood. | | | • Identify a globe as a model of the earth and compare other models with the real objects they represent. | | | • Relate locations on maps and globes to locations on the earth; name and locate home community, nearby city, or body of water, or other features on maps and globes. | | | • Distinguish between land and water on globes and maps. | | | • Give and respond to verbal instructions involving directions (e.g., here/there, over/under, left/right, up/down). | | | • Use play dough or modeling clay to make maps and models of the classroom school, playground, and neighborhood. Make a large floor map showing major streets. Place milk carton buildings in correct locations. Name the streets crossed and followed on the route between home and school. | | | • Play the “globe toss” game with an inflatable globe. Name the geographic features (land or water) under the right thumb. | | | • Identify the United States, Indiana, their local community, and nearby cities on simple maps. Name major land and water features. | | | • Construct a bulletin board map with stamps or magazine pictures showing geographic features. | | | FOCUS: SCHOOL AND NEIGHBORHOOD ENVIRONMENTS | GRADE ONE | |--------------------------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | | | Students should be able to: | | | ECONOMICS | | | Explain how people work and use resources to fulfill their economic needs and wants. | | | • Explore how people work to obtain goods and services (food, shelter, clothing, recreation, transportation, etc.). | | | • Explore the kinds of work that people do and how that work benefits their family and the community. | | | • Give examples of how people are producers and consumers. | | | • Give examples of work for which people receive and do not receive income. | | | • Identify ways that people spend money and suggest reasons why people save money. | | | • Suggest reasons why it is not possible for people to have all the things that they want (scarcity). | | | Sample Student Activities | | | Students might: | | | • Cut out “paper doll” outlines of people and decorate the dolls to correspond to the jobs people do. | | | • Interview school personnel and family members and make a class book or folder about the work that people do. | | | • Make a chart showing goods and services produced and goods and consumed. | | | • Establish a classroom mini-economy (see Resources Section, Page 217.) | | | • Invite a bank employee to discuss savings accounts. | | | • Cut out ads or catalog pictures of items students might want to buy. Discuss reasons why some choices might be eliminated. | | | FOCUS: SCHOOL AND NEIGHBORHOOD ENVIRONMENTS | GRADE ONE | |--------------------------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities** | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | WORLD CULTURES | • Identify different types of homes in the neighborhood (e.g., one-story, two-story, apartments, tall buildings, low buildings, brick, wood, etc.). | | Demonstrate that people have similarities and differences and that people learn from each other in many different ways. | • Make a chart of different types of houses. | | • Discuss ways in which people in their families, classroom, and school are similar and different. | • Make individual or group posters in which each student contributes pictures or drawings of favorite things. | | • Suggest reasons why people choose different types of goods and services (food, clothing, housing, music, etc.). | • Make a chart showing how chosen foods fit into the basic food groups. | | • List the different types of food that people in their families, neighborhood, and community enjoy. | • Take a neighborhood walk and photograph different buildings, businesses, and people. Compare with photographs of other parts of the world. | | • Compare housing, clothing, and foods of their families and neighborhood with those in other parts of the world. | | | FOCUS: SCHOOL AND NEIGHBORHOOD ENVIRONMENTS | GRADE ONE | |--------------------------------------------|-----------| | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | WORLD CULTURES continued... | | | • Give examples of items in their homes, | • Do a “label hunt” using clothing or other personal goods. Make a bulletin board map showing where each item comes from. | | classroom, and neighborhood that come | | | from other countries. | | | • Describe family, community, and national | • Write stories or draw pictures of important national holidays and celebrations. | | holidays and celebrations. | | | • Demonstrate a custom or practice of the | • Have an “old times” day at school. Dress and role play customs of the past. | | past and compare and contrast with their | | | own customs. | | | • Demonstrate a custom or celebrate a | • Sing songs, play games, sample foods from other countries, and practice speaking simple words in other languages. | | holiday of another country. | | | FOCUS: SCHOOL AND NEIGHBORHOOD ENVIRONMENTS | GRADE ONE | |--------------------------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities** | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **INDIVIDUAL & SOCIETY** | • Make a booklet with drawings and pictures about themselves and the things they like. Compare with classmates. | | Identify themselves as unique individuals who interact with other individuals and with many groups, including the family, school, community, nation, and the world. | • Make a classroom “tree” using a real branch inserted in a decorated can or pot. Add photos or pictures of class members. | | Assess their unique qualities and those of others. | • List various people in the community on a large chart; draw arrows connecting persons with others they depend upon. | | Describe how family members and friends provide for each other’s needs for love and respect. | • Make a bulletin board chart with newspaper and magazine pictures of national, state and community leaders, or events. | | Give examples of how people in the school and neighborhood depend on each other. | • Make a “Previews of Coming Attractions” poster which publicizes a future classroom or school event. | | Tell about a current event which occurred in the school or community and discuss why it occurred. | | | Anticipate family, classroom, and school events that are planned for the future. | | ## FOCUS: SCHOOL AND NEIGHBORHOOD ENVIRONMENTS ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: #### CURRENT EVENTS - Give order and sequence to events that are important to them, their families, and the school. - Sequentially place events in their lives and in the school day. | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |------------------------------------------| | • Make contributions to class time lines dealing with the days of the week, months of the year, seasons, and special events such as birthdays and holidays. | | • Give examples of ways that people get information about events that are taking place or will take place (e.g., television, radio, computer, print media, etc.). | | • Participate in planning for an activity by suggesting things that will be needed, tasks that will have to be done, etc. | | • Make a personal time line from birth to present. This could be a take-home, family involvement project including photos. | | • Maintain a large class calendar for daily discussions that can be used for planning events. | | • Use computer to produce a simple newsletter for reporting school and classroom current events. Make a bulletin board of news clippings and brochures about coming events. | | • Construct a time line of future school and community events. | | • Work with class members to carry out planning by taking responsibility for tasks, bringing needed materials, etc. | ## FOCUS: SCHOOL AND NEIGHBORHOOD ENVIRONMENTS ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: #### INQUIRY SKILLS Use a variety of resources, including electronic and print media, to gather and organize information. - Interpret firsthand experiences by drawing and painting pictures of things, places, people, and stories. - Use simple reference books, resource persons, and other media to explore a topic of interest. - Separate time, things, events into classes or categories on the basis of specific criteria. - Construct maps and models of real objects and places. - Explain their use of symbols to represent real things in the pictures, models, and maps that they have made. - Explain why and how symbols are useful for conveying information. ### Sample Student Activities Students might: - Use pictures to tell stories or make simple "reports" to the class. - Conduct a video conference with a local "expert" to obtain information about a topic, and/or use the computer to find information on the same topics. - Construct a long time line or chart on freezer paper. Divide into equal segments, attach labels to each segment according to time period or category. - Make a simple map of the classroom using available resources (blocks, clay, paper, paint, household items, etc.). - Discuss their maps and compare their interpretations of information with classmates. - Photograph neighborhood signs and symbols; display on a bulletin board. Give examples of how symbols are used to convey information in the school and neighborhood. | FOCUS: SCHOOL AND NEIGHBORHOOD ENVIRONMENTS | GRADE ONE | |--------------------------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | | | Students should be able to: | | | **CIVIC IDEALS & PRACTICE** | | | Practice citizenship skills through | | | participation in group activities. | | | • Identify some of the rights that people | | | have, such as the right to own personal | | | belongings. | | | • Suggest some of the responsibilities | | | that accompany these rights (e.g., the | | | responsibilities of owning a pet, etc.). | | | • Differentiate between items that students| | | own and do not own. | | | • Adopt accepted classroom rules to | | | facilitate participation and sharing. | | | **Sample Student Activities** | | | Students might: | | | • Draw pictures showing rights and | | | responsibilities that people have. | | | • Invite an animal control officer or | | | veterinarian to the classroom to discuss | | | responsibilities of owning a pet; or invite| | | a guide dog, or service dog, resource | | | person to the classroom to discuss mutual | | | help and responsibility. | | | • Inventory the classroom for “my things,” | | | “your things,” and “our things.” | | | • Construct a large wall chart of agreed | | | upon classroom rules; review the chart | | | often to determine if the class is | | | observing its own rules. | | SOCIAL STUDIES GRADE TWO Focus: Neighborhoods and Communities Through learning experiences, students in second grade should be able to apply thinking and decision-making skills within the context of the school and neighborhood. Students should examine events and changes that are taking place in the school, neighborhood, and community and consider changes that might take place in the future. Students should identify local landforms and bodies of water. They should explore geographic relationships by making simple maps of the school and neighborhood. Students should demonstrate that neighborhoods around the world are made up of people of diverse ages and backgrounds and explain how family and community members depend upon each other to provide for emotional needs and for goods and services. Students should identify the rights and responsibilities of members of the school and neighborhood and explain why communities have rules and laws. They should have opportunities to engage in problem solving and participate in the development of classroom rules. They should have the opportunity to use a variety of means for gathering and organizing information. | CITIZENSHIP & GOVERNMENT | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------|---------------------------| | Demonstrate why groups and communities have rules and laws. | • Make a chart illustrating “rules” on one side and “reasons” on another. | | • Survey the community for signs which convey rules and laws (such as “stop signs,” “no parking” signs, etc.). | • Invite local law makers to discuss their jobs and how laws are made. Work together to develop a list of questions prior to the visit. | | • Identify the sources of authority for those who make laws and rules in the school and community. | • Make posters illustrating school and community rules for display in the classroom and school building. | | • Identify school and classroom rules and their purpose. | • Compose a set of classroom rules which can be voted on by the class. | | • Give examples of how classroom rules can be made and changed by voting. | | | FOCUS: NEIGHBORHOODS AND COMMUNITIES | GRADE TWO | |--------------------------------------|-----------| | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES | | | Examine changes in the community. | | | • Identify changes that can be observed in the school and neighborhood. | | • Identify changes in the size, number, and uses of buildings, streets, and roads in the neighborhood and community. | | • Describe how historic buildings and other structures are different from more modern buildings. | | • Examine pictures and photographs of the neighborhood and community in the past and explain differences in clothing, cars, and architectural styles. | | • Identify individuals of past and present significance to the community and nation. | | • Consider changes that might take place in the school and neighborhood in the future. | | • Construct a T-chart categorizing changes in the school and neighborhood. Record things that have not changed on the opposite side. | | • Complete a walking tour with a longtime community resident or guide. Use a tape recorder to record community changes identified by the guide. | | • Take a field trip around the community and photograph various buildings and streets. Compare with old pictures from newspapers and community histories. | | • Construct photo and picture collages divided into different time periods. | | • Research names of buildings and streets in the community and why or how they were named. Use a computer to publish findings. Make this information available to school and community newsletters or other publications. | | • As a class, construct a model of a community of the future using modeling clay, milk cartons or other materials. | 84 85 ## FOCUS: NEIGHBORHOODS AND COMMUNITIES ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: #### GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS Show how their neighborhood is geographically related to other neighborhoods and the community. - Use the cardinal directions to locate things outdoors, in the classroom, school, and neighborhood. - Make a simple map of the school and neighborhood, using symbols to represent objects, features, or places. - Use symbols to identify local landforms and bodies of water. - Locate oceans, continents, mountains, islands, and lakes on maps and globes. - Compare maps and describe similarities and differences. - Locate places in the neighborhood and outside the neighborhood on community maps. - Compare and contrast life in cities, towns, suburbs, and farms. - Observe and record daily changes in the weather and how plants, animals, and people respond to seasonal changes. ### Sample Student Activities Students might: - Post direction signs (North, South, East, West) in the classroom and school and use them in giving and following directions and for orienting maps. - Construct a large floor map on heavy plastic; add place names, symbols, and a map legend. - Post a legend or key for reference in making original maps. - Construct three-dimensional maps with labels. - Laminate a collection of old and current multi-purpose maps; compare uses and symbols. - Send letters or E-mail to other communities requesting information about special geographic and cultural features. - Take a field trip to a city, small town, or farm; videotape the trip and interview selected people about life in the city/country. - Maintain journals throughout the year using symbols, graphs, and tables to convey information. | FOCUS: NEIGHBORHOODS AND COMMUNITIES | GRADE TWO | |--------------------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** Students should be able to: | Sample Student Activities Students might: | | **ECONOMICS** | | | Describe how people depend on each other to supply economic goods and services. | • Identify the productive resources used to produce specific goods and services. • Participate in a job fair where community members discuss their jobs. | | • Explain how natural, human, and capital resources are used to produce goods and services. | • Establish a classroom mini-economy (see Resources, Page 217). • Mount pictures from newspapers and magazines showing people earning income in many different ways. Work in small groups, using ad sections from newspapers to categorize ways people might spend money. | | • Identify people who provide goods and services to the community (e.g., school workers, firefighters, police officers, doctors, factory workers, storekeepers, farmers, homemakers, etc.). | • Identify why people specialize in different jobs. • Explain how people earn and use their income. | | • Explain how people specialize in different jobs. | • Construct a pictorial graph dividing people into 3 categories: producers, consumers, and both producers and consumers. | | • Explain how people earn and use their income. | | | FOCUS: NEIGHBORHOODS AND COMMUNITIES | GRADE TWO | |--------------------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** Students should be able to: | **Sample Student Activities** Students might: | | **ECONOMICS (continued)** | • Plan a trip or vacation. Work in cooperative groups to agree on and prioritize a limited number of items to take. | | • Give examples of how scarcity requires people to make choices about using goods, services, and resources. (Since resources, goods, and services are scarce, people must make decisions about what they will buy, or not buy, and what they will produce.) | • Organize a classroom store. Identify the opportunity cost of consumer choices. | | • Identify the opportunity cost of a choice. (Opportunity cost is the most valuable alternative a person has to give up to get something he or she wants). | • Make awards to present to community and school workers for outstanding service (These could be student-made certificates, badges, buttons, or other gifts). | | • Recognize groups and people who make personal sacrifices for the benefit of others. | | | FOCUS: NEIGHBORHOODS AND COMMUNITIES | GRADE TWO | |--------------------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** Students should be able to: | **Sample Student Activities** Students might: | | WORLD CULTURES | | | Illustrate how neighborhoods and communities are made up of people of different ages and backgrounds. | • Survey people of various backgrounds and ages (children, adults, senior citizens) about what they like most about their neighborhood. | | • Identify people of different ages and backgrounds in their neighborhoods. | • Help plan a culture fair illustrating foods, holidays, languages, and other family customs. | | • Share the culture and traditions of their families. | • Help plan school visits from family/community members. Develop and send invitations and sample questions prior to the visit. | | • Explore the culture and traditions of ethnic groups in the community. | • Construct a large wall chart with columns for local neighborhoods and corresponding services, celebrations, languages, religions, ethnicity. | | • List ways their neighborhood is similar and different from other neighborhoods in the community. | | 92 93 ## INDIVIDUALS & SOCIETY **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** Students should be able to: - Explain how family members depend upon each other in local communities and other communities around the world. - Describe responsibilities that different people have. - Classify ways in which people depend on each other in their own families and in the community. - List ways community members and people outside of the community are mutually dependent. - Show how communities are linked together by trade, transportation, communication, and technology. - Compare and contrast the ways community members interact with each other in other parts of the world. **Sample Student Activities Students might:** - Make charts or webs showing different responsibilities and who carries them out. - Take a field trip to a waste water treatment plant or other community location providing essential services (food, water, protection, education, etc.). - Examine labels on food and clothing for origin of materials and production. - Use a large map and stretch color-coded string from their community to other parts of the world showing links that the class discovers. - Invite a member of an immigrant family to visit the class with everyday artifacts and discuss how basic needs are met in their country of origin. ## FOCUS: NEIGHBORHOODS AND COMMUNITIES ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: #### CURRENT EVENTS - Suggest ways that current events may influence their lives and the lives of other people in the community. - Give examples of ways that we obtain news about events (e.g., television, radio, newspaper, public announcements, etc.). - Gather and organize information related to current class, school, or community problems. - Provide possible solutions to problems and identify possible consequences of the proposed solutions. ### Sample Student Activities Students might: - Plan a TV news show for the classroom; videotape and critique the news report. - Connect news clippings with string to a local and world map bulletin board. - Discuss solutions to a specific problem in small groups; share and compare each group’s solutions. | FOCUS: NEIGHBORHOODS AND COMMUNITIES | GRADE TWO | |--------------------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities** | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **INQUIRY SKILLS** | | | Use a variety of resources, including electronic and other technologies and print media, for gathering and organizing information. | • Compare their own interpretations of information with those of classmates. | | • Summarize information from books, stories, interviews, field trips, and audiovisual resources. | • Make a wall chart illustrating symbols which are used to convey information in the classroom or community. | | • Identify symbols on maps, globes, and in the school and neighborhood environment. | • Construct a key of special symbols for class tasks and activities; use on calendars and daily schedules. | | • Use symbols to convey information. | • Use simple computer technology and enlargements of overhead transparencies to construct class maps. | | • Interpret maps of the classroom, school and neighborhood. | • Make “human graph” of tennis shoe wearers at one side of the room and non-tennis shoe wearers at the other side. | | • Make charts, maps or other graphic organizers by arranging actual objects according to distinguishing attributes. | | 40 | FOCUS: NEIGHBORHOODS AND COMMUNITIES | GRADE TWO | |--------------------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** Students should be able to: | **Sample Student Activities** Students might: | | INQUIRY SKILLS continued........... | • Count things that they observe in the neighborhood, (e.g., cars, bikes, motorcycles) and make simple graphs and tables. • Make a time capsule. Include items of importance in their daily lives. Store, retrieve, and discuss at the end of the year. | | • Construct graphs and tables. | • Compare computer simulations with known community situations. Use KIDSNET, and World Wide Web; ask local travelers to carry messages from the class to other classrooms around the world. | | • Construct time lines and capsules which relate to past, present, and future. | • Design a flow chart with a series of pictures showing early forms of communication and changes in communication that have taken place over time. Consider possible future changes. | | • Use computer programs to participate in simulations. | | | • Compare various methods that people use to receive and send information in the past, present, and future. | | | FOCUS: NEIGHBORHOODS AND COMMUNITIES | GRADE TWO | |--------------------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities** | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **CIVIC IDEALS & PRACTICE** | | | Demonstrate through participation that people in a democracy have both rights and responsibilities. | • Design a symbol for each right. | | • Identify some of the rights that people have under our system of government (e.g., the right to have personal belongings and property, freedom of speech, freedom of religion). | • Construct a wheel or web listing *rights* as the hub and related *responsibilities* as the spokes. | | • Examine some of the responsibilities that accompany these rights. | • Post charts listing and defining leadership qualities; attach examples from local media. | | • Identify school and community leaders and give examples of the qualities that a leader should have. | • Extend discussions by interacting with civic leaders through visits, field trips, video conferences, letters, etc. | | • Discuss the responsibilities, privileges, and limitations that leaders have. | • Interview respected leaders about the benefits and responsibilities of leadership. | | • Consider the importance of accepting responsibility for leadership. | • Survey the school or neighborhood and identify a common problem or need. Use consensus to develop a solution. | | • Develop a growing list of ways children can participate responsibly in community life. | | 102 42 103 Focus: The Local Community and Communities Around the World Through learning experiences, third-grade students should gain knowledge and process information about their local community from a variety of resources. They should identify important historical events, places, and persons from the past and make connections with their present community. Third-grade students should explore their own community, including its geographic location, human and material resources, major work and services, and basic beliefs and values. Students should begin to understand other communities in the state and the world through simple comparative studies. For third-graders, the study of history should emphasize continuity and change. Concepts of time and space should unfold through such direct experiences as historic role playing, interviews, study trips, and the construction of simple maps and charts. Through group work and projects, students should increase communication and decision-making skills and build civic values relating to responsible community citizenship. Skills to receive special emphasis include: using cardinal and intermediate directions and common map symbols; locating their community, major land and water forms, and reference points on maps and globes; making simple generalizations about change (past and future) and the influence of geographical location; giving examples of the role of work, and how people make choices about economic wants and needs; giving examples of the diversity of goods and services; exploring the heritage of their own and selected communities; and demonstrating responsible decision-making and citizenship skills. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **CITIZENSHIP & GOVERNMENT** | | | Identify the role and the major services provided by local governments. | • Discuss what daily life would be like without government; draw up several statements describing why governments are necessary. | | • Discuss the reasons why people have governments. | • Make lists of government services that they use at home and school (e.g., water, sewers, roads, streets, police and fire protection). | | • Identify specific services that local governments provide. | • Make posters with newspaper pictures of local officials and a description of their duties. | | • Identify local officials and explain their duties. | • Form groups to interview the mayor, police officers, teachers, etc.; identify similarities and differences in roles and responsibilities. | | • Suggest the qualities needed to fulfill the duties of a community leader or person with authority. | • Compile a simple hypothetical city budget of a few goods and services; identify the opportunity cost including certain budget items. | | • Suggest ways that individuals can participate in the government of their communities. | | | • Explain how tax dollars provide some goods and services and why the government may not be able to provide all the goods and services people ask it to provide. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------| | **Student should be able to:** | **Students might:** | | **HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES** | | | Explain the importance of the historical development of the community. | • Collect photos, rubbings, names, and pictures of historic buildings, street signs, etc. Look for clues which tell about the past. | | • Identify significant historical developments, events, personalities, buildings, and places in the community. | • Find examples of how modes of transportation have changed. Collect photos and drawing. Report findings to class. | | • Identify and discuss changes which have occurred in the community. | • Draw a map, street scape, or mural of the local community next year, five years, and 100 years from now. | | • Give examples of how other communities in the past or in other parts of the world have changed over time. | • Draw a series of "streetscapes" (views of buildings from street level) in different locations at different times. | | • Predict changes in the community which may take place in the future. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS** | | | Show how the geographical location of the community relates to the state and the nation. | • Label the walls, corners, and floor of the classroom with directional signs and compass rose symbols. Use as a reference to correctly orient maps used in the classroom. | | • Use a compass rose to indicate cardinal and intermediate directions on all maps. Use common map symbols. | • Use play dough to create maps with specific land and water forms and their locations. | | • Identify land and water forms, e.g., oceans, lakes, river systems, continents, islands, mountains. | • Identify and label locations in the classroom which represent the equator, poles and hemispheres; use a compass for the actual directional orientation. Construct an “I am here” bulletin board using street/road, community, state, United States, and world maps. | | • Locate the Equator, Northern Hemisphere, Southern Hemisphere, and North and South Poles. | • Distinguish political divisions from physical features on maps and globes. | | • Lay a simple political and physical map side by side; search for relationships between physical features, topography, and political divisions. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------| | Student should be able to: | Students might: | | GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS continued...| | | • Give examples of how a community’s location is affected by climate. | • Display pictures of scenes around the world and attach with yarn to locations on a globe; discuss climates and influences and identify patterns. | | • Give examples and explore patterns of how the community’s geographic location affects they way people live. | • Work in small groups representing different areas of the world. Research how climate, land features, and natural resources affect clothing, housing, recreation, and means of earning a living. | | | • Survey the school and community to identify needed environment improvements. List ways they could help. Choose one or two improvements to work on during the year. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------| | **ECONOMICS** | | | Explain how people make choices about using goods, services, and productive resources to satisfy their economic needs and wants. | • Brainstorm a class list of goods and services used since breakfast; list the jobs required to produce or provide each good and service. • Design a brochure advertising the natural, human, and capital assets of the community to encourage business and people to locate there. | | • Describe how people must work in order to provide goods and services in the community. | • Give examples of how economic resources in the home, school, and community are limited (scarcity) and how people must make choices about how to use these resources. • Ask each student to compile a birthday “wish list” and then to cut the list by a specified amount. Assist in developing a list of classroom resources to be purchased with limited funds. | | • Identify productive resources (natural, human, and capital resources) in the community that are necessary to produce goods and services. | • Explain why people specialize in different jobs, and how this causes people to engage in trade and to depend on each other (interdependence). • Survey community members about their jobs, why they chose specific kinds of work, the skills and training needed, and job satisfaction. | | • Explain that both parties benefit from voluntary trade. | • Make models of goods out of play dough. Then trade to get the goods they want most. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------| | Student should be able to: | Students might: | | ECONOMICS continued . . . | | | • Identify the opportunity cost of various consumer and producer choices (the most valuable alternative a person has to give up to get something he or she wants). | • Simulate a city council making choices. List the opportunity costs of various choices. | | • Explain how tools and machines (capital) make people more productive. | • Conduct a "math productivity contest," comparing the number of math problems completed with and without calculator. | FOCUS: THE LOCAL COMMUNITY AND COMMUNITIES AROUND THE WORLD GRADE THREE Proficiency Statements and Indicators Student should be able to: WORLD CULTURES Examine the contributions of various racial and ethnic groups to the development of the community and the country. - Determine when students' families and/or early families came to live in the community. - Identify countries where family members may have lived in the past and consider ways they traveled to reach the United States. - Identify various community racial and ethnic groups and their places of origin. - Explain the ways in which people of different racial and ethnic groups help to make the community a better place to live. Sample Student Activities Students might: - Make a wall time line for the community, starting prior to its founding. Record families' names by their arrival dates. (Information can be found in county histories, often in the local history room of public libraries). - Make a chart or graph listing states or countries where students' families originated. - Interview recent immigrants or recent arrivals from other states about their experiences while traveling to the community and after their arrival. Locate states or countries of origin in maps and globes. - Rehearse and give presentations focusing on contributions of major ethnic/racial groups. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY** | | | Explore the increasing similarities among groups of people as a result of trade, travel, technology and modern systems of communications. | • Make a vocabulary chart of commonly used words and phrases in different languages, along with a list of the areas of the world where these languages are spoken. • Set up a display of communication artifacts (quill pen, old telephone, etc.) or pictures ordered by and identified with chronological periods. • Collect items produced in various areas of the world to share with classmates. Have a culture fair using all the items. | | Identify different languages and ways people communicate with one another in various parts of the world. | • Work in cooperative groups to compare and contrast selected communities around the world through their housing, clothing, foods, transportation, celebrations, etc. | | Compare methods of communication in the past with those of today. | • Construct a large wall chart listing different countries, their languages, housing, major products, and industries, etc. Compare with their own community. | | Identify goods that are imported to and those exported from their community. | • Using a modem, communicate with students/classrooms in other parts of the country or the world; inquire about and show technology used (e.g., National Geographic KIDSNET). | | Give examples of ways people live in communities around the world. | • Compare and contrast a different community environment with their own. | | Compare and contrast a different community environment with their own. | • Identify ways technology has helped people adapt to their environment. | ## FOCUS: THE LOCAL COMMUNITY AND COMMUNITIES AROUND THE WORLD ### GRADE THREE | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **CURRENT EVENTS** | | | Identify significant current events that influence life in the community. | • Make a bulletin board or mobile illustrating a variety of communications technologies and uses. • Design a survey to collect data about the kind of information source people use to inform themselves about issues. • Interview community leaders about a specific event or issue through letters, by E-mail, or in person. | | Use various sources of information to identify important events and issues in the community. | • In small groups, pretend to be community people dealing with current issues; develop solutions in each group and compare. | | Explain how an event may be important to their lives. | • Make a time line with pictures of different events featured on front pages of newspapers; discuss how these affected students’ families and community. | | Explain how community leaders use information about current events to make decisions. | • Interview adults about an issue or problem of the past, how it was resolved, or not, and the long-term results. Write stories or draw pictures based on these events. | | Discuss the relationship of a current event or problem to the present, past, and future. | | | Identify specific problems or issues in the community and propose possible solutions or outcomes. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------| | Student should be able to: | Students might: | | **INQUIRY SKILLS** | | | Use a variety of resources which include technology, electronic media, and print media to gather information about their community and other communities around the world. | • Make a bulletin board or mobile illustrating a variety of technology and uses. | | • Give examples of how technology helps people gather and organize information. | • Construct original charts, time lines, and maps or use computer programs to generate information about the community. | | • Interpret information about life in the community from simple charts, time lines, pictures, photographs. | • Using a variety of resources, construct simple, enlarged wall or floor maps and charts to describe the community. | | • Use different types of maps to collect data about their community (e.g., county maps, street maps, highway maps, aerial photos). | • Interview community members about life in the community, now and in the past. | | • Identify different opinions on events and issues from television, newspaper headlines and cartoons, and other media. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------| | **CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICE** | | | Demonstrate understanding of democratic ideas through the practice of citizenship skills. | • Generate a short list of group rules to guide use of materials and property. • Prior to a study trip, work in small groups to identify questions to be researched and contacts to be made; evaluate results after the trip. | | • Explain why it is important to respect the rights and property of others. | | | • Exercise responsibility by working together in groups to plan and carry out projects and activities. | | | • Identify rules and laws in the community. | • En route on a study trip, identify evidence of rules and laws. After returning to the classroom, make a chart putting rules and laws into groups. | | • Explore the ways rules and laws are made. | 1) Visit a city council session, or the meeting of another governing body, while a proposed rule or law is being debated. 2) Elect a "classroom council" to make decisions about rules for the classroom. | | • Gather and analyze information about national symbols, holidays, and famous citizens. | 1) Design patriotic posters featuring national symbols and leaders of the past for a mock election. 2) Do first-person presentations of famous citizens. 3) Make charts relating national symbols and holidays with famous citizens. | SOCIAL STUDIES GRADE FOUR Focus: Indiana in the Nation and the World Through fourth-grade students should be able to apply their growing academic skills and knowledge to an exploration of Indiana and its relationships with regional, national, and world communities. Fourth-grade students are beginning to develop a more definite concept of time and can begin to deal with cause and effect relations and decision-making processes, such as identifying problems and considering alternative solutions and their consequences. These skills and concepts must be related to students' lives and should be presented in a wide variety of resources and in hands-on activities, such as collecting and examining primary documents and artifacts, making models and maps, talking with community resource persons, and visiting historic sites and buildings. Fourth-grade students should be able to identify key events, places, and people which have shaped their state and region. They should be able to explain how changes have affected people and communities. They should identify major landforms, water features; and resources and explain how they have influenced state and regional development. They should be able to describe the basic structure of state government and explain its purpose. They should have opportunities to actively explore and appreciate the diverse cultures which have contributed to Indiana's heritage. Students should also develop proficiency in working cooperatively in groups to collect data from a variety of resources (including technology, and electronic and print media) to draw simple conclusions, and organize data using graphs, charts, maps, and simple timelines. | FOCUS: INDIANA IN THE NATION AND THE WORLD | GRADE FOUR | |------------------------------------------|------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities** | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **CITIZENSHIP AND GOVERNMENT** | | | Describe the components and characteristics of Indiana's present form of government. | • Make a list of the major services and regulations provided by state government that are used by people in the community. (e.g., state roads and highway, health and safety regulations, etc.). • Identify the Governor, Lt. Governor, the local State Senator, and the local State Representatives. Make a chart showing the duties of the Lt. Governor and the General Assembly. | | • Define the major purposes, and functions of Indiana's state government. | | | • Identify the branches of state government and major office holders. | | | • Explain how a Governor and legislators are elected and describe the characteristics one should look for in persons running for the office of governor or legislator. | • Interview adults in the community about the qualities that are important in state leaders. | | • Identify the major provision of Indiana's constitution. | • List, match, and compare major points in the 1816 and 1852 constitutions; simulate the writing of the first Constitution under the Constitutional Elm in Corydon. • Visit the General Assembly while it is in session and speak with their representative/senator. | | FOCUS: INDIANA IN THE NATION AND THE WORLD | GRADE FOUR | |-------------------------------------------|------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities** | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES** | | | Trace the historical movements which have led to the development of Indiana as a state. | Use a map of Native American cultural regions and an Indiana map to identify various Native American cultural regions during different time periods. | | • Identify prehistoric, historic, and present day groups of Native Americans and their contributions to Indiana. | On a U.S. map, show the routes European explorers followed to reach Indiana. | | • Describe the early European exploration of Indiana. | Make charts of reasons for exploring and settling in Indiana; brainstorm lists of needed resources. | | • Explain what motivated early European explorers and settlers and identify the resources they needed. | Choose a leader who has helped shape Indiana; research and report on his/her contributions. | | • Examine the events leading to territorial status and statehood and describe leaders who shaped Indiana. | Make a time line, or other graphic organizer, of people and events important to Indiana's development. | | • Identify people, places, and key events in Indiana history. | Create a school-wide time line which shows the connections among community, state, and world events. | | • Compare and contrast major events in Indiana history to key events in other regions of the world. | Make drawings depicting Indiana in the future. | | • Based on knowledge of the past, predict what Indiana's future will be in relationship to the rest of the world. | | | FOCUS: INDIANA IN THE NATION AND THE WORLD | GRADE FOUR | |-------------------------------------------|------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities** | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS** | | | Demonstrate an understanding of Indiana's geographical relationship to the nation and the world. | • Demonstrate the rotation and revolution process of the earth around the sun using a large globe and a flashlight; draw maps or pictures showing the positions of the different seasons. | | • Explain the relationship of the earth to the sun and its effects upon climate, natural vegetation, soils, and animal life. | • Use map grids to find exact locations in Indiana and the United States; write "postcards" describing the relative location of places (e.g., "South of Lake Michigan..."). | | • Describe places in Indiana and other parts of the world in terms of their absolute (exact) and relative location (location in relationship to other places). | • Use an Indiana road map to estimate distances to other communities and points of interest. | | • Estimate distances between places using maps and globes. | • Write a letter to a friend or relative in another state and draw a map showing how to reach their school, their homes, historical sites, or a state park. Use cardinal directions, a grid system and road numbers. | | • Use cardinal and intermediate directions and road maps to explain how to reach specific points in the community and state. | • On an outline map, color code major features in Indiana and the Midwest; add other world locations sharing similar features. | | • Describe major types of landform and water features, their worldwide distribution, and their relationship to the ways people live in Indiana and other regions of the world. | • On an outline map, color code Indiana and other world locations sharing similar climates. | 134 58 135 | FOCUS: INDIANA IN THE NATION AND THE WORLD | GRADE FOUR | |-------------------------------------------|------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities Students might:** | | Students should be able to: | | | GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS (continued) | | | • Identify and classify natural resources, show their worldwide distribution patterns, and recognize the physical and human limits on the use of resources. | • Choose a food product with numerous resources (ingredients) listed on the label. Determine the origins of these resources and indicate findings on a world map. | | • Describe and compare urban and rural communities in Indiana and other regions of the world and explain their interdependence. | • Make charts listing the types businesses and industries found in rural areas and in urban areas. Draw arrows between industries that depend upon each other in some way. | | • Make simple maps to show how communities in Indiana are linked together by movement of people, ideas, and products. | • Create overlay maps drawn on clear acetate which show transportation systems (trails, canals, roads) of the past and present. | | • Demonstrate how places in Indiana have changed over time and will continue to change. | • Make a play dough or salt/flour map of Indiana showing the topography after each glacial period. | | • Compare and contrast how people of various regions of the world settled in areas of Indiana and how these settlements have changed the landscape. | • Make a pictorial chart showing stages and locations of people moving to Indiana. | | • Study the Indiana system of formation of townships and counties. | • Label an Indiana map, including counties, cities, major rivers, etc. | | • Explore patterns found in boundaries of state, counties, townships. | • Compare different boundary lines within Indiana (township, county, and state), and across the United States. | | • Give examples of how people in Indiana have adapted to and changed the environment and how they have worked together to solve present environmental problems and to prevent future environmental problems. | • Assess a community environmental problem, brainstorm possible solutions, and consider the consequences of each. | | FOCUS: INDIANA IN THE NATION AND THE WORLD | GRADE FOUR | |------------------------------------------|------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities** | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | ECONOMICS | Construct a pictorial map of different goods and services produced in Indiana. | | Compare the characteristics of Indiana's changing economy in the past and present and predict future trends. | Make a chart or a collage showing the different types of money used. | | • Explain how the scarcity of natural, human, and capital resources has affected economic choices in Indiana. | Take a study trip to a museum to examine early Indiana products. Compare with present-day products. | | • Explain how money makes trade (barter) easier. | In small groups, gather information on Indiana inventors and report on how they affected business and agriculture. | | • Explain how goods and services produced in Indiana have changed over time. | Make a graph comparing Indiana’s products with those of other states. Use the information gathered to set up a “Hoosier Mini-Economy” (see Resource Section). | | • Give examples of how increases in productivity have affected Indiana business and agriculture. | | | • Compare and contrast manufactured and agricultural products of Indiana with those of states in different regions. | | 139 60 | FOCUS: INDIANA IN THE NATION AND THE WORLD | GRADE FOUR | |------------------------------------------|------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities Students might:** | | Students should be able to: | | | ECONOMICS continued… | | | • Describe the importance of Indiana’s products in world trade. | • 1) Take a study trip to an Indiana port. Gather information and make a chart of products shipped from Indiana and products shipped to the state. 2) Construct a map showing major exports from Indiana to world locations; explain why Indiana is among the major exporting states. | | • Examine the sources and uses of state tax revenues. | • Make graphs of major sources of state revenues and major categories of spending. | | • Describe how business leaders and entrepreneurs have influenced Indiana history. | • Research and report on the lives and work of specific business leaders and entrepreneurs. | 140 141 | FOCUS: INDIANA IN THE NATION AND THE WORLD | GRADE FOUR | |-------------------------------------------|------------| | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | WORLD CULTURES | | | Analyze and celebrate the diverse cultural and ethnic contributions that influence Indiana's heritage. | • Make posters or a collage depicting the cultural heritage of class members. | | • Recognize and respect the diversity found in cultural heritage and traditions. | • Draw historical overlay maps on clear acetate showing where various cultural groups have settled in Indiana in different time periods. | | • Describe the settlement patterns of various cultural and ethnic groups in Indiana. | • Interview community members about the traditions of their cultural group. | | • Compare important traditions, customs, and celebrations of different cultural groups in Indiana. | • Make picture charts depicting major contributions of different groups. | | • Trace and compare the contributions of different cultural and ethnic groups to Indiana's past and present. | • Make cultural maps of the United States showing settlement and migration patterns in different time periods. | | • Compare and contrast cultural groups in Indiana with those in neighboring states. | • In small groups, write "culture grams" (brief descriptions) for various ethnic groups using common headings, such as: country of origin, language(s), celebrations, religion(s). Compare. | | • Cite commonalities which people in different cultural groups share. | | | FOCUS: INDIANA IN THE NATION AND THE WORLD | GRADE FOUR | |------------------------------------------|------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities** | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY** | | | Examine the interaction between individual and group behavior in state and community life. | • Develop a comparative chart of different groups that people belong to, such as family, civic, and religious groups. List the functions that these groups have. | | • Identify different types and functions of social groups to which people belong in Indiana. | • Use the chart to explain the importance social groups have had in Indiana’s history. | | • Explain the importance of various social groups in Indiana’s development. | • Do a two-way chart, showing the responsibilities the state and community have to individuals and the responsibilities individuals have in return. | | • Identify the responsibility the individual has to the state and community and the responsibility the state or community has to the individual. | | ## FOCUS: INDIANA IN THE NATION AND THE WORLD ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: #### CURRENT EVENTS Examine current issues and events and their influences on daily life in Indiana communities. - Use several sources to gather information about current issues and events. - Maintain a bulletin board of Indiana events from newspapers, magazines, newsletters, etc. - Attend a public meeting, interview a public official or a member of the news media about an important issue. - Demonstrate how information about current events helps people make informed decisions. - In small groups, choose an issue or event from a newspaper and mount on poster board. Make a collage of possible consequences using pictures from magazines. - Explain how world events or issues may be related to conditions in Indiana. - Do a cause/effect chain using selected events. - Imagine how the outcome of an event might influence their future lives. - Identify specific problems or issues in Indiana and propose possible solutions or outcomes. - Survey teachers and older students in the school about problems facing Indiana. - Apply a decision-making model to current problems by identifying alternative actions and the criteria used to evaluate those alternatives. - Describe a number of different problems on separate pieces of poster board. In small groups, move from one problem board to the next, writing or drawing solutions. Discuss and choose the best solutions. | FOCUS: INDIANA IN THE NATION AND THE WORLD | GRADE FOUR | |-------------------------------------------|------------| | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | | | Students should be able to: | | | INQUIRY SKILLS | | | Draw conclusions about past and present life in Indiana based on relevant data derived from a variety of sources. | | | Use maps of different scales and themes, (e.g., transportation, population, products, etc.) to acquire data about Indiana. | | | Interpret information about life in Indiana presented in graphs, charts, time lines, pictures, and cartoons. | | | Construct simple maps, time lines, charts, and graphs. | | | Use both primary materials (documents - diaries, letters, drawings, photographs created by people who participated in or witnessed events) and secondary sources (textbooks, encyclopedia articles, etc.) to draw conclusions about Indiana life (see Resources Section). | | | Identify different opinions on events and issues from documents, cartoons, television, and other media. | | | Sample Student Activities Students might: | | | • Make their own cartoons about events in Indiana's past or present. | | | • Use maps and other graphics to make reports about Indiana's geography, products, and people. | | | • Compare a primary document relating to a specific event in Indiana history with an account of the same event from a secondary source. Create their own "primary document" by writing a letter or making a drawing about a recent event. | | | • Set up a "Pro and Con" board for posting cartoons, articles and other documents taking different perspectives on an issue. | | | FOCUS: INDIANA IN THE NATION AND THE WORLD | GRADE FOUR | |------------------------------------------|------------| | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | | | Students should be able to: | | | CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICE | | | Develop a commitment to democratic | | | principles through the practice | | | of citizenship. | | | • Give examples of conflicting | | | interests, values, and beliefs throughout| | | Indiana’s development and describe the | | | compromises which attempted to resolve | | | them. | | | • Give examples of how differing | | | values and beliefs may come into conflict in a democracy. | | | • Demonstrate democratic approaches for resolving conflicts. | | | • Consider problems that would result | | | without rules, laws, and means of | | | resolving conflicts. | | | • Explain the rights and responsibilities of voting. | | | Sample Student Activities Students might: | | |------------------------------------------|------------| | • Play the roles of different people in | | | Indiana’s past taking different sides | | | of an issue; reverse sides; discuss | | | how each person might feel about a | | | compromise or specific solution. | | | • Take a study trip to a courtroom to | | | learn about the justice system and its | | | role in resolving conflicts. Identify | | | other ways conflicts are resolved. | | | • 1) Elect a student council to make | | | classroom or school decisions. 2) | | | Resolve classroom/school problems | | | through conflict resolution and | | | consensus-building activities. | | | • Write a “newspaper article” or a story | | | about an imaginary day without certain | | | rules or laws (e.g., a day without | | | traffic laws). | | | • Take part in a classroom school mock | | | election in which students play the | | | roles of candidates, voters and election| | | officials. | | SOCIAL STUDIES GRADE FIVE Focus: The United States Through learning experiences at the fifth-grade level, students begin a formal exploration of United States history, geographic regional studies, economics, government, current events, and cultural heritage. Students' increasing interest in and ability to gather and organize data should enable them to explore the physical and cultural characteristics of the United States and its neighbors. Most fifth-grade students benefit from working and sharing in flexible groups so that they can become actively involved in "how to" demonstrations. Their natural interest in science, biography, and travel set the stage for experiences involving maps, memorabilia, collections, simulations, educational games, group planned projects, first-person presentations, and school/community experiences. Fifth-graders' interest in collecting and demonstrating uses of old objects provides avenues for extending time concepts. In activities, emphasis should be placed on the problem-solving skills of questioning, examining fact and opinion, analyzing and evaluating sources of information, contrasting and comparing using primary and secondary sources, and conducting research using a variety of resources, including technology, and electronic and print media. Students should also be able to describe the major components of our national government and to demonstrate responsible citizenship in the classroom and school setting. Additional proficiencies to be taught include: analyzing maps, globes, and graphic organizers; creating and interpreting charts and graphs; identifying relationships; debating issues; posing alternative actions; and developing thinking and independent study skills. | FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES | GRADE FIVE | |--------------------------|------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | **Sample Student Activities** | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **CITIZENSHIP AND GOVERNMENT** | • Brainstorm ideas about democracy. Use dictionaries and reference books to confirm ideas. Find quotes about democracy by famous Americans. Use findings to make group or individual “Democracy is…” posters. | | Describe the components and characteristics of the United State government. | • After researching the Constitution and Bill of Rights, create a constitution and bill of rights for the classroom. | | • Define democracy. | • Create a three-panel display depicting the three branches of government and their functions. | | Trace the origin and explain the purpose of the Constitution of the United States and the Bill of Rights. | • Invite a person who has become a naturalized citizen to talk to the class. | | Describe the three branches of the United States government and their functions. | • Help organize a school-wide election which follows the major steps in the process, including the slating of candidates, voter registration, etc. | | Examine responsibilities and privileges of citizenship and the process of becoming a U.S. citizen. | | | Explain the steps in the election process and propose reasons for participating and voting. | | 154 68 155 FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: CITIZENSHIP AND GOVERNMENT continued . . . - Describe the responsibility of the government to its citizens and the citizens to their government. - Examine ways by which citizens may effectively voice opinions and effect change in government. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Describe the historical movements which influenced the development of the United States. - Describe the early migration of people from Asia to North America. - Identify specific Native American groups and describe their life styles before the arrival of the Europeans. Sample Student Activities Students might: - Survey individuals about their knowledge of United States government and their understanding of mutual responsibility. Pool and analyze data for a report to another class. - Invite elected officials to visit the class and discuss the ways that citizens can be effective in bringing about change. - Trace possible migration routes of Native Americans on present-day maps. Investigate how land and water forms might have changed. Read Native American stories about how they came to be in their home areas. - Create a large outline map of North America showing major geographic features and regions. Draw pictures on the map, or create a wall mural showing housing, dress, and patterns of living for several major Native American cultures. | FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES | |--------------------------| | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | | Students should be able to: | **HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES continued...** - List explorers who visited the Americas and describe their influences upon early colonization. - Trace the events that led to the establishment of the United States. - Name major historical figures and describe their involvement in the development of the United States. - Tie events in United States history to key events in other regions of the world. - Based on knowledge of the past, predict what the future of the United States will be in relationship to the rest of the world. --- **GRADE FIVE** | Sample Student Activities | |---------------------------| | Students might: | - Work in cooperative groups to research specific explorers and trace exploration routes on maps. - Investigate the travel experiences of European settlers: Compare and contrast trip plans, clothing, funding, trip necessities, technology, foods, maps of the times and reasons for leaving home countries. Speculate about why these settlers eventually might want to establish a new country. - Read biographies of important figures. Design a “stamp” commemorating their major accomplishments. - Create a tiered time line of corresponding time periods in different regions of the world. List and compare events taking place in the same time period. - Brainstorm scenarios in which results are predicted for a series of questions about the future stating with “What if…”? FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS Identify the physical and cultural characteristics of the United States and describe their relationships to geographic regions of the world. - Identify symbols and use scale to measure distance on maps and globes. - Draw sketch maps from memory. Compare scale, symbols, relative locations, and topographical features with commercial maps. - Use latitude and longitude to measure distance, determine direction, and locate points on maps and globes. - Create "mystery locations" for classmates by giving two sets of clues. The first clue gives relative location. Example: "This place is 100 miles North of ___." The second clue gives latitude and longitude. - Use symbols on maps and globes to identify and interpret data. - Design a map of a fictional country. Include landforms, natural resources, a map key, a compass which shows the cardinal and intermediate directions, and a scale of miles. - Locate specific landforms, countries, states, and cities/places on maps and globes. - Create maps of the United States showing major regions, bodies of water, landforms, states, and cities. Discuss the limitations and opportunities that these landforms presented during the early development of the United States. | FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES | GRADE FIVE | |--------------------------|------------| | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS continued... | | | • Hypothesize about the reasons for the locations of specific places (e.g., near a body of water, unique landform, transportation route, natural resources, source of power, etc.). | • Tape an acetate sheet over a commercial map; use colored pens and a map key to indicate specific features, resources, and transportation routes. Compare with the locations of specific places. | | • Compare physical and cultural regions in North America and other regions of the world and explain major differences in life styles (e.g., climate, history, landforms, patterns, etc.). | • 1) Divide a world map into five major climates. Form groups to research the plants, animals, and other natural characteristics of the climate type. 2) Make maps of English, Spanish and French speaking regions of North America. | | • Give evidence that shows the interdependence of physical and cultural regions of the U.S. and other regions of the world. | • Use photographs to compare architectural styles in different regions of the United States and relate to styles in other countries. (e.g., South Western United States/Spain/Latin America). | | • Explain ways in which personal choices and public decisions influence environmental conditions. | • Tour a recycling plant or invite a representative from a recycling firm to visit the class. | FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: ECONOMICS Describe the productive resources and market relationships that influence the way people produce goods and services and earn a living in different parts of the United States. - Explain how economic decisions are made in a market economy by demonstrating the relationship among economic factors (such as scarcity, choice, opportunity cost, money, goods and services, price, and supply and demand). - Construct a simple circular flow model of a market economy. - Give examples illustrating the economic interdependence of different regions of the United States. Sample Student Activities Students might: - Prepare a market analysis to create and run student businesses (e.g., desk-cleaning business, plant watering service, recreation managers, chalkboard engineers, photographers, etc.). See the Resource Section, Page 217. - Use drawings or pictures from magazines to create a bulletin board illustrating the circular flow model of the U.S. economy. - Keep a journal of the food eaten in one day. On a map, locate the regions that produce these foods. FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: ECONOMICS continued . . . - Explain how interdependence is a result of specialization and how specialization increases productivity. Identify natural resources and related occupations found in the regions of the United States and speculate why certain careers are more common in one region than in another. Trace the development of technology and inventions and analyze their impact on productivity throughout the history of the United States. Sample Student Activities Students might: 1) Invite a business person to the classroom to discuss specific business decisions (e.g., wages, profits, job skills). 2) Chart different types of jobs, the type of education needed and corresponding salaries. 3) Take a field trip to a soft drink, potato chip or other type of factory to observe specialization and productivity factors. 1) Make a map of the United States showing resources and related occupations. 2) Identify the various careers and occupations involved in specific products (e.g., breakfast cereal, tennis shoes) and services (e.g., restaurants, healthcare, etc.). 1) Make a time line of inventions and technological developments. In small groups, discuss how these developments affected productivity. 2) Have an "Invention Convention" demonstrating historical and/or student-made inventions. Explain the real or possible impact of each invention. FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: WORLD CULTURES Analyze the diverse cultures that have contributed to the heritage of the United States. - Identify specific cultural groups, their migration patterns, and their contributions to the United States. - Investigate the cultural heritage of specific individuals and groups. - Identify and evaluate factors which develop pride in community and country. - Compare similarities and differences of cultures in the United States with those of other countries. Sample Student Activities Students might: - Make charts showing immigration patterns of the early 1900's. Make decision T's for a family deciding whether or not to immigrate showing the "push/pull" factors (reasons to immigrate or not); or dramatize the decision-making process, playing the role of family members. - Make a "family tree" for a specific cultural group drawing pictures of important individuals, movements, events, and contributions. - Survey community members about the things that make them proud to live in their community. Use the information to create "Community Pride" posters. - Visit a cultural museum. Work in small groups to identify different groups, their traditional ways of life and places of origin. Use the information to develop group reports. | FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES | GRADE FIVE | |--------------------------|------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** Students should be able to: **INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY** Identify and analyze groups in the United States that have influenced patterns of national behavior. - Identify the different kinds of social groups to which people belong. - Make a poster or collage using magazine clippings showing various groups that people belong to (e.g., families, sports teams, academic clubs, boy scouts, girl scouts, etc.). - Describe the characteristics of groups that influenced the early development of the United States. - Develop “group portraits” of different groups by listing the things that were important to them (e.g., religious freedom, owning property, individual rights, etc.). - Identify and explain perspectives on human rights held by various groups before and after the Civil War. - In small groups, play the roles of political parties before and after the Civil War as they develop platforms. - Explain how groups, such as unions and political parties, have influenced the development of the United States. - Interview members of groups, such as unions or political parties, about their perspectives, major purposes, and ideals. | FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY continued... - Describe the responsibilities that individuals have both to themselves and to the groups to which they belong. Give examples of how these responsibilities may sometimes be in conflict. Sample Student Activities Students might: 1) Using poster paper, work in small groups on the "Balancing Responsibilities See Saw." The "See Saw" has conflicting responsibilities at opposite ends (e.g., selling Girl Scout cookies with a friend after school versus helping take care of a younger brother or sister). Under the "See Saw," list ways to keep these responsibilities in balance. 2) Read biographies of American historical figures and explain how they resolved conflicts and met responsibilities. CURRENT EVENTS Examine current issues affecting daily life in the United States. - Use several resources, including technology, electronic and print media to gather and organize information about current issues and events. 1) Create and manage a current events bulletin board that students contribute to and change on a frequent basis. 2) Develop a school or classroom newspaper or newsletter. 3) Keep a current events journal. Identify a different event on each page. List the different points of view about each event. - Explore the relationship of a current issue or event to events and conditions in the past and predict how it may affect the future. - Locate a community historical marker and make a rubbing or photograph. Explain how the event commemorated has affected the community. Propose and design a new historical marker for a current or future (hypothetical) community event. | FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------|--------------------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | Students should be able to: | | **CURRENT EVENTS continued...** | Identify different points of view on a current issue. | | - Predict how an important current event may affect their lives. | - Suggest possible solutions to specific problems which affect their communities. | | - Identify different points of view on a current issue. | - Apply a decision-making model to a current problem or problems by identifying possible alternative actions and listing the criteria which might be used to evaluate those alternatives. | | - Identify a current event and predict what its impact will be next week, next year, in five years, in 100 years. | - Conduct a panel discussion representing opposite points of view, then reverse sides. | | - Tally the national and international problems covered in the local newspaper. Identify the five most significant ones for the community. Suggest several solutions for each one. | - Compose criteria for narrowing down the solutions suggested above; apply criteria and, by consensus, select the more constructive solutions. | 174 175 78 | FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES | GRADE FIVE | |--------------------------|------------| | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | | Students should be able to: | | | INQUIRY SKILLS | | | Draw conclusions and make decisions based on relevant data derived from a variety of resources including technology, electronic and print media. | • 1) Collect or draw political cartoons for a "cartoon journal." • 2) Locate different types of graphs, charts and time lines in newspapers and magazines. Mount each one on a separate piece of paper or poster board. Explain the purpose of each. | | • Interpret information about life in the United States presented in graphs, charts, maps, time lines, polls, pictures, and cartoons. | • Survey other students about a specific issue or question (e.g., preferences for particular types of cafeteria foods). Convert the data into a simple chart. Use for a report in the school newsletter to the student council or other school group. | | • Organize information in simple charts, graphs, and time lines. | • Conduct a "news hounds" competition to see which small group can find the greatest variety of information sources about a specific problem or issue. | | • Use newspaper articles, magazines, radio and television reporting and firsthand experiences (e.g., interviews, surveys) to study a problem. | | | FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES | |--------------------------| | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | | Students should be able to: | **INQUIRY SKILLS continued...** - Compare ways in which different media report about events, problems, and issues. - Distinguish between primary materials (documents such as diaries, letters, drawings, and photographs created by people who witnessed or participated in events) and secondary sources (textbooks, encyclopedia articles, etc.). - Examine and discuss different interpretations of a historical event or issue. --- **GRADE FIVE** | Sample Student Activities | |---------------------------| | Students might: | - Take a field trip to a television station, radio station, or newspaper office. Interview representatives from different media about how they do their work. - Set up displays representing both primary and secondary materials about the same topic or event. Compare the kinds of information and insights provided by both. - Put on a mock debate or television panel in which students play the part of individuals representing different interpretations of a historical event or issue. FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICE Develop a commitment to the democratic principles that led to the development of the United States as a nation through practice of citizenship skills in the school community. - Explain how diverse beliefs led to the colonization of the United States. - Examine the ways the Constitution and Bill of Rights protect people's rights. - Describe and evaluate the struggle in our society for equal rights for all people. - Evaluate a set of rules or laws. Sample Student Activities Students might: - Develop historical "travel brochures" or ads publicizing the advantages of moving to North America from different parts of the world in different time periods. Compare the reasons for moving that would have appealed to different groups. - Create a bulletin board display featuring the rights protected by the Constitution and Bill of Rights. - Describe and evaluate the struggle in our society for equal rights for all people. Trace specific rights through different time periods (e.g., the right to vote) and dramatize the exercise of those rights (e.g., "The year is 1796/1896/1996. Who can vote?"). - Examine a set of obsolete rules or laws. (e.g., Rules regarding the conduct of teachers: teachers had to arrive at school very early to build a fire; female teachers could not marry, etc.). List reasons why some rules and laws might need to be changed. | FOCUS: THE UNITED STATES | GRADE FIVE | |--------------------------|------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** Students should be able to: | **Sample Student Activities** Students might: | | **CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICE continued…** | • Write a classroom Bill of Rights. List the various responsibilities that come with these rights. • Plan a class civic activity (e.g., clean-up day for room, school, local parks, etc.) in which both individuals and groups have commitments. • Draw up “contracts” or agreements about what each person and group will do. Keep a chart marking progress toward meeting commitments. | | • Contribute to the development of class rules and government. • Work cooperatively in groups to share learning resources, examine problems/conflicts, and suggest possible solutions or compromises. • Accept responsibility for group and individual actions. | SOCIAL STUDIES GRADE SIX Focus: Global Studies - Western Cultures In the sixth grade, students should compare the history, geography, government, economic systems, current issues, and cultures of the Western World with an emphasis on Europe; North, South, and Central America; the Caribbean Region; and Antarctica. Instructional programs for sixth-grade students should include experiences which foster the passage from concrete examples to abstract reasoning, concepts, ideas, and generalizations. Opportunities to develop skills should include the use of a variety of resources and activities. Students should acquire positive attitudes regarding active participation, cooperation, responsibility, open-mindedness, and respect for others. The term *Western World* includes: - Europe - North America - South America - Central America - The Caribbean Region - Antarctica | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **CITIZENSHIP AND GOVERNMENT** | • Compare and contrast “freedom of speech” and other basic rights in selected nations. | | Compare and contrast civic responsibility and the political structures in various societies of the Western World. | 1) Use the Internet to establish links with schools in other countries. Interview students in partner schools about the roles of citizens in their cultures. 2) Invite a foreign exchange student from a high school or college to visit the class. | | Identify major forms of government found in countries of the Western World and compare responsibilities and freedom within each. | • Compare the way leadership changes take place in the United States (presidential elections) and in other countries. Collect newspaper and magazine clippings about changes in government leadership in various countries, classify as “orderly” and “disorderly” change. Compare how change takes place in a “command” society, like Cuba, versus the United States. | | Describe a citizen’s role within contrasting cultures of the Western World and compare it to the students’ roles in their cultures. | • Work in small groups to research the cultures and governments of selected countries in different time periods. Compare time periods and conditions. | | Compare and contrast the ways in which orderly change may take place within United States culture with that of other nations of the Western World. | • Describe the cultural influences that affect the political structure of a culture of the Western World from the past to the present. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES** | | | Evaluate the effect of historical events, figures, and decisions on world cultures. | • Select a past or present leader. Create a “web” with the leaders name or picture at the center. Draw a line to connect to important contributions, influences, etc. | | Identify major historical events and figures from societies of the Western World. Describe their influence in a specific culture and the world. | • Investigate the causes and speculate about circumstances of “disappearing” or changing cultures (e.g., the Anasazi, the Mississippians, the classical Mayans, etc.). | | Outline the causes of major historical events affecting societies of the Western World and their influence on the past, present, and future of a specific culture. | • Use historical front page headlines that feature important decisions. Write alternative headlines for different historical events (e.g., “King George Gives Former Colonies His Blessing,” “Spain Ignores New World”). Consider the possible results. | | Analyze major historical decisions affecting the societies of the Western World. Develop alternative decisions and project their possible outcomes. | • Trace the development of specific inventions (e.g., the compass, the clock, gun powder, printing press, etc.) and report on how they impacted the lives of people in the Western World. | | Determine the impact of discoveries in science and technology. | • | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators Student should be able to: | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |-----------------------------|--------------------------------| | **GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS** | • Outline the factors affecting climate and vegetation. Complete an outline map showing temperature ranges and plant life. Check work by comparing with maps and data in an atlas. | | Explain the relationship between physical and cultural features in the Western World. | • Hypothesize about the natural environment of places in relation to their exact (latitude and longitude) and relative locations. Identify the physical features (land and water forms, climate, natural vegetation, etc.) that influence development. Identify cultural characteristics of regions (language, nationality, religion, etc.) that influence cultural development. | | | • Choose a location and describe nearby physical features. List advantages and disadvantages for development (e.g., trade, travel, communication, etc.). | | | 1) Prepare travel brochures describing characteristics of various countries, including location, climate, language(s), industries, recreation, and cultural highlights. 2) Make a map of the world indicating which nations colonized specific areas during the colonial period. List the important influences of the colonizing countries: language(s), religion(s) form of government, arts, architecture, etc. | 191 | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS continued...** | • Prepare a parallel set of maps showing changes over time (e.g., “forests in North America in 1800 and today”, “urban population in the U.S. in 1900 and today”). | | • Recognize the changes in distribution patterns (population, resources, etc.) over time. | • Draw pictures to show how people have adapted to their environments (housing, clothing, modes of transportation, etc.). | | • Identify ways in which people in the Western World have used and adapted to their environments. | • Plan a vacation following the Pan-American highway (mileage maps, expenses, clothing, excursions, lodging and meals, sites). | | • Plan hypothetical journeys which involve various methods of transportation, scheduling, time changes, directions, distances, and seasonal changes. | • Identify common issues in different areas of the Western World using newspapers and magazines. Play the role of people with different perspectives on this issue (e.g., deforestation in the Amazon from the perspectives of a rancher, a logger, a naturalist, an indigenous person, etc.). | | • Identify important global issues that affect the Western World (deforestation, acid rain, population growth, etc.) and examine contrasting perspectives on these problems. | • Read accounts of physical processes (e.g., earthquakes, volcanoes, hurricanes, tornadoes, etc.) in newspapers and magazines. Create a bulletin board of the forces and processes that shape the landscape. | | • Identify the physical processes that shape the earth’s surface. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **ECONOMICS** | | | Demonstrate the influence of physical and cultural factors upon the economic systems found in countries of the Western World. | 1) Plan a family budget for a family of four based on the per capita income of a nation. 2) Develop charts and graphs showing the economic role of women in several countries. | | Explain how physical geography, specialization, and trade influence the ways people earn income in various countries. | Choose several common products (e.g., a candy bar, items of clothing, etc.). Identify the ingredients or components. Research and identify locations on a world map where these products originated. | | Explain how increased specialization and trade make countries more wealthy yet more interdependent. | 1) Write to the embassies of selected countries requesting information. Develop a chart comparing/contrasting standards of living among these countries. 2) Research the type of economic system or systems used in a country over a long period of time. Analyze changes in everyday life as economic systems develop or change (e.g., change from a traditional to a market economy). | 1948 1950 1955 | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | Student should be able to: | | | ECONOMICS Continued ... | | | - Describe the level and sources of income (gross domestic product-GDP) in countries of the Western World. | • Color code a world map showing different GDP levels. Create a profile of specific countries highlighting economic factors (e.g., GDP, productive resources; trade statistics). | | - Compare and contrast how education and technology influence productivity and economic development in countries of the Western World. | • Compare GDP levels with literacy rates/levels of educational attainment, use of technology, etc. | | - Identify situations in which the actions of consumers and producers are helpful (e.g., education) or harmful (e.g., pollution) to others, inside and outside a country, who are not directly involved in the consumption or production of a product. | • 1) Report on pollution levels in different countries and on ways different countries deal with pollution. 2) Play the role of consumers and producers of products from various countries. Compare points of view. | | - Explain how international trade requires a system for exchanging money between nations. | • Analyze the classified ads from a foreign, English-language newspaper. Convert salaries to dollars. | ## FOCUS: WESTERN CULTURES ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators **Student should be able to:** #### WORLD CULTURES Using the cultures of the Western World as a context, identify the common elements of different cultures. - Identify the characteristics of cultures that are alike and different. - Identify the basic needs and wants that influence the lives of all people. - Explain the relationship between development factors and the ways people satisfy their needs and wants. | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |------------------------------------------| | • Identify common cultural themes (e.g., ways of life, work and technology, recreation and celebrations, values, etc.) and use as the basis for researching several cultures. Construct large wall charts displaying each cultural group. Use to compare and contrast. | | • Use research and retrieval charts (as in the previous activity) to compare basic needs and wants and the means used to obtain them. | | • Use common time lines to record needs and wants and the way they are obtained over a period of time. Analyze the changes that take place in relationship to technological and economic development. | | FOCUS: WESTERN CULTURES | GRADE SIX | |-------------------------|-----------| | Proficiency Statements and Indicators Student should be able to: | Sample Student Activities Students might: | | WORLD CULTURES continued… | • Communicate with students in other countries using computer technology when possible. Inquire about the changes taking place in their lives and the forces bringing about the changes. Use the information gathered to make cause and effect diagrams (e.g., effect more people moving to cities; cause: need for jobs). Compare with changes taking place in their own community. | | Recognize and evaluate forces that result in cultural change. | | | Analyze the significance of sharing boundaries with other nations (e.g., differing national aspirations, standards of living, currencies; immigration; trade; environmental issues; travel, cultural exchange). | • Identify a current boundary issue affecting two nations of the Western World (e.g., United States and Canada: acid rain; Brazil and Argentina: immigration). Brainstorm possible solutions and areas of cooperation. | ## INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY Using societies of the Western World as a context, develop an understanding of the relationship between individual and group behavior. - Identify social groups to which people belong and explain their importance in society. - Compose a list of interview questions or a survey. - Invite a panel of foreign students to visit the class or send the survey to selected foreign students at a college or university. Use the interview/survey to identify social groups to which people belong. Ask the individuals interviewed to comment upon the importance social groups (family, religious, civic, recreational) have in their lives. - List individual actions that affect the community in positive and negative ways. - Explain the effects of individuals’ behavior on society. - Read short stories or other literature selections featuring cultures of the Western World. Explain how individuals in these stories are influenced by the groups to which they belong. - Determine how individual behavior is influenced by social groups. - Identify leaders in several areas (the arts, government, technology) and demonstrate how they influenced their societies. | FOCUS: WESTERN CULTURES | GRADE SIX | |-------------------------|-----------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** Student should be able to: | Sample Student Activities Students might: | | **INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY continued...** | • Identify several social groups (formal and informal) to which they belong and the expectations (norms) in order to remain members in good standing. • Identify and analyze stereotypes attributed to cultural or ethnic groups. Explain why such stereotypes might be inaccurate or unfair. • Develop T-charts in small groups showing the possible positive results of moving from a rural to an urban area on one side and the possible negative results on the other. | | • Assess what are acceptable behaviors in different social groups. • Develop an understanding of and respect for societal and individual differences. • Choose one type of social change and examine its impact upon individuals and groups. (Explain causes and consequences of urbanization.) | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **CURRENT EVENTS** | | | Determine those factors from past and current events that may influence future conditions in various cultures of the Western World. | • Trace the impact and consequences of the introduction of contemporary western clothing on selected societies. • Select a current issue such as illiteracy. Research how it has affected people in the United States, Mexico, and Canada. Interview local business people and workers about how it has affected their businesses and jobs. • Brainstorm the characteristics of acceptable solutions. Prioritize and select the top characteristics. Use as criteria for evaluating solutions to current problems. • Work in groups to identify outcomes of a problem under three categories: PROBABLE (if current conditions and actions continue); POSSIBLE (if solutions are pursued); and PREFERRED (the best or ideal outcome). • Using the categories above, outline necessary steps for a desirable outcome to occur. | - Research and evaluate a current issue that affects societies of the Western World. - Analyze a current issue that affects society at the local, national, and international levels. - Evaluate proposed solutions to a current issue. - Forecast hypothetical outcomes of a current issue. - Outline steps to reach a desired outcome for an issue. ## FOCUS: WESTERN CULTURES ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators **Student should be able to:** - Using relevant data derived from a variety of sources, form conclusions, make decisions, and present findings related to various cultures of the Western World. - Interpret information about societies of the Western World presented in graphs, charts, maps, time lines, polls, pictures, and cartoons. - Identify, evaluate, and use appropriate reference materials and technology. - Record sources of information and develop note-taking and outlining systems. - Prepare original written and oral reports and presentations on specific countries of the Western World. - Distinguish fact from opinion in data sources. ### Sample Student Activities **Students might:** - Using the technology and data available, produce a profile for a selected country. - Compile and post a chart showing many types of information sources (e.g., primary document, secondary source, print, film, etc.). List the advantages and disadvantages of each. - Use a variety of strategies for recording and organizing information (cognitive maps, webs, scaffolds, chains, etc.). - In reporting on a specific country or society, explain or demonstrate the strategies (see above) used to collect and organize information. - In current magazines and newspapers, underline statements of fact in red and statements of opinion in blue. Compile on separate pieces of poster paper. Explain the criteria used for identifying factual statements and statements of opinion. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------| | Student should be able to: | Students might: | | **CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICE** | | | Develop a commitment to effective and responsible participation in the functioning of school and community organizations. | • Interview a recent immigrant, foreign visitor or student about community service activities in their country. • Compile a list of service organizations and projects in the local community. Compare. | | Compare and contrast ideas about civic responsibility and community service in at least one Western culture (past or present) with those in the local community. | • Identify different community needs. Use as the basis for selecting a service project. Design a calendar of activities to carry out the project. Check progress regularly. | | Participate in a service learning project at some point during the school year. | • Help develop and implement a student court or peer mediation program to resolve conflicts. | | Contribute to student government and/or class government activities at some point during the school year. | • Compare posted and understood rules of the school and community. | | Observe school and community rules and regulations. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------| | **Student should be able to:** | **Students might:** | | **CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICE continued...** | • Keep a daily journal for a week with an emphasis on responsible actions. Choose one to share with others. | | • Accept responsibility for individual actions in the school and community. | | | • Work cooperatively toward goals. | | | • Provide positive leadership for at least one classroom activity or organization in the school and/or community. | • Read biographies of past and present leaders in Western societies. Discuss different styles of effective and positive leadership. Use appropriate leadership in conducting individually chosen activities. | Focus: Global Studies - Eastern Cultures In the seventh grade, students should compare the history, geography, government, economic systems, current issues, and cultures of Asia, Africa the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Middle East, the Pacific Islands, Australia, and New Zealand. Learning experiences for seventh-grade students should help them to make the transition from concrete examples to abstract ideas, concepts, and generalizations. In-depth studies should provide greater understanding of environmental influences on economic, cultural, and political institutions. Opportunities to develop thinking and research skills should include reading and interpreting maps, graphs, and charts. Decision-making and problem-solving activities should include identifying problems, issues and questions; information gathering; hypothesizing; and evaluating alternative solutions and actions. The term *Eastern World* includes: - Asia - Africa - The Commonwealth of Independent States - The Middle East - The Pacific Islands - Australia - New Zealand ## FOCUS: EASTERN CULTURES ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: #### CITIZENSHIP AND GOVERNMENT - Compare and contrast civic responsibility and the political structures in various societies of the Eastern World. - Identify major forms of government found in countries of the Eastern World and compare responsibilities and freedoms within each. - Examine a citizen’s role in contrasting cultures of the Eastern World and compare it to a citizen’s role in the United States. - Compare and contrast the ways in which orderly change may take place in the United States and in nations in the Eastern World. - Describe the cultural influences that affect the political structure of a culture of the Eastern World from the past to the present. - Identify different types of government in selected nations. Make wall charts describing the major characteristics of each. Compare and contrast under each form of government. - Research and act out the role of the “good citizen” in several different cultures. - Use newspaper and news magazine accounts to compare and contrast a change in government under a parliamentary system with a change in government under the U.S. system. - Research at least one culture or nation of the Eastern World in depth, tracing early forms of government or social organization (e.g., clan or tribal relationships, village, etc.) to the present. ## FOCUS: EASTERN CULTURES ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: #### HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES - Evaluate the effect of historical events, figures, and decisions on Eastern cultures. - Identify major historical figures from societies of the Eastern World and their influence on a specific culture and the world. - Outline major historical events affecting societies of the Eastern World. Identify causes of events and hypothesize about influence on the past, present, and future of a specific culture. - Analyze a major historical decision affecting the societies of the Eastern World and develop probable alternative outcomes of that decision. - Using geography to interpret history; past, present, and future. - Identify discoveries in science and technology that have originated in the Eastern world. - Develop charts or murals showing major figures in different areas of endeavor (e.g., politics and government, the arts, religion, the military) in different historical periods. - Construct a common time line that includes major historical events for several Eastern cultures. Make cause and effect chains using selected events. - Create a “Great Decisions” TV interview show featuring historical leaders of selected Eastern cultures. Role play leaders as they explain decisions they made. - Plan a vacation following the Orient Express or Nile River (i.e., mileage, maps, expenses, excursion, clothing, lodging, meals). Describe historic sites and their locations, as well as present conditions. - Identify and research specific scientific and technological developments. Develop “What if …” charts for each one (e.g., “What if gun powder hadn’t been invented?”). List the possible results if the discovery or development hadn’t occurred. | FOCUS: EASTERN CULTURES | GRADE SEVEN | |-------------------------|-------------| | Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: | Sample Student Activities Students might: | | GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS | • Use latitude and longitude to find places on maps and globes. Choose specific locations or specific cities and list the environmental characteristics that can be inferred from the exact location. Use an atlas, encyclopedia, or other resource to confirm ideas. Develop a “guide” to the city or location using the information gathered. | | Explain the relationship between physical and cultural features on the earth’s surface. | • Plan hypothetical journeys which involve various methods of transportation, scheduling, time changes, directions, distances, and seasonal changes. | | • Hypothesize about the natural environment of places in relation to their absolute (latitude and longitude) and relative locations in the Eastern World. | • Make cultural maps showing commonalities and differences among regions (e.g., a map of major religious or language regions on the Eastern World). | | • Identify the physical features (and water forms, climate, natural vegetation, etc.) that influence cultural development in the regions of the Eastern World. | • Make and interpret charts and graphs that give information about distribution of resources and population. | | • Identify cultural characteristics of regions (language, nationality, religion, etc.) and determine the effects of cultural contact among the societies of the Eastern World. | | | • Recognize the changes in the distribution patterns (population, resources, etc.) of the Eastern World. | | | FOCUS: EASTERN CULTURES | GRADE SEVEN | |-------------------------|-------------| | Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: | Sample Student Activities Students might: | | **GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS** continued... | • Read folktales or other literature that provide insights to the relationship between people and the environment. Make picture "maps" of the story depicting geographic features, climate, plants, animals, housing, clothing, occupations, etc. • Make a collage of world issues using clippings from newspapers and magazines. | | • Identify ways in which people of the Eastern World have used and adapted to their environments (housing, clothing, modes of transportation, etc.). | • Identify important global issues that affect the Eastern World (decentralization, food, population growth, energy, human rights) and examine contrasting perspectives on these problems. • Recognize the physical processes that shape the planet's surface (erosion, earthquakes, volcanoes, hurricanes, etc.). • Use various resources to research the causes of natural events (e.g., maps, diagrams, or computer programs showing the movement of tectonic plates). Examine the ways that people in specific areas have adapted to and attempt to predict these events (e.g., developing "earthquake proof" buildings, etc.). | | FOCUS: EASTERN CULTURES | GRADE SEVEN | |-------------------------|-------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** Students should be able to: | **Sample Student Activities** Students might: | | **ECONOMICS** | | | Demonstrate the influence of physical and cultural factors upon the economic systems found in countries of the Eastern World. | • Compare the economic roles of family members in selected countries and in rural as well as urban areas (e.g., China, Japan, Egypt, Kenya). | | • Explain how physical geography, specialization, and trade influence the way people earn income. | • Survey local businesses to discover if they export or import products to and from countries in the Eastern World. | | • Explain how increased specialization and trade make countries wealthier yet more interdependent. | • Choose specific countries in which different types of economic systems prevail. In small groups, research and play the roles of producers and consumers in each situation. | | • Explore how different economic systems (traditional, command, market) answer the basic economic questions of *What to Produce? How to Produce?* and for *Whom to Produce?* | • Use reference materials to compare literacy rates in several Eastern countries. Based on the data, develop theories about economic development in each country. Check theories by consulting research materials. | | • Compare and contrast how education and technology influence productivity and economic development. | | 224 103 225 | FOCUS: EASTERN CULTURES | GRADE SEVEN | |-------------------------|-------------| | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | | Students should be able to: | • Create a chart comparing the GDP of selected Eastern nations. | | ECONOMICS continued..... | • Research a specific social institution (religious, political, educational, etc.) in one country. Join other students in a small group who have researched different groups. Pool information to develop profiles of the selected countries. | | • Describe the level and sources of income (gross domestic product-GDP) in countries of the Eastern World. | | | • Explain how social institutions, such as religions, influence the economic systems. | | | • Identify situations in which the actions of consumers and producers are helpful (e.g., education) or harmful (e.g., pollution) to people inside and outside a country, who are not directly involved in the consumption or production of a product. | 1) Brainstorm a list of ways that specific individual actions are helpful to others. Make a similar list of ways that an action may be harmful. 2) Discuss problems that can arise when pollution from one country affects another. Give examples. | | • Explain how extensive international trade requires a system for exchanging money between and among nations. | • Use the exchange rates listed in the newspaper to plan a business transaction or a hypothetical vacation in one or more countries of the Eastern World. | ## FOCUS: EASTERN CULTURES ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: #### WORLD CULTURES Using the cultures of the Eastern World as a context, identify the common elements of different cultures. - Identify the characteristics of different cultures that are alike and different. - Identify the needs that influence the lives of all people. - Explain the relationship between economic development and the ways people satisfy their needs and wants. - Recognize and evaluate forces that result in cultural change. - Analyze the significance of sharing boundaries with other nations (e.g., differing national aspirations, standards of living, currencies; immigration; trade; environmental issues; travel; cultural exchange). | Sample Student Activities Students might: | | |------------------------------------------|---| | Read short stories or other literature from several different Eastern cultures. In small groups, compare stories listing cultural aspects that are alike and those that appear to be unique. | | | Select one country of the Eastern World and research the way people met basic needs. Compare with the way needs are met in the United States. | | | Identify countries that are “non-industrialized,” “partially industrialized,” and “high industrialized.” Compare the ways people satisfy needs and wants in each type of economy. | | | Investigate changes in specific Eastern cultures resulting from contact with other cultures, (e.g., China, Vietnam, Nepal, Japan, Fiji, etc.). Make cultural change charts categorizing types of change (changes in industry, clothing, housing, architecture, the arts, languages). | | | Survey newspapers and magazines for articles and photographs reporting on both conflict and cooperation among nations sharing borders. Use to make a collage for “conflict” and one for “cooperation.” | | ## FOCUS: EASTERN CULTURES ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: #### CURRENT EVENTS Determine those factors from past and current events that may influence future conditions in various cultures of the Eastern World. - Research and evaluate a current issue that affects selected societies. - Analyze a current issue that affects an Eastern society or societies and the international community. - Evaluate proposed and hypothetical solutions to a current issue. - Outline steps to reach a desired outcome for an issue affecting societies of the Western World. - Forecast hypothetical outcomes of a current issue affecting societies of the Eastern World. ### Sample Student Activities Students might: - Trace the impact and consequences of the introduction of contemporary western products, including movies and music, on several societies of the Eastern World. - Identify a current issue featured in the news and use the Five Themes of Geography to complete the analysis of the issue and its effects. - Use a T-chart to analyze the consequences of solutions to an issue or problem by placing possible positive outcomes on one side of the T and possible negative outcomes on the other. (e.g., Problem: lack of housing. Proposed solution: building houses from recycled materials.) - Analyze the results of the T-chart exercise above and choose a solution. List the steps needed to implement the solution. - Select a problem and brainstorm possible solutions. Using pre-determined criteria, identify the “best” solutions. Categorize the solutions as “short term” and “long term.” ## FOCUS: EASTERN CULTURES ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: **INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY** Develop an understanding of the relationship between individual and group behavior. - Using societies of the Eastern World, identify social groups to which people belong. - Explain the effects of both individuals and social groups on society. - Consider how individual behavior is influenced by social groups. - Consider how social groups are influenced by the behavior of members. - Assess what are acceptable behaviors in social groups. ### Sample Student Activities Students might: - Examine pictures of people in Eastern societies in magazines such as *National Geographic*. Identify social groups and institutions to which people belong. - Use the information generated above to develop webs. Place a social group in the center. Draw lines from the center of the web to indicate the effects the social group has on the society. Make similar webs showing the influence of individuals. - Compare major Eastern religions. Collect statements from each regarding proper conduct. - List the social groups to which they belong. For each, list individual actions that affect the group in positive or negative ways. - Using “tips for travelers” books, compare acceptable social behaviors in different Eastern nations and in the United States. FOCUS: EASTERN CULTURES Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY continued... - Develop an understanding of and respect for societal and individual differences. - Explain causes and consequences of urbanization. - Explore social issues arising from technological development. GRADE SEVEN Sample Student Activities Students might: - List several stereotypes that some people in the United States have about people in Eastern countries and several stereotypes that people in Eastern countries may have about people in the United States. For each stereotype develop a statement that is more accurate or more fair. - Interview a person from the United States who has moved from a rural area to a more urban area about the reasons for moving and the results. Speculate about the causes and consequences of such a move for a family in a selected Eastern culture. - Identify one technological change (e.g., widespread use of television) in one Eastern culture. List the possible negative or positive effects of this change. ## FOCUS: EASTERN CULTURES ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: #### INQUIRY SKILLS Using relevant data derived from a variety of sources, formulate conclusions, make decisions, and present findings related to various cultures of the Eastern World. - Interpret information presented in graphs, charts, maps, timelines, polls, pictures, and cartoons. - Identify, evaluate, and use appropriate reference materials and technology. - Record sources of information and develop note-taking and outlining systems. - Distinguish fact from opinion in data sources. - Prepare original written and oral reports and presentations on topics related to countries of the Eastern World. ### Sample Student Activities Students might: - Find a chart, graph, or map providing data about a specific nation or nations of the Eastern World. Explain what type of information is provided and what the data mean. Also discuss what type of additional information would be useful in forming a more complete picture. For example: A chart showing per capita income for several countries may not give a comparison for rural/urban areas or indicate the relative “buying power” of incomes. - Design a simple chart, graph, map, timeline, or cartoon to convey information about a specific country or countries. - Play the “Fact or Opinion Show” in which contestants try to determine if statements taken from newspapers and magazines are facts or opinions. They win bonus points if they can explain their answer. - Choose one system to record and retrieve data and use in preparing a report. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of the system. - Work individually or in small groups to develop reports on specific countries. At least three different types of graphic organizers should be used. ## FOCUS: EASTERN CULTURES ### Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: #### CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICE - Develop a commitment to effective and responsible participation in the functioning of school and community organizations. - Compare and contrast ideas about civic responsibility and community service in at least one Eastern culture (past or present) with those in the local community. - Participate in at least one community service project annually. - Contribute to student government and/or class government activities. - Observe school and community rules and regulations. - Accept responsibility for group and individual actions in the school and community. - Provide positive leadership for at least one classroom activity or organization in the school and/or community. --- ### Sample Student Activities Students might: - Use the Internet to interview students and/or adults from a country in the Eastern World regarding civic responsibility in their country. Interview local community members on the same topic. Compare perspectives. - Identify a global issue or problem that is also a concern in the local community. Interview community members and determine what responsible actions might be taken. - Create a mini-United Nations to review and resolve a major issue pertinent to countries of the Eastern World and/or the United States. - Review school and community rules. Brainstorm ideas about connections between rules and laws at the local level and at the national or international level (e.g., rules against littering or environmental pollution). - Make a list of individual and group actions that might affect the natural environment in a positive or negative way. - Identify a school or local need and organize a “Make the World a Better Place” day by cleaning up trash, showing concern for the elderly, etc. SOCIAL STUDIES GRADE EIGHT Focus: United States History - Development and Growth Eighth-grade United States History should emphasize the interaction of historical events and geographic, social, and economic influences on national development prior to the twentieth century. Special attention should be given to Native American cultures and the pre-Columbian period; colonial, revolutionary, and constitutional issues; early national formation; sectional divisions leading to the Civil War; Reconstruction, industrialization, urbanization and immigration. Students should examine major themes, issues, events, movements, and figures in United States history prior to 1900 and explore their relationship to modern issues and current events. (For example, antiwar movements in different periods in United States history, the influence of inventions and economic innovations, Indiana's concurrent growth and development, etc.) Eighth-grade students should have the opportunity to experience a variety of teaching and learning strategies. Students should practice thinking and research skills by learning to use the media center and community resources to identify, evaluate, and use appropriate data and reference information. Students should also develop an appreciation of historical preservation. Finally, students should demonstrate through their studies a commitment to the rights and responsibilities of citizenship in a democratic society. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | CITIZENSHIP AND GOVERNMENT | | | Examine the formation and development of political structures in the United States. | • Use the newspaper to identify actions and functions by the different branches of national, state, and local government. Describe the impact of these actions on people in the community. | | • Examine the functions that government has in the lives of people. | • Develop a chart that compares and contrasts types of government, and citizen rights and responsibilities in each. | | Compare and contrast various types of governments, e.g., monarchy, dictatorship, democracy, constitutional democracy. | • Establish a class government that parallels the formation of the U.S. Constitution. Write a constitution, symbol, motto, rules, etc. | | Examine the fundamental ideas which led to the development of the U.S. Constitution, e.g., legitimate authority is derived from the consent of the governed, the need for balance between individual rights and the social order, and representative government. | • Conduct a “hearing” on constitutional provisions and principles before a panel of “experts” (parents, community members, high school U.S. Government students). See Resources section. | | Outline the major provisions of the U.S. Constitution, e.g., separation of powers, systems of checks and balances, Bill of Rights. | • Develop a “Presidential Time Line” identifying issues, the winning party, and candidates in each presidential election. | | Trace the influence of political organizations on the historical development of the U.S. | | | FOCUS: UNITED STATES HISTORY-GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT | GRADE EIGHT | |---------------------------------------------------|-------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | | | Students should be able to: | | | **HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES** | | | Examine the relationship and significance of themes, concepts, and movements in the development of United States History. | | | • Compare and contrast Native American cultures of North America prior to European contact. | Make a map showing the major Native American cultural regions of North America prior to European exploration. Identify major cultural groups and their accomplishments. Cite examples of possible early contact with others. | | • Explain the motivating factors leading to European exploration of the Americas. | Use a historical world map to identify European nations leading in trade and political and cultural activity at the time. | | • Describe and assess the geographic and political characteristics of the New England, Middle, and Southern colonies. | Make a picture map of the American colonies drawing industries, lifestyles, forms of transportation, etc. | | • Identify and trace the economic, political, and social forces leading to colonial demands for independence and the Revolutionary War, (e.g., taxation/representation, mercantilism, loyalty, geography, nationalism). Explain reasons for the American victory. | Draw cartoon sequences highlighting the forces and events leading to American independence. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|---------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES** continued... | • Research several issues in United States history and dramatize or role-play alternative ways of resolving the conflict. Compare with the actual compromises and their results. | | • Explain the importance of conflict and compromise in United States history (e.g., Loyalists vs. Patriots, Missouri Compromise). | • In small groups analyze each of the Articles of Confederation. Determine the strengths and weakness of government under the Articles. | | • Analyze the “critical period” of the new nation under the Articles of Confederation. | 1) Read biographies of important figures in early Indiana history. 2) Develop parallel time lines for Indiana and United States history, placing significant figures and events on both. | | • Trace and assess events and historical figures of the Early Republic and Nationalist period, including the development of the Northwest Territory and Indiana as a state, the Louisiana Purchase, Monroe Doctrine, War of 1812. | • Make a series of overlay maps on clear plastic showing changes in political boundaries. Develop a related brief description of the events leading to those changes. | | • Describe and assess the major events and historical figures of the Colonial Period, Jacksonian Era, the rise of sectionalism. | • Simulate a trip west by a family of settlers, including the decision-making process and motives for staying or moving west; choices about what to take or leave behind; assessment of dangers ahead, etc. | | • Analyze the events, forces, and historical figures leading to expansion west of the Mississippi River and the concept of Manifest Destiny. | | FOCUS: UNITED STATES HISTORY-GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT GRADE EIGHT Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES continued... - Summarize the underlying forces leading to the Civil War, trace the major events of the conflict, and examine the policies and impact of Reconstruction. - Develop a pictorial profile of two hypothetical families, one in the north and one in the south, showing differences and similarities in living patterns. - Identify and appraise the economic, social, and political issues involved in dissent and reform throughout United States history (e.g., anti-slavery, civil rights, anti-war movements, labor movements, women's rights, environment, utopian societies). - 1) Read an autobiography of a prominent figure in American history and role play a portion of that figure's life. 2) Analyze the music, art, or drama of a historical period and determine how it reflects that period of history. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS | | | Identify, describe, and evaluate the influence of geographic factors on national development. | • On a clear acetate sheet make an outline map of North America showing physical features. Make an overlay showing the location of major cultural features (e.g., political boundaries, cities, transportation routes, etc.). | | • Identify and describe the geographic features (physical and cultural) of North America. | • Develop a “Jeopardy” game using geographic information as the foundation of questions. | | • Analyze geographic factors which influenced migrations and settlement patterns. | • Construct a physical map of North America using paper mache; use the map to trace settlement patterns, economic development, etc., in different historical periods. | | • Analyze the geographic factors that have influenced social and economic development of the U.S. in a global context. | | | FOCUS: UNITED STATES HISTORY-GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT | GRADE EIGHT | |---------------------------------------------------|-------------| | **Proficiency Statements and Indicators** | | | Students should be able to: | | | **ECONOMICS** | | | Identify, describe, and evaluate the influence of economic factors on national development. | | | Describe economic activities within and among Native American cultures prior to European contact. | | | Explain the economic factors leading to the major European voyages of exploration. | | | Evaluate the role of capitalism in the economic development of the U.S. (e.g., the role of entrepreneurs, private property, self-interest, stock ownership, labor-management interaction.). | | | Explain and evaluate examples of domestic and international interdependence throughout U.S. history (e.g., triangular trade routes, regional exchange of resources, etc.). | | | List and explain the basic roles of the government in the economy of the United States. | | | Trace the development of different kinds of money used in different periods of United States history. | | - Use maps of North America to trace trade routes and list products exchanged among Native American groups. - Make charts of items imported and exported to and from the Americas. Trace trade routes on a historical world map. - 1) Create and operate a student store. 2) Participate in a stock market game or simulation. - Identify a product produced in the past that is still produced today (e.g., shoes). Research and compare sources of raw materials, production processes, and marketing in the two periods. - List the major roles of government in the economy on a bulletin board. Cut out articles and pictures from newspapers and magazines illustrating each role. - Develop a display simulating historic currency or using actual examples or replicas of currency. Design new coins and paper currency. Explain the advantages and disadvantages they would have. 252 253 | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | | | ECONOMICS continued … | | | - Outline the development of the banking system in the United States. | • Construct a time line showing the major events in the development of the banking system. | | - Identify and explain how new inventions changed the productivity of manufacturing and agriculture. | • Research major inventions that affected life in the United States. Design a portrait gallery of inventors or a collage of significant technological developments. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|---------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | WORLD CULTURES | | | Examine the influence of diverse world cultures on the development of American culture. | • Invite recent immigrants to speak to the class about their experiences; find out how immigrants become citizens. | | • Explain how slavery shaped life in the Americas. | • Read accounts of life under slavery and dramatize in a play, showing differences due to location and circumstances. | | • Trace and assess the role and influence of religion in the American experience (e.g., a rationale for early colonization, the Great Awakening, religious background of past and contemporary reform movements). | • Use a map to trace the migration routes and settlement patterns of various religious groups; research and write reports on different groups; attach strings linking locations and corresponding reports along the borders of the map. | | • Assess the roles and contributions of various ethnic and racial groups in United States history (e.g., Europeans, Hispanics, Africans, Asians, Native Americans). | • Read and analyze sections of diaries and other primary documents showing the experiences of various groups. | | • Explain the role of the United States in world affairs as it grew and developed as a nation (e.g., Monroe Doctrine, economic issues, defense issues, isolationism, etc.). | • On a world map, identify locations, dates and events which the United States had an important influence. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY** | | | Examine the influence of individuals and groups on the development of the United States. | • Compile a list of important values in American society; identify contemporary and historical figures that exemplify those values. | | • Examine the role of values, morals, and ethics in a changing society. | • Identify American classics in each of the arts and explain why they have remained significant over time. | | • Examine and critique examples from the areas of art, music, literature, and drama as they influenced and mirrored American society. | • Compile a list of leaders by categories; assess the contributions and characteristics of each. | | • Survey and appraise the role of leadership throughout the course of United States history (e.g., political leaders, economic innovators, social reformers). | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **CURRENT EVENTS** | | | Identify, analyze, and apply historical situations to current issues. | • Develop a “backward history” timeline by assessing a current issue and tracing its origins or antecedents in the past. | | Compare and contrast a historical incident with a current situation. | • Research and present a debate on an issue of local concern. | | Demonstrate awareness of significant current events. | • Plan and act out a television “documentary” or “investigative report” on a specific issue or event; conduct interviews and use both primary materials and secondary sources in background research. | | Apply historical background to problem-solving activities related to current issues and events. | • Read primary documents reflecting the hardships and economic difficulties faced by settlers in Indiana. Create similar documents describing life in Indiana today. See Resources, Page 219. | | Use selections from primary sources, such as diaries, letters, records, autobiographies to support research efforts. | • | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **INQUIRY SKILLS** | | | Use a variety of sources and skills to investigate problems and issues in United States history. | • Maintain a timeline on the wall posting events and topics as they are covered throughout the year. | | • List and sequence a variety of historical events. | • Examine how amendments to the United States Constitution were influenced by events and movements in society. | | • Formulate and determine a cause and effect relationship among historical events, themes, and concepts in U.S. history. | • Play the role of individuals in historical situations showing how there may have been different perspectives on issues and events. | | • Examine and analyze various points of view relating to historical and current events. | • Maintain individual checklists of resources, along with a brief description of how each resource was used. | | • Identify, evaluate, and use appropriate technologies, reference materials and data sources. | • Use a specific outlining system to organize information for a report; demonstrate and explain the advantages and disadvantages of the system. | | • Record sources of information and develop note-taking and outlining systems. | • Include a minimum of three different information sources in each report. | | • Examine, interpret, and apply information from polls, tables, graphs, maps, globes, and charts. | • Use group and individual assessment rubrics to improve cooperative efforts. | | • Work cooperatively in groups, analyze the results and produce visual summaries. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |--------------------------------------|---------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICE** | | | Develop a commitment to effective and responsible participation in the functioning of school and community organizations. | • Identify needs or problems related to school or community history. • Develop and propose a project using historical inquiry skills (e.g., documenting the history of the school or community building; conducting an oral history for a specific event or period; assisting a local museum or historical site, etc. See Resources, Pages 217 and 219). | | • Participate responsibly in a service-learning project in the school and/or community. | • Carry out a school opinion survey or other information-gathering project for student government. | | • Participation in student government and/or class government activities. | • Develop and maintain a “good citizenship” program to recognize and celebrate responsible and constructive actions by other students on a weekly or monthly basis. | | • Observe school and community rules and regulations. | • Develop “I am proud because...” buttons recognizing individual achievements and responsible actions throughout the year. | | • Accept responsibility for group and individual actions in the school and community. | • Rotate leadership responsibilities on a regular basis. | | • Apply strategies of conflict resolution to individual and group issues. | • Participate in peer mediation or conflict resolution to resolve problems among students. | | • Provide positive leadership for at least one classroom activity or organization in the school and/or community. | | IX High School Course Descriptions and Proficiency Statements. Selected Courses High School Courses At the high school level, specific courses in the social studies curriculum should build upon the skills and knowledge acquired at earlier stages of instruction. High school courses tend to focus on one or more disciplines but may also be interdisciplinary. The 1996 Social Studies Proficiency Guide provides Course Descriptions, Proficiency Statements, Indicators, and Sample Student Activities and Projects for Economics, Psychology, Sociology, United States Government, United States History, World Geography and World History/Civilization. These courses were selected because they are high enrollment courses which also are subject to the textbook adoption process. Of these courses, two semesters of United States History, one semester of United States Government, and one semester of an additional social studies course are required for graduation. Additional courses are recommended for any student preparing for a post-secondary education program. All of the courses in the high school social studies curriculum provide valuable skills and knowledge and are important in preparing young people for their future roles as citizens. Student needs, interests, and career plans should be considered in selecting social studies electives. Course descriptions for all high school social studies courses are provided beginning on Page 210 of the Guide. The organizational structure for each of the high school courses outlined in this edition of the Guide may be somewhat different. Each course tends to have its own organizing principles based on the major concepts or ideas that make up the discipline. The nine Content Strands used as organizers for grades K-8 continue to play a role at the high school level. In the high school courses, one or more strands may be the major focus of a course while the other strands play supporting roles or become completely integrated into other themes. At the high school level, most students are ready to begin more sustained learning projects. The Sample Student Activities and Projects which correspond to the proficiency Statements and Indicators may vary, from activities that could be accomplished in one or two class periods or blocks, to long-term projects that might be completed over a semester. Proficiency Statements and Indicators for high school courses are statements about the important concepts and skills to be emphasized in the course and are intended to serve as a reference for teachers as they design their own courses. They are not presented in chronological or hierarchical order. Teachers and schools are free to organize instruction in the ways that best meet the needs of their students. ECONOMICS Course Description Economics should include a study of the allocation of scarce resources and their alternative uses for satisfying human wants. This course should examine basic models of decision-making at various levels and in different areas including: decisions made as a consumer, producer, saver, investor, and voter; business decisions to maximize profits; and public policy decisions in specific markets dealing with output, and prices in the national economy. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | **SCARCITY** | | | Explain that because of scarcity (the fact that productive resources are limited and cannot satisfy all human wants for goods and services), societies must develop economic systems to determine how goods and services will be produced and distributed. | • Survey newspapers and magazines to find articles describing life in different economic systems. Construct a bulletin board or collage showing the different characteristics of various economic systems. • List different ways of allocating tickets to the Super Bowl. Discuss the fairness and efficiency of different allocation mechanisms. • Interview two people over the age of 65 for their memories of wartime shortages. Compile a list and discuss those items which were rationed. • Write an essay describing the difficulties of changing from a command to market economy. • Write a short play describing how the life of a specific family would change if the U.S. adapted a command economy. • Analyze their school as an example of a traditional economic system, listing similarities and differences. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | | | SCARCITY continued . . . | | | • Compare and contrast how the various economic systems answer the questions: What to produce? How to produce it?, and For whom to produce? | • Discuss why the United States has been successful in answering the three economic questions. | | • Use a production possibilities curve to explain the concepts of choice, scarcity, opportunity cost, tradeoffs, unemployment, productivity, and growth. | • Evaluate the opportunity cost of career choices and factors which influence those choices. | | • Identify and explain the basic economic goals of freedom, efficiency, equity, security, and growth. | • Analyze newspaper articles about current economic and political issues. Identify basic economic goals that affect these issues. | | • Use a decision-making model to solve economic problems. | • Describe how different economic systems might solve specific allocation problems (e.g., who gets apartments, cars, blue jeans, the best cuts of meat, etc.). | | | • Use a decision model to decide if the United States should designate more forest land as “wilderness,” where no economic activity can take place. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | **SUPPLY AND DEMAND** | | | Analyze the role that supply and demand, prices, and profits play in determining what is produced and distributed in a market economy. | • Collect newspaper articles which relate to changes in supply and demand, and predict changes in prices, output and employment. | | • Demonstrate how supply and demand determine equilibrium price and quantity in the product, resource, and financial markets. | • Conduct a market survey in their school for a particular soft drink. Graph the demand for the drink and determine the elasticity of demand at different prices. | | • Identify factors that cause changes in market supply and demand. | • Write a report on the history of minimum wage legislation. Identify who benefits and who loses from increases in the minimum wage. | | • Apply the laws of supply and demand in specific situations. | • Brainstorm why certain products are in demand. Student groups then create a class presentation concerning a specific product. | | • Demonstrate how government wage and price controls create shortages and surpluses. | • Auction a cake or candy bar to demonstrate how equilibrium prices are determined. | | • Explain the functions of profit in a market economy. | • Research the prices of new cars during the last 100 years. Identify factors of supply and demand which influence the price of cars. Note changes in the value of a dollar. | | • Use the concepts of price elasticity of demand and supply to explain and predict changes in quantity as price changes. | • Use supply and demand graphs to illustrate how changes in supply and demand will affect equilibrium price and quantity in specific markets. | | • Explain how consumers ultimately determine what is produced in a market economy (consumer sovereignty). | • List and give examples of various types of marketing activities that firms use to increase demand. Discuss the effectiveness of each type of activity. | ## Proficiency Statements and Indicators **Students should be able to:** ### MARKET STRUCTURE - Describe the organization and role of the firm, and analyze the various types of market structure in the United States economy. - Compare and contrast the following forms of business organization: sole proprietorship, partnership, and corporation. - Identify the three basic ways that firms finance operations (retained earnings, stock issues, and borrowing), and explain the advantages and disadvantages of each. - Explain ways that firms engage in price and non-price competition. - Identify laws and regulations adopted in the United States to promote competition among firms. Explain how the effects of these laws has sometimes reduced competition. - Describe the benefits of natural monopolies (economies of scale) and the purposes of government regulation of these monopolies (such as utilities). - Define cartels, and explain how cartel collusion affects product price and output. ### Sample Student Activities/Projects **Students might:** - Study the stock market and have older students teach younger students about the fundamentals of the stock market. - Bring to class the financial section of a local paper or the *Wall Street Journal*. Discuss factors mentioned in the newspaper which affect the price of stocks and commodities. Give each student $1,000 to invest. Track the success of the investment for 30 days. - Interview a business owner. Ask how he/she raises financial capital, sets prices, hires labor, responds to competition, etc. - Analyze advertisements to identify how firms engage in competition. - Write to a company for a recent annual report, and prepare a brief overview of the company's organization, recent earnings, and growth prospects. - Research the breakup of AT&T and write an essay on the reasons and effects of the breakup. - List ten businesses in their community and analyze the kind and level of competition each faces. - Research how the OPEC cartel influenced oil prices in the 1970's and how OPEC influences oil prices today. Research examples of other successful and unsuccessful cartels. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | **THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT** | | | Explain the role of government in a market economy in the allocation of resources. | • List goods and services produced by government in the local community. Identify which of these could be produced by the private sector. • Create graphs identifying major income and expense categories of federal and state governments. • Interview people and have them estimate the current budget deficit and the national debt. Compile, graph, and analyze responses. | | • List and explain the basic functions of government in a market economy. | | | • Identify categories of goods and services provided by various levels of government. | | | • Explain how government responds to positive and negative externalities in the economy. | | | • Describe major expense and income categories and their respective proportions of state and federal budgets. | | | • Define progressive, proportional, and regressive taxation. | | | • Describe different types of taxes including income, sales, property, and social security, and determine whether they are progressive, proportional, or regressive. | | | • Participate in a debate. Topic: Which is more important in our economy - government or business? | | | • Interview local business owners and determine how the government is involved with these businesses. (e.g., workplace safety, environmental regulations). | | | • Write a short essay summarizing the methods used by government to reduce the harmful effects of pollution. Discuss or debate whether zero pollution is a wise or unwise policy. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | **THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT continued...** | • Identify and discuss different entitlement programs (e.g., farm subsidies, Medicare, Aid to Families with Dependant Children, etc.). • Compare and contrast the differences between private and public programs to alleviate poverty. • Determine if a textbook fee is progressive, proportional or regressive. | | • Describe recent trends in the federal budget deficit and the national debt. Identify possible future effects of the national debt on the individual and the economy. • Appraise recent trends in state and federal spending and taxation, and analyze the cause of recent federal budget deficits. | | **MONEY AND THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS** | • Compare and contrast information on Silver Certificates (pre-1964) and current Federal Reserve notes. • Track the money supply in the United States using newspapers, periodicals or computer data bases. | | • Describe the role of money and financial institutions in a market economy. • Identify and explain the basic functions of money. • Identify the composition of the money supply in the United States. • Explain the role of banks and other financial institutions in the economy of the United States. | • Construct graphs illustrating the composition of the money supply in the United States. • Calculate the constant dollar price of a bundle of consumer items using a consumer price index. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | | | MONEY AND THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS continued..... | • Compare gold coins of the past with paper dollars today. Analyze problems caused when the market value is greater than the face value of coins. • Participate in a check writing exercise tracking the steps in check clearing. Compare checks to credit cards. Write an essay on the future of money. • Graph changes in inflation during the past 30 years in the U.S. Analyze correlations between inflation and the growth of the money supply during the same time period. • Make copies of advertisements from newspapers in the year students were born. Compare prices of different goods and services. Discuss reasons for price changes, such as increases in productivity, inflation, etc. • Use a telephone book to identify financial institutions in the community. Compare and contrast financial services provided by these institutions. | | • Demonstrate how banks "create" money through the principle of fractional reserve banking. | | | • Define inflation. Identify the different causes of inflation, and explain who gains and loses by inflation. | | | • Compare and contrast services available to the consumer from financial institutions. (e.g., credit, savings, investment). | | | LABOR PRODUCTIVITY | Explain the importance of labor productivity to individuals, firms, and nations by explaining how labor productivity affects income, production costs, and national standards of living. • Define labor productivity, and identify basic factors (technology, education and training, specialization) which affect productivity. • Explain how increases in labor productivity improve wages and standards of living. | 284 285 LABOR PRODUCTIVITY continued... - Explain that creating new capital goods or investing in education and training involves a trade-off of fewer consumer goods or services in the present in return for higher future labor productivity. - Explain and give examples of economies of scale. - Explain ways that employers and employees have worked together to improve business productivity. - Compare and contrast labor productivity trends in the United States and other developed countries. - Demonstrate how government expenditures, regulations, and tax policy can influence labor productivity. - Compare and contrast how market and nonmarket forces (such as union activity) influence wage rates. - List five occupations previously performed by hand that are now mechanized. How has this changed labor productivity and employment levels in these occupations. - List jobs necessary to produce a car. Analyze the training required for these jobs. How does the training affect labor productivity? - Study a specific industry to learn what robotic techniques are used by that industry. What is the effect on labor productivity, wages, and employment. - Using data sources, compare, contrast, and graph labor productivity levels of different countries. - Compare and contrast the life expectancy, literacy rate, standard of living, and gross domestic product of different nations. Discuss how labor productivity affects these measurements. - Create a chart showing fiscal and monetary policies used to stabilize the economy and the economic conditions they are designed to influence. - Collect newspaper or magazine articles concerning professional sports contract negotiations. Discuss the effect collective bargaining has on a specific sport. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | ECONOMIC STABILIZATION | | | Describe economic stabilization policies and how they impact the economy. | • Using black line masters of a world map, color different countries according to GDP levels. • Interview people and ask their definition of gross domestic product (GDP) and their estimate of annual GDP growth. Compare to actual data. • Construct and label a model of the business cycle. | | • Define/explain the following concepts: | • Research and graph recent Federal budget deficits. Identify ways to demonstrate to a group of younger students the volume of $1 billion. | | - Fiscal Policy | | | - Monetary Policy | | | - Aggregate Supply and Demand | | | - Unemployment | | | - Gross Domestic Product (GDP) | | | • Explain the four phases of the business cycle. | • Research and graph unemployment levels during the past 25 years. Compare and contrast with levels in Europe and Southeast Asia. | | • Explain how the relationship between aggregate supply and aggregate demand is an important determinant of the levels of unemployment and inflation in an economy. | • Use newspaper grocery ads to calculate the percentage change in price of specific products over a ten year period. Illustrate graphically. | | • Explain how the government uses taxing and spending decisions (fiscal policy) to promote price stability, maximum employment, and economic growth. | • Analyze current newspaper articles to assess current economic conditions and to identify current monetary and fiscal policies. Predict changes in the business cycle and assess whether current policies are appropriate. | | • Explain the limitations of using GDP to measure economic welfare. | • Explain how the Federal Reserve uses monetary tools to promote price stability, maximum employment, and economic growth. | | • Explain how monetary policy affects the level of inflation in the economy. | 288 289 | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | TRADE | | | Explain why nations trade goods and services and explain the impact of trade on the economies of the nations involved. | • Examine clothing labels in the classroom and identify the countries where they are produced. Use this list to discuss comparative and absolute advantage, protectionism, consumer choice, quotas, and tariffs. • Inventory twenty household items to determine the percentages of foreign made items. • Examine ads in newspapers and convert prices of goods from one currency to another. | | • Define/explain the following concepts: | • Select a multinational corporation. Research and identify the countries on a map that trade with that corporation. | | Absolute Advantage | • Research a country. Prepare a display on the productive resources and the principal exports and imports of the country. • Participate in a debate for and against free trade. | | Comparative Advantage | • Graph recent trends in the United States balance of trade and balance of payments. | | Quotas | | | Tariffs | | | Exchange Rates | | | Balance of Payments | | | Balance of Trade | | | Trade Deficit | | | • Explain the benefits of trade among individuals, regions, and nations. | | | • Explain why countries sometimes erect barriers to trade. | | | • Summarize the arguments for and against free trade. | | | • Explain the difference between balance of trade and balance of payments. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | | | TRADE continued... | | | • Explain fluctuations in currency exchange rates and how these fluctuations affect trade. | • Examine the financial pages and record the changing values of different currencies over a 3 month period. Identify and analyze economic events that influence changes in currency values. | | • Describe the impact of trade agreements such as the North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). | • Record changes in United States exports and imports to Canada and Mexico as a result of the North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). | PSYCHOLOGY Course Description Psychology should provide an opportunity to study individual and social psychology and how the knowledge and methods of psychologists are applied to the solution of human problems. Content for the course should include some insights into behavior patterns and adjustments to social environments. The course should develop critical attitudes toward superficial generalizations about human beings, respect for the difficulty of establishing the truth of a proposition, and a heightened sensitivity to the feelings and needs of others. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | **THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD** | | | Explain what the scientific methods are, why it is important to understand them, and why psychology is a science. | • Work in small groups to compare pseudo-scientific methods (e.g., phrenology, numerology, etc.) with the scientific method. • Select the probable method of research of a given list of hypotheses. Read research studies in magazines or journals. (e.g., *Psychology Today*) and identify the method of research study used. | | • List and explain the reasons for studying the methodology of psychology. | • Work in small groups to diagram and analyze experimental hypotheses. | | • Differentiate between descriptive and experimental research methods. | • Create a testable hypothesis and design and carry out an appropriate experiment based upon the hypothesis. | | • Explain the relationship among independent and dependent variables, and experimental and control groups. | • Read magazine or newspaper articles to find out if headlines misrepresent conclusions. | | • Apply the principles of research design to an appropriate experiment. | • Role play members of an ethical panel deciding whether research projects can be run based on the APA Guidelines. | | • Distinguish between scientific and non-scientific research. | | | • Understand and follow the ethical guidelines created and supported by the American Psychological Association regarding the use of human and animal subjects. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |---------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | **GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT** | • Research and compare cross-cultural health practices regarding pregnancy and childbirth. • Interview a senior citizen or have an in-class round table with a group of senior citizens. • Work in groups to conduct a cross-sectional study of the different ways in which people develop across all stages of the life span. • Interview a parent and a teacher about what childhood event had the greatest impact on their lives. • Work in "jigsaw" cooperative learning groups to prepare study questions about learning theorists (e.g., Piaget, Erikson, Freud, Kohlberg, Chomsky). | | Explain the process of how humans grow, learn, and adapt to their environment. | • Understand the role of prenatal, perinatal, and post-natal development in human behavior. • Examine the life span (infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, later years, dying, and death). • Examine the different ways in which people develop: including physical, social, moral, cognitive, emotional, moral, and language development. • Examine the impact of the childhood experience on adulthood. • Examine the various theories regarding development. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | **LEARNING** | | | Understand that learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience, and that there are different ways of learning which affect all aspects of behavior. | • Demonstrate a reflexive response in class to make a comparison with learned action. (e.g., Abruptly clap your hands in front of another student’s face and they will reflexively blink. Then ask a question and point out that most students raise their hands without being told to—a learned response.) | | • Define learning, and distinguish learning from reflexes and fixed-action patterns. | • Participate in demonstrations of the various ways of learning, and then write an essay illustrating the principles of learning at work in their daily lives. | | • Apply the principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning, and associational learning to daily life. | • Choose a simple behavioral task for other students to learn using successive approximations (e.g., applauding or giving praise when the subject gets “close” to the right response). For a comparison activity, use “punishments” (such as saying “no”) when any behavior is not the desired one. Follow with discussion. | | • Examine the roles of reinforcement and punishment as ways of understanding and modifying behavior. | • Create and carry out a plan for changing their own behavior. Develop a plan using operant learning to change or eliminate a habit that they consider undesirable. For approximately one week, employ a negative consequence each time they do the bad habit. Keep a log documenting daily progress. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | **COGNITION AND MEMORY** | | | Explain how cognition and memory are essential in decision making and problem solving. | • Write down how they would give someone instructions for going from the entrance of their school to the local hangout. Compare different sets of instructions. | | • Understand how individuals use organizing schemes (schemas) in internal representation of thoughts, perceptions, attitudes, and biases. | • Observe different age groups of younger students on the playground or in the classroom. Keep a record of developmental differences among groups. | | • Understand cognition from both developmental and information processing perspectives. | • Beginning with a variety of “real life” problems, brainstorm in groups to arrive at a consensus solution. | | • Examine the processes of reasoning, decision making, and problem solving. Apply effective strategies to their own lives. | • Choose a learning task from another class. Develop a strategy for learning what they must learn and then analyze the result. | | • Analyze their own learning styles and habits and use this understanding to improve their learning (metacognition). | • Compare different individuals’ memories of the same event. List the various reasons for different interpretations of the event. | | • Examine memory as a reconstructive process as affected by one’s cognitive schema. | • Take a list of names of people in the news and develop a strategy for remembering each one. | | • Apply mnemonic strategies to aid one’s retention of information. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | PERSONALITY | | | Recognize that personality is the distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts, motives and emotions that characterize an individual. | • Play the role of different personality theorists on a panel as they discuss a current public person or issue. • Make a collage of pictures that represents their own personalities. | | • Compare and contrast the traditional theories which attempt to explain the formation of personality. | | | • Examine the factors that may influence the formation of personality. | | | • Recognize the difference among “perceived self,” “ideal self,” and “actual self.” | • Write a dialogue using three different persons acting out the “perceived self,” “ideal self,” and “actual self.” Follow with in-class discussion. | | • Examine the factors that may influence the formation of personality. | • Examine current research regarding personality and compare and contrast traditional theories. | | • Distinguish among the defense mechanisms people use to protect themselves from psychological harm. | • Identify numerous defensive situations and behaviors from favorite TV shows and personal experiences. Pool information to generate a list. Work in small groups to determine which defense mechanisms are illustrated. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | **HEALTH, STRESS, EMOTIONS AND COPING** **MENTAL ILLNESS AND TREATMENT** Understand the factors which contribute to mental health, stress, and mental illness and identify approaches for treatment of mental health problems. - Distinguish between positive stress and harmful stress. - Examine the factors that affect health and the ability to control stress. - Examine the biological factors and changes related to stressors which include the fight or flight response. - Examine effective personal strategies for coping with and overcoming stress. - Increase awareness about mental health problems. | • Have students brainstorm different types of stress in their lives and determine if they are positive or negative. • Keep a log listing stressful events, emotional responses, and physical reactions for one complete day. Write a summary at the end of the day about how they coped with each stressful situation. • Keep a record of physical responses to “threatening” events (such as a loud noise) and situations (e.g., giving a speech in class). • List 15 stressful events plus cognitive, behavioral, and emotional reactions to the stress. Compare personal coping strategies with those proposed by experts. • Invite a speaker from a local mental health facility to discuss mental health problems. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | HEALTH, STRESS, EMOTIONS AND COPING | | | MENTAL ILLNESS AND TREATMENT continued... | | | • Understand the biological and environmental factors that lead to mental health problems. | • Conduct research using in-class or media center resources concerning the biological and environmental factors relating to mental health problems. | | • Distinguish among the different categories of mental disorder and cite advantages and disadvantages of such categories. | • Play the role of professionals who represent different forms of therapy (behavioral, medical, and cognitive). Compare differing perspectives and treatment options for specific disorders. | | • Understand the different categories of treatment and therapies (medical, behavioral, and cognitive therapies) for mental disorders. | • Invite a panel of civic leaders and mental health workers to discuss the issues related to assisting persons with mental health problems. | | • Understand the role of community acceptance in assisting those dealing with mental health issues. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY | | | Understands how an individual's perceptions, attitudes and behavior are influenced in social contexts. | • Brainstorm and discuss situations in which they or others behave in different ways in order to please certain people (e.g., in class, with parents or family, with friends). • Role play a particular person in a certain situation acting only according to role and context (e.g., politician giving a speech, teenager at a party, fan at a sporting event or concert, parent of a small child at the mall, etc.). Have other students guess role and behavioral norms. | | • Understand how social context (interpersonal relationships and groups) plays an important role in our attitudes, perceptions, and behavior. | | | • Examine the influence of roles and norms including peer pressure, on behavior. | | | • Examine factors that lead to improved interpersonal relationships. | • Work in small groups to come to a consensus about the characteristics of the "ideal friend." Write a self assessment about how well they themselves meet these expectations. Develop a plan for improving personal friendship qualities. | | • Examine stereotypes and explain how stereotypes distort reality. | • Participate in a simulation in which each student wears a tag with a specific social role on his or her back or forehead. Students are unaware of their own label but treat others based on the labels others wear. Debrief by discussing feelings, changing expectations, and their perceptions of themselves and others during the simulation. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY continued . . . | • View a film or read a short story on prejudice or stereotyping. Discuss the implications of stereotypes based on ignorance and superficial traits. | | | • View films of the studies of Asch on conformity and Milgram on obedience. Discuss the roles of affiliation, the need to be liked, and systemic and cultural rules. | | | • Read and discuss a summary of the Asch experiment on line perception and conformity, or a summary of “Group think” by Irving Janis on factors relating to nonconformity. | | | • Conduct a simulation such as “Lost on the Moon,” or “Lost at Sea,” and compare the effectiveness of individual and group choices. | | | • Participate in a circle toss of a “Nerf” (foam) ball. The first round is cooperative with the object being to pass the ball around the circle with as few errors as possible. The second round is competitive with any player who makes an error (such as dropping the ball) being removed from the game. The last player left is the winner. Discuss the implications of both forms of the game. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Students might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | **BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR** | | | Investigate the structure, biochemistry, and circuitry of the brain and the nervous system to understand their roles in affecting behavior. | • Simulate a neuron firing by forming a long line. The last person in line taps the shoulder of the person in front of him and so on down the line until the first person in line is tapped and drops his or her outstretched arm. | | • Examine the structure and function of neurons in relation to how the brain works. | • Use an orange, colored toothpicks, and different sized pieces of candy (such as gum drops) to represent the internal parts of the brain. Make a model of the brain by peeling the orange and using the toothpicks to insert the various (candy) parts. | | • List and describe the location and function of each of the major portions of the brain. | • Use homemade play dough to construct a three-dimensional representation of the brain. Label different parts and functions. | | • Describe the various techniques psychologists use to study brain functions. | • Copy a picture that is upside down to demonstrate the right hemisphere’s function of seeing the “whole” picture. | | • Summarize the functions of the brain’s two hemispheres and explain their relationship. | • Consciously attempt to experience a daydream and write it down. | | • Examine the role of altered states of consciousness (daydreaming, sleep, etc.). | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | SENSATION AND PERCEPTION | | | Distinguish between sensation (the detection or awareness of changes in physical energy caused by internal or environmental events) and perception (the process by which sensations are organized and interpreted). | • Visit the cafeteria in a small group and record the smells of food that has been cooked. Ten minutes later a second group arrives. Then each group explains what they smell. The first group will no longer be able to detect the smells (sensory adaptation). | | • Explain sensory adaptation, sensory deprivation, and the importance of selective attention. | • Play the first line of a familiar song spacing each note seconds or minutes apart. Ask other students to identify the song. Then play the line in the normal fashion. Most people will recognize the song only when the notes are perceived as a “whole.” | | • Explain the principles of Gestalt Psychology. | • Use various magazines to look for evidence of subliminal advertising in pictures or words. | | • Distinguish between conscious and unconscious perception. | | | • Explain how humans localize sounds and objects in space. | • Take turns wearing a blindfold while another student uses a “clicker” to see if they can locate where the sound is coming from. | | • List and explain the psychological influences and experiences on perception. | • Observe the same painting and describe what they see and what it makes them think of. | SOCIOLoGY Course Description Sociology should provide an opportunity for students to study group behavior and basic human institutions. Broad areas of content should include the study of institutions found in all societies, such as the family; religion; community organizations; political and social groups; and leisure time organizations. Moral values, traditions, folkways, the mobility of people, and other factors in society which influence group behavior should be included in the study. | Proficiency Statement and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |-------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES** | | | Understand the origins of the field of sociology and its development as a social science. | • Identify various groups to which they belong and the influence groups have in their lives. Use this information to brainstorm a working definition of sociology. | | • Develop a definition of sociology. | • Write a brief summary of the ideas of early sociologists such as Comte or Durkheim. | | • Identify leading theorists within the science. | • Develop a chart summarizing major sociological theories. Use the charts to compare and contrast these theories with contemporary trends in sociology. | | • Compare and contrast the various perspectives relating to historic and contemporary ideas. | • Use a newspaper article to identify a current issue. Make “educated guesses” about how each of the social science disciplines would go about researching this issue. Use reference books to check for accuracy. | | • Compare sociology with other social science disciplines. | | | Proficiency Statement and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |-------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **CULTURE** | | | Examine the nature of culture, cultural differences, and cultural universals. | • Keep a one-day journal of activities. In a large group, place all activities into categories. Discuss when and how they learned to do these types of activities. Consider how each of these activities is part of the specific culture to which they belong. | | • Identify fundamental aspects of culture. | | | • Analyze the process of transmitting cultural values within society. | • Interview parents about their experiences in school. Bring in yearbooks, school pictures, etc., and compare with current school experiences. | | • Analyze American cultural patterns and subculture variations. | • Interview a person from a different cultural group in the United States, or interview an immigrant or visitor from another country, regarding their first impressions of American culture. | | • Compare and contrast American culture to other cultures in the world. | • Research the cultures of other countries and make displays documenting major cultural activities. Include a food product or special dish to share with classmates. | | Proficiency Statement and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |-------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **SOCIAL STRUCTURES** | | | Analyze the components that contribute to the structures within society. | • Draw up a list showing different types of status categories in school. Interview other students to determine the rank of the various status categories. | | • Discuss the contributions of status to social order. | | | • Examine the significance of role allocation and role conflict. | • Design and act out short skits showing role conflict. | | • Explain a variety of group interactions inherent in human relationships. | • Determine primary and secondary group characteristics by placing them on a continuum. | | • Compare and contrast different types of societies (hunting and gathering, agrarian, industrial, post industrial, etc.). | • Compare a rural and an urban community in Indiana. Compare and contrast with rural and urban communities in another culture. | | Proficiency Statement and Indicators Students should be able to: | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |---------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------| | **GROUPS** | • Use familiar social groups as a reference. List major characteristics and compare similarities. | | Explain how individuals are affected by different groups in the society. | 1) Observe and compare playground behaviors of students in grades K-3, with grades 4-6. Note group size, kinds of relationships, and types of leadership that can be observed. 2) Interview younger students about their role models. | | • Identify major characteristics of social groups. | • Compare the norms of two groups in the school and list the rules by which both groups operate. Identify situations in which these norms might conflict or reinforce each other. | | • Examine the ways that groups function. | • Develop individual profiles indicating the primary and secondary groups to which they belong. Explain which groups have the greatest impact in their lives and why. | | • Identify the norms of at least two groups to which they belong. | • Use clippings from newspapers and magazines to develop a display featuring formal organizations. 2) Make a chart showing the characteristics of formal organizations to which they belong. Explain why these organizations could or could not be considered bureaucracies. | | • Compare and contrast primary and secondary groups. | | | • Identify the characteristics of formal organizations, including bureaucracies. | | | Proficiency Statement and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |-------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **INSTITUTIONS** | | | Describe the impact of major social institutions on individuals, groups, and organizations within society. | • Construct a family tree and include occupations. Compare roles of family members in the past and present. | | • Define the functions of the family. | • Make charts showing world-wide and nation-wide participation in various religions and religious denominations. | | • Describe the role of religion in society. | • Interview guidance counselors to determine if there is a school drop out problem and about the benefits of remaining in school. Report the results. | | • Identify how education contributes to the transmission of a society’s values. | • 1) Develop a chart describing the role of a citizen in a democratic society. 2) Interview county officials regarding voter registration and other types of civic participation by young people. | | • Explain the necessity of individual participation in civic life. | • 1) Interview local business people regarding the role their business plays in the community and the abilities and attributes they seek in employees. 2) Examine various careers in sociology and interview a person who uses sociological data in his or her work. | | Understand the role economics plays in contributing to the well-being of a society. | • Make a poster illustrating the events that most people experience (e.g., baptism or other religious ceremony; school prom; graduation; wedding; etc.). Make an oral history on video or audio tape of older family members or neighbors highlighting major stages in their lives. | 328 154 329 | Proficiency Statement and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |-------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **SOCIAL INQUIRY** | | | Conduct scientific inquiry using a variety of research methods. | • Use current newspapers and magazines to identify a general issue or problem. Select a specific topic or identify issues in the school or community. | | • Define a social issue to be analyzed. | 1) Examine a variety of sources of information on a topic (e.g., United States Census Report, articles in a teen magazine, newspaper articles) and determine which are based on primary or secondary sources. 2) Analyze charts, graphs, and tables to determine the source of the study, numbers of individuals studied, variables, and how conclusions were reached. | | Use primary and secondary sources to gather information about the issue. | • Make a list of preconceived ideas they have about an issue. Identify those ideas that are testable and select one for research. | | Develop an hypothesis relationship between variables surrounding the issue. | • Make a chart comparing and contrasting different research methods (e.g., survey questionnaires or interviews, observation, etc.). Choose one method or work in small groups to develop research plans using different methods. | | Develop and conduct a research plan using various forms of analysis. | • Organize data into charts, graphs or other visual formats. Compare data collected by different methods. Examine the conclusions which can be made. | | Gather and interpret data and draw conclusions. | | | Proficiency Statement and Indicators | Sample Student Activities | |-------------------------------------|--------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Students might: | | SOCIAL PROBLEMS | | | Evaluate the implications of social problems for society. | • Use poster board or butcher paper to develop a pictorial timeline giving the historical background of a specific problem; examine the historical roots of a specific problem by interviewing older members of the community. | | • Analyze the historical perspectives that have contributed to a contemporary problem. | • Invite a police officer to speak about problems related to law enforcement. | | • Recognize the patterns of behavior that are consistent with a problem. | • Discuss the topic of incarceration and its effect on society; visit a courtroom or jail. | | • Determine the individual and group responses that are associated with social problems. | • Role-play critical moments and issues in adolescent life (e.g., peer pressure regarding dating, drug usage, cheating, etc.). | | • Compare and contrast possible solution for resolving social problems. | • Invite a panel of community members (e.g., social worker, judge, police officer, minister, etc.) to discuss solutions to a specific problem. | 382 333 | Proficiency Statement and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |-------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **TECHNOLOGY** | | | Assess the impact of technology on the society's development. | • Conduct a survey about student use of computers at school and at home. | | • Trace the development of a specific type of technology in the community. | • Maintain a bulletin board or scrapbook of articles about the impact of telecommunications, television, and innovations in transportation on the family, education, government, or other institutions; interview older family members about the impact of technology on family relationships. | | • Examine the impact of technological developments on major social institutions. | • Read a report about a social issue in a newspaper or magazine. Explain how technology might have been used to collect or analyze the data. | | • Cite examples of the use of technology in social research. | • Research one innovation that has changed the way people interact in social groups. Write a brief story or play depicting future changes. | | • Predict the possible future impact on social interactions due to technological change. | | | Proficiency Statement and Indicators Students should be able to: | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |---------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | **COMMUNITY** | | | Identify the individual's responsibility in the development and continuity of community. | • Use questionnaires or interviews to compare and contrast rights and responsibilities of persons living in rural and urban settings. | | • Examine the rights and responsibilities of the members of a community. | • Interview long-time community residents regarding local traditions, roles, and status relationships. | | • Identify the traditions and types of status necessary for a community to continue. | • Use census figures or interview local community officials to identify significant demographic changes. Analyze for trends or potential problems resulting from these changes. Interview a member of the local zoning board about zoning charges and issues. | | • Analyze components that could lead to disintegration of existing community. | • Develop a service learning project using research methods to collect data about a specific problem. Design and carry out a project to address the problem. Evaluate the results. | | • Identify a community problem and determine appropriate actions to address the problem. | | | Proficiency Statement and Indicators | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |-------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | SOCIAL CHANGE | • 1) Identify fads and fashions in the school setting. 2) Examine newspaper, magazine, and historical accounts of collective behavior (e.g., the Jonestown disaster, etc.). | | Determine the conditions necessary for collective behavior to influence and change society. | • Make a chart showing the causes of an instance of collective behavior from different perspectives. | | Define collective behavior and identify historical and contemporary examples. | • Sit or stand in a large circle. Begin at one point in the circle by whispering a brief message to the person seated to the right. See if the message has changed by the time it has gone completely around the circle. | | Identify the theories that attempt to explain collective behavior (e.g., contagion theory, convergence theory, etc.). | • Work in small groups to examine the characteristics of several different social movements in history. Use the information generated by the small groups to develop a list of common characteristics. Compare and contrast with collective behaviors. | | Examine the role of miscommunications (such as rumors and gossip) in social behavior. | • Develop brief biographies of leaders of different social movements in history. Compare and contrast the impact each had on society. | | Distinguish the major differences between social movements and collective behavior. | • Describe the impact of leaders of several different social movements. | | Proficiency Statement and Indicators Students should be able to: | Sample Student Activities Students might: | |-------------------------------|------------------------------------------------| | SOCIAL CHANGE continued... | • Identify the methods of propaganda that influence social behavior. • Make judgments about the positive and negative effects of ideologies that have changed the direction of society. • Find historical and contemporary examples of propaganda in history texts, news media, advertisements, etc., and identify the methods used (e.g., exaggeration). Design a poster or bumper sticker using one of these methods. • Make a chart showing the positive and negative impact of several ideologies in history. | UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT Course Description: United States Government should provide a framework for understanding the nature and of importance responsible civic participation and for learning the rights and responsibilities of individuals in a constitutional democracy. The course should enable students to explore the historic origins and evolution of political philosophies into contemporary political and legal systems. Constitutional structure and the processes of the legislative, executive and judicial branches of the national, state and local levels of government should be examined. Students should draw conclusions about the impact and interrelationships of history, geography and economics upon our system of government. They should also be able to demonstrate an understanding the governmental structures of the United States and other political systems as well as the relationship of American government to world affairs. Students should be able to analyze the role of individuals and groups in the political process by identifying and analyzing political issues. They should be able to access data from primary and secondary resources and use current technology to access relevant source materials and as a tool for producing documents in support of learning projects. Students should have opportunities to take, defend, and evaluate positions on current issues that impact political decision-making. They should understand their ability to influence policies and decisions as individuals and in groups. Related learning experiences in the school and community should enable students to learn how to participate effectively in the political process. The study of United States government should offer students opportunities to develop knowledge, inquiry skills, and the means to preserve and improve our constitutional democracy. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | THE NATURE OF CITIZENSHIP AND GOVERNMENT | • Simulate a situation, such as being stranded on a deserted island, in which a group of people with limited resources has to develop its own government and rule of law. • Make a timeline of major ideas about law from ancient times to the present; research types of law (e.g., divine law, natural law, common law, statutory law, and international law). • Interview a lawyer or a legislator asking them to compare the concepts of “rule of law” versus “rule of men.” • Develop a chart comparing and contrasting Hobbe’s and Locke’s ideas regarding “the Social Contract.” | | Compare and contrast ideas and philosophies regarding the nature of government and explain how they evolved into contemporary political and legal systems. | • Distinguish between limited and unlimited forms of government. • Trace the development of democracy from ancient beginnings. • Evaluate the importance of rule of law. • Examine the political philosophies that provide the foundations of contemporary political systems. | | • Explain the purposes of government and analyze how powers are acquired, used, and justified. | • 1) Use primary documents (e.g., Mayflower Compact, Massachusetts Constitution) to trace concepts of limited government. 2) Create a written profile or a diary entry describing a day in the life of a citizen in a democracy and a day in the life of a citizen under an authoritarian government. | | • Trace the origins and development of the concept of law. | • Use a world map to indicate the areas of the world and the time periods in which democracies have flourished; compare ideas about citizenship from these cultures. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | | | **THE NATURE OF CITIZENSHIP AND GOVERNMENT** | | | continued... | | | • Identify the elements of the social contract theory in our constitutional government. | • Using the *Declaration of Independence*, the *Articles of Confederation*, and the *Constitution*, highlight the principles of natural rights, popular sovereignty, and consent of the governed. | | • Describe the balance between the common good and protection of natural rights in a constitutional government. | • Use current newspapers and magazines to select articles that illustrate the need to consider both the public welfare and individual rights (e.g., balancing the rights of a person accused of a crime with the need for public safety). Analyze a set of local, state, or federal laws to discover if they are intended to serve the need for protection of individuals or the public. | | • Compare and contrast current forms of government. | • Make a chart of a variety of modern governments and determine which may be influenced by Hobbes and which by Locke. | **POLITICAL POWER AND AUTHORITY IN A DEMOCRACY** Explain how the nature, location, and extent of political power and authority are established by the United States Constitution. • Examine the sources of authority from ancient to modern times and evaluate consent of the governed as the basis of legitimate authority in a democratic political system. • Create a diagram showing the major sources of political authority in cultures of the past (e.g., ancient Greece and Rome; Europe in the feudal, Renaissance, and Enlightenment periods). Compare with modern concepts of political authority. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | | | POLITICAL POWER AND AUTHORITY IN A DEMOCRACY continued... | | | • Compare unitary, confederal, and federal systems | • Make charts of the three systems showing how power is distributed and limited. Compare effectiveness, responsiveness to popular will, and stability. | | • Contrast parliamentary systems to systems of separate and shared powers | • Examine newspaper and magazine articles reporting on the election of a chief executive under a parliamentary system. Compare with the presidential election process in the United States. | | • Trace the major historical events and influences which lead to the writing and ratification of the United States Constitution. | • Design a wall mural depicting important steps leading to the creation of constitutional government in the United States (e.g., the Magna Carta, colonial charters, the Bill of Rights). | | • Identify and characterize the constitutional provisions that limit the power and authority of the government. | • Make a chart listing parts of the Constitution which limit governmental power. | | • Describe the three branches of government and explain the concepts of checks and balances and separation of powers. | • Make a poster showing the powers of each of the three branches of government. Give examples, using current issues, of checks and balances. | | • Explain the major aspects of federalism: the relationship between the states and the central government. | • Survey current news media to identify specific conflicts regarding state versus federal power. | | • Appraise the changing scope of governmental power and authority. | • Use current issues from newspaper and magazine articles to identify shifts in state and federal governmental priorities; use primary documents to identify debates regarding governmental power in the past. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | **CONSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES AND PROCESSES** | | | Characterize the constitutional structure of the legislative, judicial, and executive branches of the government. | • Make a listing of the different powers of Congress. Label each power as enumerated or implied. Develop an additional list of those powers which are denied to congress. | | Distinguish among the enumerated, implied, and denied powers of Congress. | • Establish a mock congress and play the role of legislators as they pass a bill; follow the progress of a proposed law at the local, state, or national level. | | Describe the law-making process. | • Invite a panel representing the news media, citizens groups, and other interest groups to discuss their effects on government policy. | | Evaluate the impact of special interest groups, public opinion, and media. | • Develop profiles of American presidents illustrating their major leadership challenges and accomplishments; role play decision-making scenarios of past presidents. Research the responsibilities of Cabinet members and role play a Cabinet meeting on a current issue. | | Examine the role of executive leadership at all levels. | • | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | **CONSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES AND PROCESSES** Students should be able to: continued... | Student might: - Examine the qualifications for all government officials (e.g., President, Governor, legislators, mayor, judges, city council, appointed officials, civil servants). In small groups, develop a consensus about additional criteria for public officials. - Create a timeline identifying the amendments to the United States constitution (formal change). Create cartoons or dramatize in skits the various means of extra constitutional change (e.g., executive acts, judicial decisions, etc.). - Work in small groups to read and discuss summaries of landmark Supreme Court cases. Highlight the importance of precedents and majority, concurring, and dissenting opinions. - Visit a criminal and a civil court and keep a journal of observations and experiences, including procedures, determination of justice, and parties involved. | 352 353 | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | **STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT** | | | Describe the organization of state and local governments and explain the impact of geographic factors on the development of our federal system. | • Make a chart showing the constitutional limits of both state and federal governments. | | • Describe the limits that the United States Constitution places on the powers of the states and on the powers of the national government over state governments. | • Make a pictorial diagram using photographs or newspaper clippings to show the relationships of state and local governments. | | • Explain how state and local governments are organized (e.g., legislative, executive, and judicial functions). | • Keep a journal listing activities for one day. Determine which activities are effected by state, local, or federal government. | | • Identify the major responsibilities of state and local government and how those governments affect their lives. | • Choose a local issue and use newspapers and electronic media to research the viewpoints in different communities, states, and regions (e.g., environmental concerns, immigration, rural versus urban concerns). | | • Evaluate and analyze issues arising from regional differences as they relate to federalism. | • Simulate a city council or town meeting on an issue of national importance under each system. Highlight the different approaches to bringing about change under all three systems. | | • Determine how local governments effect the decision making power of the central government in a unitary, federal, or confederal system. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | **GROUPS AND INDIVIDUALS IN CIVIC LIFE** | **U.S. GOVERNMENT** | | Examine the role of individuals and groups in the political process and the civic life of the nation. | • Create a time line showing the expansion of voting power from 1789 to the present. Identify specific groups which advocated expanded suffrage; develop “what if?” scenarios describing how life might be today if specific groups had not worked for change. | | • Evaluate the role of ethnic, religious, socio-economic, and political groups in the United States. | • Prepare biographical portraits of individuals who have led significant movements that have brought about governmental change. | | • Cite examples of individuals who have helped bring about significant change. | • Trace the evolution of the two party system in the United States. Analyze the electoral process in terms of resources, techniques, and accommodations. | | • Prepare group presentations on significant past campaigns, role-playing the political party members and candidates including platform, posters, slogans, and songs; interview a county clerk about the voting process and campaign finance laws. 2) Interview a party chairperson about the nominating process, party support and candidates, development of constituencies, financial support, and pressures on party leaders and candidates. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: | Sample Student Activities/Projects Student might: | |---------------------------------|------------------------------------------------| | **GOVERNMENT AND THE ECONOMIC SYSTEM** | • Interview the treasurer of a local school district to investigate local, state, and national funding. • Compare economic theories regarding government policy. • Develop hypotheses about the effect of government policies on different segments of society. • Compare degrees of government involvement in the economy in nations with past experiences in capitalism, socialism, communism, and fascism. • Report on the impact of specific government regulations on various groups (e.g., consumers, employers, employees, developing industries or businesses, etc.). • Use newspapers and magazines to identify current economic issues. Choose a specific issue and conduct a mock hearing in which representatives of different sectors of the economy argue their positions before members of congress. | | • Analyze the interaction between government and the economic system. • Analyze the difference ways that local, state, and national governments are funded. • Explain and evaluate the effects of fiscal and monetary policies on the United States economy. • Evaluate the historic and current economic role of government in different societies. • Examine the impact of governmental regulations on individuals and businesses in the United States economy. • Examine the influence of individuals, businesses, labor, and other segments of the economy on government policy. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | THE UNITED STATES IN WORLD AFFAIRS | | | Evaluate the relationships of various government systems and sovereign states in the world. | • Develop displays depicting developing and developed nations in terms of economic, political, and social structures. | | • Compare and contrast the structure and organization of various forms of government systems. | • Interview local business leaders of multinational corporations and investigate relationships between businesses, governments, and nations. | | • Differentiate the various non-state organizations that effect government systems and sovereign states. | • Create a world-wide timeline recording the types of relationships between various countries and the United States. | | • Trace the development of cooperation between governments in the twentieth century. | • Make reports on political and economic organizations, such as the United Nations and the European Union, and the effects of these organizations on different nations. | | Examine international organizations and structures that have effected relationships within and among nations. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | CITIZENSHIP AND CIVIC PARTICIPATION | | | Recognize the necessity for civic responsibility in order to preserve and improve our constitutional democracy. | • Develop a “Bill of Responsibilities” to parallel the Bill of Rights and associated amendments. | | • Explain the rights and responsibilities of a citizen. | • Examine summaries of Supreme Court cases that balance individual rights or freedoms with community or national interests. | | • Understand the relationship of rights to each other and to other values and interests of society. | • Investigate and visually represent examples of the preservation of First Amendment freedoms. | | • Demonstrate tolerance and respect for differences of opinion. | • Participate in a local, state, or national election by attending local issues forums, volunteering to work at the polls, and promoting voter turn-out. | | • Actively participate in the electoral process. | • Interview both private citizens and lobbyists in considering the impact they have made on governmental decisions. | | • Describe the capacity of the individual to influence governmental decisions. | • Write an editorial on a specific policy and send it to a newspaper or a policy maker. | | • Clearly articulate interests and make them known to key policy makers. | • Study the development of a conference committee bill. | | • Analyze the processes of coalition building, negotiating, compromising, and seeking consensus for democratic change. | | UNITED STATES HISTORY Course Description *United States History* is a two semester course, emphasizing national development in the late nineteenth and the twentieth century, which should build upon concepts developed in previous studies of American history. Students in this course should also identify and review significant events, figures, and movements in the early development of the nation. After providing such a review, the course should give major emphasis to the interaction of historical events and geographic, social, and economic influences on national development in the late 19th and the 20th centuries. A chronological, topical, or comparative approach can be used in developing themes from America's past as they relate to life in Indiana and the United States today. Students should demonstrate the ability to trace and analyze chronological periods and examine the relationships of significant themes and concepts in United States history. Students should be able to sequence historical events, examine cause and effect, identify different perspectives, and relate historical situations to current issues. Opportunities should be given to develop inquiry skills by gathering and organizing information from primary source material and a variety of historical and contemporary sources, accounts, and documents. Investigation of themes and issues should include analysis of the importance of cultural pluralism and diversity of opinion in American society. Students should be able to exercise their skills as citizens in a democratic society by engaging in problem solving and civic decision-making in the classroom, school, and community settings. Note: The proficiency statements are not presented in chronological or hierarchical order. Classroom teachers are free to structure their classes in ways that best meet the needs of their students. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | **CITIZENSHIP AND GOVERNMENT** | | | Analyze past and present political structures that enable citizens to make decisions throughout United States History. | • Compare John Locke’s list of natural rights with those listed by Jefferson in the Declaration of Independence. | | • Examine the fundamental principles which serve as the basis of our democratic form of government (e.g., Natural Rights philosophy, republicanism, constitutionalism). | • Write an essay in which students compare and contrast social order with individual liberty. | | • Explain and illustrate the characteristics of a democratic society (e.g., consent of the governed, rule of law, individual rights and responsibilities, etc.). | • Develop a chart that compares and contrasts the basic governmental structure in the Articles of Confederation with the Constitution. | | • Examine the major ideas and concepts about government that developed during the Colonial and Constitutional eras. | • Identify and analyze those amendments to the Constitution that expand individual or citizenship rights. | | • Explain and illustrate the process of expanding democracy through the extension of citizen/individual rights throughout United States history. | • Find examples from newspapers and magazines of freedoms contained in the Bill of Rights. Create a bulletin board and use for discussion. | | • Identify differing and changing perspectives about the role of government throughout United States history. | • Create a series of cartoons comparing the role of government during the early nationalist period, post-civil war industrial era, and new Deal era. | | • Identify liberal, moderate, and conservative positions on a specific issue. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: | Sample Student Activities/Projects Student might: | |---|---| | **HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES** Trace and analyze chronological periods in the development of the United States History. - Review, summarize and outline major periods and events in U.S. History prior to the late 19th Century: - Formation of the United States - National Expansion - Social changes and the Civil War. - Examine the events and forces of the trans-Mississippi expansion and the concept of Manifest Destiny. - Trace the factors involved in the transition from an agrarian to an industrial nation and the impact of immigration on the American society between 1865 and 1900, (e.g., transportation networks, rise of corporations and labor, urbanization, emergence of a multicultural society, growth of Indiana as a state). | • Create an historical time line, focusing on major time periods or tracing an issue across time periods. • Create a large map of the U.S. identifying geographic areas and indicating dates when those areas were acquired by the U.S. • Conduct T.V. news “on-the-spot interviews” in which students prepare for and play the roles of persons with different perspectives on the concept of Manifest Destiny (e.g., a recent immigrant, a Native American, a business man, a farmer, a tradesman). • 1) Create a pictorial gallery of various immigrant groups in the United States. 2) Develop charts showing the amount of immigration into the United States and Indiana from various parts of the world. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | | | **HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES continued...** | | | • Review the major events in the development of the United States as a world power and summarize its role in World War I. | • Use historical maps to identify the most powerful nations at the beginning of World War I. Compare and contrast the issues relating to America's entry into the World War I with those of World War II. | | • Describe the characteristics and impact of agrarian reform and the progressive movement. | • Create a flow chart or web which illustrates a technological improvement and traces its impact on history. Use in a report analyzing the influence of a specific technology. | | • Identify and explain the interrelated social and economic forces associated with the eras of prosperity, depression and the New Deal. | • Develop an oral history questionnaire and conduct oral and written surveys of local citizens about their experiences in the 1920's, 1930's or 1940's. | | • Outline the events leading to the entry and participation of the United States in World War II, development of Nuclear Energy, and the escalation of tensions during the Cold War between the U.S. and the USSR. | • Write an essay describing how atomic energy or the Cold War influenced life in the past and the present. | | • Examine the political, social, economic, and technological transformation of U.S. society during the post-World War II period (e.g., changing roles of women, African-Americans, Hispanics, and other minorities; prosperity and abundance; unemployment; inflation; economic growth; baby boom; television.). | • Compare a newspaper from an historical period with a newspaper from the present, identifying the major issues of concern. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | | | HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES continued... | | | • Identify and explain the significance of the events of the 1960's and 1970's, including the Civil Rights Movement, the Vietnam War, Watergate, Middle East, Reaganomics, collapse of the Soviet Union. | • Create a collage of 20th century world leaders. Use multimedia CD Rom programs to develop presentations or reports on the civil rights movement, the assassination of President Kennedy, the Viet Nam War, etc. | | • Examine the impact of the transition from an industrial to an information society. | • Draw "before and after" cartoons of life at home or at work before and after the arrival of computer technology. | | • Hypothesize about future trends and their impact on our lives. | • Write an essay or a story describing the United States 25 years into the future. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Student might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | | | GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS | | | Describe the geographical patterns and interrelationships of major physical and cultural features as they relate to the historical development of the United States. | • Make a physical map of U.S. and label major regions and features. | | • Identify, describe, and evaluate the influence of geographical factors on national and state development in a variety of historical eras. | • Draw a set of historical maps tracing geographical and demographic changes in U.S. | | • Identify, interpret, and use information from maps and globes in historical inquiry activities. | • Use computer simulation games such as “Colonization,” “Oregon Trail,” “Golden Spike,” and “D-Day.” | | • Examine and explain the impact of geopolitics and role of the United States in world affairs. (e.g., Monroe Doctrine, Panama Canal, retention of strategic world areas and resources, political decisions based on geographic, economic and defense issues). | • Using a world map, identify nations that are economically or militarily strong and weak. Discuss the implications for these nations and their neighbors. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | ECONOMICS | | | Analyze information to explain the interaction of economic conditions and movements with historical events. | • Compare and contrast the economic and social conditions described in novels of the late 19th and the early 20th century with the research of economic historians. | | • Identify and appraise the economic, social, and political issues involved in dissent and reform throughout United States history (e.g., abolitionist and civil rights movements; anti-war movements, labor movement, environmental issues, nuclear issues). | • Listen to music from differing historical periods to identify social, political, or economic issues. | | • Identify significant technological innovation and analyze their impact on U.S. development (e.g., cotton gin, interchangeable parts, barbed wire, mass production, electrification, atomic energy, computers). | • Analyze the development of a modern corporation to prepare a list of five key components of the capitalist system. | | • Evaluate the role of capitalism in the economic development of the United States (e.g., the role of entrepreneurs, private property, self-interests, individual stock ownership, labor-management interaction). | • Participate in a stock market simulation. | | • Debate the advantages and disadvantages of business concentration in the late 19th century, and compare with business trends in the 20th century. | • Debate the advantages and disadvantages of business concentration in the late 19th century, and compare with business trends in the 20th century. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Student might: | |--------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | | | WORLD CULTURES | | | Investigate the interrelationship of U.S. development and that of other nations and cultures. | • Create a world time line and compare events in U.S. history and other world regions. | | • Compare major events and movements in the U.S. with those in other parts of the world. | • Create a series of maps tracing trade routes in history, including land, water, and air routes. | | • Describe and assess the impact of the domestic and international policies of the United States on its relationships with other countries. | • Prepare a chart of exportable raw materials from various countries. | | • Examine and evaluate examples of domestic and international interdependence throughout United States history (e.g., triangular trade routes, exchange of resources, multinational corporations). | • Color in a map identifying countries which ship oil to the United States. | | | • Compare the amount of trade surplus and trade deficit of the United States with five trading partners. | | | • Use foreign newspapers and magazines to identify examples of how American films and music have influenced other cultures. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | **INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY** | | | Examine the patterns of individual and group behavior in United States history. | • Make a dual timeline which illustrates the various waves of immigration in United States history and related social and economic events and movements. | | • Examine the roles of various immigrant groups in the development of American society. | • Create a collage showing the movement toward civil rights of various groups. | | • Examine various ethnic and racial groups and assess their roles in contemporary United States History (e.g., Native Americans, Hispanics, African Americans, Asian Americans). | • Create a conflict and compromise graphic which charts a conflict and its outcomes. | | • Explain and assess the importance of conflict and compromise in U.S. History (e.g., Philippine annexation, League of Nations, United Nations, Civil Rights, Vietnam). | • 1) Identify and explain various Supreme Court cases which defined the rights of accused persons. 2) Work in small groups to compare original court cases such as *Plessy v. Ferguson* (1896) and *Brown v. Board of Education* (1954). | | • Explore the relationship between social change and 20th century interpretations of constitutional rights (e.g., Supreme Court decisions such as *Brown vs. Board of Education*). | • Develop a time line featuring important ideas and intellectual movements in the 20th century. | | • Identify and trace intellectual developments in United States history (e.g., Social Darwinism, religious fundamentalism, gospel of wealth, social gospel, the development of sociology and economics as social sciences). | • Use newspapers and magazines to identify important issues regarding values, morals, and ethics in our society. Compare with important moral debates of the past. | | • Explain and evaluate the role of values, morals, and ethics in a changing society. | • | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects Student might: | |--------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------| | **CURRENT EVENTS** | | | Identify, analyze, and relate movements, events, and issues in the history of the United States to current issues. | • Select a current issue and trace its relevant historical roots. • Demonstrate awareness of significant current events. • Use a variety of sources to gain information about current events. • Use historical evidence to evaluate proposed solutions to current problems. • Compare and contrast an historical incident with current situations. | | | • Create a list of information sources about a specific current event. • Identify a problem in the United States or some other area of the world. Research and cite historical factors contributing to the problem and propose a possible solution. • Design criteria and evaluate an historical decision (e.g., a Supreme Court, presidential, or military decision). Examine the historical factors which influenced the decision and its results. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | **INQUIRY SKILLS** | | | Use primary and secondary resources to organize and make informative decisions, draw conclusions, design presentations, and evaluate actions. | • Use the Internet or World Wide Web to gather information on a specific topic. • Read and analyze a primary document considering the historical context and point of view of the author. | | • Identify, evaluate, and use appropriate technologies, reference materials, and data sources. | • Write an in-class critique of a local newspaper article or write a letter to the editor about a local issue. | | • Read and observe to predict, to seek answers, and to analyze points of view. | | | • Record sources of information and develop note taking and outlining systems. | | | • Evaluate sources of information | | | • Identify and interpret basic premises and alternatives. | | | • Identify and interpret cause and effect relationships. | | | • Distinguish fact from opinion and judge the integrity of sources. | • Using a local newspaper editorial, distinguish between opinions and facts. | | • Work cooperatively to prepare reports and presentations. | | | • Substantiate ideas using gathered data and logic. | | | • Use quotations and cite sources. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | **CIVIC IDEALS AND PRACTICE** | | | Describe and demonstrate the rights and responsibilities of citizens in a democratic society. | • Use primary documents to compare and contrast citizens' rights and responsibilities in different historical periods. | | • Analyze the relationship between citizens' rights and responsibilities. | • Simulate civic decision-making activities (e.g., town council meeting, congressional hearings, mock trials). | | • Distinguish among methods of settling disputes. | • Role play an actual Supreme Court case in which class members argue the case, testify, serve as judges and other court officials. Compare the decision reached with the actual verdict. | | • Participate in civic decision-making and problem-solving activities in the school and community setting (e.g., student government; cooperative learning activities in which students assist and work with peers; voting in local, state, and national elections when eligible; volunteer work for civic and community organizations). | • Create a video-tape to use as a commercial which is based upon a past or current presidential election. Examine local historic preservation efforts; Assist with the restoration of an historical site. | | • Demonstrate the ways laws are made, changed and interpreted. | • Attend a local government meeting. Take notes recording procedures. Use as the basis for a report or class discussion. | WORLD GEOGRAPHY Course Description World Geography should provide an opportunity to study the interaction of humans and their environment in space and time. The course should help students understand global patterns of physical and cultural characteristics, such as Earth-sun relationships, atmospheric and oceanic circulation, landforms, climate, population, transportation and communication, economic linkages, and cultural diffusion. The study of cultural settings should also include political structures, ways of life, customs, and past events that have influenced or have been influenced by the environment. World Geography should provide the opportunity to study the five basic geographic themes (location, place, relationships within places, movement, and regions) as they apply to selected areas of the world. Regions selected for study will vary but should include examples from each continent. These studies should focus upon the relationships among regions and exemplify important geographic concepts and problems. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | MAPS AND OTHER INQUIRY TOOLS | | | Use maps, globes and other tools and technologies to acquire and process information about people, places and environments. | • 1) Devise games requiring the ability to locate places using degrees of latitude and longitude. Example: Play “latitude and longitude bingo” finding on maps the sites that correspond to their absolute locations. 2) Plan a trip across several time zones calculating arrival times at each destination. | | • Use basic map and globe skills including the Earth’s grid system and time zones. | • Use newspapers and magazines to identify world “hot spots” where there are current issues and problems. Design a large bulletin board map of the world locating hot spots and develop and display a written description of the geographic factors that relate to each problem. | | • Use maps, globes, graphs, and supporting tools and technology to acquire and process information from a spatial perspective. | • Compile information from various media (e.g., CDRom, World Wide Web, Census reports, etc.) and transform the data into maps, graphs and charts. | | • Produce and interpret maps and other geographic representations to analyze geographic problems. | • 1) Draw sketch maps of the world and compare. Speculate about the differences in people’s mental maps based on life experiences. 2) Compare maps of the world using different projections and perceptions of space (e.g., a map centered on Australia or one of the polar regions). | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: | Sample Student Activities/Projects Student might: | |---|---| | MAPS AND OTHER INQUIRY TOOLS continued… | • Examine local maps (e.g., county aerial maps from Assessor’s Office at county court house, topographic and political maps). Interview community leaders about their perceptions of the community. • Select a specific problem (e.g., deforestation) in a given area and use a variety of technologies to collect information (e.g., aerial photographs, satellite imagery, geographic information systems-GIS). | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | **PLACES AND REGIONS** | | | Explain the concept of region (a human construct for organizing information to help interpret the Earth's complexity) and describe the human and physical characteristics of place. | • Develop a variety of world maps showing different physical or human factors that constitute a region (e.g., climate and vegetation; language; religion; industries). Explain how the concept of a region can be used to help understand a particular topic or problem. • Suggest various physical or human criteria upon which regions can be based or defined. • Explain that physical and human characteristics combine to make each place unique. • Compare maps of the world in different historical periods and note changes in political boundaries as a result of wars or territorial disputes. List other factors that contribute to regional change (e.g., physical: long-term climate shifts, seismic activity; human: migration, changes in production and market patterns, etc.). • 1) Make a bulletin board using magazine and newspaper clippings which illustrate important physical features of places around the world. 2) Choose a place and write brief vignettes describing the site at different times in history (e.g., London as a medieval trading center, the capital of the British Empire, and a modern city). | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | PLACES AND REGIONS continued . . . | | | • Explain why places and regions are important to individual and group identity. | • 1) Identify places that have symbolic meaning to different groups (e.g., Jerusalem or Mecca as holy cities; Arlington National Cemetery as a place to honor war dead). 2) Develop a map showing places that have personal significance. 3) Demonstrate how attachment to places and regions is expressed in songs, stories, poems, and novels. | | • Analyze the ways in which people’s changing views of places and regions reflect cultural change. | • Examine maps which show the shift in population from rural to urban settings and from urban to suburban areas. | | • Develop a map showing possible future settlement patterns and explain why people may choose to live in specific places or regions. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | EARTH'S PHYSICAL PATTERNS | | | Understand the physical characteristics of Earth's environment: their processes, distribution patterns and interrelationships. | • Use a light source and a globe to demonstrate the cycle of seasons in the northern and southern hemispheres. Explain solstices and equinoxes. | | • Describe Earth/sun relationships including "reasons for seasons." | • Identify and label major features on a physical map of the world. | | • Identify Earth's major physical features (e.g., mountains, river systems, etc.). | • Work in small groups to demonstrate how an extreme natural event can alter landscapes and human settlements (e.g., Mississippi River Floods, 1993; Hurricane Andrew in 1992; earthquake in Osaka, Japan, 1995). | | • Give examples of the physical processes, such as plate tectonics, weathering, and erosion that shape the patterns of the Earth's surface. | • Draw maps illustrating the influences on the development of a variety of weather systems. | | • Describe the components of weather, and the atmospheric and oceanic movements that drive the world's weather systems. | • Develop maps on clear acetate showing different climate types and regions. Use colored pens and overlays to illustrate the influences of physical processes (e.g., temperature, moisture, etc.) and cycles (e.g., world atmospheric circulation, ocean circulation). | | • Explain the characteristics and spatial distribution of the world's climates and climate-related ecosystem: vegetation, soils, and fauna. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | EARTH'S PHYSICAL PATTERNS continued... | • Develop maps showing land use in different regions of the world. | | • Explain how land forms and climate affect human behavior and cultural patterns, especially land use. | | EARTH'S HUMAN PATTERNS Explain the human characteristics of Earth's environment: political patterns, population dynamics, cultural mosaics, and land use. • Describe world patterns of population distribution, density, and growth. • Explain the relationship of population distribution to Earth's physical characteristics. • Describe the relationship of population growth rates to food supply and other factors of human well-being. 1) Develop a chart showing estimated changes in world population over the last 500 to 600 years; speculate about the reasons for population increase or decrease in specific areas. 2) Examine past and present government policies designed to change the population characteristics of a country or region (e.g., the former Soviet Union, China, etc.). • Develop a map showing major concentrations world population on clear acetate. Lay the map over a map of the same scale showing topographical features. List the possible physical characteristics influencing population density in specific areas. • Research and develop a chart showing food supply in relationship to population growth rates. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: | Sample Student Activities/Projects Student might: | |---|---| | **EARTH'S HUMAN PATTERNS continued…** | • Make a political map showing the major countries and cities of the world. | | • Identify the location of the world's countries and major cities. | • Choose cities of the world for individual research projects. Analyze sites and situations and compare historical and present-day functions. Use pictures from travel magazines and the travel sections of newspapers to illustrate unique characteristics. Use maps, city plans, aerial photographs, and census data to demonstrate changes in shape, size, and function. | | • Analyze the structure and functions of cities. | • Develop maps and charts that illustrate increasing urbanization in various parts of the world. Speculate about the future impact on housing and transportation patterns, environmental issues, interpersonal relationships. | | • Describe growing world urbanization and hypothesize about its impact. | • Use overlay maps on clear acetate and colored pens to indicate the world's major religions, language groups, and other cultural features. | | • Describe the distribution of the world's major religion and language groups. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | | | HUMAN/ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTION | | | Analyze how humans affect and are affected by their physical environment. | • 1) Make a pictorial chart comparing types of housing. • 2) Use newspapers and magazines to find examples of how people in naturally hazardous areas adapt to the environment (e.g., sea walls, earthquake resistance construction; storm warning systems, etc.). | | • Examine ways that people in different parts of the world have adapted to the physical environment. | • Use historical maps and other documents to examine ways the local community modified the physical environment in the past. Compare with the current impact on the same environment, and project future changes. | | • Evaluate the ways in which technology has expanded the human capability to modify the physical environment. | | | • Examine the characteristics of major global environmental changes and assess whether the changes are the result of human action, natural causes, or both. | | | • Develop possible solutions to scenarios of environmental change brought on by human activity. | • Develop a list of environmental changes. Work in small groups to devise possible strategies to lessen the impact of these changes (e.g., farming techniques adapted to dry regions, etc.). | 404 405 | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | HUMAN/ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTION continued... | • Develop historical and contemporary case studies of decreased environmental capacity (e.g., The Dust Bowl, drought in the Sahel, depletion of rain forests in central Africa). | | Analyze the patterns and networks of human economic interdependence. | • Construct land use maps of the local community, state, nation, and world. | | • Identify the major world patterns of land use, both rural and urban, and their relationship to climate and natural resources. | • Develop a color coded economic map which locates different types of economic systems (e.g., North Korea as a command economy, Singapore as a market economy). | | • Classify, describe, and locate the three major economic systems (traditional, command, and market). | • Construct a chart showing GNP per capita of key nations in various parts of the world. | | • Classify the world's countries in terms of levels of development, as determined by GNP per capita and key demographic and social indicators. | • Analyze newspaper and magazine articles and list examples of infrastructure needs and issues in various parts of the world. | | • Explain the meaning of the word infrastructure and analyze its relationship to level of economic development. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | **HUMAN INTERDEPENDENCE continued...** | **Student might:** | | • Identify different types of economic activities (primary, secondary, and tertiary). Give examples of each, the environmental conditions under which they may occur, and their capital and labor requirements. | • Examine the results of local policies related to the use of resources (e.g., restrictions on water use during drought, local recycling programs). Interview community members and public officials about local attitudes and public participation in these programs. Compare with programs in other parts of the world (e.g., China, Germany). | | • Describe the role of men, women, and children in economic activities in various parts of the world. | • Report on the role of women in the household and/or as wage earners in selected countries. Compare rates of literacy and levels of education for males and females in selected countries. Compare the time spent in daily tasks such as collection of fuel, drinking water, and preparation of food in less developed countries with the time needed in developed countries. | **MOVEMENT AND CHANGE** Demonstrate that change on Earth is constant, and that the movement of populations, goods, ideas, and elements of the physical Earth create ever-altering spatial patterns. • Describe the ways in which Earth's physical processes are dynamic and interactive. • Collect evidence of long-term changes in landforms and climate in the local area (e.g., rock formations, soil samples, fossils, etc.). Develop a mural of the local area showing landscapes and plant and animal life at different stages in geological time. Speculate about future changes due to changes in climate, wind and water erosion, floods, human activity. MOVEMENT AND CHANGE continued... - Analyze human migration in terms of push/pull factors. Identify major patterns of human migration, both in terms of time and space. - Evaluate the impact of human migration on physical and human systems. - Explain how change in communication and transportation technologies can contribute to both cultural convergence and divergence. - Identify and analyze the historical movement patterns of people, goods, and ideas. - Make a map showing migration patterns within Indiana and the United States, or from other parts of the world. Speculate about the "push/pull" factors related to each migration (e.g., the need for jobs versus family ties in the home area; famine versus the desire to remain in one's own country; the desire for religious freedom versus the desire to remain in familiar surroundings). - Create maps showing migration patterns in the United States and Indiana. Use overlay maps to show corresponding changes in ecosystems, land use, transportation systems, etc. - Create a bulletin board or displays showing how technology brings diverse cultures closer together (e.g., air travel, the Internet, movies and television, international business ventures such as American fast food franchises). Make a corresponding display showing how technology can be used to reinforce a sense of cultural distinctness or separation. - Use a series of historical maps to show the changes in trade and migration patterns (e.g., early trade routes by sea, shipping routes after the opening of the Panama and Suez Canals, early and present-day land and air travel route). Develop an historical map tracing the spread of an idea or technology from its origin to other areas of the world (e.g., printing press, computer technology, etc.). | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | MOVEMENT AND CHANGE continued . . . | • Use highway maps and local transit maps to plan trips to a nearby city to visit specific sites, trips within an urban area, and trips from urban areas to sites in rural settings. Speculate about how access to transportation systems affects life in various types of communities. | | • Describe the relationships between changing transportation technologies and increasing urbanization. | • Make a timeline of major world events including their spatial impact (e.g., industrial revolution/urbanization, etc.). | | GEOGRAPHIC THINKING AND CITIZENSHIP | • Compare the attitudes of different cultural groups toward the environment and use of resources (e.g., Native Americans/early European settlers/present-day Americans). | | Apply geographic understandings to interpret past events, analyze and make rational choices for present challenges, and influence future trends. | • 1) Invite a panel of community members who represent different perspectives on local resource management issues to speak to the class. 2) Interview a variety of people regarding how they use geographic information in their work. | | • Explain the relationship between geographic factors and selected major historical events. | • Identify a local need for geographic information. Collect and analyze data and develop plans or proposals related to this need. Example: Collect information on soils, hydrology, drainage, transit routes and other factors to help determine the best location for a landfill, park, school or other facility. | | • Assess how people’s changing perceptions of geographic features have led to changes in human societies. | | | • Explore how different points of view influence policies relating to the use and management Earth’s resources. | | | • Solve problems using geography and geographic skills to bring a spatial dimension to analysis and decision-making. | | | • Predict trends by analyzing present spatial patterns in terms of the continuing change implicit in human/environmental interactions. | | WORLD HISTORY/CIVILIZATION Course Description World History/Civilization should provide for a study of selected world cultures, past and present. Content should provide a basis for students to compare and analyze patterns of culture, emphasizing both the diversity and commonality of human experience and behavior. The course should emphasize the interaction of cultures with the natural environment as well as the connections among civilizations from earliest times to the present. The course may be designed to focus on prehistory; early world civilizations (including the rise of civilizations of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia); the classical civilizations of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America; and the development of modern societies. The course might also trace important themes in human history or be designed to focus on a comparative study of two or more selected societies. | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | Examine historical events, personalities, and movements as they impacted world history. | • Create a world map showing known locations of early human communities and possible dates of occupation. Research climate and geographic features corresponding to periods of human activity. | | • Analyze the processes that led to the development of early human communities. | • Use photos or slides of artifacts from ancient Mesopotamian and Indian civilizations to identify the uses of the artifacts and to draw conclusions about the lifestyles of the users. | | • Trace the development of agricultural societies in the fertile crescent and the Indus Valley. | • 1) Draw diagrams and label to show the ranking of social classes in ancient Egypt and China. 2) Use maps to compare settlement patterns along river systems. | | • Describe the characteristics of ancient Egypt and China. | • 1) Create a model of a Greek city-state. 2) Identify major democratic concepts from early Greek and Roman societies. 3) Create maps showing the various stages of the Roman Empire. | | • Compare the structure of Greek and Roman cultures and their development of the first democracies and republics. Analyze the impact of the Roman conquest of the "world". | • Use colored pens or pencils on a world map to indicate the spread of Christianity from Rome and Constantinople. | | • Examine how the split in the Roman Empire effected the growth of Christianity. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | **HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES** continued... | **Student might:** | | • Identify the causes and consequences of the rise of Islamic civilization. | • Develop a timeline showing important stages in the development of Islamic culture. | | • Describe how the Western Christian church unified Western Europe through the Crusades. | • Use maps to trace routes taken by the Crusades. Identify the various cultures encountered by European crusaders. | | • Describe how Hinduism and Buddhism affected Asian political development. | • Make charts comparing and contrasting Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity. | | • Identify major civilizations of North America and South America. | • Develop profiles of major North and South American civilizations. Use maps and drawings to illustrate their unique characteristics. | | • Describe the growth African cities, states, and trade relationships from the 11th to the 15th century. | • Make maps locating major African cities and identifying trade routes that linked African cultures. | | • Follow the development of the modern European nation-state. | • Create historical maps of Europe to identify the emergence of major nation-states in different historical periods. | | • Describe how the Renaissance revitalized the art, philosophy, writing, medicine, science, and music of Western Europe. | • Stage a Renaissance fair in the classroom or school. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | **HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES continued...** | • Make “webs” or charts showing the influence of major ideas of the Reformation on the political philosophies of the time. • Use an historical world map to identify the nations that acquired power and influence through exploration and colonization. • Use “revolution” as a theme to examine samples of art and literature from 1500 to the present. • Use a world map and colored pencils to indicate the colonial relationships of industrialized nations and less industrialized nations. | | • Show the effects of the Reformation on religious, political, and cultural ideas in Western Europe. • Interpret the effects of expansionism and exploration on the development of the balance of power theory. • Hypothesize the effects that popular revolutionary movements had on the modern nation-state. • Trace the growth of industrialization and its effects on various nations. • Evaluate how rivalry among nations led to a power struggle which resulted in the two major world wars. • Hypothesize about the changes in society related to technological advances. | • Make a chart identifying the combatant nations in World War I and World War II, and the issues which motivated both conflicts. • Make a timeline showing major developments in the technology of communications (e.g., printing press, telegraph, telephone, radio, television, computer, FAX, Internet). Explain the impact of each. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | WORLD CULTURES AND CULTURAL EXCHANGE | • Develop written or illustrated “culture grams” briefly describing ancient cultures in different parts of the world. | | Investigate nations and cultures in terms of their diversity, commonalities and inter-relationships. | • Use reference books and slides to examine examples of the art and architectures of Hellenic cultures noting cross-cultural influences. | | • Compare and contrast ancient cultures. | • Simulate diverse groups trying to unify under one political structure using negotiation and compromise. | | • Analyze the interrelations among Aegean cultures and the cultures of Southwest Asia and Egypt. | • 1) Construct a chart giving examples of contributions to medicine, mathematics, astronomy and geography. 2) Identify basic elements of Islamic architecture and construct a collage of buildings in different parts of the world. | | • Examine the effect that Christianity had on unifying the diverse tribal relationships of Western Europe. | • Develop a map of Asia showing areas of influence of Huns, Mongols, and Chinese dynasties. | | • Cite examples of the contributions of Islamic culture to the arts and sciences. | • Develop reports on major intellectual leaders of the time highlighting their most significant ideas. | | • Analyze the consolidation of power in Asia by the conquest of the Huns and the Mongols. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: | Sample Student Activities/Projects Student might: | |---|---| | WORLD CULTURES AND CULTURAL EXCHANGE continued . . . | • Develop a chart of technological changes taking place in the 15th to 17th centuries. List hypotheses about the cultural impact of each one. • Take the differing perspectives of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans in writing reports or “letters” about their encounters with other cultures during European colonization. • Debate the impact of instantaneous communication on relations between cultures. | | • Describe how the linking of major world regions in the 15th to the 17th centuries brought about important cultural change. • Show how the expansion of western culture impacted various cultures around the world. • Explain how modern society is based on the development and dissemination of the industrial and information revolutions. • Examine the cultural and ethnic struggles that contributed to two world wars and that are still a factor today. | • Use a world map to identify areas where there are ethnic and cultural conflicts today. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS | | | Describe the impact of geographical patterns and their interrelationships on the growth of modern civilization. | • Use a historical map to locate the sites of ancient cities. Compare with the locations of present-day cities. Speculate about the reasons both ancient and modern cities grew up in these locations. | | • Identify, describe, and evaluate the influence of geographical factors on the development of civilizations from ancient times through the modern nation-state. | • Develop maps showing patterns of land use and settlement in different periods. Identify the physical factors which limit or stimulate the growth of human settlement. | | • Analyze the differing characteristics of human settlement in various periods of history. | • Choose one example of human migration and list the push and pull factors that encouraged or discouraged migration (e.g., the danger of the journey versus the promise of jobs or new land). | | • Analyze the impact of human migration on human and physical systems throughout history. | • Choose several examples of exploration, settlement, or colonization and identify the key resources that were sought. Examples: Spanish and Portuguese attempt to find a passage to India and China for access to spices and other products; Russian settlement of Siberia, Alaska, and California as sources of fur, fish, and timber. | | • Explain the relationship between the distribution of resources and the exploration, colonization, and settlement of different regions of the world. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | GEOGRAPHIC RELATIONSHIPS continued...| | | • Give examples of how people in different places and times have used technology to modify the physical environment. | • Choose one type of modification, such as irrigation. Work in small groups to compare the technologies used by people in different environments and periods of history. Examples: ancient and modern people in the American Southwest, ancient and modern Egypt, ancient and modern China. | | • Analyze the factors which led to the development of distinctive cultural regions in different time periods. | • Develop maps showing distinctive cultural regions of the world at different times. In each case, identify the cultural characteristics that create regions and link areas of the world. Examples: religious ties linking Byzantine civilization; linguistic ties linking Great Britain and former colonies, etc. | | • Speculate about how political structures, daily life, and customs of various cultures may have been influenced by the environment. | • Develop profiles of two cultures in a given period (e.g., the Aztec Empire and Spain). Compare housing, agriculture, transportation, trade relationships, political organization, etc. Cite the environmental factors which may have influenced these activities. | | • Use information from maps, globes and other geographic representations to analyze world events and historical questions. | • Make a list of nations mentioned on a television or radio news broadcast. Locate the nations listed on a world map and provide a brief historical overview. | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators Students should be able to: | Sample Student Activities/Projects Student might: | |---------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | **POLITICAL IDEAS AND GOVERNMENT** | • Develop a timeline of different types of political organizations in Europe. Compare with a similar time line for another area of the world. | | Analyze the effect that political ideas and practices have had on civilization. | • Work in small groups to analyze the impact of different technologies on the development of the nation-state (e.g., transportation and communications technologies). | | • Trace the development of political structures in hunting and gathering societies, Empires, city-states, church states, kingdoms, and the modern nation-state. | • Develop a “T-chart” for a past government listing forces for stability on one side of the T and forces for change on the other. | | • Study the role that the cultural dissemination has had on the development of the modern nation-state. | • Choose an example of conflict or cooperation between two or more nations. List the factors that lead to conflict (e.g., boundary disputes, religious or ethnic friction) or cooperation (e.g., similar political goals, common language). | | • Identify forces that have influenced political change in various historical contexts. | • Read biographies of political leaders in different periods of history. Develop individual profiles listing leadership qualities. | | • Analyze the conditions that have resulted in conflict and cooperation among nations. | | | • Examine the role of political leadership in the development of political systems. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | | • Develop a timeline of economic systems. | | ECONOMICS | • Develop maps showing trading routes in different historical periods. Develop hypotheses to explain changes that occurred in trading patterns. | | Analyze the effect that different economic systems have had on the development of selected societies. | • Identify mercantile nations of the 16th and 17th centuries. Develop a map using colored pencils to show their areas of influence in other parts of the world. | | • Trace the development of ancient economic systems from hunting and gathering society through the emergence of industrialism. | • Make charts comparing the characteristics of traditional, command, and market economies. Describe how such systems operate in specific countries. | | • Analyze the influence of trading relationships on different cultures throughout history. | | | • Identify *mercantilism* and its economic effect on the development of various cultures. | | | • Define and appraise the roles that traditional, command, and market economies have had on world development. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | **INDIVIDUALS, GROUPS, and INSTITUTIONS** | **Student might:** | | Examine patterns of individual and group behavior from the past and consider possible implications for the future. | • Work in small groups to compare role, status, and social class in various cultures of the past and present. Examples: ancient and modern India, early and contemporary European cultures, etc. | | • Examine the importance of role, status, and social class in various cultures. | • Identify major social, political, artistic, and scientific movements in history. Develop a chart identifying the groups that participated in these movements. | | Analyze group influences on people, events, and movements of the past. | • Develop individual or group reports on different religions of the world and how they have influenced the development of specific cultures. | | • Examine the role of ethnic and religious loyalties and their relationships in society. | • Choose one institution, such as education, and create a timeline or chart of its development and influence. | | Evaluate the role of institutions in influencing continuity and change. | • Use newspapers and magazines to identify present-day conflicts. Compare to similar events in the past. Explain why communication among groups may or may not be a factor in present and past conflicts. | | • Evaluate how the failure to communicate among groups can lead to conflict. | • Read biographies of individuals who influenced groups and institutions of their time (e.g., religious reformers, political leaders, scientists, artists). | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | **Students should be able to:** | **Student might:** | | **CURRENT ISSUES:** | | | Analyze current issues and hypothesize about their possible impact. | • Work in small groups to develop newspaper “headlines” for different periods in the past. | | • Identify issues and problems in the past. | • Choose a specific issue and develop a chart showing related historical and contemporary factors. | | • Trace the origins of current world political, ethnic, economic, religious and environmental conflicts. | • Use newspapers and magazines to identify a specific incident. Search historical sources for similar events. | | • Compare and contrast historical incidents with current situations. | • Choose a current problem and explore alternative solutions. Use historical evidence to evaluate each proposed solution. | | • Use historical evidence to evaluate and propose solutions to current problems. | | | Proficiency Statements and Indicators | Sample Student Activities/Projects | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Students should be able to: | Student might: | | **HISTORICAL INQUIRY** | | | Use a variety of resources to gather and analyze information for making decisions, drawing conclusions and designing presentations. | • Choose an historical question and develop a list of possible data sources. | | • Identify, use, and evaluate appropriate reference materials in data sources. | • Read a primary document to identify the author’s perspective. | | • Read and observe to predict, seek answers, and analyze points of view. | • Outline information on a specific topic from at least one data source. | | • Record sources of information and develop note-taking and outlining systems. | • Read selected newspaper accounts of an historical incident to distinguish fact from opinion. | | • Identify and interpret basic premises, alternatives, and cause and effect relationships. | • Play the role of a “historical detective” by brainstorming the different types of evidence that could support the authenticity of a source. | | • Distinguish fact from opinion and evaluate the integrity of sources. | • Choose one historical topic and explore the data sources available on the Internet. | | • Utilize available technology in seeking information and developing presentations. | • Use graphs and charts to compare demographic data for different areas of the world. | | • Use data presented in charts, tables, graphs, and other graphic organizers to examine historical questions. | | HIGH SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES COURSE DESCRIPTIONS X HIGH SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES COURSE DESCRIPTIONS African Studies *African Studies* should give students an understanding of an appreciation for the diverse peoples, cultures, and economic systems of the African Continent. The course should examine the early kingdoms and cities of Africa; early trade routes with Europe and the East; the influence of African culture in the Americas; the colonization of Africa by European countries; African influence in the United States; the establishment of independent nations in Africa; and contemporary traditions, literature, art, and other cultural aspects. Anthropology *Anthropology* should broaden students' perspectives concerning patterns of culture among people. The study should introduce the anthropologist's processes of observing and analyzing human behavior. Topics should include: theories and principles of culture formation, growth, functioning, and change; the relationship of culture to environment; and the relationship between cultural background and behavior. Applied Economics *Applied Economics* should investigate the specific economic effect of market forces and government policies on individuals and the major institutional groups, such as business and labor, in the economy. Special attention should be given to economic concepts and principles used by consumers, producers, and voters. Learning experiences such as projects, field trips, or computer applications are strongly encouraged as ways to demonstrate practical applications of economic concepts. Asian Studies *Asian Studies* should provide insight into the diverse peoples and cultures of Asia. It should offer opportunities to study aspects of culture in one or more of the Asian countries. Attention should be given to religions, traditions, art, literature, and the development of social, economic, and political institutions. Examination of contemporary Asian societies and the interaction of Asia with the United States should be components of this course. Citizenship/Civics Citizenship/Civics should be an overview designed to help students become independent thinkers and conscientious citizens. The course should deal with political behavior which students and citizens consider to be relevant to the most pressing issues of the day. The course should provide students with experiences which will develop citizenship attitudes within the framework of democratic society. Topics should include the process of policy making; methods of public participation in policy making, citizenship rights and responsibilities in a changing society; and the relationship between modern society and government. The study of local government should be a component of this course. Consumer Economics Consumer Economics should provide the concepts and analytical tools necessary to understand the functioning of the economic, political, and social systems and the ways in which they affect and are affected by the individual, the family, and other groups. Opportunities should be provided to acquire consumer management and decision-making tools in order to understand the responsibilities and rights of individuals as consumers, producers, and citizens. Consumer Economics should help students to develop individual decision-making skills applicable to such areas as budgeting, saving and investing, shopping, choosing a job, and being an effective citizen. The course should provide experience in using the communication processes among consumers, producers, governments, and other information sources. As a result, student should be prepared to participate effectively in the marketplace as rational decision-makers. Current Problems/Issues/Events Current Problems/Issues/Events should provide opportunities to apply techniques of investigation and inquiry to the study of significant problems or issues. Students should develop competence in recognizing cause and effect relationships; recognizing fallacies in reasoning and propaganda devices; synthesizing knowledge into useful patterns; stating and testing hypotheses; and generalizing based on evidence. Problems or issues selected should have contemporary historical significance and should be studied from the viewpoint of the social science disciplines. Community service programs, such as internships or other service experiences within the community, might be included. Economics Economics should include a study of the allocation of scarce resources and their alternative uses for satisfying human wants. This course should examine basic models of decision-making at various levels and in different areas including: decisions made as a consumer, producer, saver, investor, and voter; business decisions to maximize profits; and public policy decisions in specific markets dealing with output, and prices in the national economy. Ethnic Studies *Ethnic Studies* should provide opportunities to broaden students' perspectives concerning life styles and cultural patterns of various ethnic groups in the United States. The course should either focus on a particular ethnic group or groups, or use a comparative approach to study patterns of cultural development, immigration, and assimilation, as well as the contributions of specific groups. Such studies might also include analysis of the political impact of ethnic diversity in the United States. Indiana Studies *Indiana Studies* should be an integrated program comparing and contrasting state and national development in the areas of politics, economics, and history. The course should use Indiana history as a basis for understanding current policies, practices, and state legislative procedures. Students should acquire motivation to participate in the political process as concerned citizens. This course should include the study of state and national constitutions from an historical perspective and as a current foundation of government. The examination of individual leaders and their roles in a democratic society should be included. International Studies *International Relations* should provide a survey of the formal relations among sovereign states in the international system, emphasizing the operation of diplomacy. The procedures for settlement of disputes and various methods of conflict resolution should be included. This course should examine power, interdependence, global development, and international organizations. Introduction to Social Science *Introduction to Social Science* should develop an understanding of the nature of the social sciences and present the reasons for studying them. This course should involve consideration of the social sciences as the study of humanity; consideration of the reasons for separate fields or disciplines; consideration of the objectives, materials, and methods of each discipline; and the difficulties encountered by the social scientist in applying the scientific method to the study of human life. Content could include group and individual behavior, education, social systems, and the role of the social sciences. Latin American Studies *Latin American Studies* should provide an understanding of and appreciation for the diverse people, cultures, and economic systems of Mexico, Central and South America, and the Caribbean nations. Content should include environmental and historical factors which have influenced contemporary situations. Topics of study should include pre-Columbian civilizations; European colonial systems, and resulting institutions; independent governments; and current issues. Law Education *Law Education* should provide an understanding of the American legal system. Content for this course should be designed to promote an understanding of society and its system of laws by indicating how citizens may effectively function with the law. Ways of dealing with interpersonal conflict in order to secure constructive change should be included, along with the development of critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Case studies, field trips, stimulations, and mock trials should be used in the course whenever feasible. Modern World Civilizations *Modern World Civilization* should provide an in-depth look at the twentieth century world. It should be a study of different cultures as they exist in the world today, including a comparative analysis of the various types of governmental, economic, and social systems. International relationships should be examined partly from the viewpoint of national interest, including the successes or failures of diplomacy. Political Science *Political Science* should provide for a study of the processes and goals of politics, techniques of government, methods by which decisions are made, and the basis for decision-making. It should go beyond the study of governmental structure and functions to include an analysis of such topics as the nature of the American party system, interest groups, public opinion, laws which affect students, reasons laws are changed, due process of law, legal rights, and legal responsibilities. Comparative studies of governmental systems in nations other than the United States might also be included. Psychology *Psychology* should provide an opportunity to study individual and social psychology and how the knowledge and methods of psychologists are applied to the solution of human problems. Content for the course should include some insights into behavior patterns and adjustments to social environments. The course should develop critical attitudes toward superficial generalizations about human beings, respect for the difficulty of establishing the truth of a proposition, and a heightened sensitivity to the feelings and needs of others. Sociology *Sociology* should provide an opportunity for students to study group behavior and basic human institutions. Broad areas of content should include the study of institutions found in all societies (such as the family, religion, and community organizations); political and social groups; and leisure time organizations. Moral values, traditions, folkways, the mobility of people, and other factors in society which influence group behavior should be included in the study. State and Local Government *State and Local Government* should be the study of the function and organization of state, county, city/town, and township governmental units. Primary focus should be on the major factors and issues in the state's political development. This course should also trace the role and influence of various political and social institutions on a state's political development. The implications of this development for governmental units should be discussed relative to current political and governmental situations. Field trips, observations, and interviews with state and local leaders should be encouraged whenever feasible. Topics in History *Topics in History* should provide students with studies of specific historical eras, events, or concepts. The development of historical research skills using primary and secondary sources should be emphasized. The course should focus on one or more topics or themes related to United States or world history. Examples might include topics such as twentieth-century conflict, the American west, the history of the United States Constitution, or democracy in history. United States Government *United States Government* should provide a framework for understanding the nature and of importance responsible civic participation and for learning the rights and responsibilities of individuals in a constitutional democracy. The course should enable students to explore the historic origins and evolution of political philosophies into contemporary political and legal systems. Constitutional structure and the processes of the legislative, executive and judicial branches of the national, state and local levels of government should be examined. Students should draw conclusions about the impact and interrelationships of history, geography and economics upon our system of government. They should also be able to demonstrate an understanding the governmental structures of the United States and other political systems as well as the relationship of American government to world affairs. Students should be able to analyze the role of individuals and groups in the political process by identifying and analyzing political issues. They should be able to access data from primary and secondary resources and use current technology to access relevant source materials and as a tool for producing documents in support of learning projects. Students should have opportunities to take, defend, and evaluate positions on current issues that impact political decision-making. They should understand their ability to influence policies and decisions as individuals and in groups. Related learning experiences in the school and community should enable students to learn how to participate effectively in the political process. The study of United States government should offer students opportunities to develop knowledge, inquiry skills, and the means to preserve and improve our constitutional democracy. United States History *United States History* is a two semester course, emphasizing national development in the late nineteenth and the twentieth century, which should build upon concepts developed in previous studies of American history. Students in this course should also identify and review significant events and movements in the early development of the nation. After providing such a review, the course should give major emphasis to the interaction of historical events and geographic, social, and economic influences on national development in the late 19th and the 20th centuries. A chronological, topical, or comparative approach can be used in developing themes from America's past as they relate to life in Indiana and the United States today. Students should demonstrate the ability to trace and analyze chronological periods and examine the relationships of significant themes and concepts in United States history. Students should be able to sequence historical events, examine cause and effect, identify different perspectives, and relate historical situations to current issues. Opportunities should be given to develop inquiry skills by gathering and organizing information from primary source material and a variety of historical and contemporary sources, accounts, and documents. Investigation of themes and issues should include analysis of the importance of cultural pluralism and diversity of opinion in American society. Students should be able to exercise their skills as citizens in a democratic society by engaging in problem solving and civic decision-making in the classroom, school, and community settings. **Urban Affairs** *Urban Affairs* should examine the history, organizations, processes, and distinctive aspects of urban centers. The rise of modern cities and an analysis of modern urban problems should be dealt with in the course. The politics of governing urban areas, including the selection of political leaders and citizen participation in the decision-making process, should be emphasized. Data collection skills may be taught in conjunction with the study of this course. **World Geography** *World Geography* should provide an opportunity to study the interaction of humans and their environment in space and time. The course should help students understand global patterns of physical and cultural characteristics, such as Earth-sun relationships, atmospheric and oceanic circulation, landforms, climate, population, transportation and communication, economic linkages, and cultural diffusion. The study of cultural settings should also include political structures, ways of life, customs, and past events that have influenced or have been influenced by the environment. *World Geography* should provide the opportunity to study the five basic geographic themes (location, place, relationships within places, movement, and regions) as they apply to selected areas of the world. Regions selected for study will vary but should include examples from each continent. These studies should focus upon the relationships among regions and exemplify important geographic concepts and problems. **World History/Civilization** *World History/Civilization* should provide for a study of selected world cultures, past and present. Content should provide a basis for students to compare and analyze patterns of culture, emphasizing both the diversity and commonality of human experience and behavior. The course should emphasize the interaction of local cultures with the natural environment, as well as the connections among civilizations from earliest times to the present. The course may be designed to focus on prehistory; early world civilizations (including the rise of civilizations of the Middle East, Africa, and Asia); the classical civilizations of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America; and the development of modern societies. The course might also trace important themes in human history or be designed to focus on a comparative study of two or more selected societies. XI Resources STRATEGIES The following strategies have been mentioned in the Sample Student Activities sections of the Guide. More detailed descriptions of these strategies are provided here as an aid to teachers. Featured strategies include: Classroom Business and Mini-Economies, Teaching History with Primary Sources and Oral History Projects in the Classroom. CLASSROOM BUSINESSES and MINI-ECONOMIES Harlan Day, Economics Education Consultant Indiana Department of Education What is a classroom business? In a classroom business students produce and sell a product to other students, parents, or members of the community. Typical products are food items, such as popcorn or cookies, and craft items, such as jewelry, candles, or refrigerator magnets. Students do market surveys, compute production costs, raise financial capital, produce and market the product, compute profits and losses, and distribute dividends. Decision-making skills are stressed throughout these business projects. While student businesses invariably make money, the primary curriculum goal is to improve students' knowledge of economics concepts such as goods and services, productive resources, scarcity, opportunity cost, profit, money, work, income, trade, specialization, market price, supply, and demand. What is a Mini Economy? The mini-economy is a form of economics instruction in which students simulate real world economic activity. Students earn play money in a variety of ways and spend it at a class store or auction. Students apply for classroom jobs, run businesses, pay taxes, buy rental property and insurance, and make investments. In some mini-economies there are student-operated governments and court systems. Daily situations that take place in a classroom mini-economy provide excellent opportunities to teach economic concepts. Mini-economies may take place during a time period as short as six weeks or may last throughout the school year. One teacher wrote: "In over 25 years of teaching I have never found an instructional method which creates and sustains the interest and enthusiasm of children of all ability levels as does the mini-economy." Why involve students in mini economies and classroom businesses? Teachers use classroom businesses to help their students learn basic economics concepts. However, these popular instructional strategies also provide an excellent way for students to apply basic skills and to learn basic money management. The mini-economy is also a very effective classroom management tool. Where can resources be found? The Indiana Department of Education has developed curriculum publications and inservice programs that explain how to implement these motivational instructional strategies. For more information contact the Indiana Department of Education, Office of Program Development, Room 229, State House, Indianapolis, Indiana 46204-2798 (317) 232-9154. TEACHING HISTORY WITH PRIMARY SOURCES Virginia L. Terpening, Deputy Director Indiana Historical Bureau What is a primary source? A primary source is one which was created at the time or close to the time of the event that the source describes. Documents are one type of primary source. Documents are usually on paper and include many types: letters, diaries, newspapers, advertisements, wills, birth certificates, and photographs. These documents can be facsimile of the original reprinted in books or other sources. Historians can research history by extracting information from primary sources such as documents. After this information has been gathered, the historian must evaluate, explain, or interpret that information. Questions that must be considered are: Who wrote the document and why? When was this report of the event made? Is there a bias in the reporting? One primary source is not enough. The historian must review many sources in order to determine what may have happened. The historian is like a detective who interviews many eyewitnesses. People often interpret an event differently. Many eyewitnesses must be checked before the historian, or the detective, can piece together what may have happened. Why have students use primary sources? Students of all ages enjoy the "detective work" of interpreting primary sources. The examination of letters, diaries, wills and other documents provide a fresh look at an historical event or movement and brings students close to the people who lived, worked, and played in that time. In addition to sparking student interest and adding to the student's knowledge base, using primary sources helps students develop and exercise important learning skills. In order to understand the significance of a document, students must read carefully, consider clues, examine historical background, and evaluate evidence. What skills must students use to interpret primary sources? Primary sources can provide valuable information about people, places, and events. However it is very important to evaluate that information. Answering the following questions about a primary source, such as a document, can help students to interpret and use that document effectively. 1. Identify: What type of a document is it? (Letter, court record, diary, newspaper, broadside, government record?) What was the origin of the document? Can the author be identified? When was the document created? For what audience was the document created? 2. Examine: Read the document through the first time to get a general idea of the content. Find the meanings for unknown words or symbols. (The Oxford English Dictionary is the best dictionary for the history of words.) Now read the document more slowly. Break it into smaller parts. What does the document tell you about lifestyle, governmental affairs, historical events, economics, laws, beliefs, etc.? If the document is not dated, can you determine an approximate date from the information in the document? 3. Evaluate: Is the information given in the document reliable? How do you know? What other sources can you use to verify the document's accuracy? Did the author take part in the event or was he or she reporting what others said? Did the author have a positive or negative interest in the events? How can you tell? Where can materials for the classroom be found? The Indiana Historical Bureau provides a set of activities and facsimile of documents for teaching Indiana history. This set of materials, called BROADSIDES, can be adapted to many learning levels and disciplines. Contact the Indiana Historical Bureau, 140 North Senate Street, Indianapolis, Indiana 46204, (317) 232-6277. The National Archives (see Resource Organizations, Page 227) and commercial publishers also provide materials for teaching with primary sources. Adapted from Interpreting the Evidence, Indiana Historical Bureau, 1991. ORAL HISTORY PROJECTS IN THE CLASSROOM Dr. Carl R. Siler Muncie Southside High School What is an oral history project? Oral history involves students directly in a method of historical inquiry which includes the organization and presentation of data acquired directly from another person. It is an attempt to preserve a small segment of a relatively recent historical period as viewed through the eyes, experiences, and memories of people who lived during that time. An oral history project can be as simple as a student interviewing one person, writing the responses of the participant, and reporting those survey responses to the class. Another project could involve audio-taping or video-taping of the participant and the student composing a written account of the dialogue. A more in-depth oral history project could involve the entire class during a semester or school year. The class might conduct taped interviews throughout the school year, type the dialogue of the interview, and print the results in a book format. The culmination of the project would be to publish the book and make it available to interviewees, students, libraries, and interested individuals in the community. Why have students conduct an oral history project? Students of all learning and comprehension levels can use an oral history process to improve their understanding of historical topics and increase their interest and involvement in the study of history. An oral history project involving local participants highlights the role of local history within the overall context of United States history and is an exciting method of helping students "experience" history. Oral history projects also add to the collective knowledge of local and national history because such projects document citizens' participation and memories concerning a specific event or time period. Students begin to understand that United States history is not simply a series of isolated events from the pages of a textbook. In fact, it includes the life experiences and memories of many Americans just like themselves. What instructional goals are met through an oral history project? The major objective of an oral history will be for students to increase their understanding of a specific historical topic, event, movement, or period. In addition, such a project helps students understand all phases of designing, implementing, and completing an activity. Students will create and administer various interview instruments. They must pilot those instruments to determine if the various questions involved elicit unanticipated, unexpected, or unintended answers. They must decide how participants will be selected, and this selection process in itself helps students to better understand the dynamics of time, continuity, and change among age groups. Students will improve their questioning skills as they ask descriptive questions involving "what happened?" and probing question about "how" and "why" something happened. Students enhance their listening skills by listening for how and why the person being interviewed chose to describe an event. They improve their writing skills as they attempt to accurately document a participant's account and they improve their accuracy in using language as they proofread and correct their final product. Throughout the project, students gain organizational skills pertaining to their use of time, energy, and information. What is involved in the process of conducting an oral history project? For the most part, the teacher helps students to plan the project and keep on task and on schedule while they carry out the various steps in the oral history process, including: 1. Introduction and investigation of the historical event or period. It is imperative that students have adequate background knowledge of the historical topic and time period before interviewing participants. Good content knowledge improves their questioning skills and understanding of the person being interviewed. 2. Creation of the interview instrument. Students design the interview instrument focussing upon questions that will elicit more than merely "yes" or "no" answers. Practice interviews must be conducted to test the interview instrument, which allows students to practice their interview skills and insures the validity of the questions and answers. 3. Interviewing of participants. Students select participants to be interviewed and set up interview times. Interviews can be conducted during school time or on the student's time, whatever is most practical according to the age of the student and most convenient for the participant. It is important that the participant provide a signed release form giving the class and the school the right to publish the oral interview. 4. **Transcribing of interviews.** In most cases, it is best to record interviews on audio or video tape so that students can develop written transcripts from the recordings. This allows students to review an interview and check the accuracy of their transcripts. 5. **Preparing and proofreading drafts.** Students proofread their own materials, as well as other students' material, for correct spelling, historical accuracy, and common formatting. 6. **Final product.** The cost of printing the final product should be anticipated and researched as part of preliminary planning for the project. Small grants may be available from educational or civic organizations. If so, students should help to plan how to effectively present their project and seek funding. The finished product of such an oral history project is a published book that focuses upon a particular topic in history encompassing the memories and experiences of local participants. An oral history project, regardless of the topic, grade, academic level of the students, or sophistication of the final product, is a source of pride and an extremely rewarding experience for students, participants, and classroom teacher. **Where can information on oral history projects be found?** To check the ERIC data base, contact Vickie Schlene, Coordinator for User Services and Products, ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education, Social Studies Development Center, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47408-2698, (800) 266-3815. Professional journals, such as the NCSS publication, *Social Education*, and the Organization of American Historians' *Magazine of History*, often publish articles on this topic. Adapted from ERIC Digest EDO-SO-96-2 RESOURCE ORGANIZATIONS The following organizations provide a variety of services to teachers which may include publications, newsletters, inservice opportunities, catalogues, software, data collections, videos, opportunities, conferences and workshops. Please contact these organizations for a complete description of their services. Ackerman Center for Democratic Citizenship Dr. Denee Maioli, Director Purdue University 1442 Liberal Arts and Education Bldg., Room 4115 West Lafayette, IN 47907-1442 Phone: (317) 494-2372 FAX: (317) 496-2210 American Political Science Association 1527 New Hampshire Avenue, N.W. Washington D.C. 20036 Phone: (202) 483-2512 Association of American Geographers 1710 16th Street, NW Washington, D.C. 20009 Agency for Instructional Technology Box A Bloomington, Indiana 47402-0120 Phone: (800) 457-4509 Phone: (812) 339-2203 Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development 1250 North Pitt Street Alexandria, Virginia 22314-1403 Phone: (800) 933-2723 or Phone: (703) 549-9110 Center for Civic Education 5146 North Pitt Street Calabasas, CA 91302-1467 Phone: (800) 933-2723 or (703) 549-9110 Center for Geographic Education A. David Hill, Director Department of Geography Box 260, University of Colorado Boulder, CO 80309 Phone: (303) 492-6760 American Forum for Global Education 120 Wall Street, suite 2600 New York, New York 10005 Phone: (212) 742-8232 E-Mail email@example.com WWW: http://www.glboded.org American Geographical Society 156 Fifth Avenue, Suite 600 New York, New York Close up Foundation 44 Canal Center Plaza Alexandria VA 22314 Phone: (800) 336-5479 or (703) 706-3300 Constitutional Rights Foundation 407 South Dearborn, Suite 1700 Chicago, IL 60605 Phone: (312) 663-9057 Economics America Indiana Council for Economic Education Purdue University 1310 Krannert Center West Lafayette, IN 47907-1310 Phone: (317) 494-8545 FAX: (317) 496-1505 Educators Technology Center of Indiana Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis 620 Union Drive, UNI 23 Indianapolis, Indiana 46202-5167 Phone: (800) 222-4223 or (317) 274-8001 Internet: firstname.lastname@example.org WWW: http://etc.iupui.edu ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/ Social Science Education Social Studies Development Center Indiana University 2805 East Tenth Street, Suite 120 Bloomington, IN 47408-2698 Phone: (800) 266-3815 or (812) 855-3838 E-Mail: email@example.com Geographic Education national Implementation Project (GENIP) 1710 16th Street, NW Washington, D.C. 20009 Geography Educator's Network in Indiana (GENI) Dr. Frederick L. Bein, Executive Director Department of Geography - IUPUI 425 University Boulevard Indianapolis, IN 46202-5140 Phone: (317) 274-8879 History Teaching Alliance National History Education Network Department of History University of Tulsa 600 South College Avenue Tulsa, OK 74104-3189 Phone: (918) 631-2349 Historic Landmarks Foundation of Indiana 340 West Michigan Street Indianapolis, Indiana 46202-3204 Phone: (317) 639-4534 FAX: (317) 639-6734 Indiana Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Teachers College, 1008 Ball State University Muncie, Indiana 47306-0630 Phone: (317) 285-5447 FAX: (317) 285-5455 Indiana Council for the Social Studies (ICSS) Dr. Denee Mattioli, Executive Director C&I, 4115 LAEB Purdue University West Lafayette, IN 47907-1442 Phone: (317) 494-2372 Indiana Historical Bureau 140 North Senate Avenue Indianapolis, Indiana 46204 Phone: (317) 232-6277 FAX: (317) 232-3728 Indiana Humanities Council Resource Center 1500 North Delaware Indianapolis, Indiana 46202 (317) 638-1500 Indiana Junior Historical Society 315 West Ohio Street Indianapolis, Indiana 46202-3299 (317) 232-6567 Indiana Law-Related Education Program Robert Lening, Director Social Studies Development Center Indiana University 2805 East 10th Street, Room 120 Bloomington, Indiana 47408 Phone: (812) 855-0467 FAX: (812) 855-0455 Indiana State Chamber of Commerce One North Capitol, Suite 200 Indianapolis, Indiana 46204-2248 Phone: (317) 264-3110 Indiana University Area Studies Centers African Studies Program (812) 855-6852 East Asian Studies Center (812) 855-3765 Global Studies Center (317) 274-3024 Inner Asian and Uralic National Center (812) 855-2398 Jewish Studies Program (812) 855-8119 Latin American and Caribbean Studies Center (812 855-9097 Polish Studies Center (812) 855-8119 Middle Eastern Studies Program (812) 855-0076 Russian and East European Institute (812) 855-0391 West European Studies Center (812) 855-0036 James Madison Fellowship Program Post Office Box 4030 2201 North Dodge Street Iowa City, IA 52243-4030 Phone: (800) 525-6928 FAX: (319) 337-1204 Junior Achievement of Central Indiana 1317 N. Pennsylvania Street Indianapolis, Indiana 46202 Phone: (317) 634-3519 League of Women Voters of Indiana 740 East 52nd Street #3 Indianapolis, Indiana 46205 Phone: (317) 925-8683 or 925-VOTE National Archives Office of Public Programs Education Branch (NEEB) Washington, D.C. 20408 Phone: (202) 724-0454 National Consortium for Teaching Canada Canadian Studies Center University of Washington Box 353650 Seattle, WA 98195-3650 National Council for Geographic Educators (NCGE) Leonard 16A Indiana University of Pennsylvania Indiana, PA 15705 Phone: (412) 357-6290 Membership $25.00 per year for classroom teachers (includes subscription to the Journal of Geography) National Council for History Education, Inc. 26915 Westwood Road, Suite B-2 Westlake, Ohio 44145-4568 Phone: (216) 835-1776 FAX: (216) 835-1295 National Council for Social Studies (NCSS) 3501 Newark Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20016 Phone: (800) 296-7840 or (202) 966-7840 FAX: (202) 966-2061 National Geographic Society (NGS) 17th and M Streets, NW Washington, D.C. 20036 (800) 368-2728 to order published materials (202) 7750-5701 Geography Education Program (202) 828-5469 Geography Education Bee National Institute for Citizen Education and the Law 25 Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20001 Phone: (202) 546-6644 Newspaper in Education The Indianapolis Star - The Indianapolis News 307 N. Pennsylvania Street Post Office Box 145 Indianapolis, Indiana 46206 Phone: (317) 633-1010 FAX: (317) 633-9828 Organization of American Historians Magazine of history for Teachers of History 112 N. Bryan Street Bloomington, Indiana 47408-4199 Phone: (812) 855-7311 The Organization of History Teachers The Laboratory Schools The University of Chicago 1362 East 59th Street Chicago, IL 60637 Social Studies Development Center Dr. John J. Patrick, Director Indiana University 2805 East Tenth Street, Suite 120 Bloomington, Indiana 47408-2698 Phone: (800) 266-3815 or (812) 855-3838 FAX: (812) 855-0455 Indiana Department of Education David Ballard Economics Education Consultant (South) Wilson Education Center 11440 Highway 62 Charleston, Indiana 47111 Phone: (812) 256-8000 E-Mail: firstname.lastname@example.org Scott Bauserman Service Learning Consultant Indiana Department of Education Room 229, State House Indianapolis, Indiana 46204 (317) 232-233-3163 Harlan Day Economics Education Consultant (North) 1310 Krannert Center Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana 47907 Phone: (317) 494-8542 E-Mail email@example.com Mary Fortney Social Studies Consultant Indiana Department of Education Room 229, State House Indianapolis, Indiana 46204-2798 Phone: (317) 232-9158 FAX: (317) 232-9121 E-Mail: firstname.lastname@example.org I. DOCUMENT IDENTIFICATION: Title: Indiana Social Studies Proficiency Guide: an Aid to Curriculum Development Author(s): Corporate Source: Indiana Department of Education, Center for School Improvement and Performance Publication Date: 1996 II. REPRODUCTION RELEASE: In order to disseminate as widely as possible timely and significant materials of interest to the educational community, documents announced in the monthly abstract journal of the ERIC system, Resources in Education (RIE), are usually made available to users in microfiche, reproduced paper copy, and electronic media, and sold through the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS). Credit is given to the source of each document, and, if reproduction release is granted, one of the following notices is affixed to the document. If permission is granted to reproduce and disseminate the identified document, please CHECK ONE of the following three options and sign at the bottom of the page. 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Exception is made for non-profit reproduction by libraries and other service agencies to satisfy information needs of educators in response to discrete inquiries. Signature: Mary Fortney Printed Name/Position/Title: Mary Fortney, Social Studies Coordinator Organization/Address: Indiana Department of Education Room 229, State House Indianapolis, IN 46209 Telephone: (317) 232-9158 FAX: 317-232-9121 E-Mail Address: email@example.com Date: 1/27/99 III. DOCUMENT AVAILABILITY INFORMATION (FROM NON-ERIC SOURCE): If permission to reproduce is not granted to ERIC, or, if you wish ERIC to cite the availability of the document from another source, please provide the following information regarding the availability of the document. (ERIC will not announce a document unless it is publicly available, and a dependable source can be specified. 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Dear Parents, Because Earth Day is tomorrow, we have been celebrating the Earth in a variety of ways in our classrooms and school. The children have been engaged in creative projects using recyclable materials and learning about ways to reduce, reuse, and recycle! We hope your family is enjoying the Family Focus Homework. Hopefully you will enjoy the outdoors with your children this weekend. Please also ask your child all s/he’s learned about respecting and enjoying the natural world. Yesterday, some of our first graders shared the collaborative and creative work they did in their Morning Clubs. The Library Club shared interesting facts about the earth and the Art Club shared the beautiful murals they created depicting precious animals of the earth and sea. Additionally, our Leaders Club presented a skit about our words of the month: sensitive, thoughtful, and self-control. We hope you will ask your child about these words and use them in your interactions with them at home. Finally, we had a small group of children perform a skit—“The Three Little Pigs.” What fun! Our students love to create, collaborate, and perform! Unfortunately, the weather didn’t cooperate so our outdoor Earth Day activities have been postponed until next Friday. Our GPFA Green and Beautification Committees will engage the children in Earth Day recess games and the planting of flowers around our building. As the weather gets nicer, here are some ideas, courtesy of the National Audubon Society, for ways to engage your children in outdoor learning and play after school and on weekends: * **I Spy:** Draw your children's attention to the natural world whenever you can, whether you're walking outside or looking out the window. Simple statements like, "Look at those baby flowers pushing out of the ground!" or "I see a bird making its nest." will invite children to observe and engage in the natural world around them. * **Fresh Air Fun:** Find ways to maximize your children’s time outside. Make backyard and park play a regular part of their activities. Children need to run, climb, and roll down grassy hills! * **Keep it Simple:** Children don't need a carload of tools and toys to entertain themselves outdoors. A simple pail and shovel may be all they need. Let them use their imaginations! * **Moon Walk:** Go for a nighttime walk. Take a flashlight and explore one area not lit up by electric lights. What do you see? Hear? Smell? * **Home Tweet Home:** Make a bird feeder and start feeding and watching birds out your window. * **Bug Watch:** Head outdoors and have your children find as many different kinds of insects as they can. Bring a magnifying glass for a close-up look! * **Harvest Time:** As often as possible, take your children to orchards, wild berry patches, farms, and other places where they can pick fruits and vegetables. Grow some of your own in a backyard garden. * **Car-Free and Care-Free:** Try to replace at least one car trip a week with a walk or a bike ride. It's healthy for people and the environment. Happy Earth Day! Enjoy the weekend!-----Lynn Herschlein Pennies for Puppies, Dimes for Doggies At our Spirit Day Assembly yesterday, the children had a chance to see the results of their fundraising efforts. Due to the generosity of our families, we raised $751.00 for Little Shelter! With the money raised, we purchased dog toys, cases and bags of cat food, and gallons of laundry detergent! Thank you to SIT members Mrs. Burger and Mrs. Flynn and our school secretary, Mrs. Smith, for doing all the shopping. We will continue the fundraiser through the month of May. Thank you everyone! Author Visit As you know, the GPFA and Cultural Arts Committee, chaired by Mrs. Light, have arranged for an author/illustrator, Lori Richmond, to visit our school on May 11th. She will share her writing and illustrating process with the children. You received an order form in case you would like to order a book for your child. Please don’t feel pressured to order a book. The signed books will be delivered and put right into students’ backpacks at the end of the day. Important Dates April 23- LHSPTG Little Apple Fun Run May 3- GPFA Meeting May 4-CPC Meeting May 13- Goosehill Plant Sale May 21- West Side Run GPFA Updates GPFA Meeting The next GPFA meeting will be held on Wednesday, May 3rd at 9:30am in the Community Room. Pennies for Puppies, Dimes for Doggies Just a reminder to encourage your child to do good deeds or chores to earn pennies and dimes for donation to help the animals at The Little Shelter Animal Shelter. Have your child bring their coins to school and add them to the school jar. The empty baggies will be sent home for refilling! Any coins are fine—pennies, nickels, dimes and quarters! Thank you for all your support! Earth Day Goosehill’s Earth Day activities will take place next Friday! At recess, kindergarteners will play nature-themed games and relays. First graders will plant flowers around the school and the district office. Special thanks to Christine and Steve DeSimone and the Green committee for their hard work planning for a fun and educational day for our students. And many thanks to Nancy Worden and the Beautification committee for keeping Goosehill’s planters and flower beds beautiful throughout the year. Happy Earth Day! Lloyd Harbor Apparel Flash Sale 4/4-4/23 Questions Contact: Geraldine Ficara at email@example.com Place all orders online: Enter Link: https://lloydharborptgwinter.itemorder.com $26.50 $32.25 $33 $28.50 $31.50 *SPONSORED BY PTG* *For colors please refer to webstore* *Some samples are available at Woodbury Sports 7956 JERICHO TURNPIKE - WOODBURY, NY 11797 Tel. 516-496-0600 - Email: firstname.lastname@example.org* COLD SPRING HARBOR HUNTINGTON SOCCER CLUB AND EXCEL SOCCER SUMMER CAMPS JULY 17-21, 2017 & AUGUST 7-11, 2017 Half Day (9a-12pm) $165 Full Day (9am-4pm) $250 Boys and Girls Ages 6-16 Camp will be run by professional licensed trainers provided by Excel Soccer and CSHHSC DOC Dave McCarthy **Multi Camp Discount** Any registrant signing up for both full-day camps will receive a $25 discount on the total cost for the two. Register at CSHHSC Website, SportsSignup https://cshhsc.siplay.com/site/ Contact: Megan Strout - email@example.com Please remember to bring sunscreen, water, shin guards, and a healthy snack FULL-TIME PLAYERS MUST PROVIDE THEIR OWN LUNCH Please be advised that a special meeting of the Board of Education will take place on April 25, 2017, at 8:30 a.m. at The Francis Roberts Community Center, at which time the Board of Education may consider a motion to adjourn to Executive Session to discuss matters appropriate for Executive Session. If no such motion is adopted, the meeting will recess until 8:30 a.m. At 8:30 a.m., the Board of Education will reconvene its public meeting to discuss Board Agenda items appropriate for Public Session, pursuant to the Open Meetings Law, including the Annual BOCES Budget Vote. William Bernhard, District Clerk Junior Summer Programs Making every summer the one to remember! Meet new friends, achieve greater goals and engage in unique activities while exploring and recreating in the marine environment. Visit our Open House April 2nd & May 7th 1:00 - 3:00 pm Learn more about our amazing programs! Sailing Junior Sailing Programs are designed to promote skill progression and continuity with options for every age and skill level. For children entering 3rd – 12th grades. Marine Discovery Discover the marine environment and engage in aquatic research while having fun fishing, kayaking, seining, and sailing. For children entering 1st - 12th Grades. Racing Sailors practice performance sailing, learn racing rules and strategy in preparation for competing at area regattas on Long Island Sound and beyond. Adult Sailing Programs, Charters, and Rentals The WaterFront Center offers a variety of programs suited for sailors of all abilities and ages. As a US Sailing accredited school, we offer the highest standard of quality instruction and facilities. Whether you are a first time sailor or a seasoned racer, interested in dinghies, keel boats or cruising, we have an experience for you. The WaterFront Center is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. Federal Tax ID: 11-3539597 HECKSCHER FAMILY HOUR Guided Tour & Activities 1:00 pm - 2:00 pm Children ages 5 - 10 years Sunday, May 21, 2017 Earth Muse: Art and the Environment Sunday, September 17, 2017 Ebb & Flow: Seascape and Shoreline Views Children and their families are invited to join museum educator Tami Wood for a family-friendly tour of the Museum’s exhibitions. Experience the artwork through close looking, lively conversation, and hands-on gallery projects. Registration is recommended. Space is limited. Members and Children Free Non-Members Museum Admission $5 activity fee per child Images (Top to Bottom): Tami Wood with students in the gallery. William Merritt Post, A Bend in the River, n.d [detail]. Heckscher Museum of Art; August Heckscher Collection. (On view in Ebb & Flow: Seascape and Shoreline Views) UPCOMING AT THE HECKSCHER MUSEUM 97th ANNIVERSARY CELEBRATION Weekend of July 8 & 9, 2017 Free Admission & Family Activities Like & follow @heckschermuseum facebook twitter instagram pinterest For Kids & Teens! Programs from Cold Spring Harbor Library’s Youth Services Department. Registration Required! COLORFUL CATERPILLARS Tuesday, April 24 @ 4:30 For children in grades K-2 Use an egg carton to create your very own caterpillar. SOCK BUNNY Thursday, April 27 @ 4:30 p.m. For children in grades 3-5 Make an adorable sock bunny. MIX IT UP Friday, April 28 @ 3:30 - 4:30 pm For children of all ages Create a craft that you may have missed this month! Registration required. (Please arrive on time. After 10 minutes, your spot may be passed on to a wait listed child) For more information about any Kids or Teen Programs, contact a Youth Services Librarian at the Cold Spring Harbor Library - 631-692-6820 Programs and Services from the Information Services Department Paper Shredding Saturday, April 22, 9:30am to 12:30pm Bring two or three boxes of your papers and have them properly disposed of by our professional shredding company. Representatives from A Shred Away will be in the library parking today, at the foot of the staircase, to assist you. Paper only, no magazines, newspapers, cardboard, or carbon paper. (Staples and paper clips do not need to be removed.) People will keep their containers; the company does not handle containers/boxes. All shredded paper is 100% recycled at a certified paper mill. For more information about any Adult Program, contact Information Services at the Cold Spring Harbor Library at 631-692-6820.
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John Thompson's Easiest Piano Course PART SIX Copyright, MCMLVI, by The Willis Music Co. International Copyright Secured Printed in U. S. A. | Section | Page | |----------------------------------------------|------| | FOREWORD | 3 | | ALLA BREVE | | | "The Midget Racer" | 4 | | "Boogie Woogie" | 6 | | FROM THE CLASSICS | | | "Grandmother's Minuet" (arr.) Grieg | 8 | | TRIPLETS | | | "Etude in Triplets" | 10 | | TRIPLETS IN TWO-FOUR | | | "The Ranger" | 11 | | TRIPLETS IN THREE-FOUR | | | "On the Village Green" | 12 | | TRIPLETS IN FOUR-FOUR | | | "Habanera" from the Opera, Carmen (arr.) Bizet | 14 | | HARPSICHORD STYLE | | | "Sonatina" | 16 | | AN OLD FAVORITE | | | "Flower Song" (arr.) Lange | 18 | | WRIST STACCATO | | | "When Johnny Comes Marching Home" (arr.) Gilmore | 20 | | THE DOTTED EIGHTH NOTE | 21 | | THE DOTTED EIGHTH IN THREE-FOUR | | | "Minuet" from Septet (arr.) Beethoven | 22 | | THE DOTTED EIGHTH IN FOUR-FOUR | | | "The School Band" | | | MELODY IN INNER VOICE | | | "The Lily Pond" | | | THE TRILL | | | "Bird Song" | | | SYNCOPATION | | | "Jam Session" | | | FROM THE CLASSICS | | | "Liebestraum No. 3" (arr.) | | | CROSS HAND | | | "The Fountain" | | | CHORD STUDY | | | "Evening Harmonies" | | | DESCRIPTIVE PIECE | | | "Hobgoblins" | | | STUDY IN STYLE | | | "Gypsy Life" | | | MARCH | | | "Semper Fidelis" (arr.) | | | FORMING MINOR SCALES | | | CERTIFICATE | | Foreword PART SIX introduces Alla Breve, the Triplet, Dotted Eighth Notes, Melody lying in the inner voices, the Trill, Syncopation and several pianistic figures which should be learned as a standard part of every player's technic because of their frequent recurrence in piano music. The examples offer ample opportunity for review of both technical and musical points learned earlier in the Course and are designed to develop artistry and musicianship to a higher degree of attainment. Pieces calling for the use of Finger Legato, Wrist Staccato, Phrasing, Forearm Attack in Chord Playing, Scale Figures, Pedal, etc., will be found in logical order. SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL Since it is impossible to put into one book material to meet the needs of all its various users, it is expected that the teacher will assign whatever supplementary material is indicated by the individual pupil. This is particularly true in matters technical, where students show a wide variance. The following books are suggested as being especially fitted for use as supplementary work for pupils in this grade. John Thompson’s SCALE SPELLER — A Writing Book for Home Work which teaches Major and Minor Scales in all forms. Also teaches Intervals. John Thompson’s FIFTY SECOND GRADE ETUDES — Etudes from Bertini, Czerny, Duvernoy, Heller, etc., carefully selected and adapted for use in Second Grade. John Thompson’s TUNEFUL TECHNIC — Technical figures from recognized masters of etude-writing have been taken and woven into or around well-known tunes — thus giving the pupil the benefit of the original exercise PLUS the pleasure of playing favorite airs. Alla Breve You have already learned that this sign (C) means four-four. That is, there will be four counts to each measure and one count to each quarter note. But when you see the same sign used with a line through it like this (C), it is called alla breve and means there will be only TWO counts to the measure and one count to each HALF NOTE. The alla breve sign does not change the rhythmical divisions in the least. It simply means the piece will be played twice as fast as though it were written in Four-Four and thus it would be uncomfortable to count or beat four times per measure. By cutting the counting in half (one count to each half note) it makes the piece sound as though it were written in Two-Four. Written As it sounds You will encounter many examples with the alla breve sign. When you do, learn them first in ordinary four-four, then as speed develops, you can begin counting two to each measure — the first count falling on ONE and the second count on what would ordinarily be THREE, the third count. Allegro animato The Midget Racer Copyright, MCMLVI, by The Willis Music Co. International Copyright Secured Printed in U.S.A. poco rit. D.S. al Fine W.M.Co. 7373 The following is a characteristic figure used often in BOOGIE WOOGIE. It cannot be called very musical but for some strange reason, many people seem to like it. It is well to have a few such examples in your repertoire so that when you go to a party and are asked to play, you need not sit back in a corner just because your pieces for the most part are looked upon by some as being the "long-haired" type. When learning it, practice it just as carefully as if it were a more conventional type of composition. You will at least get some excellent practice in passing over the left hand while the right hand plays chords both in "block" and broken form. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | |---|---|---|---| | A | B | C | D | | E | F | G | H | W.M.Co. 7878 Play this Minuet with light, staccato touch — being sure however to give plenty of resonance to the chords marked with the sostenuto sign, i.e., the little black line drawn over or under the chord. Be careful, too, to apply accents as marked. Keep the tempo rather strict throughout. Edvard Grieg was born in Bergen, Norway in 1843. After studying in Germany, he returned to Norway and devoted himself to the cause of National Norwegian music. At his death in 1916, fifty-seven governments sent official representatives to attend his funeral. The following piece employs a Triplet figure which requires the passing under of the Thumb to make a connection with the rest of the Phrase. This is a finger pattern often encountered in piano music and it should be learned and stored away along with scales, arpeggios and other figures that go into the making of a technical equipment. **On the Village Green** *Moderato* Pedal simile W.M.Co. 2373 Pedal simile W.M.Co. 7373 The following is an excerpt from the Opera "CARMEN," written by Georges Bizet, a French composer born in Paris, October 25, 1838. Habanera is a Spanish dance which really dates back to Africa. It was first imported into Cuba by negro slaves, was later modified somewhat and found its way into Spain. In this piece you will find several examples of a Triplet followed by two eighths. To perform this correctly, simply play three notes (evenly spaced) on the first count, and two notes (evenly spaced) on the second count.
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SCIENCE EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS FOR A COMPREHENSIVE JUNIOR HIGH SCIENCE PROGRAM by LARRY DEAN BARNES B. S., Kansas State Teachers College, 1962 445 A MASTER'S REPORT submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF SCIENCE College of Education KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 1966 Approved by: [Signature] Major Professor ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my major advisor, Dr. J. Harvey Littrell, Associate Professor of Education, for his valuable assistance in the preparation of this report. The assistance and encouragement given by my wife, Karen, made this report possible. # TABLE OF CONTENTS | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS | 1 | | Statement of the Problem | 1 | | Importance of the Study | 1 | | Definition of Terms | 2 | | Equipment | 2 | | Materials | 2 | | Junior High School | 3 | | THE NECESSITY OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS | | | FOR THE SCIENCE PROGRAM | 3 | | Teaching Quality Determines | | | Usefulness of Equipment | 4 | | PROCEDURES USED | 6 | | MASTER LISTS OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS | 7 | | List of Chemicals | 7 | | List of Equipment and Apparatus | 8 | | List of Glassware | 8 | | List of Expendables and Environmental Materials | 8 | | List of Models and Demonstration Equipment | 9 | | List of Charts and Maps | 9 | | SELECTING AND ACQUIRING SCIENCE EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS | 9 | | Section | Page | |----------------------------------------------|------| | Quality Desired | 11 | | When to Construct or Seek Locally | 12 | | Purchasing from Supply Houses | 13 | | Purchase Considerations of Selected Items | 14 | | SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS | 16 | | BIBLIOGRAPHY | 19 | | APPENDIX A | 22 | | APPENDIX B | 28 | | APPENDIX C | 38 | | APPENDIX D | 42 | | APPENDIX E | 48 | | APPENDIX F | 51 | THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS The successful science program needs adequate equipment. Schools have always had to face the problem of how best to spend available funds in every area. Many times an item which has little use is purchased because there is a lack of information about the relative importance of suggested items for the junior high school science program. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study was to provide master lists of science equipment and materials for a comprehensive junior high school science program. Importance of the Study The great increase in scientific knowledge and the great publicity given to science through the space program has pressed the schools to provide better science programs. Many schools were handicapped by the lack of funds for equipment necessary to implement new curriculums being developed for science.\(^1\) Title III of the National Defense Education Act has given virtually twice the funds to public schools to spend --- \(^1\)J. Graham Sullivan, "What and How Much Help Can Schools Derive from Provisions of the N. D. E. A.," *National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin*, 44:25, April, 1960. for permanent science equipment. Although lists of equipment eligible for purchase under this act have been provided, there are no directions in these lists of which to buy first, second, or third.\textsuperscript{2} Many studies have been conducted in the teaching of science. Most of these have concerned themselves with what is being done, and not with what ought to be done. The \textit{Encyclopedia of Educational Research} makes the following statement concerning the need for research in this area: Periodical literature includes a relatively large number of articles discussing various aspects of science facilities. Although many of these are sound treatments and apparently contain many excellent ideas which might be advantageously employed by the science teacher, in general they reflect the considered judgment and experiences of the writers rather than the objectively validated finding of the research.\textsuperscript{3} \textbf{Definition of Terms} \textit{Equipment}. Equipment was interpreted as those items needed for science demonstrations and experiments which are not consumed. It did not include equipment which has use outside of the science program. \textit{Materials}. In this study, materials was defined as \textsuperscript{2}Herbert A. Smith, "Purchases Under Title III of the N. D. E. A.," \textit{University of Kansas Bulletin of Education}, 16:3, May, 1962. \textsuperscript{3}Chester W. Harris (ed.), \textit{Encyclopedia of Educational Research} (third edition; New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960), p. 1227. those substances which are consumed in the demonstrations and experiments. Junior High School. As used in this study, junior high school means any school which satisfies the requirements for junior high schools as listed in the Kansas Secondary School Handbook.\(^4\) THE NECESSITY OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS FOR THE SCIENCE PROGRAM Excellent equipment is not the only requisite for a comprehensive science program. The program should also include well-prepared teachers, adequate texts, library resource materials, and audio-visual equipment and materials. The Council of State School Officers also includes, "a supply of appropriate materials, apparatus, and equipment."\(^5\) Speaking of materials Bach and Blackwood say, "Their chief purpose is to implant ideas in the minds of children and to help them understand scientific concepts."\(^6\) Not only should teachers be using equipment to do demonstrations and thereby enhance their teaching, but the --- \(^4\)Kansas State Board of Education, *Kansas Secondary School Handbook*, (Topeka: State Board of Education, 1961), pp. 13-16. \(^5\)Purchase Guide for Programs in Science, Mathematics, Modern Foreign Languages (Council of Chief State School Officers, Chicago: Ginn and Company, 1959), p. 252. \(^6\)H. A. Bach and A. C. Blackwood, *Science and the Modern High School* (New York: Dryden Press, 1956), p. 35. children also should have the opportunities to observe and describe the world around them, seek explanations, and make predictions.\textsuperscript{7} A comprehensive science program, then, does need equipment and materials. The purpose of this equipment and material is not for display, but for actual use in learning activities. They should find use in making a living science program with teacher demonstrations and student experiments. The main purpose of this study is not to convince the reader that there is a need for just any equipment. The purpose is to help teachers and administrators to know what to buy and collect. \textbf{Teaching Quality Determines Usefulness of Equipment} Although there is a need in the science program for equipment and materials, the quality of the program still depends ultimately on the teacher. Experienced educators, as well as the public, can confuse quantity of equipment with quality of education. The adding of equipment and materials will not guarantee desirable change and increase program effectiveness.\textsuperscript{8} The best equipment can be rendered useless by the \textsuperscript{7}Ibid., p. 47. \textsuperscript{8}W. C. Miller and A. L. Goldberg, "Important Side Effects of the N. D. E. A.," \textit{Education}, 85:106-11, October, 1964. teacher who does not use it or uses it only to entertain. Brandewein expresses this idea with these words. "Significant factors in a good science-learning activity are the teacher and the quality and kind of activities the pupils engage in each day."9 "The teacher, therefore, is to use materials as a path to an ultimate conclusion rather than as an end in themselves."10 --- 9 Paul F. Brandewein and others, *Teaching High School Science: A Book of Methods*, (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., 1958), p. 61. 10 Philip G. Johnson, "National Developments in Science Curriculum in Elementary and Junior High," *School Life*, 45:20, October, 1962. PROCEDURES USED Educational literature was searched for lists of equipment and materials considered important for the teaching of junior high school science. However, from the literature review, the researcher found only general directions concerning Title III purchases. As a source of information, the researcher analyzed three junior high school science series, to determine the materials needed in the teaching of these particular texts. Ten textbooks were analyzed: *You and Your Resources*, *You and Science*, and *The Physical World*, published by Harcourt, Brace, and World; *Modern Science 1*, *Modern Science 2*, *Modern Science 3*, and *Modern Earth Science*, published by Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson; and, *Basic Life Science*, *Basic Earth Science*, and, *Basic Physical Science*, published by the L. W. Singer Company. The three textbook series which were surveyed are from the list of recommended science textbooks for junior high school and ones which the researcher has used or will use in his science classes. A list of materials needed for each textbook series was compiled. From the three textbook series lists, a master list of all items found in any one of these separate lists was made. Items were then placed alphabetically in each of the sub-groups of equipment and materials with the supposition that the items considered necessary by all three textbook companies would be important for a comprehensive junior high school science program. MASTER LISTS OF EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS Master lists will be found in the Appendices. Appendix A includes the list of chemicals; Appendix B includes the list of equipment and apparatus; Appendix C includes the list of glassware; Appendix D the list of expendables and environmental materials; Appendix E the list of models and demonstration equipment; and, Appendix F the list of charts and maps. A total of 403 items were tallied. Little difference was noted in total number of items found in each series. The L. W. Singer Company included 291 items compared to 280 items for Harcourt, Brace, and World, and 268 for Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson. The Singer series stressed usage of expendable and environmental materials while the emphasis on chemistry and use of chemicals was stressed by Harcourt, Brace, and World. List of Chemicals Of the eighty-eight chemicals found in the three textbook series, Harcourt, Brace and World required sixty-four for their demonstrations and experiments. This compared to fifty-four items found in the Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson series. The L. W. Singer series included thirty-nine chemicals for the experiments in their texts. Of the eighty-eight chemicals found in the textbooks, twenty-one were included in all three series. **List of Equipment and Apparatus** Of the textbook series analyzed, 174 items of equipment and apparatus were found. The L. W. Singer Company included 118 items compared to 116 items for Harcourt, Brace, and World, and 115 items for Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson. Of the 174 items found in the textbooks, sixty-seven were common in all three series. **List of Glassware** There were twenty-eight items of glassware on the master list. The L. W. Singer series of texts listed twenty-four items. Harcourt, Brace, and World included twenty-one different items, and Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson included nineteen. Of the twenty-eight items of glassware found in the textbooks, fourteen were included in all three series. **List of Expendables and Environmental Materials** There were eighty-nine expendable items on the master list of expendables. The L. W. Singer series included eighty-six items for the teaching of their texts. This compared to fifty-six items for Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson, and fifty-five items for Harcourt, Brace, and World. The L. W. Singer Company called for a wider range of expendable materials, many of which could be found in the home. Of the eighty-nine expendable items found in the textbooks, forty-eight were common in all three series. **List of Models and Demonstration Equipment** The three series suggested eighteen different models and equipment for demonstration purposes. Each series called for the same items. **List of Charts and Maps** Maps and charts were necessary in all textbook series analyzed. There was no difference in the six charts and maps needed for the three series. **SELECTING AND ACQUIRING SCIENCE EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS** The lists of materials used in the three textbook series were compiled with the assumption that the items listed in the books had educational value or they would not have been included in the books. It would still be wise to evaluate again, before purchasing, the value of an item on purely educational criteria. Harry Milgrom developed a list of criteria of this nature for the elementary schools. This same list seems applicable in many aspects, to the junior high school. 1. Be real things, whenever possible, rather than representations of real things. 2. Be readily available in school, at home, or in the community. 3. Be easy for children and teachers to assemble and use. 4. Be safe for the youngsters to handle. In most situations, for example, plastic containers and tubing may be used in place of a similar glass material. 5. Be clearly visible to all concerned. 6. Help satisfy the natural urge of young people to probe and explore. 7. Help the pupils find answers to some of their questions about the world in which they live, through firsthand "doing" experiences. 8. Make the problem on hand more meaningful and be clearly related to it. 9. Help the children grow in their abilities to observe carefully, report their observations and make predictions based upon these observations. 10. Help the pupils develop initiative and resourcefulness in their approaches to problem solving. 11. Encourage the children to be bold in their use of new materials and techniques. 12. Simplify the complex, for better understanding of basic principles. 13. Be stimulating and challenging so that children will be eager to do more science work in school or at home. 14. Help develop the creative abilities of the youngsters through project planning and construction. 15. Enable the boys and girls to experience the thrill of making "discoveries". 16. Help the children grow in responsibility through experiences with cause and effect relationships. (If you neglect to water a plant it will die.) 17. Give the children the immense satisfaction of finding out that a tentative explanation is correct, or that a homemade device really works. 18. Help the youngsters learn to cope with new and unexpected situations. 19. Help the youngsters become more secure through knowing. 20. Bring to the boys and girls an appreciation of the beauty and rhythm of natural phenomena. 21. Help the children to learn to work together in planning and carrying out science activities. 22. Inspire the children to look forward to possible careers in science.\textsuperscript{11} \textbf{Quality Desired} There is a place in the science program for both the commercial, the improvised, and the free and inexpensive materials. There are still things that need to be considered before an item is acquired. First, the science program should determine the equipment and material needs; the equipment and materials should not determine the science program. Second, there are great differences in quality between items of the same name. Be sure to read specific descriptions and consider carefully the quality needed. Third, safety should be considered. Fourth, can the item be stored and distributed so that it is truly useful to the teacher and pupils?\textsuperscript{12} \textsuperscript{11}Harry Milgrom, "On What Bases Should Science Learning Materials be Selected on the Elementary Level?," \textit{Science Education}, 40:188-89, April, 1956. \textsuperscript{12}Albert Piltz, "Getting the Most from the Equipment Dollar," \textit{Instructor}, 73:49, January, 1964. When to Construct or Seek Locally In the master lists there are many items classified as environmental materials. These are materials that can be found in the homes of the children or in the community. In other sections of the master lists there is a number of items that may be found locally but should be collected and stored in the school if they meet the needs of the educational program. Teachers should not assume too quickly that they can acquire the item when they need it. The master lists compiled in this report are not intended to be all of the items necessary for a comprehensive science program, nor is it to be construed that all the items need to be purchased. Piltz reiterates this thought: There is clearly a place in the science program for both the commercial and improvised equipment. The value of each for its contribution to the educational process must be studied carefully and the determination to purchase or improvise can then be made in relation to program needs and the purposes to be achieved in the learning activities. 13 It is of value in the classroom to make simple equipment at times. Nurry states, "Exploring young minds need to create and design; growing muscles need to construct." He continues and directs that when this type of inaccurate equipment does not satisfy the inquisitive students, it is --- 13 Albert Piltz, "Getting the Most from the Equipment Dollar," *Instructor*, 73:49, January, 1964. at this point that "real" science equipment should be introduced. **Purchasing from Supply Houses** There is a need for both environmental or constructed materials and purchased materials from science supply houses. There are two considerations in favor of purchased materials. 1. Could the teacher use his time more effectively in class preparation than shopping the area for science materials? 2. Could purchased equipment provide a more science-like experience?15 Podendorf condensed the arguments on the first of these considerations when he stated: Much has been said on the pros and cons of having teachers and pupils design and improvise their own equipment. The practice does encourage teachers and pupils to be creative. More often, perhaps, it results in a classroom program that uses no equipment. It seems unreasonable to expect teachers to spend the little free time they have making equipment for science class. It is most discouraging for the teacher who has invested precious hours making equipment to find when the time comes to use it, that it does not work....It seems more appropriate to the purpose of science programs for the teacher to be able to demonstrate with a piece of equipment in which both teacher and pupils can take pride.16 --- 14 Bernard E. Nurry, "Science Equipment-Make It or Buy It?," *Pennsylvania School Journal*, 109:329, April, 1961. 15 Walter A. Thurber and Alfred T. Collette, *Teaching Science in Today's Secondary School* (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1959), p. 195. 16 Illa E. Podendorf, "State of the Sciences," *School Life*, 59:309, March, 1959. In defense of the second consideration given above, The Council of State School Officers say that although teachers and pupils can make and gather from local sources many science materials, they should have the opportunity of using carefully made accurate instruments and need these instruments to have science-like experiences for the children.\textsuperscript{17} \textbf{Purchase Considerations of Selected Items} The master lists could not specify the amount of a certain item to purchase. This must be determined by each school individually. Some items, however, that should be purchased in larger quantities than one are magnets, dry cells, bells, switches, beakers, flasks, test tubes, test tube clamps, evaporating dishes, stirring rods and tuning forks. "Such purchasing can make the differences between a satisfying amount of first-hand experience and little to no first-hand experience."\textsuperscript{18} Although audio-visual equipment was excluded from the master lists, one piece of audio-visual equipment, the micro-projector, was included since it is used exclusively in the science program. A microscope needs to be refocused by each \textsuperscript{17}Purchase Guide for Programs in Science, Mathematics, Modern Foreign Languages (Council of Chief State School Officers. Chicago: Ginn and Company, 1959), p. 252. \textsuperscript{18}Podendorf, \textit{loc. cit.} child, and each child needs a microscope to use, but the microprojector can project a specimen in focus for the entire class. The teacher can also point to particular features of the specimen being sure that the student will note the desired feature of the specimen.\textsuperscript{19} After reviewing the master lists, one might consider the purchase of a science kit or portable science laboratory the answer to acquiring those items most recommended. Piltz warns that the cost is likely to be more if the kit or portable laboratory is purchased than if the same items were purchased individually. Other factors to consider are specifications, quality, serviceability, maintenance, replacement needs, and extent of use.\textsuperscript{20} \textsuperscript{19}Albert Piltz, \textit{Science Equipment and Materials for Schools—Suggestions for Supervisors, Administrators, and Teachers}, United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, OE 29029 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1961), pp. 23-24. \textsuperscript{20}Albert Piltz, "Getting the Most from the Equipment Dollar," \textit{Instructor}, 73:80, January, 1964. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS The literature review showed that good science teaching must include firsthand experiences for the students and that these firsthand experiences for the student depended upon adequate science equipment and materials. What was adequate depended upon the scope and content of the science program in the individual school and the capabilities of the teachers. As lists of equipment were not available for the junior high school, the researcher analyzed three textbook series, which included ten science textbooks, to determine the materials needed in the teaching of these particular texts. The chief purpose then was to reduce ten such lists to single master lists of sub-groups of equipment and materials. A total of 403 items were tallied. Little difference was noted in total number of items found in each series. The L. W. Singer Company included 291 items compared to 280 items for Harcourt, Brace, and World, and 268 for Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson. The Singer series stressed usage of expendable and environmental materials while the emphasis on chemistry and use of chemicals was stressed by Harcourt, Brace, and World. Any purchase by a school should be such that it helps carry out the objectives of the science curriculum. The curriculum should not be molded to fit the equipment. There is a place for both improvised and purchased materials. The particular teacher must determine which is more appropriate. In the use of the master lists it is recommended that a school evaluate its present science equipment and materials in reference to those items in each division which were found to be most important. In any one year the purchase of materials should probably provide some new materials from each area. The size of the school, the amount of equipment and materials already in the school, the value of the science program in the eyes of the community, the size of the science budget, and other factors will determine which items the school acquires of the items on the master lists. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Bach, H. A. and A. C. Blackwood. *Science and the Modern High School*. New York: Dryden Press, 1956. Brandewein, Paul F., and others. *Teaching High School Science: A Book of Methods*. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., 1958. Harris, Chester W. (ed.). *Encyclopedia of Educational Research*. Third Edition. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960. Johnson, Philip G. "National Developments in Science Curriculum in Elementary and Junior High," *School Life*, 45:20-27, October, 1962. Kansas State Board of Education. *Certificate Handbook*. Topeka: State Board of Education, 1964. Milgrom, Harry. "On What Bases Should Science Learning Materials be Selected on the Elementary Level?" *Science Education*, 40:188-89, April, 1956. Miller, W. C. and A. L. Goldberg. "Important Side Effects of the N. D. E. A.," *Education*, 85:106-11, October, 1964. Nurry, Bernard E. "Science Equipment-Make It or Buy It" *Pennsylvania School Journal*, 109:329, April, 1961. Piltz, Albert. "Getting the Most from the Equipment Dollar," *Instructor*, 73:49, January, 1964. *Science Equipment and Materials for Schools-Suggestions for Supervisors, Administrators, and Teachers*. United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, OE 29029. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1961. Podendorf, Illa E. "State of the Sciences," *School Life*, 59:309, March, 1959. *Purchase Guide for Programs in Science, Mathematics, Modern Foreign Languages*. Council of Chief State School Officers. Chicago: Ginn and Company, 1959. Richardson, John R. *Science Teaching in Secondary Schools*. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1957. Smith, Herbert Á. "Purchases Under Title III of N. D. E. A.," *University of Kansas Bulletin of Education*, 16:3, May, 1962. Sullivan, J. Graham. "What and How Much Help Can Schools Derive from Provisions of the N. D. E. A.," *National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin*, 44:25, April, 1960. Thurber, Walter A. and Alfred T. Collette. *Teaching Science in Today's Secondary School*. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1959. Washton, Nathan S. *Science Teaching in the Secondary Schools*. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1961. APPENDIX A. List of Chemicals MASTER LIST OF CHEMICALS The following list is a complete list of all chemicals as found in the lists combined. As the source of information, the researcher analyzed three junior high school science series, to determine the chemicals needed in the teaching of their particular texts. A list of chemicals needed for each textbook series was compiled. From the three textbook series lists, a master list of all items found in any one of these separate lists was made. Of the eighty-eight chemicals found in the three textbook series, Harcourt, Brace and World required sixty-four for their demonstrations and experiments. This compared to fifty-four items found in the Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson series. The L. W. Singer series included thirty-nine chemicals for the experiments in their texts. Of the eighty-eight chemicals found in the textbooks, twenty-one were included in all three series. The column headed Number refers to the textbook company list on which the item was found. The key used for this list was: 1. Harcourt, Brace, and World. 2. Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson. 3. The L. W. Singer Company. For example, the numbers following the item, Acid, acetic, are 1, 2, 3, which indicates that all three of the textbook companies considered this item as useful or needed in a junior high school science program. | List of Chemicals | Number | |------------------------------------|--------| | Acid, Acetic | 1, 2, 3| | Acid, boric | 3 | | Acid, gibberellic | 3 | | Acid, hydrochloric | 1, 2, 3| | Acid, nitric | 1, 2, 3| | Acid, stearic | 1 | | Acid, sulfuric | 1, 2, 3| | Agar Agar | 1, 3 | | Alcohol, denatured | 1, 2, 3| | Alum, sodium | 2 | | Ammonia, household | 1, 2, 3| | Ammonium chloride | 1, 3 | | Ammonium dichromate | 1 | | Ammonium hydroxide | 1, 2 | | Baking soda | 1, 2, 3| | Barium carbonate | 3 | | Beeswax | 2 | | Benzene | 2 | | Bromothymol blue | 1, 3 | | Borax, powdered | 1, 2 | | Calcium carbide | 3 | | Substance | Number | |---------------------------------|--------| | Calcium chloride | 1 | | Calcium hydroxide | 1,2 | | Calcium oxide | 2 | | Canadian balsam | 1 | | Carbon disulfide | 2 | | Carbon tetrachloride | 1,2 | | Chalk | 1,2,3 | | Charcoal | 1,2,3 | | Chlorinated lime | 2 | | Copper chloride | 1 | | Copper sulfate | 1,2,3 | | Cornstarch | 1,2,3 | | Dextrose | 1,2 | | Drier, paint | 2 | | Ether, ethyl | 1,2,3 | | Ferric ammonium citrate | 1 | | Ferric chloride | 1 | | Ferric oxide | 2 | | Ferrous sulfate | 1 | | Hydrogen peroxide | 1,2,3 | | Iodine crystals | 1,2,3 | | Linseed oil | 2 | | Litmus paper, red, blue, neutral| 1,2,3 | | Lye | 1,2 | | Substance | Number | |---------------------------|--------| | Magnesium hydroxide | 2 | | Magnesium sulfate | 2,3 | | Manganese dioxide | 1,2 | | Marble chips | 1,2 | | Mercuric nitrate | 1 | | Mercuric oxide | 1 | | Mercury | 1,2,3 | | Methylene blue | 1, 3 | | Mica crystals | 1 | | Phenolphthalein | 1,2 | | Pitchblende | 1,2,3 | | Phosphorus-32 | 1, 3 | | Potassium bromide | 1, 3 | | Potassium chlorate | 1, 3 | | Potassium dichromate | 1 | | Potassium ferricyanide | 1 | | Potassium hydroxide | 1,2 | | Potassium iodide | 1,2 | | Potassium nitrate | 2,3 | | Potassium permanganate | 1 | | Quartz crystals | 1,2,3 | | Quicklime | 1,2 | | Rock salt | 1,2,3 | | Silver iodide | 3 | | Substance | Number | |---------------------------|--------| | Silver nitrate | 1, 3 | | Sodium carbonate | 2 | | Sodium citrate | 2 | | Sodium chloride | 1, 2, 3| | Sodium hydroxide | 1, 2 | | Sodium nitrate | 2 | | Sodium oleate | 1 | | Sodium phosphate | 1, 2 | | Sodium thiosulfate | 1, 2 | | Spermaceti | 2 | | Stearin | 3 | | Strontium oxalate | 3 | | Sulphur | 1, 2, 3| | Talc | 1, 3 | | Trisodium phosphate | 1 | | Turpentine | 2 | | Zinc oxide | 1, 2 | | Zinc stearate | 1 | | Zinc sulfate | 1 | APPENDIX B. List of Equipment and Apparatus MASTER LIST OF EQUIPMENT AND APPARATUS The following list is a complete list of all equipment and apparatus as found in the lists combined. As the source of information, the researcher analyzed three junior high school science series, to determine the equipment and apparatus needed in the teaching of their particular texts. A list of equipment and apparatus needed for each textbook series was compiled. From the three textbook series lists, a master list of all items found in any one of these separate lists was made. Of the textbook series analyzed, 174 items of equipment and apparatus were found. The L. W. Singer Company included 118 items compared to 116 items for Harcourt, Brace, and World, and 115 items for Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson. Of the 174 items found in the textbooks, sixty-seven were common in all three series. The column headed Number refers to the textbook company list on which the item was found. The key used for this list was: 1. Harcourt, Brace, and World. 2. Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson. 3. The L. W. Singer Company. For example, the numbers following the item, Alcohol burner, are 1, 2, 3, which indicates that all three of the textbook companies considered this item as useful or needed in a junior high school science program. | List of Equipment and Apparatus | Number | |---------------------------------|--------| | Alcohol burner | 1,2,3 | | Ammeter | 1,2,3 | | Anemometer | 1,2,3 | | Animal cage | 1,3 | | Aquarium, with apparatus | 1,2,3 | | Asbestos mat | 1,2,3 | | Asbestos sheet | 1,2,3 | | Balance, spring | 1,2,3 | | Ball and Ring apparatus | 1,2,3 | | Balloons | 1,2,3 | | Barometer, aneroid | 1,2,3 | | Barometer, mercury | 1,2,3 | | Basketball | 1 | | Bell, doorbell | 1,2,3 | | Brush for painting | 3 | | Brush, test tube | 1,2 | | Bunsen burner | 1,2,3 | | Buzzer | 1,2,3 | | Camera | 1,2,3 | | Can opener | 3 | | Cartesian diver | 2 | | Catskin | 1,2 | | Item Description | Number | |------------------------------------------|--------| | Clamp, burette, round jaws | 1,2,3 | | Clamp, burette v and flat jaws | 1,2,3 | | Clamp, C, iron | 1,2 | | Clamp, condenser, iron | 3 | | Clamp for meterstick | 3 | | Clamp holder | 1,2 | | Clamp, iron, for trip | 3 | | Clamp, Mohr's pinchcock | 1,2,3 | | Clamp, ring stand | 1,2,3 | | Clamp, screw compression | 1,2 | | Clamp, test tube | 1,2,3 | | Cloud apparatus | 1,2 | | Coil spring | 1,2,3 | | Color disk with motor | 2 | | Compass | 1,2,3 | | Compound bar | 1,2,3 | | Conductometer | 1,2 | | Convection apparatus | 1,2,3 | | Corks, assorted | 1,2,3 | | Corks, borer set | 1,2 | | Corks, stoppers | 3 | | Crucibles | 1,2 | | Dissecting pan | 1,3 | | Dissecting set | 1,3 | | Item | Number | |-------------------------------------------|--------| | Electrolysis apparatus | 1,2,3 | | Electroscope | 1 | | Exhaust pump | 1,2 | | Exposure meter | 1 | | File | 1,2 | | Filter paper | 1,2,3 | | Force pump | 1,2 | | Forceps | 2,3 | | Friction pad, flannel | 1,2 | | Friction pad, silk | 1,2,3 | | Friction rod, glass | 1,2,3 | | Friction rod, lucite | 1,2 | | Friction rod, rubber | 1,2,3 | | Galvanometer | 3 | | Gauze, iron, asbestos | 1,2,3 | | Geologists pick | 2 | | Germinating box | 3 | | Globe | 1,2,3 | | Globe, Hall tellurian | 2,3 | | Gyroscope | 1,2,3 | | Holder lens for meterstick | 3 | | Holder screen for meterstick | 3 | | Hot plate | 1, 3 | | Hydrometer, universal | 2,3 | | Item | Number | |-----------------------------|--------| | Hygrometer | 1,2 | | Inclined plane | 1,2,3 | | Incubator | 1,2 | | Insect cage | 2,3 | | Insect net | 2,3 | | Lamp, 6 volt | 1,2 | | Lamp, 25 watt | 1,2 | | Lamp, chimney | 1,2,3 | | Lamp, ultraviolet | 1,3 | | Lamps, 1.3 v.-6 amp. | 1 | | Lift pump | 2 | | Light box | 3 | | Light sockets, miniature | 3 | | Lighter, gas friction | 2 | | Lodestone | 1 | | Magnet, bar alnico | 1,2,3 | | Magnet, bar steel | 1,2,3 | | Magnet, horseshoe alnico | 3 | | Magnet, horseshoe steel | 1,2,3 | | Magnet, wobbly bar | 3 | | Magnifier, tripod | 1,2,3 | | Medicine dropper | 1,2,3 | | Meter stick | 1,2,3 | | Microscope | 1,2,3 | | Item Description | Number | |------------------------------------------|--------| | Mirror, set | 1,2,3 | | Mortar and Pestle, porcelain | 3 | | Motor, battery | 1,2 | | Motor, St. Louis | 1,2,3 | | Needles | 1,2,3 | | Pan, enamel | 3 | | Pins, dissecting | 3 | | Pins, straight | 3 | | Pith balls | 1,2,3 | | Pliers | 1,2,3 | | Polaroid material | 1 | | Porcelain streak plates | 2 | | Prism, set | 1,2,3 | | Protractor | 3 | | Pulley, double sheave | 1,2 | | Pulley, single sheave | 1,2 | | Radio | 3 | | Receptacle, lamp socket | 1,2 | | Resistor, .5 to 1 megohm | 2 | | Rheostat | 2,3 | | Ring stand | 1,2,3 | | Ripple tank | 3 | | Rod, carbon | 3 | | Rubber stoppers | 1,2,3 | | Rubber tubing, assorted | 1,2,3 | | Item | Number | |-------------------------------------------|--------| | Sand bath, 6 inch | 3 | | Screw driver, large | 1,2,3 | | Screw driver, small | 1,2,3 | | Spark coil | 3 | | Spatula, steel | 3 | | Spoon, burning | 3 | | Spoon, deflagrating, brass | 1,2 | | Steam boiler, with fittings | 3 | | Stop watch | 3 | | Stroboscope | 3 | | Support ring, 3 inch | 1,2,3 | | Support ring, 4 inch | 1,2 | | Support ring, 5 inch | 2 | | Switch knife, double pole | 1,2,3 | | Switch knife, single pole | 1,2,3 | | Telegraph key | 1,2,3 | | Telegraph sounder | 1,2,3 | | Telephone receiver | 2 | | Telephone transmitter | 2 | | Telescope | 1,2,3 | | Test tube rack | 1,2 | | Thermometer, alcohol | 1,3 | | Thermometer, cooking | 2 | | Thermometer, double scale | 1,2,3 | | Tongs | 1,2,3 | | Item Description | Number | |----------------------------------------|--------| | Trap, steam | 3 | | Transformer | 1,2 | | Tray, enamel | 3 | | Triangle with pipestem | 1 | | Pripod, iron | 3 | | Trough, pneumatic | 1,2,3 | | Tube 6H6 | 1 | | Tube, ignition | 2 | | Tumbler | 3 | | Tuning Fork, set | 1,2,3 | | Vacuum plate | 1, 3 | | Vacuum pump | 1, 3 | | Voltmeter | 1,2,3 | | Weight holders | 3 | | Weights (0-500 g.) | 1,2 | | Weights, iron, 1 lb. | 3 | | Weights, metric (1 g.-200 g.) | 3 | | Weights, slotted, metric (10 g.-500) | 2,3 | | Wheeled car | 1,2,3 | | Wire annunciator | 1,2 | | Wire, bell | 1,2,3 | | Wire, gauze | 1,2,3 | | Wire, iron no. 18 | 1 | | Wire, iron no. 28 | 1 | | Wire, copper no. 18 | 3 | | Wire, copper no. 20 | 3 | |---------------------|---| | Wire, platinum | 1,2 | | Wire, resistance | 1,2,3 | APPENDIX C. List of Glassware MASTER LIST OF GLASSWARE The following list is a complete list of all glassware as found in the lists combined. As the source of information, the researcher analyzed three junior high school science series, to determine the glassware needed in the teaching of their particular texts. A list of glassware needed for each textbook series was compiled. From the three textbook series lists, a master list of all items found in any one of these separate lists was made. There were twenty-eight items of glassware on the master list. The L. W. Singer series listed twenty-four items in their texts. Harcourt, Brace, and World included twenty-one different items, and Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson included nineteen. Of the twenty-eight items of glassware found in the textbooks, fourteen were included in all three series. The column headed Number refers to the textbook company list on which the item was found. The key used for this list was: 1. Harcourt, Brace, and World. 2. Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson. 3. The L. W. Singer Company. For example, the numbers following the item, beakers, assorted, are 1, 2, 3, which indicated that all three of the textbook companies considered this item as useful or needed in a junior high school science program. | List of Glassware | Number | |-----------------------------------------|--------| | Adapter, glass bent | 3 | | Beakers, Pyrex, assorted | 1,2,3 | | Bottles, 8oz. W.M. | 2,3 | | Bottles, Dropping | 2 | | Bottles, reagent | 2,3 | | Bottle, vacuum | 1,2,3 | | Cylinder, graduate 100 ml. | 1,2,3 | | Cylinder, graduate 50 ml. | 1,3 | | Condenser, glass 16" | 3 | | Condenser, glass 24" | 3 | | Cover Slips | 1 | | Dish, petri, assorted sizes | 1,2,3 | | Dish, evaporating | 1,2,3 | | Flask, Erlen., Pyrex, assorted sizes | 1,2,3 | | Flask, Florence, Pyrex, assorted sizes | 1,2,3 | | Funnels, Pyrex | 1,2,3 | | Funnel tube, thistle | 1,2,3 | | Glass marbles | 3 | | Glass plates | 1,2,3 | | Glass slides | 1,3 | | Glass stirring rods | 1,2,3 | | Item | Number | |-------------------------------------------|--------| | Glass tubing, barometer | 1, 3 | | Glass tubing, assorted | 1,2,3 | | Jar, battery | 1,2,3 | | Jar, bell | 1, 3 | | Tube connecting "T", glass | 2 | | Tube connecting "Y", glass | 1,2 | | Test tubes, Pyrex, assorted | 1,2,3 | | Test tubes, soft glass | 1,2 | | Watchglass | 1, 3 | APPENDIX D. List of Expendables and Environmental Materials MASTER LIST OF EXPENDABLE AND ENVIRONMENTAL MATERIALS The following list is a complete list of all expendable and environmental materials, as found in the lists combined. As the source of information, the researcher analyzed three junior high school science series, to determine the expendable and environmental materials needed in the teaching of their particular texts. A list of expendable and environmental materials needed for each textbook series was compiled. From the three textbook series lists, a master list of all items found in any one of these separate lists was made. There were eighty-nine expendable and environmental items on the master list. The L. W. Singer series included eighty-six items for the teaching of their texts. This compared to fifty-six items for Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson, and fifty-five items for Harcourt, Brace, and World. The L. W. Singer series called for a wider range of expendable materials, many of which could be found in the home. Of the eighty-nine expendable items found in the textbooks, forty-eight were common in all three series. The column headed Number refers to the textbook company list on which the item was found. The key used for this list was: 1. Harcourt, Brace and World. 2. Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson. 3. The L. W. Singer Company. For example, the numbers following the item, Absorbent cotton, are 1, 2, 3, which indicated that all three of the textbook companies considered this item as useful or needed in a junior high school science program. List of Expendable and Environmental Materials | Material | Number | |---------------------------------|--------| | Absorbent cotton | 1,2,3 | | Airplane cement | 3 | | Apples | 3 | | Battery, 90 v. | 1,2,3 | | Battery, storage, 6 v. | 1,2,3 | | Blotters | 3 | | Black water paint | 3 | | Blueprint paper | 2,3 | | Broom straws | 1,2,3 | | Candles | 1,2,3 | | Cardboard Boxes | 1,2,3 | | Cellophane tape | 3 | | Cheese | 1,2,3 | | Chocolate bar | 1,2,3 | | Cloth, cheese | 1,2,3 | | Cloth, black | 1,2,3 | | Item | Number | |-----------------------|--------| | Clover | 3 | | Coal | 1,2,3 | | Coleus | 1, 3 | | Cord, cotton | 1,2,3 | | Drinking staws | 1, 3 | | Dry cell | 1,2,3 | | Dry ice | 2,3 | | Eggs, raw | 1,2,3 | | Eggs, silkworm | 3 | | Elodea leaves | 1,2,3 | | Film sheet | 1,2,3 | | Fish food | 1,2,3 | | Food coloring | 1, 3 | | Gasoline | 2 | | Gelatin | 1, 3 | | Glitter | 3 | | Grapefruits | 1,2,3 | | Gravel | 1,2,3 | | Ground beef | 1,2,3 | | Houseflies | 3 | | Homogenized milk | 1,2,3 | | Ice | 1,2,3 | | Ink | 1,2,3 | | Incense | 3 | | Item | Number | |-----------------------------|--------| | Lycopodium | 1, 3 | | Light bulbs | 1,2,3 | | Meat, uncooked | 1,2,3 | | Mulberry leaves | 3 | | Nails | 1,2,3 | | Onion skins | 1,2,3 | | Oranges | 1,2,3 | | Paper bags | 3 | | Paper towels | 1,2,3 | | Plaster of Paris | 3 | | Plastic tubing | 1,2,3 | | Pineapple juice | 1,2,3 | | Plants, bean slips | 2,3 | | Plants, castor beans | 3 | | Plants, nasturium slips | 3 | | Plants, petunias | 2,3 | | Plants, sunflowers | 3 | | Plants, tomatoe slips | 2,3 | | Rain water | 3 | | Rubber bands | 1,2,3 | | Sand, coarse and fine | 1,2,3 | | Sand paper | 2 | | Saran Wrap | 3 | | Seedlings, bean | 1,2,3 | | Item | Number | |-----------------------------|--------| | Seeds, beans or peas | 1, 3 | | Seeds, radishes | 1, 3 | | Seeds, rice | 1,2,3 | | Seeds, wheat | 3 | | Silk | 3 | | Silkworm larvae | 3 | | Silkworm moths, adult | 3 | | Soil, bog | 1,2,3 | | Soil, garden | 1,2,3 | | Soil, swamp | 1,2,3 | | Spinach leaves | 3 | | Sugar | 1,2,3 | | String | 1,2,3 | | Syrup | 1,2,3 | | Tissue paper | 3 | | Timothy hay | 1,2,3 | | Tongue depressors | 1,2,3 | | Toothpicks | 1,2,3 | | Toothpaste | 2,3 | | Vinegar | 1,2,3 | | Wood splints | 1,2,3 | | Wooden matches | 1,2,3 | | Wrapping twine | 3 | | Yeast | 1,2,3 | APPENDIX E. List of Models and Demonstration Equipment MASTER LIST OF MODELS AND DEMONSTRATION EQUIPMENT The following list is a complete list of all models and demonstration equipment as found in the lists combined. As the source of information, the researcher analyzed three junior high school science series, to determine the models and demonstration equipment needed in the teaching of their particular texts. A list of models and demonstration equipment needed for each textbook series was compiled. From the three textbook series lists, a master list of all items found in any one of these separate lists was made. The three series suggested eighteen different models and equipment for demonstration purposes. Each series called for the same items. The column headed Number refers to the textbook company list on which the item was found. The key used for this list was: 1. Harcourt, Brace, and World. 2. Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson. 3. The L. W. Singer Company. For example, the numbers following the item, demonstration electromagnet, are 1, 2, 3, which indicated that all three of the textbook companies considered this item as useful or needed in a junior high school science program. | List of Models and Demonstration Equipment | Number | |------------------------------------------|--------| | Demonstration electromagnet | 1,2,3 | | Demonstration generator | 1,2,3 | | Demonstration steam engine | 1,2,3 | | Distillation apparatus | 1,2,3 | | Lens, set for demonstration | 1,2,3 | | Metals, demonstration set | 1,2,3 | | Model, airplane | 1,2,3 | | Model, diesel engine | 1,2,3 | | Model, ear | 1,2,3 | | Model, eye | 1,2,3 | | Model, flower | 1,2,3 | | Model, force pump | 1,2,3 | | Model, gasoline engine | 1,2,3 | | Model, human skeleton | 1,2,3 | | Model, leaf | 1,2,3 | | Model, lift pump | 1,2,3 | | Model, simple machines | 1,2,3 | APPENDIX F. List of Charts and Maps MASTER LIST OF CHARTS AND MAPS The following list is a complete list of all charts and maps as found in the lists combined. As the source of information, the researcher analyzed three junior high school science series, to determine the charts and maps needed in the teaching of their particular texts. A list of charts and maps needed for each textbook series was compiled. From the three textbook series lists, a master list of all items found in any one of these separate lists was made. Maps and charts were included in all textbook series analyzed. There was no difference in the six charts and maps needed for the three series. The column headed Number refers to the textbook company list on which the item was found. The key used for this list was: 1. Harcourt, Brace, and World. 2. Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson. 3. The L. W. Singer Company. For example, the numbers following the item, chart, astronomy, are 1, 2, 3, which indicates that all three of the textbook companies considered this item as useful or needed in a junior high school science program. | List of Charts and Maps | Number | |-----------------------------------------------|--------| | Chart, astronomy | 1,2,3 | | Chart, elements | 1,2,3 | | Chart, General Science | 1,2,3 | | Chart, Geology, with set of minerals | 1,2,3 | | Map, U. S. Relief | 1,2,3 | | Map, U. S. weather, complete set | 1,2,3 | SCIENCE EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS FOR A COMPREHENSIVE JUNIOR HIGH SCIENCE PROGRAM by LARRY DEAN BARNES B. S., Kansas State Teachers College, 1962 AN ABSTRACT OF A MASTER'S REPORT submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF SCIENCE College of Education KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 1966 The purpose of this study was to provide master lists of science equipment and materials for a comprehensive junior high school program. Three junior high school science series were analyzed to determine the equipment and materials needed in teaching when these particular texts are used. A list of materials needed for each textbook series was compiled. From the three textbook series lists, a master list of all items found in any one of these separate lists was made. Items were then placed alphabetically in each of the sub-groups of equipment and materials with the supposition that the items considered necessary by all three textbook companies would be important for a comprehensive junior high school science program. A total of 403 items were tallied. Little difference was noted in total number of items found in each textbook series. The L. W. Singer Company included 291 items compared to 280 items for Harcourt, Brace, and World, and 268 items for Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson. The Singer series stressed usage of expendable and environmental materials, while the emphasis on chemistry and use of chemicals was stressed by Harcourt, Brace, and World. Holt, Rinehart, and Wilson stressed each of the sub-groups equally. The researcher assumed that items appearing on all of the lists should be purchased first. Each school would have to evaluate its present equipment and materials as compared with the master lists and then make judgments concerning purchases. No purchase should be made if it does not fit the objectives of the science curriculum of the school. It was noted that the usefulness of any piece of science equipment depends ultimately on the teacher. There is still a place for both purchased and improvised materials. The following is a list of the most common types of errors that can occur in a database: 1. **Data Entry Errors**: These occur when data is entered incorrectly, such as typing the wrong value or entering data in the wrong format. 2. **Data Integrity Errors**: These occur when the data in the database does not meet certain rules or constraints, such as a primary key being duplicated or a foreign key not matching any existing values. 3. **Concurrency Errors**: These occur when multiple users try to access and modify the same data at the same time, leading to conflicts and inconsistencies. 4. **Logical Errors**: These occur when the logic used to process the data is incorrect, leading to incorrect results or unexpected behavior. 5. **Physical Errors**: These occur when there are problems with the physical storage of the data, such as disk failures or corruption of the database files. 6. **Security Errors**: These occur when unauthorized users gain access to the database or when sensitive data is exposed. 7. **Performance Errors**: These occur when the database is unable to handle the load or when queries take too long to execute. 8. **Backup and Recovery Errors**: These occur when backup procedures fail or when recovery from a disaster is not possible. 9. **User Interface Errors**: These occur when the user interface is not intuitive or when it is difficult for users to navigate the database. 10. **Application Integration Errors**: These occur when different applications that use the database do not communicate properly or when they do not share data correctly. To prevent these errors, it is important to implement proper data validation, error handling, and testing procedures. It is also important to regularly back up the database and to have a plan in place for recovering from disasters.
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## CONTENTS | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | I. Comparative Description of Provisions | | | A. Grade oil windfall profit tax | 1 | | 1. Tier one oil | 2 | | 2. Tier two oil | 2 | | 3. Tier three oil | 3 | | 4. North Slope Alaskan oil | 3 | | 5. Newly discovered oil | 3 | | 6. Heavy oil | 4 | | 7. Incremental tertiary oil | 4 | | 8. Severance tax deduction | 7 | | 9. Independent producers | 8 | | 10. Enforced by State and local governments | 9 | | 11. Exemptions for certain kinds of taxpayers | 9 | | 12. Net income limitation | 9 | | 13. Production payments | 9 | | 14. Administrative provisions | 11 | | 15. Tax enforcement | 11 | | 16. Property transfers | 11 | | 17. Tax Court jurisdiction | 12 | | 18. Determination of tax | 12 | | 19. Sheltering and windfall tax | 12 | | B. Residential energy tax credits | 13 | | 20. General provisions relating to residential energy credits | 13 | | 21. Energy conservation expenditures | 14 | | 22. Credit for renewable energy source expenditures | 15 | | 23. Residential passive solar tax credit | 16 | | C. Business energy tax incentives | 17 | | 24. Solar or wind energy property | 17 | | 25. Geothermal equipment | 17 | | 26. Ocean thermal equipment | 18 | | 27. Small scale hydroelectric facilities | 18 | | 28. Cogeneration equipment | 19 | | 29. Specially defined energy property | 19 | | 30. Petroleum coke and petroleum pitch | 20 | | 31. Coke and coke gas equipment | 21 | | 32. Biomass property | 21 | | 33. Regular investment credit for energy property | 22 | | 34. Photovoltaic property | 22 | | 35. Vanpooling | 23 | | 36. Intercity Buses | 23 | | 37. Fuel efficient aerodynamic equipment for trucks | 23 | | 38. Affirmative incentives | 24 | | 39. Credit for purchase of qualified electric motor vehicles | 24 | | 40. Alternative energy production credit | 25 | | Alcohol fuels | 27 | | 41. Alcohol fuels | 27 | | Tax exempt industrial development bonds | 30 | | 42. Exemption for interest on IDBs for solid waste disposal facilities | 30 | | 43. Exemption for interest on IDBs for hydroelectric facilities | 32 | | 44. Exemption for interest on IDBs for renewable energy property | 34 | | 45. Exemption for interest on IDBs for cogeneration property | 34 | | Other business energy tax incentives | 36 | | 46. Tax credit for utility companies | 36 | | 47. Credit to public utilities suffering from reduced revenues attributable to certain federally funded residential energy efficiency programs | 36 | | D. Lower income energy assistance | 37 | | 48. Low-income energy assistance | 37 | | 49. Tax credit for users of residential energy | 40 | | E. Trust funds and use of windfall tax revenues | 42 | | 50. Establishment of trust fund | 42 | | 51. Reuse of windfall tax revenues for certain railroad freight transportation uses | 42 | | F. Other tax provisions | 43 | | 52. Repeal of carryover basis provisions | 43 | | 53. Exclusion of interest and dividend income | 44 | | 54. Involuntary liquidation of LIFO inventory | 45 | | 55. Recognition of inventory profits on certain liquidations | 45 | | G. Oil imports and other provisions | 46 | | 56. Oil imports | 46 | | 57. Information reports | 46 | | 58. Report by National Academy of Sciences on national energy research and development | 46 | ### II. Comparative Revenue Effects A. Summary Comparison of estimated revenue effects of House and Senate versions of H.R. 3919, calendar years 1979-1990. B. Comparison of estimated revenue effects of the crude oil windfall profit tax in H.R. 3919 as passed by the House and by the Senate, calendar years 1979-1990. C. Estimated revenue effects of residential tax credits in H.R. 3919 as passed by the Senate, calendar years 1979-1990. D. Estimated revenue effects of energy tax incentives in H.R. 3919 as passed by the Senate, calendar years 1980-1990. ## COMPARISON OF HOUSE AND SENATE PROVISIONS OF H.R. 3919 ### I. COMPARATIVE DESCRIPTION OF PROVISIONS #### A. CRUDE OIL WINDFALL PROFIT TAX | Item | Price Controls | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|----------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | **Tier one oil** | | | | | | **a. Definition:** | | | | | | Under pre-decontrol regulations, lower tier oil was production from a property which first began production before 1972, or under the 1979 regulations, lower tier oil is the average production on a property for the 6-month period ending March 31, 1979 (the base production control level, or BPCL), reduced by 1.5-percent per month in 1978 and 3-percent per month thereafter. Lower tier oil does not include oil produced from a marginal property. Oil may be deregulated before 1981 to finance tertiary recovery projects. | Tier 1 oil is lower tier oil produced on a nonmarginal property below the 1.5-percent decline curve. The decline curve causes tier 1 to phase into tier 2 after June 1983. | Same as House bill. | Same as House bill. | | **High water-cut tertiary oil** | Included in tier 2 of the tax. | | | | | **Cook Inlet oil** | High water-cut oil is subject to the normal rules for tier 1 and tier 2 oil. | | | | | **BPCL election** | No special provision under price controls, but generally defined as production from a property with an average water-to-oil ratio of at least 9:1 for any 12-month period after 1977. Oil produced in the Cook Inlet of Alaska is lower tier oil. | No provision. | The updated 1978–1979 BPCL must be used for tax purposes regardless of whatever BPCL is used for pricing purposes. | Cook Inlet oil is included in tier 2 of the tax. (Floor amendment by Sens. Gravel and Stevens, adopted by a vote of 61–19.) | | **Cumulative deficiencies** | Producers may elect to use a 1972 or 1975 BPCL for price control purposes rather than the updated (1978–1979) BPCL. | | | | | | Amounts by which post-June 1979 production falls below the adjusted BPCL must be eliminated before production in excess of the adjusted BPCL may be released to the upper tier. | Same as for pricing purposes, except that it involves short falls in production below the 1.5-percent tax pricing decline curve, not the 3-percent pricing decline curve. | | | | **b. Tax rate** | | | | | | | 75 percent with a deduction for severance taxes on the windfall profit. (Floor amendment by Rep. James Jones, adopted by a vote of 236–183, reduced the rate from 70 percent.) | | | | The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: A collection of data organized in a structured manner so that it can be accessed, managed, and updated efficiently. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software system that provides an interface to create, store, retrieve, update, and manage databases. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a coded form to prevent unauthorized access. 6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values using a hash function. 7. Interface: A boundary between two systems or components that allows them to communicate with each other. 8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that uses objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to express computations that can be executed by a computer. 11. Software: A collection of instructions that directs a computer to perform specific tasks. 12. System: A set of interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a design to achieve one or more goals. 13. User Interface (UI): The part of a software application that interacts directly with the user, providing visual and/or auditory feedback. 14. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another operating system. 15. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 16. XML (Extensible Markup Language): A markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. These terms are fundamental to understanding the concepts and practices in computer science, and they are widely used across various domains such as software development, database management, security, and more. | Item | Price Controls | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|----------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | c. | **Base price** | | | | | 2. | **Tier two oil** | | | | | a. | **Definition** | The May 1979 lower tier ceiling prices averaged approximately $3.01 a barrel. | May 1979 ceiling price with an inflation adjustment. | Same as House bill. | | b. | **Tax rate** | Upper tier oil is all production from a property that began production after 1962 and production from a marginal property in excess of its adjusted base price. It includes oil from marginal properties (floor amendment by Rep. Jones); (2) oil from properties between 1972 and 1979; (3) oil produced from the Saddlecloth reservoir on the Alaskan North Slope, and (4) oil produced from "deep marginal properties" (floor amendment by Sen. Heflin adopted by voice vote). | (1) Oil produced on a property above the quantity represented by a 75 percent reduction of the tier 1 oil on all properties beginning production between 1972 and 1979; (2) oil from marginal properties (floor amendment by Rep. Jones); (3) oil deregulated by DOE as "front-end financing" for tertiary recovery projects. | Same as the House bill, except that tier 2 does not include (1) high-cost oil, (2) oil from Conoco Inc. in Alaska (floor amendment by Sen. Gravel and Stevens, adopted by a vote of 61–19), (3) oil produced from the Saddlecloth reservoir on the Alaskan North Slope, and (4) oil produced from "deep marginal properties" (floor amendment by Sen. Heflin adopted by voice vote). | | c. | **Adjusted base price** | Upper tier oil is scheduled to be phased out at a monthly rate of .65 percent starting in January 1980 and ending after September 1981. | Tier 2 merges with tier 3 after 1990. | Tier 2 does not merge with tier 3. | | 3. | **Tier three oil** | The May 1979 upper tier ceiling prices averaged $13.02 a barrel. | 60 percent with a deduction for severance taxes on the windfall profit amount. (Floor amendment by Rep. Jones, reduced the rate from 70 percent.) | 75 percent with a deduction for severance taxes on the windfall profit amount. (Floor amendment by Sen. Bradley, adopted by a vote of 58–45, raised the rate from 60 percent.) | | a. | **Stripper oil:** | Striper oil was deregulated in 1976. Production from properties where average per day production has been 10 barrels or less for any month during the 12-month period beginning after 1972. | May 1979 ceiling price with an adjustment for inflation. Between 1986 and the end of 1990, the base price phases up to the tier 3 base price (which averages $3 more). | May 1979 ceiling price with an adjustment for inflation. After 1983, the ceiling price is reduced by $0.25. (Floor amendment by Robert C. Byrd, adopted by a vote of 52–38). | | b. | **Definition** | | Same as price controls. | Same as price controls. | | c. | **Tax rate** | | (0) percent with a deduction for severance taxes on the windfall profit (floor amendment by Rep. Jones, reduced the rate from 70 percent). | $15.30, adjusted for inflation occurring after the fourth quarter of 1978. (This is equal to the $10 base price in the House bill because the inflation adjustment begins earlier.) | | d. | **Base price** | | | | The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software application that provides services for creating, maintaining, and managing databases. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a coded form to prevent unauthorized access. 6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values. 7. Interface: A boundary between two systems or components that allows them to communicate with each other. 8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that uses objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions. 9. Protocol: A set of rules and procedures for communication between different systems or devices. 10. Query: A request for information from a database. 11. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 12. Software: A collection of instructions that can be executed by a computer to perform specific tasks. 13. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 14. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer program that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback. 15. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another operating system. These terms are fundamental to understanding the concepts and practices in computer science, and they are widely used in various fields such as software development, database management, security, and networking. | Item | Price Controls | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|----------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | **b. Naval Petroleum Reserve production:** | Exempt from price controls. Production from the Naval Petroleum Reserve. | Same as price controls 60 percent (Floor amendment by Rep. Jones). $16, adjusted for inflation after the second quarter of 1979. | Oil from the Naval Petroleum Reserve and Federal royalty oil is exempt. (Floor amendment by Sen. Long adopted by voice vote). | Same as House bill. | | **a. Definition** | | | | | | **Tax rate** | | | | | | **Base price** | For price control purposes, oil produced from the Sadlerochit reservoir on the Alaskan North Slope is upper tier oil. | Oil produced from the Sadlerochit reservoir in Alaska. All other North Slope oil is exempt. | 50 percent with no severance tax adjustment. | 75 percent with a deduction for severance taxes on the windfall profit. (Floor amendment by Sen. Bradley, adopted by a vote of 58–35, raised the rate from 60 percent.) | | **4. North Slope Alaskan oil** | The May 1979 upper tier ceiling price was $12.91 a barrel; the wellhead price for Sadlerochit oil was well below the ceiling price until recently. | $7.50 adjusted for inflation. | 12.91 for 1980, and $12.66 thereafter, adjusted for inflation. (Floor amendment by Sen. Robert C. Byrd, adopted by a vote of 52–38.) | Same as House bill except no inflation adjustment to the $6.26 amount. | | **c. Base price** | | | | | | **d. Pipeline adjustment** | The tariff for the Alaskan pipeline is now an average of $0.18 per barrel, but may be reduced in regulatory proceedings. | Base price is adjusted upward by difference between pipeline tariff and $6.26, adjusted for inflation. | | | | **5. Newly discovered oil** | Newly discovered oil was deregulated in June 1978. For price control purposes, newly discovered oil is produced from (1) an offshore property which shall be for which the lease was entered into on or after January 1, 1979, and for which there was no production in calendar year 1978, or (2) an onshore property from which there was no production in calendar year 1978. | Same as price controls except exchange oil produced on an onshore property which produced between 1969 and the end of 1977 and “behind the pipe” oil. | Same as price controls. | Same as House bill. | | **a. Definition** | | | | | | **Tax rate** | | | | | | | Newly discovered oil was deregulated in June 1978. For price control purposes, newly discovered oil is produced from (1) an offshore property which shall be for which the lease was entered into on or after January 1, 1979, and for which there was no production in calendar year 1978, or (2) an onshore property from which there was no production in calendar year 1978. | 50 percent of first $9 of windfall profit, 60 percent on windfall profit above $9. Severance tax adjustment only for windfall profit taxed at a 60-percent rate. | 10 percent with a deduction for severance taxes. (Floor amendment by Sen. Robert C. Byrd, adopted by a vote of 52–38.) | | Chapter 1 Introduction | Item | Price Controls | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|----------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 5. Newly discovered oil (cont.) | | | | | | c. Base price | $17 adjusted for inflation after June 1972, plus a 2-percent "sticker." The $9 amount also is adjusted for inflation plus 2 percent. | Tax terminates after December 31, 1980. | No provision. | Heavy oil is oil exempt from price controls under Executive Order No. 12153 or oil from a property with a weighted average gravity of 16 degrees or less for the taxable period. | | d. Termination | | | | | | 6. Heavy oil | Executive Order No. 12153 deregulated heavy oil. Crude oil produced from a property which had an original gravity of 16° API or less for the last month prior to July 1979 in which crude oil was produced and sold from the property. | | | 20 percent with a deduction for severance taxes on a non-inflation-adjusted basis. (Floor amendment by Sen. Robert C. Byrd, adopted by a vote of 62-38.) $16.90, adjusted for inflation plus a 2-percent "sticker" and for differences in quality and location. | | b. Tax rate | | | | | | c. Base price | | | | | | 7. Incremental tertiary oil | a. General definition | No provision directly covering this heavy crude oil. However, much of this oil would be classified as incremental tertiary oil under the House bill. | Same as House bill. | The sum of (1) the greater of (i) 1 percent or (ii) the actual decline rate, for months prior to the start of tertiary injection, and (2) 2½ percent for months thereafter. | | b. Decline rate | | | | | | c. Project qualification | | | | | | Projects must: | | | | | | (1) Use a tertiary recovery method; | Projects generally must: | | | (1) Use a tertiary recovery method; | | (2) be determined to be uneconomic at the otherwise applicable ceiling price; | (2) apply the tertiary method in accordance with sound engineering principles; | (2) have a reasonable possibility of increasing ultimate production; | (2) apply the tertiary method in accordance with sound engineering principles; | | (3) have a certification of the expected incremental production; and | (4) not be expected to be economic without preferential tax treatment; | (3) comply with DOE procedures. | (4) not be expected to be economic without preferential tax treatment; | | (4) comply with DOE procedures. | and | (5) comply with Treasury regulations for returns, certifications, etc. | (5) comply with Treasury regulations for returns, certifications, etc. | The following is a list of the most common types of data that can be collected and analyzed using the methods described in this paper: - **Demographic Data**: Information about the age, gender, race, ethnicity, education level, income, employment status, and other demographic characteristics of individuals or groups. - **Behavioral Data**: Information about the behaviors and actions of individuals or groups, such as their online activities, purchasing habits, and social interactions. - **Geospatial Data**: Information about the location and movement of individuals or groups, such as their travel patterns, residential addresses, and business locations. - **Health Data**: Information about the health and well-being of individuals or groups, such as their medical records, health outcomes, and disease prevalence. - **Financial Data**: Information about the financial transactions and assets of individuals or groups, such as their bank accounts, investments, and credit scores. - **Environmental Data**: Information about the natural environment and its impact on individuals or groups, such as air quality, water quality, and climate change. - **Educational Data**: Information about the educational experiences and achievements of individuals or groups, such as their academic records, test scores, and graduation rates. - **Legal Data**: Information about the legal status and history of individuals or groups, such as their criminal records, court cases, and legal proceedings. - **Political Data**: Information about the political affiliations and activities of individuals or groups, such as their voting records, campaign contributions, and political activism. - **Social Media Data**: Information about the online activities and interactions of individuals or groups, such as their social media profiles, posts, and comments. - **Sports Data**: Information about the performance and achievements of individuals or groups in sports, such as their game statistics, team rankings, and tournament results. - **Technology Data**: Information about the use and development of technology by individuals or groups, such as their smartphone usage, app downloads, and software development. - **Transportation Data**: Information about the transportation systems and infrastructure used by individuals or groups, such as their commute times, travel routes, and public transit usage. - **Weather Data**: Information about the weather conditions and forecasts for individuals or groups, such as their temperature, humidity, precipitation, and wind speed. - **Workplace Data**: Information about the work environments and practices of individuals or groups, such as their job titles, salary ranges, and benefits packages. | Item | Price Controls | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|----------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 7. Incremental tertiary oil (cont.) | | | | | | d. Project certification | | | | | | Self-certifications | Projects involving (1) miscible fluid displacement, (2) unconventional steam drive injection, (3) unconventional flooding, and (4) in-situ combustion may be self-certified by the operator. | Projects may be certified by the operator and a petroleum engineer satisfying the requirements for qualification. | Same as House bill. | Same as House bill. | | Regulatory certifications: DOE certifications | Projects involving tertiary methods other than those eligible for self-certification must be approved by DOE. | Projects approved by DOE qualify. | Projects may be certified by State regulatory bodies or by the U.S. Geological Survey. | | | Other regulatory certifications | No provision. | No provision. | Same as House bill for self-certified projects. A regulatory certification remains effective unless (1) a material fact was misrepresented in obtaining certification, or (2) the project was not implemented and operated in a proper manner. A revocation for the latter reason would not be effective prior to the date of the improper operation or implementation. | | | e. Certification revocation | Qualification may be lost for discontinuing the project, for improper certification, or for any other specified reason. | Qualification may be lost for discontinuing the project, or for improper certification. | Same as House bill for self-certified projects. | | | f. Continuing qualification | Qualification continues only so long as the tertiary project is in effect and it otherwise meets the tax's prerequisites. | Qualification continues only so long as the certification is in effect. | Qualification continues only so long as the tertiary project is in effect and it otherwise meets the tax's prerequisites. | | The following is a list of the most common types of software that are used in the field of computer science: 1. Operating Systems: These are the programs that control and manage the hardware and software resources of a computer system. 2. Programming Languages: These are the languages used to write computer programs. 3. Database Management Systems: These are the programs that allow users to store, retrieve, and manipulate data. 4. Web Development Tools: These are the tools used to create websites and web applications. 5. Graphics Software: These are the programs used to create and edit digital images. 6. Video Editing Software: These are the programs used to edit video footage. 7. Audio Editing Software: These are the programs used to edit audio recordings. 8. CAD (Computer-Aided Design) Software: These are the programs used to create technical drawings and designs. 9. Animation Software: These are the programs used to create animated graphics and videos. 10. Game Development Tools: These are the tools used to create video games. 11. Data Analysis Software: These are the programs used to analyze and interpret data. 12. Project Management Software: These are the programs used to manage projects and tasks. 13. Collaboration Software: These are the programs used to collaborate with others on projects and tasks. 14. Security Software: These are the programs used to protect computers and networks from cyber attacks. 15. Virtual Reality Software: These are the programs used to create virtual environments for gaming and other purposes. | Item | Price Controls | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|----------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 7. Incremental tertiary oil (cont.) | | | | Regulatory certified projects may apply for an advance determination of their tax qualification. | | g. IRS examinations | | | | Same as House bill for self-certified projects. Regulatory certified projects are subject to a "substantial evidence" rule, i.e., qualification would be sustained unless the IRS (1) established that the certification was not supported by substantial evidence or (2) found no substantial evidence that the project did not qualify. | | h. Advance IRS determinations | | | | Same as House bill. | | i. Qualifying methods | | | | Same as (1)-(3) for price controls, and any other method approved by the Secretary. | | j. Tax rate | | | | 50 percent on the first $90 of windfall profit, 60 percent on windfall profit above $90 (floor amendment by Rep. Jones). Senate tax adjustment only for windfall profit taxed at a 60-percent rate. | | k. Base price | | | | $817 adjusted for inflation after June 1979 plus a 2-percent "sticker." The $90 amount also is adjusted for inflation plus 2 percent (floor amendment by Rep. Jones). | | l. Termination | | | | Tax terminates after December 31, 1990 (floor amendment by Rep. Jones). | | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 8. Severance tax deduction | Under the income tax, severance taxes may be deducted as business expenses by the producer or royalty owner on whose oil the tax is imposed. | Severance taxes imposed on the windfall profit element of the selling price may be deducted in computing the windfall profit tax, except when the windfall profit tax rate is 50 percent. | Severance taxes imposed on the windfall profit element of the selling price may be deducted in computing the windfall profit tax. | Severance tax deduction allowed if income tax applies equally to the entire price of the barrel of oil. | | a. Severance taxes in effect on March 31, 1979 | | | | | | b. Severance taxes imposed or increased after March 31, 1979 | No severance tax deduction is allowed. | | | | | c. Indian tribal severance taxes | Under the income tax, tribal severance taxes may be deducted as business expenses by the producer or royalty owner on whose oil the tax is imposed. If required by State law, taxes under the Natural Gas Policy Act, | No provision. | | | Severance taxes properly imposed by recognized Indian tribes treated like State severance taxes. 1. **Introduction** 1.1 **Background and Motivation** 1.2 **Objectives and Scope** 1.3 **Research Questions** 2. **Literature Review** 2.1 **Related Work** 2.2 **Theoretical Framework** 2.3 **Methodological Approaches** 3. **Methodology** 3.1 **Research Design** 3.2 **Data Collection** 3.3 **Data Analysis** 4. **Results and Discussion** 4.1 **Findings** 4.2 **Interpretation** 4.3 **Implications** 5. **Conclusion** 5.1 **Summary** 5.2 **Recommendations for Future Research** 6. **References** 7. **Appendices** | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 9. Independent producers | For percentage depletion purposes, independent producers and royalty owners are all taxpayers who are not retailers with annual sales of more than $5 million or refiners with daily runs over 50,000 barrels. | No provision. | Independent producers are those defined as eligible for percentage depletion on oil and gas income. Royalty owners eligible for percentage depletion are treated as independent producers for windfall profit tax purposes only to the extent that working interest in their property is owned by independent producers. | | | b. Depletion | In 1980, percentage depletion is allowed at a 22-percent rate on up to 1,000 barrels per day of oil and gas production. This rate is scheduled to phase down to a permanent 15-percent by 1986. Percentage depletion is limited to 50-percent of taxable income on each property and 65-percent of each taxpayer's taxable income. | In determining percentage depletion, gross income on taxable crude oil is reduced by the difference between the selling price of the oil and its adjusted base price. | No provision. | | | c. Windfall profit tax exemption | No provision. | In determining the 50- and 65-percent limits, taxable income is increased by the windfall profit tax. | No provision. | Exempts independent producers and royalty owners from windfall profit tax on the first 1,000 barrels a day of taxable oil production after September 30, 1980. (Floor amendment by Senator Bentsen, adopted by vote of 53–42.) | | Members of Congress | No provision. | No provision. | Members of the 96th Congress and their families are not eligible for 1,000 barrel a day exemption. | | The following is a list of the most common types of software that are used in the field of computer science: 1. Operating Systems: These are the programs that control and manage the hardware and software resources of a computer system. 2. Programming Languages: These are the languages used to write computer programs. 3. Database Management Systems: These are the programs that allow users to store, retrieve, and manipulate data. 4. Web Development Tools: These are the tools used to create websites and web applications. 5. Graphics Software: These are the programs used to create and edit digital images. 6. Video Editing Software: These are the programs used to edit video footage. 7. Audio Editing Software: These are the programs used to edit audio recordings. 8. CAD (Computer-Aided Design) Software: These are the programs used to create technical drawings and designs. 9. Animation Software: These are the programs used to create animated graphics and videos. 10. Game Development Tools: These are the tools used to create video games. 11. Data Analysis Software: These are the programs used to analyze and interpret data. 12. Project Management Software: These are the programs used to manage projects and tasks. 13. Collaboration Software: These are the programs used to collaborate with others on projects and tasks. 14. Security Software: These are the programs used to protect computers and networks from cyber attacks. 15. Virtual Reality Software: These are the programs used to create virtual environments for gaming and other purposes. | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 10. Oil owned by State and local governments | State and local government oil production is not subject to prior court decisions. The oil production generally is not subject to Federal income tax. | State, political subdivision, or an educational institution that is an agency or instrumentality of a State or political subdivision. | Oil production of a State or local government is exempt if all of the net proceeds are dedicated to public education or a permanent fund for public education. | | | a. Definition of State and local government | | | | | | b. Exemption from tax | | | | | 11. Exemptions for particular kinds of taxpayers a. Federally recognized Indian tribes Recognized Indian tribes and restricted Indians are not subject to income tax on income from restricted lands and mineral interests. Alaskan Native Regional Corporations are subject to income tax. No provision. Under various court decisions and IRS rulings it is unclear whether House bill would have taxed Indian oil production. Exempts from tax: (1) oil from Tribal Trust Lands, (2) oil from restricted lands, (3) oil paid into native or tribal trust funds, and (4) oil produced by Alaskan Native Regional Corporations (floor amendment by Sen. Gravel adopted by voice vote). b. Medical facilities and educational facilities Income of charitable medical facilities and educational institutions may be exempted from income tax under section 501(c)(3). No provision other than that for public schools in Item 10 above. Oil production of (1) charitable educational institutions, (2) charitable medical facilities, and (3) churches that have dedicated the proceeds to (1) or (2) is exempt from the tax if owned by the entity on October 24, 1979, or received as a bequest after that date. Same as House bill except that a 90-percent limit is used. The cost basis of prior owner may be taken into account after the transfer of a proven property. (Floor amendment by Senator Wallop, adopted by voice vote.) 12. Net income limitation Under DOE Exceptions Relief, the ceiling price can be modified temporarily in instances of high-cost production. The taxable windfall profit is limited to 100 percent of the net income attributable to taxable oil. In calculating net income, oesf depletion on the acquisition cost of proven properties is not taken into account. In the case of a dollar production payment, the tax is imposed on the owner of the interest from which the production payment was created, not the owner of the economic interest in the oil. No special provision. Normal rules apply to tax the owner of the economic interest. 13. Production payments | | | | | | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 14. Administrative provisions | Tax deposit requirements generally are specified by Treasury regulations, but return requirements usually are established statutorily. | Generally, matters relating to tax and information returns, tax deposits, and information exchanges are to be determined by Treasury regulations. | Same as House bill, except: (1) that operator and first purchaser may elect to have the operator make the tax deposits and file the quarterly returns; (2) that integrated oil companies that are not independent refiners must make estimated semi-monthly tax deposits; (3) independent refiners who purchase oil under delayed payment contracts must make tax deposits within 60 days after the end of the month of purchase; (4) other taxpayers, who are not integrated oil companies, must make tax deposits within 30 days after the end of the month of purchase; and (5) information exchanges specifically required by the House bill are not included. | | | **a. Tax collection, deposits and returns** | Excess tax payments may be credited on future taxes due or offset under Treasury regulations, but may offset estimated income tax payments. Tentative refunds generally are not available. | Except for some clarifications needed for windfall profit tax purposes, generally the same as present law. | Same as House bill. | | | **b. Tax overpayments** | No interest is due on income tax refunds made within 45 days of the date for filing the return. No interest is due with respect to refunds of other taxes made within 30 days of the date of the tax overpayment. | No specific provision. | Tax overpayments in excess of $1000 that are attributable to the net income limitation or to a tax exemption are refundable annually on an expedited basis. | | | **Tentative refunds** | | | No interest is due on tax refunds made within 45 days of the date for filing the return. | | | **Interest** | | | Adjustments may be made by the Treasury to ensure that transactions reflect the fair market value of the oil. | | | **c. Administrative enforcement** | | | | | The following is a list of the most common types of data that can be collected and analyzed in a research study: - **Quantitative Data**: This type of data is numerical and can be measured or counted. Examples include age, income, weight, height, and test scores. - **Qualitative Data**: This type of data is non-numerical and can be described using words. Examples include opinions, feelings, and experiences. - **Primary Data**: This type of data is collected directly from the source. Examples include surveys, interviews, and experiments. - **Secondary Data**: This type of data is collected from existing sources. Examples include census data, government reports, and academic journals. - **Descriptive Data**: This type of data provides information about the characteristics of a population or sample. Examples include mean, median, mode, and standard deviation. - **Inferential Data**: This type of data allows researchers to make predictions or draw conclusions about a population based on a sample. Examples include t-tests, ANOVA, and regression analysis. - **Categorical Data**: This type of data is used to classify or group items into categories. Examples include gender, race, and political affiliation. - **Continuous Data**: This type of data can take on any value within a range. Examples include height, weight, and temperature. - **Discrete Data**: This type of data can only take on specific values. Examples include number of children, number of cars owned, and number of books read. - **Nominal Data**: This type of data is used to name or label items. Examples include names, colors, and countries. - **Ordinal Data**: This type of data is used to rank items in order. Examples include survey responses (e.g., strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree). - **Interval Data**: This type of data is used to measure the difference between two items. Examples include temperature (in degrees Celsius) and time (in seconds). - **Ratio Data**: This type of data is used to measure the ratio between two items. Examples include distance (in miles) and weight (in pounds). | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 14. Administrative provisions—(cont.) | | | | | | d. Statute of limitations | Generally, the statute of limitations begins to run from the later of the time the return was filed or the taxes were paid. | No provision. | Provides that the statute of limitations begins to run, as to the producer, when the tax is deposited and the return is filed. | | | | Generally, the statute of limitations begins to run from the later of the time the return was filed or the taxes were paid. | No provision. | Provides that a tax refund may be claimed, or a tax deficiency assessed, within 1 year of a reclassification of the oil or the property for price control purposes. | | | Reclassifications | | | Same as House bill. | | | 15. Tax enforcement | Present law contains various civil and criminal penalties for failures to file or furnish required tax or information returns, or statements, for failure to collect, pay over, or pay taxes (in whole or in part), for attempting to evade tax, and for making false or fraudulent statements. | In addition to the civil and criminal penalties of present law, willful failure to comply with the tax is a misdemeanor punishable by a fine of up to $10,000 and up to 1 year imprisonment. | | | | 16. Property transfers | Property transfers cannot be made to obtain a higher ceiling price. | New properties created by post-1973 transfers are not given preferential tax treatment if the property would not have qualified prior to the transfer. This rule applies to: (1) newly discovered oil and (2) stripper oil. | Same as House bill, except that the rule also applies to: (1) marginal oil, (2) heavy oil, and (3) high water-cut oil. | | | 17. Tax Court jurisdiction | Actions for tax refunds must be commenced in the U.S. district courts or the Court of Claims; prepayment litigation must commence in the U.S. Tax Court, which generally does not have excise tax jurisdiction. | No provision. | The U.S. Tax Court has exclusive trial court jurisdiction over all civil controversies, including refunds and equitable remedies, relating to the tax. Existing appellate procedures continue to apply. Three judges are added to the Court. | | THE FUTURE OF THE NATION BY WILLIAM H. SHERMAN SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY 1894 | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 20. General provisions relating to residential energy credits | Installations of residential energy credit property must be made on a taxpayer's principal residence. | No provision. | | | | a. Repeal principal residence requirement | | | | | | b. Allow credit to landlords and joint ownership | Landlords are not allowed to claim the residential energy credits. It is not clear that joint owners of residential energy property who live in separate and separately owned dwelling units are eligible for the residential energy credits. The amendment specifically extends the credit for joint owners in the cases of a shared dwelling unit, tenant-shareholders of a condominium and owner-members of a condominium management association. Credits are available on the taxpayer's share of the expenditures. | No provision. | | | | c. Discretionary authority of the Secretary | The Secretary was given discretionary authority to add items that increase the energy efficiency of a dwelling to the list of energy conservation items. | | | | **Rescission effect.**—Calendar year tax liabilities would decrease by $8 million in 1980, $82 million in 1981, $134 million in 1985, and $60 million in the period 1980–85. In fiscal year 1980, the loss would be $8 million. The credit for joint owners would be extended on a proportionate basis to all cases in which 2 or more taxpayers make expenditures for creditable residential energy property. The credit could be used in connection with their residences. **Effective date.**—The amendment applies to installations made after September 30, 1973. **Revenue effect.**—Calendar year tax liabilities would decrease by $80 million in 1980 (including credits claimed for 1979), $82 million in 1981, $144 million in 1985, and $567 million in the period 1980–85. In fiscal year 1980, the revenue loss would be $20 million. Deletes the discretionary authority of the Secretary. Under a floor amendment by Senator Cranston (adopted by a voice vote), a new provision is added to the bill to restore the Secretary's discretionary authority to specify additional items of qualifying property. **Effective date.**—Date of enactment. | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | |------|-------------|------------|------------------| | 21. Energy conservation expenditures | The energy conservation credit is 15 percent of $2,000 of expenditures maximum. Expenditures for items included in 1981-82 Eligible items include (1) insulation, caulking and weatherstripping; (2) a replacement furnace burner; (3) a flue opening modifier; (4) an electric or mechanical furnace ignition system; (5) an automatic setback thermostat; or (6) an energy usage display indoor. Energy conserving items that are eligible for the energy conservation credit include a replacement burner for a furnace. Replacement stoves, furnaces and boilers are not eligible for the credit. | No provision. | Additional items eligible for the energy conservation credit would be: (a) a replacement air conditioning or heating system which replaces electric resistance space or water heating system or is for use as backup for a solar hot water heater; (b) a replacement oil or gas furnace or boiler which meets specified average fuel utilization efficiency requirements—50 percent for an oil furnace and 75 percent for a gas furnace; (c) an airtight wood burning stove, only for expenditures through December 31, 1982; (d) a replacement coal furnace or boiler in a central heating system, only for expenditures through December 31, 1982, at a 25-percent credit rate; (e) a lightweight, self-contained, low density radiant heating panel furnace or boiler which is part of a central heating system, if the unit is suitable for retrofit to an existing heat control installation (floor amendment adopted by Senator Durkin, adopted by voice vote). (See also business credits, Item No. 29.) | **Effecting date.—** The amendments for a heat pump, a replacement oil or gas furnace or boiler, and a heating panel would apply with respect to expenditures made after September 30, 1979; for airtight wood stoves, the effective date is July 16, 1979, and after September 30, 1980, for central heating wood furnaces. **Revenue effect.—** (b) **Heat pumps:** Calendar year tax liabilities would decrease by $89 million in fiscal year 1980; by $207 million for 1979; $207 million in 1981; $153 million in 1982; and $404 million for the period 1980-85; the revenue loss in fiscal year 1980 would be $11 million. | Name | Position | Team | |------------|-----------|---------------| | John Smith | Forward | New York Knicks | | Jane Doe | Guard | Los Angeles Lakers | | Mike Johnson | Center | Chicago Bulls | | Sarah Lee | Point Guard | Houston Rockets | | David Brown | Small Forward | Miami Heat | **Total Players:** 5 **Average Age:** 28 years old **Team Location:** New York City, NY | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 21. Energy conservation expenditures (Cont.) | | | | | | (b) Replacement oil or gas furnace or boiler: Calendar year tax liabilities would decrease by $145 million in 1980 (including credits claimed for 1979), $186 million in 1981, and $402 million in 1983, and $1,541 million in the period 1980–25. Fiscal year budget receipts would fall by $80 million in 1980 and $145 million in 1981. | | | | | | (c) Airtight roadbuilding stores: Calendar year tax liabilities would decline by $79 million in 1980, $82 million in 1981 and $22 million in 1982 and $133 million through the period 1980–82. Fiscal year budget receipts would fall by $12 million in 1980. | | | | | | (d) Replacement central heating furnace: Calendar year tax liabilities would decrease by $8 million in 1980 (including credits claimed for 1979), and $10 million each in 1981 and 1982 for a total of $25 million; fiscal year 1980 budget receipts would decrease by $7 million. | | | | | | (e) Radiant heating panels: Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $1 million in 1980, $2 million in 1981, and $6 million in 1983. The reduction in fiscal year budget receipts through 1985 would be $20 million. Fiscal year budget receipts would decline negligibly in 1980 and $1 million in 1981. | | | | | | 22. Credit for renewable energy source expenditures | For renewable energy source expenditures, a credit is available at a rate of 30 percent of the first $20,000 and 20 percent on the next $80,000 (maximum credit of $2,200). The credit applies to solar and geothermal energy property to heat, cool or supply hot water to a residence or wind energy for non-business residential property. The credit is available for expenditures through December 31, 1985. | No provision. | (a) The credit would be increased to 50 percent on the first $10,000 spent on renewable energy source property and 20 percent (credit) through the calendar 31, 1990. (b) Equipment to generate electricity from solar, geothermal and wind energy systems would be included as eligible property. | | | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 22. Credit for renewable source expenditures (continued) | | | (c) Costs of drilling an onsite geothermal well would qualify for the renewable energy source credit, if the taxpayer has not elected to deduct any portion of the expenditure as intangible drilling costs. (d) Renewable energy source property that is also a structural component would be eligible for the credit to the extent that the installed cost exceeds the cost of installing a unit without the renewable energy source. (See also item 44 for IDBs for renewable energy property.) | | | | Effective date.—These amendments apply to expenditures made after September 30, 1979. | | | | | Revenue effect.—Calendar year tax liability for 1980 would be reduced by $56 million in 1980, $20 million in 1981 and $4,067 million in the period 1980-90. Fiscal year budget receipts would fall by $24 million in 1980. A credit, up to $2,000, would be available to a builder who constructs a new residence which meets the passive solar energy requirements. The credit would be determined by multiplying the area of the passive solar collection area by the housing heating load. This value, in relation to the heating requirements, i.e., amount of degree-days in a year, in the appropriate one of 210 specified geographic areas, would determine the amount of the credit. The credit would be bound in total to specify property for the period ending in the 5th year. (Floor amendment by Sen. Hart, adopted by a vote of 82-1.) (See also item 44 for IDBs for renewable energy property.) Effective date.—The amendment would apply to dwellings, including mobile homes, for taxable years beginning after September 30, 1980, and to residences of which construction is completed after September 30, 1980. | | | | | 23. Residential passive solar tax credit | There are no energy conservation credits for new residences on which construction was substantially completed after April 28, 1977. | No provision. | | | 1. **Introduction** 2. **Background and Context** 3. **Methodology** 4. **Results and Analysis** 5. **Discussion** 6. **Conclusion** 7. **Recommendations** 8. **References** | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 23. Residential passive solar tax credit (continued) | | | | Revenue effect.—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $34 million in 1981 and $129 million in 1985. Fiscal year budget receipts would be reduced by $7 million in 1981 and $94 million in 1985. The revenue loss 1979-86 will total $221 million. | | 24. Solar or wind energy property | Equipment which uses solar or wind energy to generate electricity or to heat or cool buildings qualifies for a 10 percent refundable business energy credit through December 31, 1982. | No provision. | | Increases the rate of the credit to 20 percent and extends the effective period through December 31, 1990. Makes solar energy equipment to provide process heat eligible for the credit. A floor amendment by Senator Magnuson (adopted by a vote of 81-14) repeals the present refundable feature of solar and wind energy credits. (See also item 44 for IDBs for renewable energy property.) Effective date.—Generally effective after December 31, 1973. Revenue effect.—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $20 million in 1980, $57 million in 1981, $449 million in 1985, and $729 million in 1990; the revenue loss would be $4,251 million in the period 1980-1990. Fiscal year budget receipts would be reduced by $11 million in 1980. | | 25. Geothermal equipment | Equipment used to produce, distribute or use geothermal energy qualifies for a 10 percent refundable energy credit through December 31, 1982. | No provision. | | Increases the rate of the credit to 20 percent and extends the effective period through 1990. (See also item 44 for IDBs for renewable energy property.) Effective date.—Effective after December 31, 1973. Revenue effect.—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $24 million in 1980, $28 million in 1981, $40 million in 1985 and $57 million in 1990; the revenue loss would be $112 million in the period 1980-1990. Fiscal year budget receipts would be reduced by $11 million in 1980. | The following is a list of the major research areas in which the Department of Mathematics has been active during the past few years. 1. **Algebraic Geometry** - Algebraic surfaces and threefolds - Moduli spaces - Birational geometry 2. **Analysis** - Partial differential equations - Harmonic analysis - Geometric measure theory 3. **Combinatorics** - Enumerative combinatorics - Graph theory - Algebraic combinatorics 4. **Differential Equations** - Ordinary differential equations - Partial differential equations - Dynamical systems 5. **Geometry** - Differential geometry - Symplectic geometry - Riemannian geometry 6. **Number Theory** - Arithmetic geometry - Analytic number theory - Algebraic number theory 7. **Probability** - Stochastic processes - Random matrices - Mathematical finance 8. **Statistics** - Statistical inference - Machine learning - Bayesian statistics 9. **Topology** - Geometric topology - Algebraic topology - Low-dimensional topology 10. **Applied Mathematics** - Mathematical biology - Fluid dynamics - Computational mathematics These areas reflect the breadth and depth of mathematical research at the department, with ongoing collaborations both within the department and with other institutions. | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 26. Ocean thermal equipment | No energy credit is allowed for ocean thermal equipment. | No provision. | Provides a 20-percent nonrefundable energy credit for equipment used to convert ocean thermal energy into electrical energy or another form of useful energy. (See also item 44 for IDBs for renewable energy property.) | | | 27. Small scale hydroelectric facilities | No energy credits or other energy-related tax provisions are provided for hydroelectric facilities. Under the ADR system, these facilities generally qualify for a 50-year guideline life and a 1.5 percent annual repair allowance. | No provision. | | | Revenue effect.—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $8 million in 1984, $6 million in 1985, $23 million in 1986, and $114 million in 1990; the revenue loss for the period 1980-1990, Fiscal years 1980 budget receipts would not be affected. Energy credits.—Provides a 10-percent nonrefundable energy credit for powerhouses and for generating facilities by hydroelectric power where the generating equipment has an installed capacity of 25 megawatts or less. Covers only installations at existing dams or at sites where no dam or water impoundment is involved. Qualifying property includes generating equipment, powerhouses, penstocks and spill passageways. In addition, outages or manufacturing existing dams are covered. Revenue effect.—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $8 million in 1984, $6 million in 1985, $23 million in 1986, and $114 million in 1990; the revenue loss would be $1,066 million for the period 1980-1990. Fiscal year budget receipts would be reduced by $1 million in 1980. Depreciation.—Liberalizes present law treatment for small scale hydroelectric facilities by providing a 20-year guideline life and a 4-percent annual repair allowance under the ADR system. In addition, these facilities will qualify for accelerated methods regardless of whether treated as public utility property. (See also item 43 for IDBs for hydroelectric facilities.) | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 28. Cogeneration equipment | No energy credits are provided for cogeneration equipment. | No provision | | | **Effective date.**—Effective after December 31, 1979. **Revenue effect.**—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by less than $1 million in 1980 and 1981; $2 million in 1985 and $28 million in 1990; the revenue loss would be $92 million in the period 1980–1990. Fiscal year budget receipts would be reduced by a negligible amount. **Revenue effect.**—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $87 million in 1980, $62 million in 1981, $42 million in 1985; the revenue loss would be $127 million in the period 1980–1990. Fiscal year budget receipts would be reduced by $1 million in 1980. Under a floor amendment by Senator Packwood (adopted by voice vote) use of up to 25 percent oil or natural gas (as a flame stabilizer or back-up or start-up fuel) would be allowed. (See also items 44 and 45 for 1D1; amendments that relate to cogeneration.) Under a floor amendment by Senator Packwood (adopted by voice vote) use of oil would be allowed in major fuel burning installations if cogeneration results in a fuel saving of at least 30 percent. This amendment would be effective October 1, 1980. **Revenue effect.**—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $81 million in 1980, $11 million in 1981, $2 million in 1985; the revenue loss would be $65 million in the period 1980–1990. Fiscal year budget receipts would not be affected for 1980. **Effective date.**—Effective generally after December 31, 1979. | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 29a. Specially defined energy property | Provides a 10-percent nonrefundable energy credit through 1982 for specified items of property used to increase energy efficiency in existing processes at existing facilities. In addition, the Secretary is authorized to specify additional items of qualifying property. | No provision. | Adds, as specified items of qualifying property, industrial heat pumps and energy-saving modifications to alumina electrolytic cells. | In addition, the Secretarial authority to specify additional items of qualifying property is repealed. Under a floor amendment by Senator Cranston (adopted by a voice vote), a new provision is added to the bill to restore the Secretarial authority to specify additional items of qualifying property. | | | | | | Under a floor amendment by Senator Mathias (adopted by a voice vote), certain low-density infrared heating panels added to existing facilities are added as qualifying property. (See similar amendment, Item No. 21, in residential energy credits.) | | | | | | **Effective date.**—Generally effective after December 31, 1979. Effective for modifications to alumina electrolytic cells after September 30, 1978. | | | | | | **Revenue effect.**—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $1 million in 1980, $40 million in 1981, $15 million in 1982, and $16 million in 1983; $279 million in the period 1980-1990. Fiscal year budget receipts would be reduced by $2 million in 1980. | | | | | | Allows the 10-percent energy investment credit for equipment to use petroleum coke or pitch as a fuel and allows the regular investment credit and accelerated methods of depreciation for businesses using these products as a fuel. A floor amendment by Senator Dole (adopted by a voice vote) allows the 10-percent energy investment credit as alternative energy property where petroleum coke or pitch is used as a fuel, except in the production of chemicals and other products of a type generally derived from oil or natural gas. | | | | | | **Effective date.**—Effective after December 31, 1979. | 30a. Petroleum coke and petroleum pitch Facilities which use oil or natural gas fuels or feedstocks, including petroleum coke or pitch (byproducts of petroleum refining), are generally ineligible for energy credits. In addition, the regular investment credit and accelerated methods of depreciation are denied for certain facilities which use oil or natural gas or fuels (such as petroleum coke or petroleum pitch) derived from them. No provision. | 1970 | 1971 | 1972 | |------|------|------| | 3 | 4 | 5 | | 6 | 7 | 8 | | 9 | 10 | 11 | | 12 | 13 | 14 | | 15 | 16 | 17 | | 18 | 19 | 20 | | 21 | 22 | 23 | | 24 | 25 | 26 | | 27 | 28 | 29 | | 30 | 31 | | | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | |------|-------------|------------|------------------| | 30. Petroleum coke and petroleum pitch (continued) | Equipment to produce coke or coke gas is not eligible for a energy credit. | No provision. | Revenue effect.—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by a negotiable amount in 1980 and 1981, $25 million in 1982, the revenue loss would be $27 million in the period 1980-1991. Fiscal year 1980 budget receipts would not be affected. | | 31. Coke and coke gas equipment | | Under a floor amendment by Senator Heinz (adopted by a voice vote), the 10-percent energy credit, as alternative energy property, is provided for equipment to produce coke or coke gas. Effective date.—Effective after date of enactment. | | 32. Biomass property | Boilers, burners and related pollution control and fuel handling equipment which use fuels (such as biomass) other than oil or natural gas are provided a 10-percent nonrefundable energy investment credit. Equipment which converts these alternate substances into synthetic solid, liquid, or gaseous fuels also qualifies for this credit. | No provision. | Revenue effect.—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $6 million in 1980, $10 million in 1981, $285 million in 1985 and $470 million in 1990; the revenue loss would be $2,761 million in the period 1980-1990. Fiscal year budget receipts would be reduced by $30 million in 1980. | | 33. Wood and wood waste | | Under a floor amendment by Senator McClure (adopted by a 74-16 vote), equipment for converting biomass into an alcohol fuel is provided a 20-percent credit from October 1, 1980 through September 30, 1984. | | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | |------|-------------|------------|------------------| | 32. Biomass property (continued) | | | Revenue effect.—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $2 million in 1980, $17 million in 1981, $7 million in 1982; the revenue loss would be $112 million in the period 1980-1990. Fiscal year budget receipts would not be affected for 1980. | | 33. Regular investment credit for energy property | Not all property which qualifies for the 10-percent energy credit is qualified property for the regular investment credit. | No provision. | Effective date.—Effective after December 31, 1979. Specifically makes property which is eligible for an energy credit also eligible for the regular credit. | | 34. Public utility property | Public utility property is excluded from eligibility for an energy credit. | No provision. | Effective date.—Effective after December 31, 1979. Revenue effect.—The revenue loss for this item is included in the estimate for the type of property involved. | | | | | Revenue effect.—The revenue loss for this item is included in the estimate for the type of property involved. | 1. **Introduction** 2. **Theoretical Framework** 3. **Methodology** 4. **Data Collection and Analysis** 5. **Results** 6. **Discussion** 7. **Conclusion** | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 35. Vanpooling | Employer-owned vans used for vanpooling purposes are eligible for a full 10-percent regular investment credit where they have useful lives of three years or more. | No provision. | Extends the full regular credit to vans, used for vanpooling, owned by employees or third parties, where the van has a useful life of three years or more. | | | 36. Intercity buses | Buses do not qualify for an energy credit. | No provision. | Provides a 10-percent energy credit through 1985 for certain intercity buses to the extent the taxpayer's total operating revenue capacity is increased over seating capacity for the preceding year. | Effective date.—Effective after December 31, 1979. Revenue effect.—This provision is not expected to have a significant revenue effect. | | 37. Fuel efficient aerodynamic equipment for trucks | No energy investment credit is provided for fuel-efficient equipment used in motor truck freight transportation. | No provision. | Under a floor amendment by Senator Levin (adopted by a voice vote), a 10-percent energy credit is provided through 1985 for fuel-efficient wind deflectors and similar equipment added to existing trucks. | Effective date.—Effective after December 31, 1979. Revenue effect.—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $83 million in 1980, and by $20 million in 1981; the revenue loss would be $20 million in the period 1980-1990. Fiscal year budget receipts would be reduced by $1 million in 1980. | 7. **Preliminary** 7.1 **Introduction** | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 38. Affirmative commitments | The energy investment credits expire for property placed in service after December 31, 1982. | No provisions. | Extends the expiration date of the credit through 1990 for credits which otherwise expire at the end of 1982, for long-term projects where the taxpayer has not yet incurred sufficient expenditures to acquire or construct qualifying property if: (1) before January 1, 1983, there is completion of all necessary engineering studies and application for all environmental and construction permits required by law in connection with commencement of construction for the project; and (2) before January 1, 1986, beginning no more than 5 years after the earliest date covered by List 76, 40 percent of the cost of all specially designed equipment needed as part of the project. | Revenue effect.—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $448 million in 1983, $858 million in 1984, $292 million in 1985, and less than $1 million in 1986; the revenue loss would be $1,432 million in the period 1983–1990. Fiscal year 1980 budget receipts would not be affected. | | 39. Tax credit for purchase of qualified electric motor vehicles | No energy tax credit is available for the purchase of any motor vehicle used on public streets, roads and highways. Motor vehicles used in a trade or business may be depreciated over the useful life of the vehicle. Operating and maintenance expenses may be deducted. No tax credit for that investment credit is allowed for business vehicles used in a trade or business in accordance with the useful life provisions. | No provision. | Provides a 10-percent credit ($1,000 maximum) of cost for business non-just-in-time purchases of new electric motor vehicles and conversions of internal combustion engines to use electrical power. Covers battery-powered vehicles primarily for use on public streets. Taxpayer must be the original user. (Floor amendment by Sen. McClure, adopted by voice vote.) | Effective date—Available for purchases or conversions after December 31, 1979, and before January 1, 1986. Revenue effect.—Calendar year tax liabilities would decline by $1 million in 1980 and 1981 and $14 million in 1983. Fiscal year budget receipts would decline by less than $1 million in 1980. For the period 1980–1990, the revenue loss would be $24 million. | ### C. BUSINESS ENERGY TAX INCENTIVES—Continued #### Alternative Energy Production Tax Credit | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 40. Alternative energy production credit | There is no tax credit specifically for the production of energy. However, the following provisions apply to the indicated resources: | No provision. | Provides a tax credit of $3 per barrel of oil equivalent (5.8 million Btus), nontaxable and nonrefundable, adjusted for inflation. The credit for natural gas production is not adjusted for inflation. | Offsets.—Credit is reduced in proportion to tax-exempt financing and Federal grants. | | **Oil Shale:** | Deductible currently | Minimum tax.—15 percent | Phase one.—Phases out as the average refiner acquisition cost for imported oil rises from $25.50 to $29.50, adjusted for inflation. | | | **Tight Sands:** | Deductible currently | Price controls.—Unregulated | Phase two.—Phases out as the average price of high cost natural gas rises from $25.50 to $29.50, adjusted for inflation; the credit for other natural gas phases out as the price rises from $4.05 to $5.05 per mcf, adjusted for inflation. (Floor amendment by Sens. Banus, Hart and Glenn, adopted by voice vote.) | | | **Geopressured Gas:** | Deductible currently | Exploration expenditures.—Deductible currently | Eligible sources are: | | | **Minimum tax.—Excess depletion** | | | (a) oil from shale; | | | **and IDCs** | | | (b) natural gas from tight sands; | | | | | | (c) natural gas from tight sands geopressured brine, coal seams, or Devonian shale; | | | | | | (d) liquid, gaseous, or solid synthetic fuel (other than alcohol), including petrochemical feedstocks (floor amendment by Sen. Born, adopted by voice vote); from coal (floor amendment by Sen. McClure, adopted by voice vote); | | | **Devonian Shales, Tight Sands and Coal Seam Gas:** | Deductible currently | Price controls.—Unregulated | (e) gases from biomass (excluding wood): | | | **Minimum tax.—20 percent (indexable)** | | | (1) oceanic and terrestrial crop by-products and residues (floor amendment by Sen. McClure, adopted by voice vote); | | | | | | (2) steam from agricultural by-products; and | | | | | | (ii) qualifying processed wood. | | --- 1 This rate applies to gas produced from wells, the drilling of which began after September 30, 1976, and before January 1, 1984. 2 Although sales of this gas is not subject to price controls, section 107 of the Act provides that the Secretary may set a price ceiling on any portion of the market price unless deregulation is effected by the end of the period specified in the Act. 3 The amount of gas eligible for percentage depletion is limited to the equivalent of 1,200 barrels per day in 1979, and is scheduled to phase down to 1,000 barrels per day in 1980 and to 800 barrels per day in 1981. The 25 percent rate is reduced at a rate of 10 percent per year through 1984. | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | **Coal:** | | | | | | **Depletion**—10 percent | | | | | | **ITC**—30 percent | | | | | | **Private sector**—Unpermitted | | | | | | **Exploration expenditures**—Deductible currently | | | | | | **Development expenditures**—Deductible currently | | | | | | **Minimum loss**—Excess depletion | | | | | | **Capital gains**—Available on royalties | | | | | | **Wood:** | | | | | | **Depletion**—Cost | | | | | | **ITC**—20 percent | | | | | | **Cost sharing**—Qualifying governmental payments are excludible from income. | | | | | | **Capital gains**—Income from cutting timber treated as long-term capital gain. | | | | | | **Wool:** | | | | | | **Depletion**—Wool derived alcohol contained in gasoline is exempt from the 4 cents per gallon motor fuels excise tax. | | | | | | **Rinoss:** | | | | | | **ITC**—20 percent | | | | | | **Cost sharing**—Qualifying governmental payments are excludible from income. | | | | | | **Gasohol**—Biomass derived alcohol contained in gasoline is exempt from the 4 cents per gallon motor fuels excise tax. | | | | | **Effective dates:** (a) **General rule**—Fuels produced after 1979 from facilities placed in service after April 29, 1977, and before September 30, 1978, and before 1985. (b) **Qualified processed wood**—Each facility would be allowed the credit for 3 years, without regard to the phase out, for fuels produced and sold after 1979 and before 1985, from facilities placed in service after April 29, 1977, and before 1985 (Floor amendment by Sens. Matsunaga and Nelson, adopted by voice vote). (c) **Biomass steam**—Each facility would be allowed the credit for 3 years, without regard to the phaseout, for fuel produced and used after 1979, and before 1985, from facilities placed in service after September 30, 1978, and before October 1, 1985. The credit would apply only to steam from plant expansion after September 30, 1978 (Floor amendment by Sens. Matsunaga and Nelson). (d) **Natural gas**—Gas produced after September 30, 1980, from a property, or tight formation, which began production after the enactment of the windfall profit tax, and which is not being developed (Floor amendment by Sens. Barnes, Hart and Gramm). (e) **Termination**—Credit terminates after year 2000. **Revenue effect:**—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $12 million in 1980, $206 million in 1981; the reduction would be $1.2 billion for the period 1980-1990. Fiscal year 1980 budget receipts would be reduced by a negligible amount. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software application that provides services for creating, maintaining, and managing databases. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used to verify the integrity of data. 7. Interface: A way for two systems or components to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together by communication channels. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of information and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of interrelated parts working together to achieve a common goal. 15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with users, allowing them to input commands and receive output. 16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices. 19. XML (Extensible Markup Language): A markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 20. YAML (YAML Ain't Markup Language): A data serialization language that is used to represent structured data in a human-readable format. ### C. BUSINESS ENERGY TAX INCENTIVES—Continued | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 41. Alcohol fuels | | | | | | **a. Gasohol fuel tax exemption and tax credit** | | | | | | *General.*—A manufacturer's excise tax of 4 cents a gallon is imposed on gasoline sold by the producer to users. A Federal excise tax of 11 cents a gallon is imposed on diesel and other special motor fuels sold for use (or used) in a highway vehicle. Exemptions from these taxes are provided for certain tax-exempt uses of fuel as well as for certain tax-exempt users. If tax-paid fuel is used for a tax-exempt use or by a tax-exempt user, a refund of the credit generally may be obtained. *Excise tax exemption for gasohol.*—Under the Energy Tax Act of 1978, gasohol (i.e., fuel which is a blend of gasoline, or other motor fuel, and alcohol that is at least 50 percent alcohol (by volume) and not derived from petroleum, natural gas, or coal) is exempted from the Federal excise taxes on motor fuels on or after January 1, 1979, and before October 1, 1984. Gasohol may be sold free of tax if it is to be used in the production of gasohol. No provision is made for refund of the tax on gasoline if tax-paid gasoline is mixed with alcohol to produce gasohol. | | | | | | **b. Alcohol production regulation** | | | | | | *Regulation of alcohol production.*—Present law sets forth a detailed regulatory scheme for distilled spirits plants and persons involved in the production of alcohol. This regulatory scheme | | | | | *Federal tax exemption for gasohol.*—The amendment would extend the current excise tax exemption for fuels which are at least 10 percent alcohol until January 1, 2000 (and make certain technical amendments). *Credits.*—In all other cases where alcohol is used as a fuel (either blended with gasoline or a type suitable for use in an internal combustion engine), a tax credit would be provided. In general, the credit would be available to the blender in the case of blended fuels and the user in the case of straight fuels, and the amount would be 40 cents per gallon for most alcohol of at least 130 proof and 30 cents per gallon for alcohol between 120 and 130 proof. For alcohol of less than 120 proof, a credit of 30 cents per gallon would be available to the producer. The credits would be nonrefundable and no advance payment would be provided. An amount equal to the amount of credit claimed by the taxpayer for the previous taxable year is included in the taxpayer's income for the taxable year. *Tax-paid gasoline.*—If a person purchases tax-paid gasoline which is used in the production of tax-exempt gasohol, the person may obtain a refundable income tax credit or a payment (if the amount is $200 or more during any of the first 3 quarters of the taxable year) of the taxes paid on such gasoline. *Regulation of alcohol production.*—The amendment provides for a special type of distilled spirits plant, that of the fuel producer. These plants may be established for the production of alcohol ### C. BUSINESS ENERGY TAX INCENTIVES—Continued | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 11. Alcohol fuels (continued) | applies to the production of alcohol for industrial uses, as well as production for human consumption. The regulations require a detailed engineering plan of a distillery and an investigation of the background of the individuals operating the distillery prior to its commencement of business. This scheme also requires approval of the details of plant construction, provides for supervision of production by employees of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, and requires a bond or other security obtained by an operator of a distilled spirits plant in order to engage in the production of distilled spirits. | | | | #### c. Reports and study of alcohol fuels **Reports.**—The Secretary of Energy is required to make annual reports to Congress from 1980 to 1984 on the use of alcohol in fuels. **Study of imported alcohol.**—The amendment requires that within 180 days after enactment, the Secretary of the Treasury is directed to recommend to Congress ways in which the excise tax exemption and the credit can be denied to fuels containing imported alcohol. **Reporting.**—The annual reports on the use of alcohol in fuels are to include from 1981 through 1990 and are to contain information on the effect of the revenue loss from the excise tax exemption on the Highway Trust Fund. (The above provisions (a., b., and c.) were included in a floor amendment by Senators Hruska, Magnuson, Haydel, and others. A related provision (d.) was a substitute for the Finance Committee provision.) **Effective date.**—The income tax credits generally apply to taxable years beginning after September 30, 1980. The following is a list of the books and articles that have been published by the author in the field of computer science. | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 41. Alcohol fuels (continued) | | | The credit or refund of tax on tax-paid gasoline used in tax-exempt gasohol applies to gasoline purchased on or after January 1, 1972. The provisions relating to regulation of alcohol production will become effective on the first day of the first calendar year in which the plants have been more than 60 days after the date of construction. | | **Revenue effect:**—The decrease in calendar year tax liabilities will be $2 million in 1980, $8 million in 1981, $197 million in 1985, $520 million in 1994, and $2,472 million in the period 1989–90. There would be no reduction in budget receipts in fiscal years 1980–83. The estimates for fiscal years 1981–1990 assume that the Federal excise taxes on gasoline, diesel fuel, and other motor fuels will continue at the present rates of 4 cents per gallon. Under present law, these taxes are scheduled to be reduced to 1½ cents per gallon on October 1, 1981, when the Highway Trust Fund is scheduled to expire under existing law. ### C. BUSINESS ENERGY TAX INCENTIVES—Continued #### Tax-Exempt Industrial Development Bonds | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | |------|-------------|------------|------------------| | 42. Exemption for interest on IIBs: for solid waste disposal facilities | Industrial development bonds used to provide solid waste disposal facilities are tax-exempt. In addition, bonds used to provide electric energy facilities are tax-exempt if the facility is owned and operated by State or local governments and no more than 55 percent of the output is sold to nonexempt persons. It is unclear under present law whether equipment used to produce steam qualifies as a solid waste disposal facility. If the fuel used to produce the steam is derived from solid waste, Where the Federal Government purchases all the electric energy from an electric energy facility, a bond used to finance the facility is treated as a U.S. obligation and therefore not tax-exempt. | No provision. | (a) **Solid waste disposal facilities:** Provides that solid waste disposal facilities include any facility which is used primarily to convert solid waste, or fuel derived from solid waste, into steam. Provides that interest on an obligation used to finance a solid waste disposal facility is tax-exempt if the facility is owned and operated by a State or local government, provided the fact that the Federal Government will purchase all or part of the electricity and/or steam, provided that— (1) all the electric energy and steam produced from the two facilities is sold to a governmental unit; and (2) the facility is owned by and operated by or on behalf of a State or local government; and (3) substantially all the fuel used to operate the electric energy facility is solid waste or is derived from solid waste. (b) **Solid waste–related facilities:** Provides that solid waste related facilities include any facility which is used primarily to convert solid waste into electricity and/or steam, provided that— (1) substantially all the fuel used to operate the electric energy facility is solid waste or is derived from solid waste; and (2) the facility is owned by and operated by or on behalf of a State or local government; and (3) substantially all the fuel used to operate the electric energy facility is solid waste or is derived from solid waste. (c) **Notes to nonexempt persons:** The Senate amendment also deletes requirement that the electric energy and steam be sold to a governmental unit for obligations issued after September 30, 1980. (Floor amendment by Sen. Nelson, adopted by voice vote.) **Effective date.—** Applies with respect to obligations issued after October 18, 1979. **Revenue effect—** (a) **Solid waste disposal facilities:** The decrease in calendar year liabilities would be $1 million in calendar year 1980, $9 million in 1981, $19 million in 1985, $23 million in 1990, and $241 million in the period 1986-90. In fiscal year 1980, the revenue loss would be negligible. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used for data integrity checks. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources and communicate. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback. 16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices. 19. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 20. YAML: Yet Another Markup Language, a data serialization language that is easy to read and write, and is commonly used for configuration files. | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 12. Exemption for interest on IDBs for solid waste disposal facilities (continued) | | | | | | (b) Solid waste—alcohol facilities: The decrease in calendar year liabilities is expected to be less than $1 million in 1981, $1 million in 1985, $1 million in 1990, and $7 million in the period 1986–1990. | | | | | | (c) Solid to nonwaste program: The decrease in calendar year liabilities is expected to be $1 million in 1981, $2 million in 1985, $5 million in 1990, and $22 million in the period 1986–1990. | | | | | | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|-------------------| | 43. Exemption for interest on IDBs for hydroelectric facilities | Industrial development bonds used to provide (1) facilities for the local furnishing of water to members of the general public, and (2) facilities for the local furnishing of electric energy are tax-exempt. Facilities for the furnishing of water do not include dams or other structures equipped. However, if the generation equipment supplies electric energy to a service area comprising no more than two contiguous counties or a city and one contiguous county, it will qualify as facilities for the local furnishing of electric energy. Tax-exempt financing is not, in general, available for electric transmission lines. | No provision. | (a) **Hydroelectric facilities:** Provides that tax-exempt industrial development bonds may be used to provide hydroelectric facilities at new and existing dams with an installed capacity of 25 megawatts or less. Provides that tax-exempt industrial development bonds may be used to provide hydroelectric facilities at new dams with an installed capacity of 25 megawatts or more. Hydroelectric facilities include electrical generators, transformers, power houses, penstocks and fish passage ways. Such facilities also include electric transmission lines. In addition, such facilities include dam structures where the primary function of the dam is the generation of hydroelectric power. (b) **Certain existing hydroelectric additions:** Provides that certain existing IDBs which will have an installed capacity of more than 25 megawatts will be treated as new dams. (Floor amendment by Sen. Packwood, adopted by voice vote.) (c) **Pumped storage facilities:** Provides that tax-exempt IDBs may be used to provide "pumped storage facilities." (Floor amendment by Sen. Meyrahm, adopted by voice vote.) (See also item 57 for energy tax credit and depreciation provisions for small scale hydroelectric facilities.) **Effective date:**—Applies with respect to obligations issued after October 24, 1980. (Sen. Packwood's amendment applies to obligations issued after September 30, 1980.) **Revenue effect:** (a) **Hydroelectric facilities:** The decrease in calendar year liabilities is expected to be $5 million in calendar year 1980; $57 million in 1981; $25 million in 1982; $67 million in 1983; and $175 million in fiscal year 1984. The revenue loss is $2 million in fiscal year 1980. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used for data integrity checks. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Programming Language: A set of instructions that a computer can understand and execute. 9. Software: A collection of programs and data that perform specific tasks on a computer. 10. System: A collection of hardware and software components that work together to achieve a common goal. 11. User Interface: The part of a computer program that allows users to interact with it. 12. Virtual Machine: A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 13. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 14. Web Service: A software service that is accessible over the internet and can be accessed by other applications. 15. XML: A markup language used for structuring and storing data. | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 43. Exemption for interest on IDBs for hydroelectric facilities (continued) | | | | | | (b) Certain existing hydroelectric additions: The decrease in calendar year liabilities is expected to be less than $1 million in 1981, $8 million in 1985, $8 million in 1990, and $66 million in the period 1980-1990. | | | | | | (c) Purpose storage facilities: The decrease in calendar year liabilities is expected to be less than $1 million in calendar year 1980, $2 million in 1981, $13 million in 1985, $128 million in 1990, and $71 million in the period 1980-1990. The revenue loss is less than $1 million in fiscal year 1980. | | | | | 1. **Introduction** 1.1 **Background and Context** 1.2 **Objectives and Scope** 1.3 **Research Questions** 2. **Literature Review** 2.1 **Theoretical Frameworks** 2.2 **Empirical Studies** 2.3 **Methodological Approaches** 3. **Methodology** 3.1 **Research Design** 3.2 **Data Collection** 3.3 **Data Analysis** 4. **Results and Discussion** 4.1 **Findings** 4.2 **Interpretation** 4.3 **Implications** 5. **Conclusion** 6. **References** 7. **Appendices** | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|-------------------| | 44. Exemption for interest on IDBs for renewable energy property | Interest on State or local obligations is generally exempt from Federal tax, except when the obligations are industrial development bonds (i.e., the proceeds are to be used by an exempt person). However, IDBs used to provide exempt activity facilities are tax-exempt. Property used to produce energy from renewable energy resources is not treated as an exempt activity facility under present law. | No provision. | Interest on IDBs used to provide renewable energy property would be exempt from Federal tax where two requirements are met: (1) the obligations are general obligations of a State, and issuance of the obligations requires that taxes be levied in sufficient amount to provide for payment of principal and interest on the obligations. Renewable energy property is defined as any property used to produce energy (including heat, electricity, and substitute fuels) from renewable energy sources (such as, wind, waste heat or water). (Floor amendment by Sen. Packwood; adopted by voice vote.) | (See also items 29 and 23 for residential energy tax credits and items 24, 25, 26, and 27 for business energy tax credits related to renewable energy sources.) **Effective date**—Applies to obligations issued after the date of enactment. **Revenue effect**—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $81 million in fiscal years 1980-1984, $84 million in 1985 and 1986, and $80 million in 1990; the revenue loss would be $66 million in the period 1980-1990. Fiscal year budget receipts would be reduced by less than $1 million in 1980. Provides that tax exempt industrial development bonds may be used to provide space heating facilities, the maximum portion of which is the generation of electric energy and steam or heat for industrial, agricultural, commercial or space heating purposes. The provision applies to the retrofitting of old systems and for the installation of new systems. (Floor amendment by Sen. Durenberger; adopted by voice vote.) (See also item 28 for energy tax credit for cogeneration equipment.) **Effective date**—Applies to obligations issued after September 30, 1980. | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 15. Exemption for interest on IDBs for energy generation property (continued) | | | Revenue effect—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $1 million in 1981, $2 million in 1985, and $10 million in 1990; the revenue loss would be $77 million in the period 1980-1990. (This estimate assumes that only property eligible for the energy credit will be allowed to issue IDBs.) | | The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software application that provides services for creating, maintaining, and managing databases. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used to verify the integrity of data. 7. Interface: A way of communicating between two systems or components. 8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that uses objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions. 9. Protocol: A set of rules and procedures for communication between two or more systems. 10. Query: A request for information from a database. 11. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 12. Software: A collection of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 13. System: A collection of hardware and software components that work together to perform specific tasks. 14. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer program that interacts with the user. 15. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 16. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 17. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language used to structure and organize data in a hierarchical manner. ### C. BUSINESS ENERGY TAX INCENTIVES—Continued #### Other Business Energy Tax Incentives | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | |------|-------------|------------|------------------| | 46. Tertiary injectants | Business expenses for intangible drilling costs (IDCs) generally are deductible currently. Expenditures for items with a useful life over one year generally must be capitalized and recouped through depreciation or amortization. | No provision. | Expenditures for nonhydrocarbon tertiary injectants would be deductible when the IDC was injected. **Effective date**—Effective for expenditures deducted for injectants after December 31, 1979. **Revenue effect**—Reduces calendar year tax liabilities by $8 million in 1980, $25 million in 1981, $35 million in 1982, and by $70 million for 1984-1990. Fiscal year 1980 budget receipts would be reduced by $8 million. | A tax credit would be available to public utility companies participating in a federally contracted residential energy efficiency program where the utility has incurred a net revenue loss because of the adoption of residential energy efficiency measures. It has suffered a net revenue loss. The amount of the credit could not exceed (1) the amount of revenue loss that would cause a decline in the rate of return, or (2) the tax liability after taking other tax credits in the taxable year. **Effective date**—Taxable years beginning after December 31, 1979. **Revenue effect**—Negligible. The *Energy Tax Act of 1978* provides a 15-percent residential energy tax credit on the first $2,000 of expenditures through 1980 for the installation of insulation, and other energy conservation items. The National Energy Conservation Policy Act of 1978 requires that under State or Federal programs utilities offer residential energy audits to their customers and provides weatherization grants up to $800 for lower income families and GNMA financing for energy conservation and solar energy installations in 1-4 unit residences. H.R. 1032 (as passed by the House) and S. 963 (as passed by the Senate) provides for several programs designed to improve residential energy efficiency. With respect to utilities, sec. 103 of the bill would require the Secretary of Energy to encourage authorities in each State to establish prototype residential energy efficiency programs, in which utilities are encouraged to participate. To implement such a program, under the program, the Secretary may require (after consultation with State regulatory authorities) public utilities in the program to make periodic payments not to exceed the annual value of savings realized as a result of energy saved. Up to $100 million would be authorized for a fund from which grants under the program may be made. If payments from utilities are not sufficient for these purposes, The following is a list of the most common types of software that are used in the field of computer science: 1. Operating Systems: These are the programs that control and manage the hardware and software resources of a computer system. 2. Programming Languages: These are the languages used to write computer programs. Some examples include Python, Java, C++, and JavaScript. 3. Database Management Systems: These are programs that allow users to store, retrieve, and manipulate data in a database. 4. Web Development Tools: These are programs that allow developers to create and maintain websites. Some examples include HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. 5. Software Development Tools: These are programs that help developers create and test software applications. Some examples include Git, Jenkins, and Eclipse. 6. Data Analysis Tools: These are programs that allow users to analyze and visualize data. Some examples include R, Python, and Tableau. 7. Cloud Computing Tools: These are programs that allow users to access and store data on remote servers. Some examples include Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud Platform. 8. Artificial Intelligence Tools: These are programs that allow computers to perform tasks that require human intelligence, such as recognizing speech or images. Some examples include TensorFlow, Keras, and PyTorch. 9. Machine Learning Tools: These are programs that allow computers to learn from data and make predictions based on that data. Some examples include scikit-learn, TensorFlow, and Keras. 10. Natural Language Processing Tools: These are programs that allow computers to understand and generate human language. Some examples include NLTK, spaCy, and Gensim. ### D. LOWER INCOME ENERGY ASSISTANCE | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 48. Low-income energy assistance | The FY 1980 continuing resolutions (P.L. 96-86 and P.L. 96-153) and the FY 1980 Interior appropriations legislation (P.L. 96-126), coupled with authority contained in section 222(a)(5) of the Economic Opportunity Act, provide for a three-part, $1.8 billion Federal program of energy cost assistance to low-income households in FY 1980. | No provisions. | The Senate substitute authorizes, for fiscal years 1981 and 1982 (with an automatic extension for 1983 unless rescinded by a vote of either House), a program of block grants to the States to provide assistance to lower-income families for heating and cooling costs. | | | **a. Funding level** | | | | | | | (1) **SSI recipients**: $400 million (2) **Block grants**: $800 million (3) **Crisis assistance**: $400 million | | | | | **b. Eligible households** | (1) **SSI recipients**: Recipients of Supplemental Security Income (2) **Block grants**: No restriction (3) **Crisis assistance**: Households who receive SSI or whose income is less than 125 percent of the poverty line | | | | The amount authorized is $3,025 billion for fiscal year 1981 and $4,025 billion for fiscal years 1982 and 1983. Eligibility is restricted to households who have income less than the Bureau of Labor Statistics lower living standard, and the BLS lower living standard, which is the official basis for eligibility determinations under the CETA program, is adjusted by family size and geographic location. The national average amount for a 4 person family for 1979 is $11,600. In addition, States may give assistance, regardless of income, to households who receive food stamps, AFDC needs-tested cash payments, or SSI, except for SSI recipients who live in another household and whose benefits are therefore reduced, SSI children living with non-SST parents, and SSI recipients living in Medicaid institutions. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software application that provides services for creating, maintaining, and managing databases. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used to verify the integrity of data. 7. Interface: A way for two systems or components to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources and communicate. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer. 11. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 12. System: A collection of interrelated parts working together to achieve a common goal. 13. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with users, allowing them to input commands and receive output. 14. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 15. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 16. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices. 17. XML (Extensible Markup Language): A markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 18. YAML (YAML Ain't Markup Language): A data serialization language that is used to represent structured data in a human-readable format. 19. ZFS (Zettabyte File System): A file system developed by Sun Microsystems that provides high performance, scalability, and reliability. 20. Zero Trust: A security model that assumes no trust in any user or device, regardless of its location or identity. ### D. LOWER INCOME ENERGY ASSISTANCE—Continued | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 48. Low-income energy assistance (continued) | | | | | | c. Allocations to States | | | | | | (1) **SSI recipients**: One-third of the funds are distributed according to a State's number of SSI recipients (relative to the total for all States), one-third according to heating degree days weighted by households below 125 percent of the poverty line, and one-third according to the State's 1978 to 1979 change in home heating expenditures. | | | | | | (2) **Block grants**: Half of the funds are allocated according to each State's share of heating degree days squared weighted by households below 125 percent of the poverty line, and the other half of the funds is allocated according to the State's 1978 to 1979 change in home heating expenditures. | | | | | | (3) **Crisis assistance**: $201 million is distributed under a formula under which half the funds are allocated according to heating degree days and the other half according to the 1978-79 change in home heating expenditures; $150 million is allocated according to the formula described in (2) above; $46 million is reserved for administrative costs, special emergencies, and direct grants for aid to Indians and migrants. | | | | | Ninety-five percent of the total amount appropriated is allotted by various formulas to the 50 States and the District of Columbia. The base formula allocates half of the amount according to a State's aggregate residential energy expenditure (relative to the total for all States), and half according to heating degree days squared, weighted by number of households below the BLS lower living standard. However, the allotment of any State otherwise entitled to less than $100 million would be increased by an amount equal to twice the level of $120 per year to each AFDC, SSI, and food stamp household in the State. Further, no State would receive less than the lower of the amounts it would have received under either of two alternative formulas: Increases in allotments which result from either the minimum or from the base formula are reduced in proportion reduction in the allotments of other States, except that up to $25 million is authorized to meet the additional costs resulting from the application of the minimum benefit provision to certain states. The remaining five percent of the total amount appropriated is reserved for the following purposes: Community Service Administration's crisis intervention program ($100 million), and matching incentive grants to States for State initiatives under this program. ### D. LOWER INCOME ENERGY ASSISTANCE—Continued | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 48. Low-income energy assistance (continued) | | | | | | **d. State plan requirements** | | | | | | (1) **SSI recipients**: One-time payments are made by HEW directly to SSI recipients, by direct deposit or check mailed by HEW, using the State's SSI equivalent payment into the State's allocation. However, payments to SSI couples are to be 1.5 times the payments to single households, and no payments can be more than $250. SSI recipients in medicaid institutions are not eligible for these payments. | | | | Each State would be required to submit an energy assistance plan, which would be subject to approval by the Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare. The following would be among the provisions allowed or required under any approved State plan: 1. Residential energy assistance could be given directly to eligible households, in the form of either cash or coupons; to suppliers of energy to these households, in either cash or State tax credits; and to operators of service businesses. "Pay-as-you-go" rates and overages would be treated equitably. 2. Priority generally would be given to the lowest-income households, to the aged and disabled, and to those with the largest energy costs in relation to their income. 3. The amount of assistance could vary within the State, according to such factors as type of fuel used and degree days in different locations. 4. Energy suppliers who participate in providing assistance would have to agree to various conditions including notice and delay requirements before shutting off service to eligible households. These notice and delay requirements would not apply to service suppliers. 5. States would be required to provide 50 percent of administrative cost from non-Federal sources. Total administrative costs, other than under exceptional circumstances, would be limited to 10 percent of program costs (i.e., 5 percent Federal and 5 percent non-Federal). | | | | The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: A collection of data organized in a structured manner so that it can be accessed, managed, and updated efficiently. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software system that provides an interface to create, store, retrieve, update, and manage databases. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a coded form to prevent unauthorized access. 6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values using a hash function. 7. Interface: A boundary between two systems or components where they interact with each other. 8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that uses objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions. 9. Protocol: A set of rules and conventions governing communication between different systems or components. 10. Query: A request for information from a database or other data source. 11. Security: The measures taken to protect data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 12. Software: A collection of instructions and data that directs a computer to perform specific tasks. 13. System: A collection of interrelated components working together to achieve a common goal. 14. User Interface (UI): The part of a software application that interacts directly with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback. 15. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another operating system, providing a platform for running multiple operating systems simultaneously. These terms are fundamental to understanding the concepts and practices in computer science, and they are widely used across various fields and industries. ### D. LOWER INCOME ENERGY ASSISTANCE—Continued | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 48. Low-income energy assistance (continued) | Any assistance may not be counted as income or resources under any Federal, State or local program of assistance or taxation. | There is no tax provision in present law dealing with residential heating costs. | 1. Any assistance provided under this Act could not be counted as income or resources under any Federal, State or local program of assistance or taxation. 2. The Food Stamp Act would be amended to provide that any increase in State public assistance benefits due to rising costs of heating and cooling, if the increased cost of heating or energy would not be counted as income in the Food Stamp program. 3. Provides a nonrefundable tax credit for 1976, 1978, and 1981 equal to a percentage of the amount spent during the year for heating a permanent residence in the United States. The price percentage, called "residential energy price percentage" (REPP), is different for each heating source and is determined by the Treasury as follows: First, for each heating source, determine the amount by which its price exceeds what the price would have been had it increased at the overall rate of inflation since 1975, expressed as a percentage of the current The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used for data integrity checks. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources and communicate. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback. 16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices. 19. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 20. YAML: Yet Another Markup Language, a data serialization language that is easy to read and write, and is commonly used for configuration files. | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 49. Tax credit for users of residential energy (continued) | | | | | price. Second, multiply this figure by 25 percent to determine the REEP for each heating source. (Added by the Senate by Senator Durkin, adopted by voice vote.) The credit is subject to a minimum of $30 per household ($20 in 1979). The maximum amount of the credit is $200 per household. The maximum is reduced by 10 cents for each dollar by which adjusted gross income exceeds $20,000 ($3,000 in 1979), so that no credit is allowed for tax years with incomes of $22,000 or more ($20,000 or more in 1979). For each household, the credit is allowed to only one person, the individual who furnishes the largest portion of household expenses. This person will be allowed the credit for all heating expenses of the household, whether or not he or she actually paid for these expenses. In the case of a dwelling unit, the heating costs of which are not separable from the cost of using energy for other purposes, such as cooling, cooking, or lighting, the Treasury is to determine the portion of the energy cost which is properly allocable to heating, taking into account regional differences in climate and heating costs. The taxpayer must pay separately for heating costs and allocate the credit as a percentage of their rent. A renter's credit percentage is the Treasury's estimate of the percentage of rent used by landlords to purchase heating energy, taking into account regional differences in climate and heating costs, multiplied by the REEP for the energy source used to heat the taxpayer's rented unit. **Effective date**—Available for taxable years beginning after December 31, 1978, and before January 1, 1982. **Revenue effect**—It is estimated that this provision will reduce calendar year tax liability by $860 million in 1980, $830 million in 1981, and $807 million in 1982. In fiscal year 1980 budget receipts will be reduced by $1,292 million. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science. It is not exhaustive, but rather a selection of terms that are essential for understanding the basics of computer science. 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure to solve a problem or perform a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data in a computer so that it can be accessed efficiently. 3. Database: A collection of data organized in a structured manner. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software system that manages databases. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can access it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Input/Output (I/O) Device: A device that allows a computer to interact with the outside world. 9. Programming Language: A set of instructions that a computer can understand and execute. 10. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 11. System: A collection of hardware and software components that work together to accomplish a specific task. 12. User Interface: The way a user interacts with a computer system. 13. Virtual Machine: A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 14. Web Browser: A software application that allows a user to browse the internet. 15. Web Server: A software application that serves web pages to users. 16. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language used to structure data in a way that can be easily parsed by computers. ### E. TRUST FUNDS AND USES OF WINDFALL TAX REVENUES | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 50. Establishment of trust fund | **Social Security Trust Fund**—Social security benefits are financed through payroll taxes that are deposited in a trust fund. At the start of 1981, the social security payroll tax rate will rise from 6.13 to 6.65 percent each for employers and employees, and the wage base for the tax will rise to $29,700. These changes in legislation as passed were: alone, they will increase total budget receipts by $16.6 billion in calendar year 1981 and will increase trust fund receipts by $18.7 billion. The general funds of the Treasury are not used generally to finance social security benefit payments. | **Energy Trust Fund**—Receipts from the windfall profit tax would be deposited in an Energy Trust Fund from which expenditures would be made in accordance with authorization and appropriation acts. | **Taxpayer Trust Fund**—The Taxpayer Trust Fund would receive deposits from the general funds that would equal the increased income tax receipts attributable to the decoupling of prices. The deposits would be limited to the amount needed to offset, for 1981 the increases in social security taxes and the windfall profit tax. The balance of the Taxpayer Trust Fund would be set aside for whatever action Congress would enact for 1981. | | | 51. Reservation of windfall profit tax revenues for certain railroad freight transportation uses | Under sec. 504 of the Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act of 1976, $800 million was made available to railroads through a redeemable preferred share program for rehabilitation of railroad rights-of-way. | No provision. | | | From the receipts of the windfall profit tax through September 30, 1980, the Secretary of the Treasury shall reserve $1 billion, until Congress authorizes or appropriates funds for improvements in the domestic railroad system, to be apportioned— (1) not less than $800 million for freight railroad rehabilitation, improvements and modernization; and (2) not less than $80 million to be located and administered with regard to State rail freight assistance programs, and (3) not less than $240 million for passenger rail rehabilitation, operating assistance and improvements financing. **Effective date**—Date of enactment. The following is a list of the most common types of errors that can occur in a database: 1. **Data Integrity Errors**: These occur when the data in the database does not meet the rules and constraints defined for it. For example, if a field is supposed to contain only positive numbers but a negative number is entered. 2. **Concurrency Errors**: These happen when multiple users try to access or modify the same data at the same time, leading to conflicts. For instance, two users trying to update the same record simultaneously could result in one user's changes being lost. 3. **Deadlock Errors**: This is a specific type of concurrency error where two or more transactions are waiting indefinitely for each other to release resources they have locked. It can lead to a situation where neither transaction can proceed. 4. **Logical Errors**: These are errors in the logic of the application that causes it to behave incorrectly. For example, a program might be designed to add two numbers but instead subtracts them due to a coding mistake. 5. **Physical Errors**: These are errors that occur at the physical level, such as hardware failures or corruption of storage media. For example, a hard drive crash could result in loss of data. 6. **Semantic Errors**: These are errors related to the meaning of the data rather than its structure. For example, a field meant to store dates might be filled with text instead of actual date values. 7. **Syntax Errors**: These are errors in the syntax of the SQL queries used to manipulate the database. For example, using an incorrect keyword or missing a closing parenthesis. 8. **Security Errors**: These are breaches in security that allow unauthorized access to the database or its contents. For example, a hacker might exploit a vulnerability in the database software to gain access. 9. **Performance Errors**: These are issues related to the speed and efficiency of the database operations. For example, a query that takes too long to execute might be due to inefficient indexing or join operations. 10. **User Interface Errors**: These are errors in the design or implementation of the user interface that make it difficult for users to interact with the database effectively. For example, a poorly designed form might be confusing or difficult to use. Addressing these errors requires a combination of technical skills, good database design practices, and robust testing procedures. Regular maintenance and updates to the database system can also help prevent many of these issues from occurring. | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 52. Repeal of carryover basis provisions | The basis of property passing or acquired from a decedent dying after December 31, 1973, is to be "carried over" from the decedent, with certain adjustments, to the estate or beneficiaries for purposes of determining gain or loss on sales and exchanges by the estate or beneficiaries. | No provision. | Carryover basis is repealed. Property passing or acquired from or acquired from a decedent will continue to have a basis equal to its estate tax value. With respect to property passing or acquired from decedents dying after 1976 and before November 7, 1978, (the date after the date of enactment of the Revenue Act of 1978), the carryover basis will apply only to property owned by the executor of an estate for all property of the decedent. | | **Effective date.**—Applies in respect of estates of decedents dying after December 31, 1976. **Revenue effect.**—Reduces calendar year tax liability by $36 million in 1981, $85 million in 1982, $830 million in 1983, $950 million in 1990, and $4,392 million in 1989-90. The loss in fiscal years 1980 and 1981 is negligible. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data in a computer program to make it easier to access, manipulate, and store. 3. Database: A collection of data organized in a structured manner so that it can be accessed, managed, and updated efficiently. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software application that provides services for creating, maintaining, and using databases. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a coded form so that it cannot be read by unauthorized users. 6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that uses objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions. 9. Operating System (OS): A software system that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to express computations that can be performed on a computer. 11. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 12. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 13. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer program that allows users to interact with the program. 14. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 15. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 16. Web Service: A software system designed to support interoperable machine-to-machine interaction over a network. 17. XML (Extensible Markup Language): A markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. ### F. OTHER TAX PROVISIONS | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 53. Exclusion of interest and dividends from gross income | Interest income is included in gross income. No special deductions, exclusions or credits are available to reduce the rate of taxation on this form of income. When a savings institution uses the term dividends to describe the income earned on a savings deposit, the income is considered as interest for tax purposes. Gross income does not include up to $200 ($400 on a joint return) in "dividends received by individuals from domestic corporations." | No provision. | Provides an exemption to individuals of $200 ($400 on a joint return) from gross income from "dividends received from domestic corporations and interest received from domestic sources. Interest from a domestic source, for the purposes of this bill would include (1) interest or dividends received from a deposit in a bank, trust or thrift institution; (2) interest or dividends regulated under Federal or State law or protected and guaranteed under State law; (2) interest received from financial institutions and financial intermediaries (including regulated investment companies); (3) interest received on obligations in registered form that were issued by a governmental unit; and (4) interest of other kinds otherwise taxable) received from a governmental unit or agency. The forms of obligations that would bear interest which would for the exclusion would include interest-bearing bank deposits, certificates or notes of deposit, government paper, bonds, notes and bills. The other kinds would include certificates of investment issued under regulations of State securities law. (Floor amendment by Sen. Bentsen and others, adopted by voice vote.) | | **Effective date:**—The amendment would apply in taxable years that begin after December 31, 1980. **Revenue effect:**—Calendar year tax liabilities would be reduced by $2,092 million in 1981, $2,208 million in 1982, $2,242 million in 1983. Fiscal year budget receipts would decline by $334 million in 1981, $2,274 million in 1982 and $2,268 million in 1983. Tax liabilities would be reduced by $26,141 million in the period 1981-1990. (These estimates were made with the assumption that the exclusion on a single return would be $200.) 1. **Introduction** 2. **Background** 3. **Literature Review** 4. **Methodology** 5. **Results** 6. **Discussion** 7. **Conclusion** | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | |------|-------------|------------|------------------| | 54. Involuntary liquidation of LIFO inventory | LIFO inventory profits (excess of cost of cost of FIFO inventory) must be recognized when LIFO inventory is sold, even if sale is due to conditions beyond taxpayer's control. | No provision. | LIFO inventory profits will not be recognized if inventory is sold under currently replaced provisions of DOE regulations, governmental request or interruption of foreign trade and the taxpayer replaces the inventory within three years. (Floor amendment by Sen. Stevens, adopted by voice vote.) | | 55. Recognition of inventory profits on certain liquidations | On certain liquidations of corporations the LIFO inventory profit (excess of cost of FIFO inventory over cost of LIFO inventory) is permanently eliminated. | No provision. | | **Revenue effect**—Revenue loss of $85 million in each of the fiscal years 1982 and 1983 and $80 million in 1984, which are attributable to involuntary liquidations occurring in calendar year 1980. (These estimates are based on the assumption that the Secretary will invoke this provision for all shipments of oil shipments during 1980.) On corporate liquidations (other than those where adjusted basis of property is determined under section 334(b)(1)) the LIFO inventory profit is recognized notwithstanding other applicable non-recognition provisions. **Effective date**—Effective for plans of liquidation adopted after date of enactment. **Revenue effect**—Revenue gain for fiscal year 1980 of $18 million and a revenue gain for calendar year 1980 of $40 million. In each fiscal and calendar year thereafter, there will be a revenue gain of $40 million. (The figures are based on information obtained from a selected number of cases known to the Treasury and the figures are intended to provide representative averages during the forecast period.) The following is a list of the most important books on the subject of the history of the United States, arranged in chronological order: 1. The American Revolution by John Adams (1776) 2. The Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay (1787-1788) 3. The Constitution of the United States (1787) 4. The Bill of Rights (1791) 5. The War of 1812 by Francis Parkman (1885) 6. The Civil War by James McPherson (1988) 7. The Gilded Age by H. W. Brands (2008) 8. The Progressive Era by Robert H. Wiebe (1962) 9. The Great Depression by John Kenneth Galbraith (1952) 10. The Cold War by John Lewis Gaddis (2005) 11. The Vietnam War by Stanley Karnow (1983) 12. The Watergate Scandal by Richard Nixon (1978) 13. The Reagan Revolution by Ronald Reagan (1987) 14. The Clinton Presidency by James A. Garfield (1995) 15. The Bush Presidency by George W. Bush (2001) 16. The Obama Presidency by Barack Obama (2009) 17. The Trump Presidency by Donald Trump (2017) | Item | Present Law | House Bill | Senate Amendment | Conference Action | |------|-------------|------------|------------------|-------------------| | 56. Oil imports | Section 223(b) of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 allows the President to restrict oil imports. | No provision. | Amends Energy Production and Conservation Act (EP&CA) to grant Congress the power to disapprove, by joint resolution, any presidential rule establishing oil import fees, duties, or tariffs, or setting import quotas on crude oil, residual fuel oil, or refined petroleum products. Congress would have 30 days after the submission of any such rule to disapprove it by joint resolution, which could be vetoed (subject to a Congressional override). (Floor amendment by Sen. Johnston, adopted by voice vote.) | | | 57. Oil import information report | Under the DOE Reorganization Act, the Energy Information Administration of DOE may require certain foreign countries to file reports pertaining to their businesses. | No provision. | Requires monthly reports to be filed with the Energy Information Administration of DOE by any person who imported 50,000 barrels or more in one quarter of the prior year. The reports would have to contain information relating to the person's worldwide sales and imports. (Floor amendment by Sen. Bumpers, adopted by voice vote.) | | | 58. Report by National Academy of Sciences on national energy research and development | No provision. | No provision. | The Secretary of Energy shall enter into an agreement with the National Academy of Sciences for a review of Department of Energy research and development programs for fiscal years 1980-1980. Review areas are to be selected for relevance to alternative energy systems and relevance to research and development opportunities under Energy Department programs. Emphasis is to be given research of nonnuclear areas, and identification of promising technologies. First annual report is to be completed by the end of fiscal year 1980. (Floor amendment by Sen. Glenn, adopted by voice vote.) | | 1. **Introduction** 2. **Background** 3. **Objectives** 4. **Methodology** 5. **Results** 6. **Discussion** 7. **Conclusion** ## II. COMPARATIVE REVENUE EFFECTS ### A.—Summary Comparison of Estimated Revenue Effects of House and Senate Versions of H.R. 3919, Calendar Years 1979–1990 (In millions of dollars) | Item | 1979 | 1980 | 1981 | 1982 | 1983 | 1984 | 1985 | 1986 | 1987 | 1988 | 1989 | 1990 | Total 1979–1990 | |-------------------------------------------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|-----------------| | **House bill:** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Windfall profit tax | 59 | 7,396| 16,202| 20,673| 22,163| 23,868| 26,093| 27,941| 29,740| 31,654| 33,994| 36,449| 276,821 | | **Senate amendment:** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Windfall profit tax | 11 | 6,312| 13,343| 17,470| 17,608| 17,706| 17,554| 17,626| 17,482| 17,700| 17,984| 177,827 | | Residential energy incentives | −83 | −422 | −530 | −657 | −667 | −819 | −1,027| −600 | −719 | −807 | −1,034| −1,243| −8,668 | | Business energy incentives | −197 | −420 | −566 | −1,461| −1,560| −1,617| −1,699| −1,844| −2,143| −2,519| −3,000| −17,002 | | Home heating credit | −947 | −1,901| −1,997| | | | | | | | | | −4,845 | | Repeal of carryover basis | (−) | −38 | −95 | −163 | −238 | −330 | −440 | −660 | −810 | −950 | −4,302| −4,302 | | Interest and dividend exclusion | −2,902| −2,208| −2,329| −2,457| −2,592| −2,735| −2,885| −3,044| −3,211| −3,388| −26,941| −26,941 | | **Total, Senate amendment** | −1,901| 3,792| 8,268 | 13,544| 12,810| 12,534| 12,140| 11,618| 10,748| 10,126| 9,403| 116,069 | 1 The windfall profit tax gains a small amount of revenue in 1979 because the estimates assume that it reduces intangible drilling reductions in that year. 2 Less than $1 million. 3 This estimate assumes a $200 exclusion, not $201. 4 These totals include $6 million revenue effect from 1978 liabilities. ## II. COMPARATIVE REVENUE EFFECTS—Continued ### B.—Comparison of Estimated Revenue Effects of the Crude Oil Windfall Profit Tax in H.R. 3919 as Passed by the House and by the Senate, Calendar Years 1989–1990 (In millions of dollars) | Item | Under the House bill | Net gain from windfall profit tax: | Calendar year liabilities | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------|-----------------------------------|----------------------------| | | 1990 | 1991 | 1982 | 1983 | 1984 | 1985 | 1986 | 1987 | 1988 | 1989 | 1990 | Total | | (1) No denial of percentage depletion .................................. | -397 | -803 | -975 | -903 | -1,007 | -1,138 | -1,262 | -1,381 | -1,520 | -1,667 | -1,818 | -12,431 | | (2) Exemption for 1st 1,000 barrels per day of independent producer | -446 | -2,376 | -2,948 | -3,259 | -3,582 | -3,939 | -4,298 | -4,708 | -5,196 | -5,703 | -6,222 | -42,675 | | (3) 75-percent rate on tier 1 oil ....................................... | 86 | 452 | 613 | 315 | 33 | 1,422 | 1,496 | 1,301 | 1,122 | 958 | 16,861 | 1,498 | | (4) Reduction of tier 2 base by 20 cents ................................ | 634 | 1,560 | 1,932 | 2,078 | 2,148 | 1,835 | 1,697 | 1,496 | 1,115 | 112 | 1,288 | 1,288 | | (5) Reduction of phase-up of tier 2 base ................................ | 143 | 143 | 147 | 128 | 109 | 111 | 115 | 112 | 419 | 1,176 | 1,897 | 1,897 | | (6) Removal of phase-up of tier 2 base ................................... | -492 | -21 | -110 | -23 | -11 | -11 | -33 | -42 | -58 | -191 | -1,274 | -1,274 | | (7) Including certain Alaskan oil in tier 2 ................................| -524 | -790 | -1,248 | -1,836 | -2,544 | -3,409 | -4,287 | -5,306 | -6,432 | -7,508 | -8,728 | -42,765 | | (8) Tax new oil at 10 percent on $20 base ................................| -204 | -347 | -567 | -881 | -1,314 | -1,935 | -2,404 | -2,615 | -2,840 | -3,103 | -3,381 | -10,509 | | (9) Tax incremental tertiary oil at 20 percent on $17 base .......... | -232 | -198 | -188 | -163 | -107 | -190 | -216 | -243 | -274 | -309 | -347 | -2,531 | | (10) Tax heavy oil at 20 percent on $17 base ............................| -30 | -94 | -117 | -60 | -7 | -190 | -216 | -243 | -274 | -309 | -347 | -2,531 | | (11) Including high water-cut oil in tier 2 ................................| -4 | -33 | -41 | -22 | -2 | -58 | -54 | -46 | -40 | -37 | -35 | -103 | | (12) Including Alaska oil in tier 2 ......................................| -17 | -53 | -62 | -24 | -21 | -80 | -89 | -9 | -16 | -14 | -19 | -199 | | (13) Exemption for oil income of chartered schools and hospitals .... | -7 | -20 | -23 | -19 | -1 | -4 | -4 | -4 | -4 | -4 | -4 | -22 | | (14) Exemption for oil income of charitable schools and hospitals ... | -39 | -80 | -9 | -4 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -22 | | (15) Exemption for front-end financing oil released to finance CO₂ and chemical surfactant; incremental tertiary ......................... | -2 | -7 | -9 | -4 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -22 | | (16) Expansion of marginal oil definition ................................ | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | -22 | **Under the Senate amendment** | | 1990 | 1991 | 1982 | 1983 | 1984 | 1985 | 1986 | 1987 | 1988 | 1989 | 1990 | Total | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|----------|----------|----------|----------|----------|----------|----------|----------|----------|----------|----------|----------| | | 6,312 | 13,343 | 17,070 | 17,430 | 17,706 | 17,554 | 17,626 | 17,482 | 17,700 | 17,984 | 177,827 | | The House and the Senate bills would raise a small amount of income tax revenue in 1979 because the estimates assume that the tax on newly discovered oil reduces intangible drilling deductions in that year. *Notes:* Details may not add to totals because of rounding. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): A software application that provides services for creating, maintaining, and managing databases. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data to a fixed-size value, typically used for data integrity checks. 7. Interface: A boundary between two systems or components, allowing them to communicate with each other. 8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that uses objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions. 9. Protocol: A set of rules governing communication between different systems or components. 10. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 11. Software: A collection of instructions that directs a computer to perform specific tasks. 12. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 13. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer program that interacts with the user, providing visual and/or auditory feedback. 14. Virtualization: The creation of a virtual version of a physical resource, such as a server, storage device, or network. 15. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 16. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data over a distance without the need for physical wires. 17. XML (Extensible Markup Language): A markup language used for structuring and storing data in a hierarchical format. 18. YAML (YAML Ain't Markup Language): A human-readable data serialization format used for configuration files and data exchange. 19. ZFS (Zettabyte File System): A file system designed to handle large amounts of data efficiently, with features like snapshots, compression, and encryption. 20. Zero Trust: An approach to security that assumes no trust in any system or component, requiring continuous verification and validation of all access attempts. ### II. COMPARATIVE REVENUE EFFECTS—Continued #### C.—Estimated Revenue Effects of Residential Energy Tax Credits Contained in H.R. 3919 as Passed by the Senate, Calendar Years 1979-1990 (In millions of dollars) | Item | 1979 | 1980 | 1981 | 1982 | 1983 | 1984 | 1985 | 1986 | 1987 | 1988 | 1989 | 1990 | Total 1979-90 | |------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|----------------| | **Conservation credits:** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Credit for heat pumps. | -7 | -32 | -37 | -51 | -66 | -88 | -123 | | | | | | -404 | | Credit to landlords (10 percent). | -14 | -51 | -54 | -57 | -61 | -67 | -78 | | | | | | -382 | | Eliminate principal residence requirement. | -1 | -5 | -6 | -6 | -6 | -7 | -7 | | | | | | -39 | | Credit for airtight wood stoves. | -22 | -57 | -53 | -57 | | | | | | | | | -169 | | Credit for woodburning furnaces. | -5 | -10 | -10 | -10 | | | | | | | | | -35 | | Credit for coal furnaces (25 percent). | -7 | -32 | -42 | -52 | | | | | | | | | -133 | | Credit for propane and natural gas furnaces and boilers. | -9 | -136 | -188 | -229 | -274 | -325 | -402 | | | | | | -1,561 | | Credit for fuel-oil heating plants. | (?) | -1 | -2 | -2 | -4 | -5 | -6 | | | | | | -20 | | **Solar, wind and geothermal credits:** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Raise credit rate to 30 percent and extend to the year 2000. | -14 | -72 | -92 | -119 | -150 | -181 | -217 | -514 | -616 | -740 | -887 | -1,065 | -4,667 | | Credit to landlords (40 percent). | -4 | -21 | -28 | -36 | -45 | -66 | -79 | -95 | -117 | -136 | -164 | -194 | -846 | | Eliminate principal residence requirement. | (?) | -2 | -2 | -3 | -4 | -5 | -7 | -8 | -10 | -11 | -14 | -171 | -71 | | Passive solar tax credit. | -3 | -18 | -35 | -57 | -86 | -122 | | | | | | | -321 | | **Total** | -83 | -422 | -530 | -657 | -819 | -1,027 | -600 | -719 | -867 | -1,034 | -1,243 | -1,634 | -8,668 | 1 The table contains only items of the Senate bill which involve significant revenue changes. 2 Less than $1 million. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used for data integrity checks. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources and communicate. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback. 16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices. 19. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 20. YAML: Yet Another Markup Language, a data serialization language that is easy to read and write, and is commonly used for configuration files. ### Table D.—Estimated Revenue Effects of Business Energy Tax Incentives Contained in the Crude Oil Windfall Profit Tax Act of 1979 as Passed by the Senate, Calendar Years 1980-90 | Item | 1980 | 1981 | 1982 | 1983 | 1984 | 1985 | 1986 | 1987 | 1988 | 1989 | 1990 | Total | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|-------| | **1. Business energy investment credits:** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Solar and wind property | -30 | -57 | -94 | -221 | -344 | -440 | -495 | -548 | -605 | -650 | -739 | -4,251| | Geothermal equipment | -24 | -28 | -31 | -34 | -37 | -40 | -43 | -46 | -53 | -57 | -73 | -442 | | Ocean thermal equipment | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | -311 | | Small-scale hydroelectric facilities: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Energy credits | -3 | -5 | -9 | -13 | -17 | -23 | -45 | -95 | -173 | -284 | -419 | -1,086| | AWR changes | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | -92 | | Cogeneration equipment | -37 | -62 | -92 | -97 | -77 | -42 | -13 | -6 | -1 | -1 | -38 | -427 | | Co-generation equipment at major fuel burning installations | -6 | -11 | -15 | -17 | -11 | -5 | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | 65 | | Modifications to alumina electrolytic cells | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -12 | | Industrial heat pumps | -5 | -7 | -9 | -10 | -8 | -6 | -52 | -68 | -74 | -655 | -655 | -46 | | Petroleum coke and pitch | -43 | -50 | -56 | -60 | -58 | -63 | -63 | -68 | -74 | -2,701| -2,701| -655 | | Biomass equipment | -6 | -10 | -15 | -207 | -249 | -285 | -327 | -388 | -433 | -470 | -1,032| -1,032| | Affirmative commitments | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | -54 | | Truck aerodynamic equipment | -3 | -4 | -3 | -2 | -8 | -14 | -24 | -8 | -14 | -54 | -54 | -290 | | Electric motor vehicles | -1 | -1 | -2 | -4 | -8 | -14 | -24 | -8 | -14 | -54 | -54 | -290 | | Alcohol liquids | -2 | -17 | -23 | -30 | -40 | -7 | -4 | -2 | -2 | -125 | -125 | -36 | | Intercity buses | -5 | -5 | -6 | -6 | -7 | -7 | -7 | -7 | -7 | -36 | -36 | -277 | | Coke and coke ovens | -37 | -46 | -56 | -59 | -45 | -23 | -7 | -3 | -1 | -110 | -110 | -277 | | Certain equipment for producing feedstocks | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | | **Total, investment credits** | -203 | -304 | -414 | -1,234| -1,297| -1,191| -1,152| -1,208| -1,378| -1,604| -1,911| -11,902| | **2. Alternative energy production credits:** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Qualifying processed wood fuels | -6 | -10 | -23 | -42 | -44 | -7 | -2 | -134 | -11 | -11 | -11 | -134 | | Steam from agricultural by-products | -1 | -2 | -2 | -3 | -3 | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | | Reference price changes | -4 | -17 | -21 | -21 | -21 | -21 | -21 | -21 | -21 | -21 | -21 | -21 | | Tight sands | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | (e) | | Indexation deflator change | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | -1 | | **Total, alternative energy production credits** | -12 | -29 | -25 | -45 | -47 | -7 | -2 | -167 | -11 | -11 | -11 | -167 | See footnotes at end of table. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that controls the hardware and software resources of a computer. 10. Programming Language: A set of instructions that a computer can understand and execute. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of related components that work together to achieve a common goal. 15. User: An individual who uses a computer or other electronic device to perform tasks. 16. Virtualization: The creation of virtual versions of physical resources such as servers, storage, and networks. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices. 19. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 20. YAML: Yet Another Markup Language, a markup language that is used to represent structured data. ### D.—Estimated Revenue Effects of Business Energy Tax Incentives Contained in the Crude Oil Windfall Profit Tax Act of 1979 as Passed by the Senate, Calendar Years 1980-90—Continued (In millions of dollars) | Item | 1980 | 1981 | 1982 | 1983 | 1984 | 1985 | 1986 | 1987 | 1988 | 1989 | 1990 | Total 1980-1990 | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|------|----------------| | **3. Incentives for alcohol used in motor fuels:** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | New credit and changes in the excise tax exemption. | -2 | -3 | -3 | -5 | -57 | -197 | -233 | -282 | -330 | -579 | -429 | -1,920 | | Credit for coal-based ethanol. | | | | | | | | | | -75 | -101 | -252 | | **Total incentives for alcohol used in motor fuels:** | -2 | -3 | -3 | -5 | -57 | -197 | -233 | -307 | -381 | -454 | -530 | -2,172 | | **4. Deduction for tertiary injectants** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **5. Industrial development bonds:** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Hydroelectric facilities | -5 | -19 | -34 | -54 | -76 | -100 | -126 | -163 | -208 | -274 | -361 | -1,420 | | Solid waste disposal facilities | -1 | -3 | -5 | -9 | -14 | -19 | -24 | -30 | -37 | -46 | -53 | -241 | | Change in eligible purchases | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Suitable alcohol | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Electrically suitable to private sector | | | | | | | | | | | | | | State renewable resource program | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Combined with hydroelectric additions | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Pumped storage | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Cogeneration projects | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **6. Other provisions:** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Involuntary liquidation of LIFO inventories | -85 | -85 | -85 | -80 | -40 | -40 | -40 | -40 | -40 | -40 | -40 | -256 | | Taxing inventory profits at corporate liquidations | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 440 | | **Total, industrial development bonds** | 40 | -45 | -45 | -40 | -40 | -40 | -40 | -40 | -40 | -40 | -40 | 190 | | **Total, Business Tax Incentives:** | -7 | -29 | -71 | -130 | -133 | -257 | -317 | -363 | -418 | -495 | -592 | -2,872 | --- 1 Neither the regular investment credit changes nor the changes for eligible public utility property are listed as separate items but rather are included in the estimates for the type of property involved. 2 These estimates are based on the assumption that the Secretary will invoke this provision for disruptions of oil shipments. 3 This total includes $6 million in calendar year liability reductions from 1978 and 1979. 4 The estimates for calendar years 1984-1990 assume that the Federal excise taxes on gasoline, diesel fuel, and other motor fuels will be reduced to 1½ cents per gallon on October 1, 1984, when the Highway Trust Fund is scheduled to expire, and the figures are intended to provide representative averages during the forecast period. | Name | Position | Team | |------------|-----------|---------------| | John Smith | Forward | New York Knicks | | Jane Doe | Guard | Los Angeles Lakers | | Mike Johnson | Center | Chicago Bulls | | Sarah Lee | Point Guard | Houston Rockets | | David Brown | Small Forward | Miami Heat | **Total Players:** 5 **Average Age:** 28 years old **Total Salary:** $10,000,000 per year **Team Location:** New York City
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Ancient range reveals totems WENDY BARRETT talks to Vernice Gillies, Larry Blight and Ron Grey about the powerful connections between the Porongurup Range and the Menang people. As you scale the boulder-strewn slopes towards the summit of the Porongurup Range National Park, there is a stirring of something primal. The ancient granite landscape evokes a sense of sacred timelessness which is felt more profoundly the higher you ascend. Up high there is less disturbance of the landscape. Lower down are reminders of the logging that began in the late 1800s when stately Karri giants were cut down for their timber. Some venerable specimens remain but we can only imagine what gargantuan beauties lived here before Europeans came to the area. Porongurup is an ancient mountain range in an ancient land – known to the original inhabitants of the area as Borongur. Forty-eight kilometres north of Albany, the 12km long and 3km wide range has been weathered down to its current picturesque granite domes over the course of hundreds of millions of years. It is home to around 700 species of native plants, a significant number in such a relatively small area of less than 3,200 hectares. Where Europe sustained geological upheaval as recently as 20,000 years ago in the last ice age, this part of Australia, in contrast, has remained untouched by glacial covering for over 250 million years. This lack of disturbance allowed the flora to evolve and diversify in a myriad of magnificent ways, and the South West of Western Australia boasts many thousands of plant species because of it. The Porongurup Range is a refuge for many of them as well as being rich in wildlife and insect species. Not only is Porongurup rich ecologically, but also with Aboriginal cultural and spiritual significance. The owners of Aboriginal art gallery Kurrah Mia and a tour company have intimate ties with the range. They all belong to the Menang people of the Albany region, one of four Noongar peoples in the area that also include the Wirlomin (Growangurup), Pibulum (Denmark) and Goreng (Fremantle) people, who all hold the Porongurup range especially important, both culturally and spiritually. “Porongurup is our most culturally sacred site in this particular region and it is of significance to the whole Noongar nation,” said Vernice, a Menang Elder. “My dad, Syd Coyne, was a Noongar bushman born near Borden and his close friend, Sam Williams, a Goreng Elder, was the last traditional fire manager in the area. “They both had a strong connection to Borongur (Porongurup). “My mum was part of the stolen generation, taken from a station outside Carnarvon to Mugumber Mission at Moore River, so her connection to country (Boodja) was fractured.” Vernice also grew up hearing her grandparents speak of the area. “Fathers can only pass on their traditional ways to other men, but I still learned a lot about boodja through the stories he told us,” she said. All these influences instilled a passion within her for her cultural heritage and she now runs cross-cultural awareness workshops in the Great Southern. Venice’s first totem came to her automatically through her mother. She gained the red-tail black cockatoo – karak, and the crow – wardong, from her father’s side. Her father Syd was a strong influence in her son Larry’s life: “Pa was held in such high regard,” Larry said of his grandfather. “He told me stories about plants and animals and would take me out into Boodja with him to learn the traditional ways.” “Traditionally, every young person, male and female, would go to Porongurup to find their second totem – everyone automatically has a totem passed on from their mother’s side. “From my nan I got the red-tailed cockatoo and, if it was in traditional times, I would have gone up to Porongurup to find my second totem. “It would be during the day only and into the night country. “As a young person just reaching maturity, they would go and find a spot and just wait and something significant would happen to them. “Perhaps this is their sudden realisation that they are no longer a child but are now an adult.” Larry said the first animal, tree or feature they saw would be their next totem. “That was the only time that people could go up there,” he said. Sometimes it could take weeks for a totem to make itself known to the young person. continued on page 8 Larry said they would need to camp at the foot of the range, as it was forbidden to be on the slopes at night. “For me, my very first totem was about getting to the age that I actually recognised totems and their values,” Larry said. His first totem was handed down to him from his grandmother. “Nan’s totem was the karrak and my grandfather’s totem was the crow – the wardong – that he got from his mother,” he said. “He had to go up to the Porongurup to find his second totem. So Pa spent time up there when he was around 13 years old. “It was a very significant place. We’re talking about the 1920s. “When Pa had a realisation that he was no longer a child and could see the role he would have to play in society, the first animal that came up to him was a little bobtail – youern. “That became his second totem.” As well as his grandmother’s totem, Larry also inherited his grandfather’s two totems. “I certainly had an affinity with all three of those,” he said. “I went up there by myself just in case I wanted to find my fourth totem, but I don’t need to go up there anymore as I have my totems and know my roles. “It was a very spiritual and significant time for me. That place is still so alive with spirit.” The strong influences in his life have helped to shape him and, in turn, will help shape the next generation. “My pa and my grandmother, they certainly told me how to protect the animals and respect nature and I’m passing that on to my son,” Larry said. “I have a seven-year-old and we go walking through the bush and I show him all the bush foods. “He’s learning a lot of language when we go out on country. When my young fella is old enough, I’ll take him up to Porongurup to find his second totem.” Once a totem has been established, it is the responsibility of that person to always care for their totems while out in country, whether it be an animal, a tree or a waterway. “In effect, it was like having a whole country of wildlife officers,” Larry said. Ron’s totem came to him later in life. “It was about 20 years ago through my mother when she passed,” he said. “A kangaroo came to us and it was doing funny things. It visited the house and hopped up the stairs and it looked at us and I knew it was my mother. "The kangaroo became my first totem. "With the second one, I was at Porongurup by myself. I was just attracted to go there this day. I heard the bird, the kurak, and went to take some photos of it, and underneath where it was sitting was a lizard trap – karda mia." Ron said the totem could have been the bird or the lizard trap. He feels a connection to both. "Totems don't have to be an animal. Now I see the bird wherever I go, and I find the feathers very powerful," he said. Ron explained that when they see lizard traps they know that people had been there long before. The traps could have been placed there tens of thousands of years ago. He knows of five or six lizard traps at Porongurup. Lizard traps are large, flat rocks placed strategically to trap and farm racehorse goannas which are a prized food. They are used for not only trapping but also for breeding local reptiles, an early form of animal husbandry. "I find a lot of lizard traps and stone structures around the base," Ron said. "I am attracted to rocky outcrops. There are so many interesting things to find and I take a lot of photos." Porongurup was the winter home for the traditional custodians, particularly the northern slopes. Bluff Knoll in the Stirling Range is also a very significant site and links up with the Porongurup. "The lowlands between the Stirling Range and Porongurup range was full of valleys," Ron said. "It was full of beautiful waterways and lovely bush country. It would have been a winter paradise." Vernice said they would have been protected from the harsh elements off the south coast. "Everything was shared. Aboriginal people didn't work with nature, they were part of nature," she said. "We were the first conservation land managers." Ron said getting out into the bush was very healing and peaceful. "We look for bush foods and for stone artefacts," he said. Vernice said when they have bush food workshops coming up at schools, they head out into the bush to find it. Larry said it was traditional for women to leave food offerings around the base of Porongurup for the spirits. "Porongurup is also the home of our little people, Larry said. "Here we call them Mummery. Other parts of Australia have different names for them. "They were here before us and they were always the carers of the country. "We think they live in two domains, in the physical and the spiritual, and they come and go between the two. "They're very real. This is no interference between the cultures – we really believe they exist. "If anyone was to cut down some trees on land they are living on, they would torment you – not to harm you, but to scare you." It is because of the little people that they can only be in the lowlands at night. "The uplands are where the little people live and is off-limits for others outside of daylight hours," Ron said. If it took days or weeks while waiting for a totem to come to them, they would need to come back down to the base to camp. Under no circumstances would they be high on the slopes at night. While hunting kangaroo or emu, if they got up onto the slopes, that's where you'd stop, Ron explained. "You'd rather starve than go up after them. The slopes are the sanctuary of the little people and animals and plants," he said. While talking about their connection to country and their totems, there is such an expression of tenderness in the trio as well as passion. Let's hope our traditional custodians can continue to play a pivotal role in looking after our truly special places like Porongurup. With people like Vernice, Larry and Ron taking such active and passionate roles in preserving their culture and sharing it with others, we know that things are in good hands.
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EXPLOITING THE TEXTBOOK: A REPORT ON WORKSHOPS HELD AT ZAGREB REGIONAL SEMINAR, CRIKVENICA, 28. 8. 1988.–3. 9. 1988. The ideas contained in this paper were put forward by participants at a teacher training seminar held in Crikvenica, Yugoslavia, in 1988. The participants worked on ideas for exploiting pages 22 and 23 of Brozović–Gerčan–Zorić (1986) *In English Please* and pages 10 and 11 of Vilke–Doolan–Mihaljević (1986) *Ways to English* (class VIII) by integrating “new ideas” with their own experience. Maybe these ideas will inspire you to adapt your text-books to suit you and your students better. Remember the teacher and the students should be the MASTER not SLAVE of the text-book. Two more truisms: “Variety is the spice of life” and “Beware the bored and therefore boring teacher”! **PART I In English Please (class VIII) pages 22 and 23** **Step one “Bridge” to students** **Suggestions** EITHER A “Brainstorm” with the whole group eliciting word associations with the term “pocket-money”. Then lead on to a discussion about where pocket-money comes from. You can also introduce the culturally new idea that in Britain children of 14+ often earn their own pocket-money by doing little jobs such as paper-rounds or baby sitting. Follow this by pre-teaching essential vocabulary using a “word-rose”. By “essential” is meant vocabulary which important for understanding key ideas and which cannot easily be guessed from context. A “word-rose” is a technique which leads students to make up a story of their own from the words given. This can be followed by an activity which involves asking students to “see how someone else uses those words”, which leads finally to the text. Alternatively, you can do categorisation, or anagrams or dictionary work etc. OR B Bring realia, e.g. newspapers or magazines, to class and ask “where do you buy these?” Elicit or give the answer “At a newsagents’.” Give the students the information that in Britain newspapers and magazines are often delivered. You can introduce essential vocabulary by asking “What else is delivered?”, requiring answers such as “milk”, “letters”, “parcels”. Compare what happens in Yugoslavia with what happens in Britain. Ask “Who delivers?” to elicit “newsboy” etc. Work on family trees, i.e. newsagents sell while newsboys deliver. Use these as starting points. OR C With books closed, elicit word associations with the noun "newsboy". The students continue guessing and inferring, while the teacher provides and elicits essential points. Next show the students a picture of a newsboy on a bike and ask them to give him a name — an English name because this is not a Yugoslav custom. Then provide a multiple-choice timetable/diary so that students can guess his daily routine. For example, on Monday at 7.00 a.m. Joe a) goes to school b) delivers papers or c) has his breakfast. The students then check the text to see if they are right. Another thing you can do is provide a map of the district and then ask the students to outline Joe's paper round. OR D You can mime being a newsboy and ask the students to guess what you are doing. You can provide or elicit the necessary vocabulary and tell the students that some children do this in Britain every day and are paid for this. Step two Processing the Content Suggestions EITHER A Use the anti-text method. This involves changing the text slightly to make it true for Yugoslavia. The students can also make the text "true for them" by using the framework but making changes so that they can talk about their own, usually unpaid, duties outside school. Of course, in order to be able to do this, the students have to be able to understand the original text very well. This can lead to useful language work with students making statements such as the following: Student A: "At 7 a.m. Tony delivers newspapers, but I help my Uncle." Students B: "At 7 a.m. Tony delivers newspapers, Branca helps her uncle, but I leave home." etc. OR B Do a jigsaw activity. To do this you photocopy pages of the book you are using and cut up the photocopied text into sections, removing the pictures. The students work in groups to reconstruct the text. You can then hand out the pictures which you previously removed and ask the students to decide which piece of text goes with which picture. You can also ask them to be ready to say which one sentence of text could act as a caption for each picture. OR C Divide the students into groups and give each group a different section of the story. Ask them to look at the exercise which follows the text and find questions they can answer, and also be ready to ask other groups the questions they are unable to answer. Form new groups so that each group contains at least one member who has studied each section. The students ask and answer questions until each one has a clear idea of the story. They then check their understanding against the whole text. OR D Ask the students close their books. Give pairs of students a slip of paper with a key sentences from the story. The class as a whole must reconstruct the story before checking with the text. Step three Processing the Language Suggestions EITHER A Half/half technique. Working in pairs, half the class finds answers to half the prompts in the book. The other half find answers to the other half of the prompts. Then in two teams they take turns to ask the other team the questions to which they have found the answers. Give a one minute time limit! The teacher can check the accuracy and perhaps use a system of points penalties for inaccurate questions and answers. AND/OR B Melee. The students move round the classroom at will in order to conduct a class survey on the lines of: “Find someone who... - works for a relative - earns pocket money - knows what is delivered in Britain etc.” AND/OR C Pair-work. This is a way of finishing the dialogue in the book. First students decide what they feel about Tony, whether they like him or not. Then they read the dialogues and others guess whether they like Tony or not. This activity helps emphasise that in English, too, how or what you say depends to some extent on how you feel about the person you are talking to. Step four Interpretation Suggestions EITHER A Exploit the pictures to focus on shop signs, road signs, school uniform and other evidence of cultural differences. Some interesting discussion and vocabulary extension might arise from asking students what other shop signs they might see in Britain etc. AND/OR B Play a memory game with new or related vocabulary. AND/OR C Do group-work with students taking turns to mime a different job while others try and guess what their job is, asking questions with do you/are you -ing? structures. AND/OR D Turn the original text into a cloze test with grammar/vocabulary words blanked out. AND/OR E Try a “20 questions” game on jobs. Step five Response Suggestions EITHER A The students can write a letter to Tony telling him about their daily routine. AND/OR B The students can write about a job they like. AND/OR C Discuss with the class whether it is a good idea for children to work for money. AND/OR D Role-play. This can be between Tony and the newsagent or Tony and his parents at breakfast the morning he was chased by a dog as he tried to deliver the paper. AND/OR E Draw a chart showing what everyone in the class (and Tony) does at 7 a.m. every week-day. PART II Ways to English pages 10 and 11 Possible areas for revision/attention are: comparative forms of adjectives; "I am 15" (not "*I have 15"); relative clauses; describing people; vocabulary revision/extension; nationalities; professions etc.; noun-formation awareness-raising. Suggestions for Matching Exercises EITHER A Photocopy the pictures and the table and divide the pictures into two. Divide class into two halves. Give a letter (A, B, C etc.) to each description in the table and distribute these to pairs of students, who must decide (without looking) which letter goes with which number, thereby practising picture descriptions. They must also decide why this is so, which allows work on cultural assumptions. OR B Melee. The teacher brings in pictures cut from magazines. These are numbered and put round the room. A list of (lettered) descriptions is given to the students who then match pictures and descriptions. OR C Use the pictures in the book, but cover the information beneath each picture. The students then guess some of this information. Then form the class into six groups and give each group a picture. Each group then adds to the description in the table to make a short paragraph. Other groups listen and comment (e.g. "I don't think she does like swimming, she looks unfit.") Exercise B3 Suggestions EITHER A Group-work. Write a short description of a popular person. Other groups then guess who the person is. OR B Melee. Using paper they can stick or pin to the front of them, students write answers to 6–10 questions someone might want to ask on meeting them for the first time. The students then go round the room guessing the questions behind the answers. A variant is to have the students imagine they are a popular personality and write suitable answers in their new role. Others then guess questions and the identity of the personality. OR C Melee. The teacher pins on the back of each person the name of a famous person. The students circulate asking yes/no questions in order top find out who they are. A rule of this game is that questions which are not asked in English will not be answered. OR D The students write short descriptions of another member of the class. The teacher then collects these and reads (some of) them out, and the class guesses who is being described. Exercise 4 Suggestions EITHER A Brainstorm on professions in order to revise vocabulary. Students choose one profession and write — secretly — a list of increasingly clear definitions: e. g. Doctor = a person who studies hard before being it a person who works in an institution a person who needs special instruments etc. Then in groups, each person reads his/her definitions one by one, until the group has guessed the profession. This can also be done as a team-game. OR C Brainstorm occupations in a similar way. Then groups make categorisations in any agreed way: e. g. “nice”, “not nice”, “manual”, “intellectual”, “service”, “productive”, “in the family” etc. This can be followed by group-work. Each group has a pile of “profession” pictures from magazines and members take turns to take a picture and answer yes/no questions until the group have guessed. OR D Quiz. Students can play “What’s my line?” The teacher gives out unusual professions to “guest” students. These can be things like candle-maker, blacksmith etc. Happy Teaching! References Brozović, B., O. Gerčan & V. Zorić (1986) In English Please. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. Vilke, M., M. Doolan & J. Mihaljević (1986) Ways to English 1. Zagreb: Školska knjiga.
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WELCOME! The Webinar will begin shortly. Tips: - Be sure your audio is turned on. - When the webinar begins you will have the option of using the "chat" feature to communicate with the host and technical support. - From the drop-down menu at the bottom right corner of your screen, be sure to click the option “Q & A to all participants” for all content-related questions and/or comments. RIDES VIRTUAL COMMUNITY WEBINAR MARCH 7, 2019 4:00 PM PST/ 7:00 PM EST HARVARD GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION AGENDA OVERVIEW 7:00-7:05pm: Welcome & Introductions 7:05-7:10pm: Overview of RIDES 7:10-7:15pm: Navigating the RIDES website & resources 7:15-7:45pm: Addressing the Problem of Practice 7:45-8:00pm: Questions, answers and Next Steps 8:00-8:30pm: Additional Q&A and discussion Objectives for today's webinar: • Provide an overview of the HGSE RIDES program • Create an online learning community to reimagine integration, learn with and from others doing the work of equity • Share resources and practices that can improve efforts to successfully integrate schools, educate and graduate all students • Reflect on and learn how to engage and cultivate students as equity agents in integrated schools • Build individual and collective knowledge, will and skill to be more effective in our work of educational equity and excellence REQUESTED NORMS • Stay engaged- during the webinar and over the course of the series • Seek clarification • Share your knowledge, resources and experience • Experience discomfort, and stay in it • Expect and accept non-closure • Be willing to do the work Problem of Practice: How can we engage and cultivate students to become equity agents when many school efforts to increase equity treat them as subjects of improvement efforts designed and implemented by adults? Dr. Lee Teitel Faculty Director RoLesia Holman RIDES Webinar Manager OUR ESSENTIAL QUESTION How do we support students as equity agents in integrated schools? Who we are West High School: Andres Fajardo, Senior Amira Nash, Teacher Circe Stumbo, Equity Coach (West Wind Education Policy) RIDES/Rounds: Lee Teitel, Director High School of Fashion Industries: Rukaiyaa Arssath, Junior Ocean Hardwick, Junior Derek Stampone, Teacher Plan for our session • Description of the Three-Day Intensive and what plans came out of them at each school • Impacts of involvement on – students – teachers – schools • Challenges and opportunities in engaging students as partners in equity work • Discussion RIDES distinguishes between desegregation (getting the bodies in the building) and true integration, that seeks these outcomes: - Academics - Belongingness - Commitment to dismantling racism and oppression - Diversity The RIDES Equity Improvement Cycle helps sites 1- develop a Personal and Team Equity Culture and 2- then guides them through six recursive steps: 1. Talk honestly about race and create a vision of equity in a specific area 2. Collect data to see how current reality compares to the vision 3. Diagnose underlying causes of any gaps between vision and reality 4. Plan one or more initiatives that systemically address gaps 5. Act– implement specific initiatives with support and accountability 6. Reflect– assess impacts and processes of work and plan next improvement cycle Initial and Continued Development of a Personal and Team Equity Culture The RIDES Three Day Intensive, jump-starts the first four steps of the cycle and can be done with students as partners. Today’s webinar includes students and staff involved in two recent Three-Day Intensives: - West High School, Iowa City, Iowa, December 2017 - The High School of Fashion Industries, New York City, November 2018 ## Demographics ### West High | | | |----------------|------------------| | 1,600 stdnts | 60% white | | 92 teachers | 92% white | 40% stdnts of color 8% tchrs of color ### High School of Fashion Industries | | | |----------------|------------------| | 1,600 stdnts | 5% white | | 90 teachers | 85% white | 95% stdnts of color 15% tchrs of color Participants WEST • 14 West High teachers • 1 West High guidance • 4 West High admins • 8 West High students • 3 district admins • 4 West Wind coaches • 2 from Iowa Dept of Ed FASHION 12 HSFI teachers 12 HSFI Students 3 school administrators 3 from central office 3 from HS Supt’s office West Fashion Main Activities on Day One • Build community, trust, and some common understandings about race, equity, and how we would work together within the group – Shared reading – Personal stories – Conversation with other students partnering on equity and teachers – Norms, including “no rank” • Develop a vision of what equitable and diverse classrooms would ideally like at WHS – focusing on the “instructional core” -- teachers, students, content – visioning work in small groups of students and teachers Respectful Communication Informed equity practices Instructional practice Attentive to student needs 1. Respectful of other students and teachers by their actions 2. Engagement with each other about conversations Role of teachers in an equitable classroom - Encouraging more students to participate and share their experiences - Convey high expectations through personal experience and/or connections - Have a heart to heart with students who are struggling and encourage them to be "better" - Being deliberate about considering students' preferred pronouns or name - Representation of students in the classroom decor - Empower students through CRT - Motivate students with different learning styles to stay on task Strategies/Practices - Goals/Objectives + Learning Targets - Why are we learning this? - In depth understanding - Authentic Connections - Assessment - Formal Standardized - Sequence of Content aligns with Instruction - Process Analysis - Conceptualization - Focus on Student Learning - Communication & Consistency - Engage Students with Cultural Content - Ex: Juanita has 3 apples (names places etc.) Mass Students - Saying Pronouns - Students speak up to respect pronouns (with teacher support) - Opportunity to discuss taboo subjects like Privilege - Students informed about these topics - Peer-to-Student Safe Spaces / Building Trust between Students - Build Community in a Classroom - Just talking - Have a Teacher that cares about Social-Emotional Component - not just a compliance item (check it off) - Not force participation - speaking is allowed to participate in different forms - More student-led discussions Norms - Honors for all - One Mic Day Two • Reviewed the vision and articulated “Look-for’s” (West) • Observed classrooms 1. Teacher fosters a classroom environment where students feel safe, respected, and included, as seen in: - Teachers use students’ preferred names and pronouns, - Affirmation for all students, - Establish norms to prepare students for difficult conversations. 2. Teachers are skilled to facilitate and are willing to embrace discussions about race. 3. Teachers are actively involved in providing + enriching practices that engage + challenge each other. 4. Teachers are active in the broader community. 5. Teachers are active in the broader community. 6. Teachers are active in the broader community. 7. The school staff are representative of the broader community. Look-Fors West 1. Students initiate conversations with each other, have positive body language, being able to participate without hesitation. 2. Students in diverse groupings are interacting, students engage in dialogue with other students. 3. Apply experiences to content being taught in class. Respectful communications - Balance between teachers and students - Students answer each other questions Informed equity practices - Affirming students from all backgrounds - Teachers are modeling "Brave" behavior - Overt discussions on race - Establishes group norms Attentive to student needs - Classroom is welcoming - Modifies tasks Interactions w/other students - Challenge, complement, complicate ideas - Invites other perspectives Ownership of learning - When students seek consensus (students talk, not always teacher driven) - Students draw connections between content and their lives Observation Practices • Visited about 25 classrooms • Individually identified key observations (specific and descriptive data) and wrote data on sticky notes • Groups selected 10 pieces of data • Examined the “evidence” to identify high-leverage patterns Opportunities for student-to-student interaction are present (about content) Off Task AP class least brown + black Low-level class most brown + black students Basic class more gender mixing AP class less gender mixing Black students are always helped by white or Asian. Teacher modifies, affirms, engages students as needed ID’d High Leverage Themes: Building-wide patterns that, changed, could improve equity & student learning High-Leverage Patterns **West High** 1. Classes are racially disproportionate 2. Students are segregated by race and gender 3. Students of color not connecting with the teacher, the material, or other students 4. Teacher-centered classrooms had low levels of student engagement **Fashion** 1. Classrooms and public spaces lacked cultural relevance for our students 2. Classes did not provide opportunities for young men of color to think critically 3. Teacher centered classrooms lacked norms, or evidence of student input on the creation of norms 4. School community lacks student leadership & empowerment opportunities HSFI "Vision of Equity" in the classroom - 1/3 classrooms had a clearly defined/srigmas aim - 2/3 had no norms posted - 2/3 classrooms were teacher-centered (T's dominated with directives) - 2/3 classrooms had low level questioning (short 1 word responses) - 2/3 had multiracial room décor (ex. flags and pictures with multiracialities) - 2/3 classes used the phrase "you guys" for target female student body - 2/3 classes students engaged in worksheet-based activities Cuing up your questions In a minute, we will shift to discussion, with an emphasis on impacts on students, teachers and the schools. Please start using the chat box (chat to everyone) to post some questions or wonderings that you have for the panel. Day 3 • Worked in small groups to dig below the surface to understand these patterns • Developed plans to address the pattern • Planned next steps to connect with the rest of the school community • Reflected on experience Idea: Re-imagining Boy’s Group • Collect data (surveys, interviews) • Take inventory of what resources and activities are already here • Develop a plan for B.G based on what we learn about student needs. • Figure out student leadership and staff/teacher leadership. • Determine operational needs and constraints. • Research successful initiatives at other schools/in the community. Proposed Solutions: - Teachers expanding/developing their skills/study - Understanding one another - Teachers used learned student lived experiences to connect to students - Lessons that connected to students - Creating opportunities for students - Incorporate group work dynamics into student learning - Students connecting with arts within personal student narratives - Students choosing more fun books - Experience the society (paying for jobs/paper) - Student voices being heard on decisions/more - Changing the relationship - More “cozy” learning spaces Impact CLOSING COMMENT EXCERPT THE POWER OF STUDENT VOICE Impact of Having Students in the Rounds • On students – Andres, Rukaiyaa, Ocean • On teachers – Amira, Derek • On schools – West High, Fashion High Advice: Intentionally attend to the regularities of school • Check Your Habits – We forget to include students as participants; we don’t think to include students as leaders or presenters • Make Changes to Your Routines and Structures – e.g., standard meeting agendas – Remember that we typically do business through meetings among adults, run by adults. These meetings are already on the calendar, and are our default. • Be Careful that Interruptions Don’t Stop the Work – Construction example at West High QUESTIONS OR COMMENTS? Q & A ABCDs The desired outcomes for diverse and equitable schools can be summarized in four categories. RIDES helps schools achieve the ABCDs through coaching, as well as collecting promising practices on the Resources section of our website. **Academics** All students have strong academic preparation, capitalizing on and connecting to students of all backgrounds, with high levels of knowledge and skills. **Belonging** All students have a strong sense and appreciation of their own culture and heritage, as well as of those of their diverse classmates. **Commitment to dismantling racism and oppression** All students understand the role that institutional racism and other forms or oppression play in our society and have the skills, vision, and courage to dismantle them. **Diversity** All students appreciate and value different perspectives, thoughts, and people and have friendships and collaborative working relationships with students and adults from different racial and economic backgrounds. Students The role of students in segregated, desegregated, and integrated schools. Student-centered learning - **Student-Centered Learning: How Four Schools Are Closing the Opportunity Gap** - Learning has shifted from teacher-centered and what is mostly convenient for educators to focusing primarily on what will actively engage students. - **Lifting Up Our Kings: Developing Black Males in a Positive and Safe Space** - The African-American Male Achievement (AMA) is lifting up African-American male students in Oakland Unified School District and has received national attention for their success in improving the academic, social and emotional development of this subgroup of students. Read about their exemplary work in this Voices in Urban Education article. - **Learn about Youth Participatory Action Research** - This resource provides a training to develop students’ competency to conduct research to improve their lives, schools and communities. This practice is especially useful for students who are experiencing racial, classism, ableism and other forms of discrimination. Approaches and Strategies: Our research highlights practices of student voice and involvement, which has made a difference in their local school, districts and communities. For teachers and students who want to develop student leadership and civic engagement, here are some tools and practices to activate students’ voices and organize for equity. Pedagogy to Activate Student Voices - Let’s Talk About Race - This is a video made by students sharing their perspectives about addressing race in conversation. Students share norms and approaches for having these conversations in a skillful and respectful manner. - Helping Whites Develop Anti-Racist Identities: Overcoming Their Resistance to Fighting Racism - Dismantling racism is everyone’s responsibility in schools and the larger community. Oftentimes, as whites start their individual and collective identity development, the process is rife with denial, resistance and conflicting emotions. This article addresses Whiteness as a strategy for the development of anti-racist identities and combating racism. - The Chinese Students Fighting Racism - BBC News - Intolerance to students’ race and background exists across multiple subgroups. In this video Chinese students at Columbia University fight racism by explaining the meaning behind their names when their school was vandalized and they decided to take action to educate others about their culture. Student-centered learning - Student-Centered Learning How Four Schools Are Closing the Opportunity Gap | Stakeholder Groups in RIDES Systemic Map | Resources with a lens for diversity, equity and inclusion | A* B* C* D *A-academics *B-belongingness *C-commitment to dismantling racism *D-diversity | |----------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------| | Teachers | Educator Competencies for Personalized, Learner-Centered Teaching | A | | Students | White Students Reflecting on Whiteness: Understanding Emotional Responses Youth and School Reform | A; B; C; D | | Family and Community Partnerships | Parent Involvement, Cultural Capital, and the Achievement Gap among Elementary School Children | A; B; D | | Leadership | Leadership Competencies for Learner-Centered, Personalized Education | A; C | | Culture | How to Fight Racism in Your School | B; C; D | | Systems & Structures | In Pursuit of Equality: A Framework for Equity Strategies in Competency-Based Education | A; B; C; D | AN EQUITY TOOLKIT FOR INCLUSIVE SCHOOLS: CENTERING YOUTH VOICE IN SCHOOL CHANGE Centering Student Voice in Inclusive Schools Collaborating with Adults | Transforming Descriptors | Where do adults/youth see evidence of this descriptor (school wide, in certain classrooms, in certain subjects)? | Who is represented and not represented in this practice? | Which of these descriptors are equity priorities (rate as low, moderate, or high priority area)? | |--------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Students have opportunities to identify equity issues impacting their educational experiences without adult censorship. | | | | | Students have opportunities to work with adults to learn more about the issues they identify. | | | | Building Capacity for Leadership | Transforming Descriptors | Where do adults/youth see evidence of this descriptor (school wide, in certain classrooms, in certain subjects)? | Who is represented and not represented in this practice? | Which of these descriptors are equity priorities (rate as low, moderate, or high priority area)? | |--------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Students are actively involved in school improvement meetings. | | | | | Adult facilitators support youth in developing the capacities to address the issues they identify (e.g., research methods, dissemination strategies). | | | | | Historically marginalized youth have opportunities to re-engage in their education through leadership and civic engagement rather than over-relying on academic. | | | | Mapping Youth Voice at School Recommended tools: Paper copies of the school map, color-coding dot labels in assorted colors, pens/pencils Youth can create individual maps, work in pairs (social peer groups), or in small groups to map their school. The following coding system can be used to map student voice in your school, but you can also add your own categories: - **Red**: Where do I feel like I can express my opinion even if it is different from adults’ opinion? - **Pink**: Where do I feel like I can express my opinion even if it is different from adults’ opinion? - **Green**: Which students are most respected or listened to in different parts of the school? You can label the dots with different student groups by race, ethnicity, sex/gender, sexual orientation or gender identity, ability differences, sex, or income. Ex: LGBTQ might be placed on a sticker in Ms. Smith’s class because of a LGBTQ after school club. - **Yellow**: Add your own category. For example, are there places in school where some students are really listened to and others are not? Midwest and Plains Equity Assistance Center September 2017 Next Steps: • Visit the RIDES website and review a few of the resources introduced today, and others • Select a practice, resource or idea you heard from today's webinar and presentation, share and discuss it with students and colleagues • Commit to a practice, behavior or action, a shift in thinking about doing this work differently…something that you will explore before the next webinar • Share your action, tell us how it went and questions you have on our shared google doc [here](#). (Also, see link in chat box.) Expand our Virtual Community Why? We are a community of learners, so let's learn with and from each other about RIDES and the work happening in integrated school communities all across the country. Who? You, your school team, coaches, organization, all are welcome! What? Topics will include RIDES’s ABCDs, Problems of Practice, resources and strategies for improvement, discussion, and more. OUR VIRTUAL COMMUNITY For each topic, we will provide resources and then discuss examples of promising practices. The next session will be... When? April 4 Problem of Practice: Creating a sense of belonging with ESL, refugee, immigrant, and undocumented students Domains: Belonging, Diversity Where? Anywhere you are and can get connected to the internet from a laptop, iPad, mobile phone or other device. FUTURE WEBINAR DATES & TOPICS: | Date | Problem of Practice: | |------------|-----------------------------------------------------------| | April 4 | Creating a sense of belonging with ESL, undocumented, refugee, immigrant students | | May 9 | Discipline disparities in integrated schools | THANK YOU FOR ATTENDING! LOOKING FORWARD TO RECONNECTING ON APRIL 4 ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION THANK YOU FOR ATTENDING!
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Report of results for 1893 at Calhoun, La. Jordan G. Lee Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.lsu.edu/agexp Recommended Citation Lee, J. G. (1894). Report of results for 1893 at Calhoun, La.. (29) Retrieved from https://repository.lsu.edu/agexp/784 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the LSU AgCenter at LSU Scholarly Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Agricultural Experiment Station Reports by an authorized administrator of LSU Scholarly Repository. For more information, please contact firstname.lastname@example.org. BULLETIN OF THE NORTH LOUISIANA EXPERIMENT STATION, WM. C. STUBBS, PH. D., DIRECTOR. REPORT OF RESULTS FOR 1893 AT CALHOUN, LA., BY J. G. LEE, Assistant Director. ISSUED BY THE STATE BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE. H. C. NEWSOM, COMMISSIONER. BATON ROUGE, LA. PRINTED AT THE TRUTH BOOK AND JOB OFFICE. 1894. LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY AND A. & M. COLLEGE. BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE. GOV. MURPHY J. FOSTER, President. WM. GARIG, Vice-President Board of Supervisors. H. C. NEWSOM, Commissioner of Agriculture. STATION STAFF. WM. C. STUBBS, Ph. D., Director. THOS. P. HUTCHINSON. Assistant Director, Audubon Park, New Orleans, La. D. N. BARROW, B. S., Assistant Director, Baton Rouge, La. J. G. LEE, B. S., Assistant Director, Calhoun, La. WALTER MAXWELL, Ph. D., Chemist, Audubon Park, New Orleans, La. J. L. BEESON, Ph. D., Chemist, Audubon Park, New Orleans, La. A. LEHMANN, B. S. A., Chemist, Audubon Park, New Orleans, La, C. E. COATES, Ph. D., Chemist, Baton Rouge, La. R. E. BLOUIN, M. S., Assistant Chemist, Baton Rouge, La. M. BIRD, B. S., Chemist, Calhoun, La, W. W. CLENDENIN, M. S., A. M., Botanist, Baton Rouge, La. R. T. BURWELL, M. E., Mechanical Engineer, Audubon Park, New Orleans, La. H. A. MORGAN, B. S. A., Entomologist, Baton Rouge, La. F. H. BURNETTE, Horticulturist, Baton Rouge, La. S. B. STAPLES, B. S., D. V. S., Veterinarian, Baton Rouge, La. E. E. OLDING, Sugar Maker, Audubon Park, New Orleans, La. E. G. CLARKE, Farm Manager, Audubon Park, La. W. B. MERCIER, B. S., Farm Manager, Baton Rouge, La. IVY WATSON, Farm Manager, Calhoun, La. J. K. MCHUGH, Secretary and Stenographer, Audubon Park, New Orleans, La. H. SKOLFIELD, Treasurer, Baton Rouge, La. The Bulletins and Reports will be sent free of charge to all farmers, by applying to Commissioner of Agriculture, Baton Rouge, La. To W. C. Stubbs, Ph. D., Director: Dear Sir: I hand you herewith annual report of the results of all crops not previously published in Bulletins Nos. 25 and 27 on tobacco, fruits, vegetables, etc. Respectfully, J. G. LEE, B. S., Assistant Director. Louisiana State University and A. and M. College, Office of Experiment Stations, Baton Rouge, La., January, 1894. Hon. H. C. Newsom, Commissioner of Agriculture, Baton Rouge, La.: Dear Sir—I hand you herewith report of the North Louisiana Station, at Calhoun, and ask that it be published as Bulletin No. 29. Respectfully submitted, WM. C. STUBBS, Director. REPORT. REVIEW OF THE YEAR. Another cold, wet, spring, continued heavy rains during the early growing season, followed by a very dry summer and fall, made the year, in this section, disastrous and most unsatisfactory, not only for experiment work, but also for general farming. The total rainfall for April, May and June was 21.93 inches, while for July, August, September and October it was only 6 inches, for the four months. The rainfall for the year was 43.21, showing a decreased annual rainfall of 12 to 15 inches. (See annual weather summary.) Experiments with fertilizers, however, carry with them strong and emphatic truths, and the information they furnish, it is hoped, will profit farmers of the hill sections of Louisiana. The variety tests have been fair for all—a "Survival of the fittest," and are known by their results. The North Louisiana Agricultural Society continues to hold its monthly meetings here in Agricultural Hall, which, from early spring to late fall, are largely and enthusiastically attended. The society is regarded as a valuable adjunct to the station. Farmers, assembling monthly, meeting in social intercourse, interchanging practical and progressive ideas about their business, inspecting stock, garden, orchard, trucks, noting experiments in fertilizers, varieties of crops, grasses, grains, clovers, etc., and receiving information from all, cannot be otherwise than widely and materially benefited. The Agricultural Camp Meeting and Fair, held by the society the past summer, was an advanced step towards agricul tural development. The meeting was largely attended. Able scientific papers were read and discussed and splendid displays of live stock and poultry and of the ladies' housework made. The presence of the Governor of the State, Murphy J. Foster, lent dignity to the occasion. His kindly words of advice and encouragement and his expressed interest in agriculture cannot but bring good results to the State. The occasion will not be forgotten as one of great pleasure and large profit in things agricultural. Therefore, the station earnestly trusts that the society, encouraged by the splendid beginning of last August, will go forward with the enterprise that promises so much towards agricultural progress and development. LIVE STOCK. CATTLE. The Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey and Devon breed of cattle, previously described, are retained at the station. The published records of the Holstein cow, Rubina and the Jersey, Beautiful Princess are held. The Guernsey cow, Thornless, made a record of 3.24 gallons of milk and 1.7 lbs. of butter per day. The Devon cow, Red Rose Fair, has not been tested. The Jersey heifer "Lizzie Stubbs," mentioned in last report, and calf were sold to Dr. A. H. Gladden, Homer, La., for $125.00. The station now has for sale one Jersey heifer, "Julia," and one pair of Guernseys, "Prince Rupert" and "Columbia." From these breeds of cattle farmers may choose the breeds to suit their purpose and fancy. The Jersey and Guernsey represent the best dairy or butter breeds, while the Holstein and Devon are the best representatives of milk and general purpose breeds. SHEEP AND HOGS. The same breeds are kept, viz: Southdown, Shropshire and Merino, sheep; and the Essex, Berkshire and Red Jersey, hogs. The Southdown and Shropshire combine wool and mutton, are about equally prized here. The former is a little better for mutton than the latter, while the latter produces slightly more wool. The Merino is emphatically a wool producing sheep. The bucks often "shearing" 20 to 25 pounds. At this station, however, they are slow and rather uncertain breeders. The station feels that a combination wool and mutton sheep is the best sheep for this section, and recommends first a cross of Merino on native sheep, until all naked places on natives are clothed with wool; second, a cross then on Southdown or Shropshire for mutton qualities. The Essex continues to be the most popular hog with the farmers of North Louisiana. They are the "lot hog" of all, and are especially suited for small family purposes. But little food is required to keep them in good condition, generally what they pick up about the yard and lots sufficing. They are, however, slow breeders. The popularity of the Jersey and Berkshire is about equally divided. Both are good hustlers. The Berkshire are possibly the best general purpose hogs and are good breeders. The Jerseys are rapid and prolific breeders, and great consumers, but are good for maximum pork production. Crosses by them on natives are very popular in the neighborhood of the station. So many inquiries have been made and orders sent in for Poland China that the station has finally introduced them and will give them a fair trial. The station desires to emphasize here that it is not breeding hogs for sale—that would not be its legitimate business. The breeds thought to be most suitable for this section are represented here, affording a sort of object lesson, from which farmers may take their choice of breeds. The station wanting no accumulation, sells only the surplus at greatly reduced prices. In some instances the management has been censured on account of delay in delivering pigs on order. Orders are registered here as received, and filled accordingly. There are now orders on hand over two years old and if no others come in it will require some time to fill them. The station is proud of this great demand, however, for it is evident that farmers are waking up to the improvement of their hogs. Let enterprising farmers come to the rescue and help fill orders for thoroughbred pigs until every farmer is supplied. The following is the record of eggs laid by the several breeds of hens kept from January 15 to June 15: **RECORD OF EGGS LAID BY DIFFERENT BREEDS.** | NAME OF BREED | NO. HENS ON TRIAL | NO. EGGS | NO. EGGS PER HEN | REMARKS | |--------------------------------|-------------------|----------|------------------|-----------------------| | 1 Light Brahma | 2 | 10 | 5 | Asiatic origin | | 2 Partridge Cochin | 4 | 4 | 4 | Asiatic origin | | 3 Buff Cochin | 2 | 18 | 9 | Asiatic origin | | 4 Bar ed Plymouth Rock | 12 | 425 | 36 | American origin | | 5 Minorca | 3 | 12 | 4 | European origin | | 6 Silver Spangled Hamburg | 1 | 28 | 28 | European origin | | 7 Langshaus (black) | 5 | 106 | 21 | Asiatic origin | | 8 Leghorns (brown) | 1 | 30 | 30 | European origin | | 9 *Houdan-Minorca | 1 | 25 | 25 | Ross Houdan and Minorca | | 10 †Red Game | 1 | 15 | 15 | American origin | | 11 Bronze Turkey | 1 | 26 | 26 | American origin | * Houdan-Minorca, originated by station, crossing Houdan on Minorca—making a good cross. † Not placed on record until February 15, and presented by Dr. A. H. Gladden, Homer, La. The Plymouth Rocks have led, followed closely by Brown Leghorn, Hamburg, Houdan-Minorca and Langshan. Previous to this year the Leghorns have made the best record for egg production for three successive years. The Plymouth Rocks had the advantage, however, of the run of the place. It is impossible to maintain purity of the breeds without close confinement, and yet with such confinement is very prejudicial to health and egg production. The European breeds are all great spring and summer layers, are small, and non-setters. It is pretty well established that the Leghorns are the best egg producers of all the breeds. The Asiatics are generally good winter and early spring layers and make excellent mothers, and are good table fowls. The Langshans stand at the head of the list and are regarded as one of the best general purpose fowls. The Plymouth Rock are also good winter and spring layers and make excellent mothers; they are hardy, of quick growth and good table fowls. Of the breeds mentioned, the Langshan or Plymouth Rock are considered the best general purpose fowls; the Leghorns or Hamburgs the best egg producers. Such are the conclusions reached after several years experience, the hens being confined during the time in small pens and fed only on vegetable products raised on the farm. Were a wide range possible for them the results might be different. The Indian Game, so popular as a table fowl, the White Plymouth Rocks and pair Pekin ducks have been added to the yards this year, and the Wyandottes will be added soon. The Houdans have been discarded. PRICE OF LIVE STOCK. At the request of the Station the North Louisiana Agricultural Society has placed the following tariff of prices to govern all sales and service fees: A bull calf, of any breed.......................... $50 00 to $75 00 A heifer calf, of any breed....................... 75 00 to 125 00 A buck or ewe, of any breed...................... 5 00 to 7 50 Grade buck or ewe, of any breed................. 3 00 to 5 00 Single cock........................................... 1 50 Chickens, pair....................................... 2 00 Chickens, trio....................................... 3 00 Chickens eggs, per setting of 13.................. 1 00 Service of bulls..................................... 2 00 Service of bucks.................................... 1 00 Service of boar..................................... 1 00 Cash must be paid in advance. FIELD EXPERIMENTS. ROTATION OF CROPS. The following is taken from a previous Bulletin: "How can the worn lands of Louisiana be most speedily and economically restored to their primitive fertility? The answer would be, by proper rotation of crops, with or without fertilizers. What crops shall be selected for this rotation? Any combination which omits our cow pea would be injudicious. Several years ago the following rotation was decided upon as the best rotation attainable in this section: This rotation is corn, oats, followed by cow peas and cotton. This rotation is faulty in principle but correct in practice, and was adopted last season after two years' trial. The corn should precede the cotton, but experience has demonstrated that "Rust Proof" oats, the only variety successfully grown here, must be planted in October if maximum results are desired. Cotton cannot be removed in time for this crop, while corn can; hence this metathesis of crops. This rotation was adopted with and without fertilizers. It was begun in 1889. Three parallel strips, one half acre wide and two acres long, were selected for the experiments. The Eastern half of each is manured regularly with a fertilizer adapted to the crop, while the Western half remains without fertilizer." The following is the condensed results for five years per acre." | Name of plot | How Treated | 1889 | 1890 | 1891 | 1892 | 1893 | |--------------|-------------|------|------|------|------|------| | A | Fertilized half | 12 bushels oats | 28 bushels corn | 55.2 bushels oats | 1,558 lbs. cotton | 24.4 bushels corn | | | | 8.45 tons pea vines | | 1,360 lbs. straw | | | | | Unfertilized half | 7.4 bushels oats | 20.6 bushels corn | 8.16 pounds straw | 331 lbs. cotton | 6.14 bushels corn | | | | 4.22 tons pea vines | | 2.4 tons pea vines | | | | B | Fertilized half | 24.5 bushels oats | 1,719 pounds cotton | 34.3 bushels corn | 40 bushels oats | | | | 829 pounds cotton | | 1,020 lbs. straw | | 1,275 pounds straw | | | Unfertilized half | 5.28 pounds cotton | 710 pounds straw | 620 pounds cotton | 4 bushels peas | | | | 5.6 tons pea vines | | 14.6 bushels corn | 22 bushels oats | | C | Fertilized half | 17.73 bushels corn | 708 pounds cotton | 16.8 bushels corn | 47.8 bushels oats | | | | 13.09 bushels corn | | 4.8 bushels corn | 22.5 bushels oats | | | Unfertilized half | 429 pounds cotton | | | No peas | | | | | | | 1,446.4 pounds cotton | | | | | | | 560 pounds cotton | The oats in the foregoing fertilized plat were fertilized with the Station's grain fertilizer at rate 200 pounds cotton seed meal and 100 pounds acid phosphate, mixed, and scattered and harrowed in with oats. The peas, fertilized with fifty pounds acid phosphate and fifty pounds kainite. The pea, being a nitrogen gatherer, no nitrogen was applied artificially. The cotton was fertilized with Station's compost for cotton, consisting of One ton acid phosphate, 100 bushels stable manure, 100 bushels green cotton seed, built in the following proportions: First layer, five bushels stable manure; second layer, five bushels cotton seed; third, 100 pounds acid phosphate, etc. The cotton seed are made perfectly wet before spreading. The corn received the compost for corn, the ingredients the same as above, the proportion only different, being One ton acid phosphate, 200 bushels stable manure, 200 bushels green cotton seed, built as above, except proportion is fifty pounds acid phosphate, five bushels manure, five bushels seed. The details of how to make a compost will be found at end of Bulletin for '91, No. 8, second series. COTTON. Experiments in cotton were of three kinds: 1st. Manurial tests, embracing nitrogenous, phosphatic and potassic fertilizers and proper depths and time and number of applications of each. 2nd. Varieties best adapted to this soil. 3rd. Distances to be given in order to secure the largest profit. Plat No. 1 was devoted to nitrogenous manure. The questions propounded to this plat are: 1st. Does this soil need nitrogen to grow cotton profitably? 2nd. If so, in what form can it be best presented? 3rd. In what quantities per acre? In the plat nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia (mineral forms) have been tested with cotton seed meal and cotton seed (raw, rotted and composted, vegetable forms), and with dried blood and fish scrap (animal forms), and such quantities of each. taken as to contain 24 and 48 pounds of nitrogen per acre. Where 24 pounds per acre were used it is denominated as one or "single" ration, and where 48 pounds are used, as two or "double" ration. There are six groups of four experiments each, viz: 1st, the nitrogenous fertilizers alone; 2nd, "mixed minerals" (acid phosphate and kainite, 1 part kainite to 2 parts phosphate), without nitrogen; 3rd, one and two rations of the nitrogenous fertilizer combined with mixed minerals. In addition to above every tenth experiment has been left unmanured to secure the natural capacity of the soil—a starting point for calculating the benefits of the fertilizer used. By comparing the experiments with nitrogen alone, with those unmanured, we get the benefit of nitrogen uncombined. By comparing the results with nitrogen and mixed minerals, with those from mixed minerals, we get the benefit due to the combined nitrogen. By comparing results of each from combined and uncombined with its own mixed minerals and expressing results in percentages of the last, the relative merit of each form of nitrogen may be determined. By comparing the results of the 1 and 2 rations, approximate ideas as to quantity of nitrogen to be used per acre may be acquired. The capacity of the soil not being uniform in the plat, results are expressed in percentages, instead of pounds. PREPARATION AND CULTIVATION OF PLAT. The cotton plats were all broken in January with Hervy plow, three mules attached, about nine inches deep. In March plats were well pulverized with Acme harrow, and on the 27th of March rows were marked off 3½ feet apart and the land bedded. On April 11 the beds were opened, fertilizer distributed, another furrow run in same drill, to incorporate the fertilizer well with the soil, seed of the "Tennessee Gold Dust" variety sown and covered with harrow. The after cultivation was shallow and as frequent as necessary with hoes, heelsweeps and scooters, side harrow and Stohl cultivator. The dry summer and early fall reduced expected yields materially, though the questions sought are, nevertheless, satisfactorily answered. Following are the results in pickings per acre: | No. of Experiment | Kind and quantity of manure used per acre | 1st picking, Aug. 24 | 2nd picking, Sept. 20 | 3rd picking, Oct. 16 | Yield per acre seed cotton; pounds | |-------------------|------------------------------------------|---------------------|----------------------|----------------------|----------------------------------| | 1 | 160 lbs. nitrate soda | 700 | 590 | 160 | 1450 | | 2 | "240 lbs. mixed minerals | 510 | 500 | 120 | 1130 | | 3 | { 160 lbs. nitrate soda | | | | | | | { 240 lbs. mixed minerals | | | | | | 4 | { 320 lbs. nitrate soda | | | | | | | { 240 lbs. mixed minerals | | | | | | 5 | 120 lbs. sulphate ammonia | 520 | 680 | 180 | 1380 | | 6 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | 440 | 510 | 100 | 1150 | | 7 | { 120 lbs. sulphate ammonia | | | | | | | { 240 lbs. mixed minerals | | | | | | 8 | { 240 lbs. mixed minerals | | | | | | 9 | No manure | 280 | 470 | 100 | 850 | | 10 | 200 lbs. dried blood | 460 | 510 | 100 | 1070 | | 11 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | 360 | 380 | 75 | 810 | | 12 | { 200 lbs. dried blood | | | | | | | { 240 lbs. mixed minerals | | | | | | 13 | { 400 lbs. dried blood | | | | | | 14 | 360 lbs. fish scrap | 670 | 400 | 60 | 1130 | | 15 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | 320 | 310 | 60 | 690 | | 16 | { 240 lbs. mixed minerals | | | | | | | { 360 lbs. fish scrap | | | | | | 17 | { 720 lbs. fish scrap | | | | | | 18 | 360 lbs. cotton seed meal | 540 | 380 | 40 | 960 | | 19 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | 160 | 270 | 70 | 500 | | 20 | No manure | 310 | 210 | 60 | 580 | | 21 | { 240 lbs. mixed minerals | | | | | | | { 360 lbs. cotton seed meal | | | | | | 22 | { 240 lbs. mixed minerals | | | | | | 23 | { 720 lbs. cotton seed meal | | | | | | 24 | 1,040 lbs. crushed cotton seed | 500 | 320 | 70 | 890 | | 25 | { 240 lbs. mixed minerals | | | | | | | { 1,040 lbs. crushed cotton seed | | | | | | 26 | { 2,080 lbs. mixed minerals | | | | | | 27 | 1,040 lbs. rotted cotton seed | 240 | 460 | 120 | 820 | | 28 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | 230 | 340 | 90 | 660 | | 29 | No manure | 150 | 320 | 140 | 610 | | 30 | { *240 lbs. mixed minerals | | | | | | | { 1,040 lbs. rotted cotton seed | | | | | | 31 | { 2,080 lbs. rotted cotton seed | | | | | | 32 | 4,200 lbs. compost | 680 | 300 | 40 | 1020 | | 33 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | 300 | 310 | 110 | 720 | | 34 | { 4,200 lbs. compost | | | | | | | { 80 lbs. kainite | | | | | | 35 | { 8,400 lbs. compost | | | | | | | { 80 lbs. kainite | | | | | *160 pounds acid phosphate, 80 pounds kainite. CONCLUSIONS. The answer to the first question, does this soil need nitrogen to grow cotton successfully? is very positive. Both the nitrogen used alone and combined with mixed minerals give conclusive results. The average where no manure was used is 680 pounds per acre. The average of nitrogen alone is 1,090 pounds, showing a gain, due to nitrogen, of 410 pounds per acre. The average of the experiments with mixed minerals is 776 pounds. The average of one ration of nitrogen (24 pounds) combined with mixed minerals is 1,113 pounds, while that of two rations (48 pounds nitrogen) is 1,328 pounds, showing an excess due to one ration of nitrogen of 237 pounds and two rations 552, giving proof of the wants of nitrogen in this soil. In what form is nitrogen best presented is not so definitely answered. The excesses of nitrate soda, uncombined and combined, over its mixed minerals are, respectively, 320, 530, 810 or 28, 47, 72 per cent. The excesses of sulphate ammonia, uncombined and combined, over its minerals are, respectively, 330, 270, 550 or 32, 26, 52 per cent. The excesses of dried blood over its mixed minerals are, respectively, 260, 290, 470 or 32, 36, 58 per cent. The excesses of fish scrap are likewise, 440, 430, 540 or 65, 64, 78 per cent. over its mixed minerals. Likewise, the excesses of cotton seed meal are, respectively, 400, 500, 520 or 92, 100, 104 per cent. Likewise, the excesses of crushed cotton seed are, respectively, 240, 180, 400 or 37, 28, 61 per cent., while the rotten cotton seed excesses are 160, 130, 350 or 24, 19, 53 per cent. over yield of its minerals. The average per cent. of increase, due to nitrate soda is, 49, of sulphate ammonia 36, dried blood 42, fish scrap 69, cotton seed meal 99, crushed cotton seed 40 and rotten cotton seed 32 per cent. Cotton seed meal is ahead, followed closely by fish scrap and nitrate soda. The average of the two mineral forms of nitrogen, nitrate soda and sulphate ammonia is 42 per cent., of the two animal forms, dried blood and fish scrap, is 55 per cent, and of the three vegetable forms, cotton seed meal, crushed cotton seed and rotten seed, is 57 per cent. The results again declare in favor of vegetable forms of nitrogen, followed closely by animal forms. It is certain that nitrogen is necessary to grow cotton profitably, and yields well with any form, but the vegetable forms are preferred, because they are as good and most convenient and economical. What quantity per acre is best to use is answered definitely from a money standpoint. Estimating seed cotton at three cents, and twenty-four pounds nitrogen at nineteen and one-half cents per pound, the amount of each ration, by calculation there are losses in three cases and profit in four where double rations are used. Concurrent results of four years now strongly indicate that on these soils one ration, or twenty-four pounds of nitrogen, per acre is more profitable than larger quantities. PLAT NO. 2—COTTON—PHOSPHATE EXPERIMENTS. Here the various forms of acid phosphate are used alone and combined and in quantities of one and two rations, etc., as with nitrogen in Plat 1. Since every good phosphate or dissolved bone must contain a large quantity of gypsum (land plaster), there has been used in two experiments gypsum only to see how far the results, from experiments with acid phosphate or dissolved bone, are due to the presence of this substance. In this plat the same questions are propounded with phosphoric acid manures as are propounded with nitrogen in Plat 1, viz: First. Does this soil need phosphoric acid to grow cotton profitably? Second. If so in what form can it be best presented? Third. In what quantities per acre? Preparation, cultivation, etc., the same as in Plat No. 1. The following are the results: | Number of experiment | Kind and quantity of manure used per acre | First picking August 24 | Second picking September 21 | Third picking October 16 | Yield per acre of seed cotton in pounds | |----------------------|------------------------------------------|-------------------------|----------------------------|--------------------------|----------------------------------------| | 1 | 80 pounds gypsum | 460 | 610 | 180 | 1,250 | | 2 | 160 " dissolved bone black | 690 | 470 | 80 | 1,240 | | 3 | 480 " cotton seed meal | 610 | 730 | 200 | 1,540 | | 4 | 120 " Kainite | 770 | 720 | 170 | 1,660 | | 5 | 600 " basal mixture | 880 | 610 | 140 | 1,630 | | 6 | 320 " dissolved bone black | 570 | 560 | 190 | 1,320 | | 7 | 80 " gypsum | 520 | 500 | 140 | 1,160 | | 8 | 160 " acid phosphate | 780 | 570 | 100 | 1,450 | | 9 | 600 " basal mixture | 500 | 340 | 120 | 960 | | 10 | 600 pounds basal mixture | 680 | 540 | 120 | 1,340 | | 11 | 160 " acid phosphate | 660 | 470 | 100 | 1,230 | | 12 | 6-0 " basal mixture | 520 | 330 | 40 | 890 | | 13 | 600 " basal mixture | 670 | 400 | 100 | 1,170 | | 14 | 160 " bone meal | 740 | 350 | 40 | 1,130 | | 15 | 600 " basal mixture | 760 | 330 | 40 | 1,130 | | 16 | 320 " bone meal | 250 | 300 | 60 | 610 | | 17 | 600 " basal mixture | 800 | 280 | 20 | 1,100 | | 18 | 600 " South Carolina floats | 600 | 230 | 20 | 850 | | 19 | 320 " South Carolina floats | 530 | 340 | 40 | 910 | | 20 | No manure | 170 | 240 | 60 | 470 | | 21 | 160 pounds Thomas' iron slag | 140 | 240 | 110 | 490 | | 22 | 600 " basal mixture | 400 | 300 | 50 | 750 | | 23 | 160 " Thomas' iron slag | 400 | 310 | 50 | 760 | | 24 | 600 " basal mixture | 220 | 260 | 40 | 520 | | 25 | 320 " Thomas' iron slag | 230 | 210 | 20 | 460 | **CONCLUSIONS.** Does this soil need phosphoric acid to grow cotton profitably? is apparently answered in the affirmative. The average increase of uncombined phosphates over no manure is 248 pounds, but combined with basal mixture it gives no increase over the latter, but a loss of eighty-six pounds. What form is best to present? is answered emphatically in favor of the soluble forms, dissolved bone black and acid phosphate. The third question, what quantity per acre? is answered in favor of the single ration; the double ration being an absolute loss in every instance. It is very certain that phosphoric acid is needed to grow cotton successfully, but in small quantities, and soluble forms and combined always with nitrogen manure. Gypsum shows no appreciable difference in yield. PLAT NO. 3—COTTON—POTASH EXPERIMENTS. In this plat potash has been used in the forms of kainite, cotton seed hull ashes, the muriate and sulphate of potash, quantities of each taken so as to represent single and double rations, as with nitrogen, etc., in plat 1. The same questions are propounded with potash as with nitrogen in plat 1, viz: First. Does this soil need potash to grow cotton profitably? Second. If so, in what form can it be best presented? Third. In what quantities per acre? Preparation, cultivation, etc., the same as in plat 1. Below are the results: ## PLAT NO. 3—COTTON—POTASH EXPERIMENTS. ### Kind and quantity manure used per acre. | Number of experiment | Kind and quantity manure used per acre | First picking August 28 | Second picking September 22 | Third picking October 20 | Yield per acre of seed cotton in pounds | |----------------------|---------------------------------------|--------------------------|----------------------------|---------------------------|----------------------------------------| | 1 | 240 pounds cotton seed hull ashes | 220 | 260 | 40 | 520 | | 2 | 360 " cotton seed meal | 700 | 240 | 20 | 940 | | 3 | 360 " cotton seed hull ashes | 660 | 270 | 10 | 940 | | 4 | 480 " cotton seed hull ashes | 140 | 290 | 100 | 530 | | 5 | 480 " cotton seed meal | 640 | 280 | 40 | 960 | | 6 | 720 " acid phosphate | 640 | 200 | 4 | 880 | | 7 | 720 " meal phosphate | 600 | 240 | 40 | 880 | | 8 | No manure | 300 | 295 | 170 | 660 | | 9 | 160 pounds kainite | 360 | 240 | 40 | 640 | | 10 | 720 " meal phosphate | 640 | 280 | 40 | 960 | | 11 | 720 " meal phosphate | 610 | 240 | 20 | 860 | | 12 | 320 " kainite | 600 | 240 | 40 | 880 | | 13 | 40 " muriate potash | 230 | 290 | 170 | 660 | | 14 | 720 " meal phosphate | 640 | 260 | 80 | 980 | | 15 | 40 " muriate potash | 640 | 250 | 20 | 910 | | 16 | 720 " meal phosphate | 620 | 300 | 30 | 950 | | 17 | No manure | 140 | 400 | 120 | 660 | | 18 | 60 pounds sulphate potash | 180 | 310 | 100 | 590 | | 19 | 720 " meal phosphate | 660 | 320 | 20 | 1,000 | | 20 | 720 " meal phosphate | 660 | 320 | 40 | 1,020 | | 21 | 120 " sulphate potash | 680 | 340 | 40 | 1,060 | ### CONCLUSIONS. The average results from experiments where no manure was used, is 660 pounds seed cotton, while the average of potash manures alone is 589 pounds, showing an absolute loss to potash of 71 pounds. The average results of meal phosphate uncombined is 975 pounds cotton, while the average of meal phosphate combined with potash is 930, showing a loss here to potash of forty five pounds. The sulphate of potash seems to be the best form to use, if it were needed. But experiments of this year agree with those of four past years, viz: That potash, in no form, used alone or combined with other manures, is needed for the present in these soils. There is actual loss by its use this and last year. PLAT NO. 4—COTTON—DEPTH OF MANURE—COMBINED. The questions propounded in this plat are: First. What depth shall fertilizers be applied for best results? Second. Shall they be separate or combined? And incidentally the question is asked, do fertilizers affect germination in shallow applications? The following are the results: FIRST PLAT NO. 4—COTTON—DEPTH OF MANURE COMBINED. | Number of experiment | Kind and quantity of manure used per acre. | Depth applied. | 1893. | |----------------------|------------------------------------------|----------------|-------| | | | | First picking August 16. | Second picking September 22. | Third picking October 17. | Yield seed cotton per acre. | | 1 | 160 pounds acid phosphate | 6 to 8 inches | 510 | 400 | 80 | 980 | | | 40 " muriate potash | | | | | | | | 360 " cotton seed meal | | | | | | | 2 | 160 " acid phosphate | 4 to 6 inches | 620 | 360 | 60 | 1040 | | | 40 " muriate potash | | | | | | | | 360 " cotton seed meal | | | | | | | 3 | 160 " acid phosphate | 2 to 3 inches | 640 | 360 | 60 | 1060 | | | 40 " muriate potash | | | | | | | | 360 " cotton seed meal | | | | | | | 4 | 160 " acid phosphate | Top dressed | 530 | 400 | 80 | 1010 | | | 40 " muriate potash | | | | | | | | 360 " cotton seed meal | | | | | | Two to three inches give best results, followed closely by four to six and top dressed. Concurring results of previous years emphasize the wisdom of shallow applications of fertilizers in these soils. Six to eight inches give poorest yield. PLAT NO. 4—COTTON—DEPTH OF MANURE USED SEPARATELY. In this plat cotton seed meal is left off in experiments 1 and 2; combined in double quantity in 3, and same quantity applied shallow in experiment 4. Following are results: SECOND PLAT NO. 4—COTTON—DEPTH OF MANURES USED SEPARATELY. | Number of experiment | Kind and quantity of manure used per acre | Depth of application | First picking August 15 | Second picking September 20 | Third picking October 18 | Yield of seed cotton per acre | |----------------------|------------------------------------------|----------------------|-------------------------|----------------------------|---------------------------|-------------------------------| | 1 | 320 pounds acid phosphate | 6 to 8 inches | 520 | 450 | 130 | 1100 | | | 80 " muriate potash | Top dressed | 730 | 400 | 120 | 1250 | | 2 | 320 " acid phosphate | 2 to 3 inches | 780 | 340 | 90 | 1210 | | | 80 " muriate potash | | | | | | | 3 | 720 " cotton seed meal | 4 to 6 inches | 840 | 300 | 40 | 1180 | | | 320 " acid phosphate | Top dres'd | | | | | | 4 | 80 " muriate potash | | | | | | | | 720 " cotton seed meal | | | | | | Shallow applications have again given best results. Separate application has given better results than combined. Top dressing fertilizer on drill, after planting, does prevent successful germination. PLAT NO. 5—COTTON—DISTANCE EXPERIMENTS—WHAT DISTANCE SHALL COTTON BE PLANTED IN DRILL FOR BEST RESULTS? | Number of experiment | What distance apart and number of stalks in drill | First picking August 29. | Second picking September 22. | Third picking October 18. | Total yield per acre of seed cotton in pounds. | |----------------------|--------------------------------------------------|--------------------------|-------------------------------|---------------------------|-----------------------------------------------| | 1 | One stalk, eight inches in drill | 100 | 640 | 360 | 1100 | | 2 | Two stalks, eight inches in drill | 170 | 660 | 180 | 1010 | | 3 | One stalk, twelve inches in drill | 120 | 720 | 200 | 1040 | | 4 | Two stalks, twelve inches in drill | 140 | 650 | 170 | 960 | | 5 | One stalk, sixteen inches in drill | 130 | 650 | 160 | 940 | | 6 | Two stalks, sixteen inches in drill | 140 | 620 | 190 | 950 | | 7 | One stalk, twenty inches in drill | 180 | 660 | 150 | 990 | | 8 | Two stalks, twenty inches in drill | 150 | 690 | 130 | 970 | | 9 | One stalk, twenty-four inches in drill | 100 | 640 | 160 | 800 | | 10 | Two stalks, twenty-four inches in drill | 120 | 740 | 200 | 1160 | Results vary with the seasons. Heretofore greater distance was declared necessary for cotton. Defective stands from cold spring prevents certain conclusions. Two stalks, twenty-four inches, give best results. PLAT NO. 6—COTTON—APPLICATION OF MANURES. Nitrogen is very soluble. In the soil it is readily converted into ammonia, nitrates and nitrites, in which forms it is available as plant food. But the loose sandy character of this soil and the solubility of nitrogen, suggests the belief that an unknown quantity is leached out of the soil by heavy rains, and is therefore lost to the plant. The object of this plat is to ascertain if there be any loss to cotton and if there be any value in two or more applications of the nitrogen manures during growth. The applications are made only of the nitrogen fertilizers, as potash is stationary in the soil and phosphoric acid nearly so. The mineral mixture (acid phosphate and kainite) is constant throughout. The nitrogen varies in form, but the same quantity of each is applied in second and third applications as in the first. Preparation, etc., same as other plats. Following are the results: PLAT NO. 6—COTTON—APPLICATION OF MANURES. | Number of Experiment | Kind and Quantity Manure Used Per Acre | When Applied | First picking August 20 | Second picking Sept. 22 | Third picking October 20 | Total yield seed cotton per acre. | |----------------------|----------------------------------------|--------------|--------------------------|--------------------------|---------------------------|-----------------------------------| | 1 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting April 11 | 330 | 680 | 140 | 1150 | | | 160 lbs. nitrate soda | | | | | | | 2 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting April 11 | 320 | 610 | 100 | 1030 | | | 80 lbs. nitrate soda | At laying by—July 2 | | | | | | 3 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting | 300 | 630 | 130 | 1060 | | | 53½ lbs. nitrate soda | At 2d working, June 5 | | | | | | | 33½ lbs. nitrate soda | At laying by | | | | | | 4 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting | 400 | 630 | 100 | 1130 | | | 120 lbs. sulphate ammonia | | | | | | | 5 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting | 300 | 550 | 100 | 950 | | | 60 lbs. sulphate ammonia | At laying by | | | | | | 6 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting | 380 | 590 | 120 | 1090 | | | 40 lbs. sulphate ammonia | At second working | | | | | | 7 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting | 380 | 640 | 120 | 1140 | | | 360 lbs. cotton seed meal | | | | | | | 8 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting | 330 | 582 | 100 | 1012 | | | 180 lbs. cotton seed meal | At laying by | | | | | | 9 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting | 300 | 540 | 170 | 1010 | | | 120 lbs. cotton seed meal | At second working | | | | | | 10 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting | 390 | 1020 | 230 | 1640 | | | 153½ lbs. nitrate soda | | | | | | | | 40 lbs. sulphate ammonia | | | | | | | 11 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting | 320 | 840 | 190 | 1350 | | | Plus ½ nitro. mix. of expt. 10 | At laying by | | | | | | 12 | 240 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting | 300 | 760 | 240 | 1300 | | | Plus ⅓ nitro. mix. expt. 10 | At second working | | | | | | | Plus ⅓ nitro. mix. expt. 10 | At laying by | | | | | CONCLUSIONS. In every case there has been a loss with two and three applications. The long tap root of cotton certainly intercepts the nitrogen as it sinks in the soil. There is no profit, but rather loss, in making two and three applications. Fertilizer for cotton should all be applied in drill at time of planting. PLAT NO 4—COTTON—VARIETIES. The Station has spared neither time nor money in obtaining and testing as many varieties of cotton as possible. Last spring forty varieties were planted, but only thirty six germinated successfully. They were placed under the same conditions and treated, as nearly as possible, alike. They were fertilized with a mixture consisting of 200 pounds acid phosphate, 200 pounds cotton seed meal and 100 pounds kainite per acre. These were carefully weighed in field and at gin, and ginned separately on a small twenty saw Gullet gin, feeder and condenser; lint and seed carefully weighed and per cent. of each calculated. Attention is directed to the comparative yields by pickings. Following are results: | No. experiment | Name of Variety | First picking August 24 | Second picking September 22 | Third picking October 18 | Total | Lint—per cent. | Seed—per cent. | Remarks | |----------------|----------------------------------|-------------------------|-----------------------------|--------------------------|-------|----------------|----------------|------------------------------------------------| | 1 | Cook's Long Staple No. 1 | 560 | 460 | 260 | 1,280 | 29.50 | 70 | State Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, La | | 2 | Dalkeith Eureka | 470 | 400 | 200 | 1,070 | 30.40 | 69.5 | W. B. Humphries, Keithville, La | | 3 | Bancroft's Herlong | 760 | 380 | 140 | 1,280 | 31.20 | 68.4 | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga | | 4 | Tennessee Gold Dust | 760 | 366 | 120 | 1,240 | 32.2 | 67.4 | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga | | 5 | Peterkin's New Chester | 289 | 480 | 125 | 1,180 | 35.6 | 64.2 | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga | | 6 | Hawkins's Improved | 380 | 445 | 380 | 1,200 | 33.2 | 65.8 | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga | | 7 | King's Improved | 660 | 240 | 180 | 1,080 | 31.2 | 68.2 | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga | | 8 | Triutt's Improved | 370 | 380 | 435 | 1,180 | 30.4 | 69 | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga | | 9 | Southern Hope | 340 | 310 | 410 | 1,060 | 29.2 | 70.2 | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga | | 10 | J. O. Morris | 500 | 400 | 220 | 1,120 | 33 | 66.4 | J. O. Morris, Gainesville, La | | 11 | Mathew's Extra Long Staple | 400 | 290 | 170 | 860 | 28.7 | 69.8 | Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, La | | 12 | Eureka | 350 | 360 | 220 | 936 | 31.2 | 68.4 | Colthorp's, Milliken's Bend, La | | 13 | Welborn's Pet | 560 | 285 | 160 | 1,000 | 32.2 | 69.4 | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga | | 14 | Drake's Cluster | 360 | 330 | 200 | 890 | 31.6 | 68.2 | State Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, La | | 15 | Marston | 280 | 270 | 200 | 750 | 31.4 | 68.2 | Sugar Experiment Station, New Orleans, La | | 16 | Dickson | 370 | 280 | 160 | 810 | 32.4 | 67.2 | Mr. Prevost, New Orleans, La | | 17 | Peterkin | 240 | 270 | 240 | 750 | 37.2 | 62.4 | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga | | 18 | Kenneth's Long Staple | 280 | 250 | 190 | 720 | 29.4 | 70.2 | E. Fudicka, Monroe, La | | 19 | Willis' | 320 | 240 | 250 | 810 | 31.3 | 68.2 | State Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, La | | 20 | Peerless | 420 | 280 | 160 | 860 | 32.1 | 67.2 | Mr. Prevost, New Orleans, La | | 21 | Cockran's Short Limb Prolific | 340 | 320 | 260 | 920 | 31.2 | 68.2 | State Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, La | | 22 | Rockett's Favorite | 260 | 320 | 420 | 1,000 | 32.6 | 67.3 | J. C. Rockett, Farmerville, La | | 23 | Okra Leaf | 310 | 250 | 270 | 830 | 33.4 | 66 | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga | | 24 | Honey-cutt | 190 | 310 | 450 | 950 | 30.7 | 69.20 | State Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, La | | 25 | Crawford's | 280 | 310 | 400 | 990 | 31.7 | 68 | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga | | 26 | Excelsior | 180 | 290 | 540 | 1,010 | 34.4 | 65 | State Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, La | | 27 | Colthorp's Pride | 120 | 310 | 550 | 980 | 33.3 | 63 | Colthorp Bros., Milliken's Bend, La | | 28 | Texas Storm and Drought Proof | 270 | 360 | 330 | 1,160 | 33 | 63.8 | W. B. Smiley, Baileyville, Texas | | 29 | Cook's Long Staple No. 2 | 280 | 425 | 575 | 1,270 | 29.4 | 70 | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga | | 30 | W. B. Ethridge Small Seed | 290 | 400 | 600 | 1,290 | 36.4 | 63 | W. B. Ethridge, Downsville, La | | 31 | Sea Island | 170 | 480 | 350 | 970 | 40.2 | 59.3 | Mr. Prevost, New Orleans, La | | 32 | Kolb's Prolific | 170 | 400 | 710 | 1,280 | 34 | 65.5 | Sugar Experiment Station, New Orleans, La | | 33 | Allen's Long Staple | 250 | 410 | 445 | 1,115 | 29 | 70.5 | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga | Peterkin and Peterkin Cluster, Excelsior, Kalbs Prolific, lead in best percentage of lint. W. B. Ethridge Small Seed, Kolb's Prolific, Cook's Long Staple, Bancroft's Herlong and Gold Dust, the largest yield seed cotton. CORN. Experiments in corn were of two kinds: First, manurial requirements, both as to the kinds of fertilizer to be used and the modes of application. Second, varieties of corn best suited to our wants. PLAT NO. 7—NITROGENOUS MANURES. The questions propounded to this plat are the same as those asked of cotton in plat 1, viz: 1st. Does this soil need nitrogen to grow corn profitably? 2nd. If so, in what form must it be presented? 3rd. What quantity per acre? Exactly, as with cotton, the mineral, animal and vegetable forms have been used in single and double rations. PREPARATION AND CULTIVATION OF LAND. In January the land was broken eight or nine inches deep with Hervy plow (three mules), and harrowed with Acme harrow; rows marked off five feet apart in February and bedded out March 10th, beds opened, fertilizer distributed, rebedded on bed opened, corn planted and covered with harrow. After cultivation was with hoe, scooters, heelsweeps and Stahl cultivator every eight to twelve days apart and layed by June 1st. Following are results: | Number of Experiment | Kind and Quantity of Manure Per Acre | Bush, Shelled Corn Per Acre | |----------------------|-------------------------------------|-----------------------------| | 1 | 112 pounds nitrate soda | 23.6 | | 2 | 112 " acid phosphate | | | | 56 " kainite | | | | 168 " mixed minerals | 19.6 | | 3 | 112 " nitrate soda | | | 4 | 168 " mixed minerals | 24.4 | | 5 | 224 " nitrate soda | 26.8 | | 6 | 84 " sulphate ammonia | 15.6 | | 7 | 168 " mixed minerals | 13.2 | | 8 | 84 " sulphate ammonia | 20 | | 9 | No manure | 22.8 | | 10 | 140 pounds dried blood | 9.6 | | 11 | 168 " mixed minerals | 14 | | 12 | 168 " mixed minerals | 12 | | 13 | 140 " dried blood | 20 | | 14 | 168 " mixed minerals | 26 | | 15 | 280 " dried blood | 26 | | 16 | 252 " fish scrap | 23.6 | | 17 | 168 " mixed minerals | 14.4 | | 18 | No manure | 22.4 | | 19 | 252 pounds cotton seed meal | 26 | | 20 | 168 " mixed minerals | 16.8 | | 21 | 168 " mixed minerals | 7.6 | | 22 | 252 " cotton seed meal | 20 | | 23 | 168 " mixed minerals | 24 | | 24 | 728 " crushed cotton seed | 19.6 | | 25 | 168 " mixed minerals | 13.2 | | 26 | 728 " crushed cotton seed | 18.8 | | 27 | 168 " mixed minerals | 21.6 | | 28 | 728 " green cotton seed | 16.8 | | 29 | 168 " mixed minerals | 10.8 | | 30 | 728 " green cotton seed | 17.6 | | 31 | No manure | 18.4 | | | | 13.7 | | Number of Experiment | Kind and Quantity of Manure Per Acre | Bush. Shelled Corn Per Acre | |----------------------|-------------------------------------|----------------------------| | 32 | 2940 pounds compost | 19.2 | | 33 | 168 pounds mixed minerals | 13.2 | | 34 | 2940 " compost | 22.8 | | 35 | 56 " kainite | 23.8 | | 36 | 58-0 " compost | | | 37 | 56 " kainite | | | 38 | 720 " rotted cotton seed | 14.8 | | 39 | 168 " mixed minerals | 6.8 | | 40 | 168 " mixed minerals | 16.7 | | 41 | 1440 " rotted cotton seed | 17.6 | | 42 | No manure | 6.5 | **CONCLUSIONS.** The first question, does this soil need nitrogen to grow corn profitably? is answered yes, very positively. The average of no manure is 10.4 bushels, and of the nitrogen manures alone the average is 18.2, showing a gain due to nitrogen of 7.8 bushels per acre. The average of mixed minerals is 12.3 bushels of corn per acre; the average of one ration of nitrogen (18 pounds) combined with mixed minerals, is 20.3 bushels per acre, and of two rations (36 pounds nitrogen) it is 23, showing an excess due to nitrogen respectively of 8 bushels (one ration) and 10.7 (two rations), showing conclusively its need for profitable corn production in this soil. The second question, in what form is nitrogen best presented? is not so definitely answered. The excesses of nitrate soda, combined and uncombined, over its mixed minerals are respectively 4, 4.6 and 6.4 bushels per acre. The sulphate ammonia excesses, combined and uncombined, over its mixed minerals are respectively 2.4, 6.8 and 9.6 bushels per acre. The dried blood excesses, combined and uncombined, over its mixed minerals are respectively 2, 8 and 14 bushels per acre. The excesses of fish scrap over its mixed minerals, are respectively 8.2, 8 and 11.6 bushels per acre. The cotton seed meal excesses over its mixed minerals are respectively 9.2, 12.4 and 16.4 bushels per acre. Likewise crushed cotton seed excesses, etc., are respectively .4, 5.6 and 8.4 bushels per acre. While green cotton seed show excesses over its mixed minerals respectively of 6, 6.8 and 7.6 bushels per acre, and rotten cotton seed show excesses over its mixed minerals of 6.8, 9.9 and 10.8 bushels per acre. From the above the vegetable forms of nitrogen, cotton seed meal, cotton seed green, rotted, etc., has given best results, and while all forms of nitrogen have given good results with corn, the vegetable forms are preferred and recommended, because of the economy and convenience. The third question, what quantity per acre? is answered positively in favor of the single ration, or 18 pounds nitrogen per acre. In every case there is a money loss with two rations. PLAT NO. 8—PHOSPHORIC ACID EXPERIMENTS. In this plat the same questions are propounded with corn as with cotton in plat No. 1, viz: 1st. Does this soil need phosphoric acid to grow corn profitably? 2nd. If so, in what form must it be presented? 3rd. In what quantities per acre? As with cotton, the soluble forms, acid phosphate and dissolved bone black, and insoluble forms, bone meal, South Carolina floats and Thomas' slag meal, have been used. The preparation, etc., was the same as given in nitrogen plat above: The following are the results. | No. of Experiment | Kind and Quantity of Manure Used Per Acre | Bushels Corn per Acre, 1893 | |-------------------|------------------------------------------|----------------------------| | 1 | 56 pounds gypsum | 16 | | 2 | 112 pounds dissolved bone black | 19.6 | | 3 | 336 pounds cotton seed meal | Basal mixture | 22 | | | 84 pounds kainite | | | | 4 | 420 pounds basal mixture | | 22.8 | | 5 | 112 pounds dissolved bone black | | 20.8 | | 6 | 56 pounds gypsum | | 8.8 | | 7 | 112 pounds acid phosphate | | 8.8 | | 8 | 420 pounds basal mixture | | 16.8 | | 9 | No manure | | 7.6 | | 10 | 420 pounds basal mixture | | 22.4 | | 11 | 112 pounds acid phosphate | | 25.6 | | 12 | 420 pounds basal mixture | | 17.6 | | 13 | 224 pounds acid phosphate | | 21.6 | | 14 | 420 pounds basal mixture | | 22.8 | | 15 | 112 pounds bone meal | | 26.8 | | 16 | 420 pounds basal mixture | | 15.6 | | 17 | 224 pounds bone meal | | 20.4 | | 18 | 420 pounds basal mixture | | 22 | | 19 | 112 pounds South Carolina floats | | 22.8 | | 20 | No manure | | 10.5 | | 21 | 112 pounds Thomas' iron slag | | 12.4 | | 22 | 420 pounds basal mixture | | 22 | | 23 | 112 pounds Thomas' iron slag | | 22.4 | | 24 | 224 pounds Thomas' iron slag | | 24 | **CONCLUSIONS.** The results with phosphoric acid with corn are similar to those of cotton, viz: That phosphoric acid is needed to grow a profitable crop of corn, but the need is not so much as with cotton; that the soluble forms, acid phosphate and dissolved bone black, are preferred; that the double ration is unprofitable; that phosphates are needed in small quantities and should be combined with nitrogen fertilizers for best results with corn. PLAT NO. 9—CORN—POTASH EXPERIMENTS. The same questions are propounded in this plat with potash as with cotton in plat No. 1, viz: 1st. Does this soil need potash to grow corn profitably? 2nd. If so, in what form must it be presented? 3rd. In what quantities per acre? Preparation and cultivation same as in plat above. Following are results: PLAT NO 9—CORN—POTASH EXPERIMENTS. Kind and Quantity of Manure Used Per Acre. | No. of Experiment | Bushels Corn Per Acre, 1883 | |-------------------|----------------------------| | 1 | 11 | | 2 | 22 | | 3 | 22.4 | | 4 | 22.8 | | 5 | 14.6 | | 6 | 13.6 | | 7 | 25.2 | | 8 | 24 | | 9 | 20.4 | | 10 | 14 | | 11 | 24 | | 12 | 24 | | 13 | 24.5 | | 14 | 14 | | 15 | 14.3 | | 16 | 21 | | 17 | 21.5 | | 18 | 20 | CONCLUSIONS are the same and even more marked than with cotton, viz: That potash in no form, used singly or combined with other manures, is needed in this soil for corn. There is actual loss of potash used in every case. PLAT NO. 10—CORN—APPLICATION OF MANURES. The same suggestions here are made as with cotton. The mineral mixtures are constant throughout; the nitrogen varies in applications, but the same quantities are used in every case. Preparation, cultivation, etc., the same as other plats. The following are the results: PLAT NO. 10—CORN—APPLICATION OF MANURES. | No. of Experiment | Kind and Quantity of Manure Used Per Acre | When Applied | Bushels of corn per acre | |-------------------|------------------------------------------|--------------|-------------------------| | 1 | 168 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting, March 10 | 24 | | | 1/2 lbs nitrate soda | | | | 2 | 56 lbs. nitrate soda | At laying by, June 11 | 24.8 | | | 56 lbs. nitrate soda | | | | 3 | 168 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting | 24.8 | | | 37 1/2 lbs. nitrate soda | At 2nd working, April 27 | 24.8 | | | 37 1/2 lbs. nitrate soda | At laying by, June 11 | 24.8 | | 4 | 84 lbs. sulphate ammonia | At planting | 22.7 | | 5 | 42 lbs sulphate ammonia | At planting | 24 | | 6 | 28 lbs. sulphate ammonia | At laying by | 27.6 | | 7 | 168 lbs. mixed minerals | At planting | 22.4 | | 8 | 126 lbs. cotton seed meal | At planting | 24 | | 9 | 84 lbs. cotton seed meal | At laying by | 26.4 | | 10 | 37 1/2 lbs. nitrate soda | At planting | 24.8 | | 11 | Plus one-half of nitrogen of No. 10 | At planting | 26 | | 12 | Plus one-third of nitrogen of No. 10 | At 2nd working | 26.8 | CONCLUSIONS. The average of one application is 23.4 bushels. The average of two applications is 24.7 bushels. The average of three applications is 26.4. The excess of two applications over one application is 1.3 bushels; of three applications over one the excess is 3 bushels; and of three over two the excess is 1.7 bushels per acre. Concurring results of previous years favor different applications of nitrogen manures for corn in this soil. PLAT NO. 11—CORN—VARIETIES. In the following plat tests were made of 28 varieties of corn. They were planted at the same time, fertilized with the station's compost for corn and treated as nearly as possible alike. The following are the results, showing per cent. of grain, per cent. of shuck, cob, and number of bushels per acre: | No. Experiment | Name of Variety | Where Obtained | Per cent. of grain | Per cent. of shucks | Bushels corn per acre | Kind of Corn | |----------------|----------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|--------------------|---------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------| | 1 | Giant Broad Grain | T. Wood & Son, Richmond, Va. | 76.20 | 18.10 | 9.9 | White dent | | 2 | Mosby's Prolific | Sugar Experiment Station | 79 | 11.50 | 8.8 | White dent | | 3 | Stowe | J. M. Parkman, Calhoun, La. | 78.50 | 10.80 | 8.6 | White dent | | 4 | New Madrid | R. Frotscher, New Orleans, La. | 75.40 | 15.50 | 9.20 | White dent | | 5 | Patterson | R. F. Patterson, Baton Rouge, La. | 74.50 | 18.20 | 8.6 | White dent | | 6 | Welborn's Conscience | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga. | 78.40 | 14 | 8.30 | White dent | | 7 | Virginia White Gourd Seed | T. W. Wood & Son, Richmond, Va. | 78 | 13.60 | 8.50 | Gourd seed c'ent | | 8 | Rural Thoroughbred | T. W. Wood & Son, Richmond, Va. | 76 | 14.10 | 9 | White dent | | 9 | Kausas King Field | T. W. Wood & Son, Richmond, Va. | 75 | 15 | 9.40 | White dent | | 10 | Hendron's White Bread | Jenkins & Trobough, Fayetteville, Tenn. | 76 | 14.5 | 9.20 | White dent | | 11 | Red Cob | J. L. Ford, Calhoun, La. | 77.4 | 13.4 | 9 | Red cob dent | | 12 | King Philip | T. Wood & Son, Richmond, Va. | 73 | 15.20 | 11.20 | White dent | | 13 | Brinker's | A. J. Brinker, Wood's Mill, La. | 75 | 13.50 | 9.4 | Yellow dent | | 14 | Roberts' | State Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, La. | 73.5 | 15.5 | 13.2 | White dent | | 15 | Golden Beauty | R. Frotscher, New Orleans, La. | 75.5 | 14 | 11.40 | Yellow dent | | 16 | Hickory Kin | R. Frotscher, New Orleans, La. | 75.2 | 13 | 11.20 | White dent | | 17 | Improved Leoning | R. Frotscher, New Orleans, La. | 76.4 | 12.8 | 11.40 | White dent | | 18 | Mar land White | T. W. Wood & Son, Richmond, Va. | 74.5 | 13.8 | 10.90 | White dent | | 19 | McGuire | Thos. McGuire, West Monroe, La. | 75.5 | 12.9 | 11.80 | White dent | | 20 | St. Charles White Dent | R. Frotscher, New Orleans, La. | 75 | 13.9 | 10.7 | White dent | | 21 | Brazilian Flour | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga. | 73 | 14 | 11.4 | White dent | | 22 | Riley's Favorite Dent | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga. | 74 | 13.8 | 10.8 | White dent | | 23 | Mammoth White Surprise | T. W. Wood & Son, Richmond, Va. | 73 | 14.5 | 11.5 | White dent | | 24 | Clark's Flour | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga. | 74 | 15.4 | 9.4 | White dent | | 25 | Champion White Pearl | Alexander Seed Company, Augusta, Ga. | 74.5 | 13.8 | 9.8 | White flint | | 26 | Mexica June | R. Frotscher, New Orleans, La. | | | | Total failure | | 27 | Bank's Improved Stock | Jenkins & Trobough, Fayetteville, Tenn. | 75 | 14.2 | 9.8 | Strawberry dent | | 28 | Holman Yellow | Experiment Station, Calhoun, La. | 74.5 | 13.3 | 10.9 | Yellow dent | Inspection of above table shows Virginia White Gourd Seed and Hendron’s White Bread lead in yields, while Mosby leads in per cent. of grain, followed closely by Stowe, Welborne’s Conscience and Virginia White Gourd Seed. The medium late varieties that are good and can be recommended are Broad Grain, Virginia Gourd Seed, Hendron’s White Bread, Red Cob, Brinker, Patterson, Bank’s Improved Stock, Stowe. The best late varieties are Mosby and Mammoth White Surprise. The best early varieties are Golden Beauty, Holman Yellow and McGuire. PLAT NO. 13—FORAGE CROPS. This plat was devoted to forage crops, fertilized with 200 pounds cotton seed meal and 100 pounds acid phosphate per acre. Below are the results: PLAT NO. 13—FORAGE CROP. | Number of Experiment | Name of Variety | Tons Forage Per Acre | Bushels Seed Per Acre | |----------------------|----------------------------------|----------------------|-----------------------| | 1 | Pearl millet | 8 | | | 2 | Jerusalem corn | 4 | 6 | | 3 | Yellow millo maize | 11 | 22.6 | | 4 | White millo maize | 10 | 21.5 | | 5 | Large African millet | 14 | 28.5 | | 6 | Kaffir corn | 4 | 10 | | 7 | German millet | 3.5 | | | 8 | French millet (red) | 4.5 | | | 9 | Soja bean | 2.5 | | | 10 | New orange sorghum | 6.5 | | | 11 | Kansas orange | 6.7 | | | 12 | Golden rod | 10 | | | 13 | White India | 11 | | | 14 | Early Amber | 5 | | | 15 | Coleman | 12 | | | 16 | Wild rice | 1.5 | | | 17 | Upland rice | 1 | | | 18 | Japan rice | 2 | | Pearl, or “cat-tail,” millet, as it is sometimes called, is used as a “soiling” crop. A few rows planted in rich soil will afford sufficient green feed in spring for several head of horses. It grows out rapidly after being cut and is one of the best early green feeds of its kind. The next five are non saccharine sorghums. They make excellent forage and may be used as soiling crops or cured as hay. The bushels of grain they yield per acre make them valuable adjuncts to the grain producing crops. Jerusalem corn has large, compact, drooping heads of white grain. The stalk is low, stout and stocky, and not so good as the four following. Yellow and white millo maize grow large and tall, making large tonnage of forage, large straight heads of yellow and white grain, yielding in favorable years many bushels per acre. Large African millet is very much like the white millo maize, except it grows much larger both in stalk and seed heads. It is equally as valuable for forage and soiling, possessing the advantage over all of greater tonnage and more bushels grain per acre. It will certainly produce more forage per acre than any forage crop ever grown at the station. The Kaffir corn is low growing, but produces many heads of white grain as well as fair tonnage of forage. The seeds are excellent poultry feed. German millet is too well known to mention any of its characteristics. It is a valuable forage and soiling crop and should be more extensively planted. French millet bears a long drooping head of red grain and bids fair to outrival the German variety in production. Soja bean is a leguminous plant, and aside from its qualities as a forage plant, like others of the leguminous family, it renovates worn land. It resembles the bean, grows tree-like, 18 inches to 2 feet high, and bears a heavy crop of short pods, well filled with small, round, white berries, resembling very much the sweet pea of the garden. If cut just as the pods begin to ripen it cures readily into a good hay. On account of the prolonged dry spell the three varieties of rice failed almost totally to make grain. The Japan variety matured some grain. Rice is a very valuable forage. Planted on low, wet land, every farmer will be well paid for his trouble in harvesting a valuable hay crop. Early and New Orange are very similar. They grow medium tall, rather stocky. The seed heads are medium large, compact and well filled with red grain. Valuable for forage, for soiling and syrup making. Medium early. Golden Rod is tall, growing slender stalks; rather long, straggling small heads, light red grain. Rather late for syrup making; fair forage and soiling. White India is also tall, growing large heads, white grain, fair forage and soiling; fair for syrup making; late. Early Amber is very early, low growing and small; small, straggling seed heads. Makes best of forage and soiling and good for syrup. Coleman is a cross between the Early Amber and Orange, and combines the good qualities of both. It is the best variety grown here. It is medium tall growing, stout and stocky; bears a large, compact seed head, resembling the Orange mostly. It is first-class for syrup and sugar making; excellent forage and soiling crop; early. The Station feels that too little attention is given to raising sorghum. No better feed crop can be raised. It may be cured into excellent forage, it may be fed green to all kinds of stock with best results from the time it is two feet high, the second growth coming out quickly. Cut just as seed heads are in dough state, there is no better or healthier feed for hogs, and it may be so planted as to be ready for feeding during the entire summer, when hog feed is scarce. Plant an acre or two for hogs and forage. Plat No. 14 was devoted to varieties of field peas and Spanish peanuts. The Spanish peanut is the most desirable variety here in North Louisiana. It is early, very prolific and easily harvested, the pods adhering to the vine. Planted in April they will mature a crop in August, and planted as late as July they will make a crop before frost. They are excellent to follow out a crop. The pea is smaller than other varieties, but they are sweet, fill out well and show fewer "pops" than any. Properly harvested, by pulling the vine up and reversing in the sun for a few hours, and then shocked up in the evening, left shocked the next day, and hauling in at evening, an excellent quality and quantity of hay may be gotten, which is ravenously eaten by all kinds of stock. The vines should be pulled just as the leaves show change of color, or as pods are formed. Three tons per acre were gathered at the Station this year. COW PEAS. Pea of the Backwoods or Old Man's Friend—Was brought to notice several years ago by letters of Mr. Edward Fonville, of Onslow County, S. C., in Southern Cultivator. It was recommended as the earliest bunch pea and excellent for table use. It has proved two weeks ahead of any other; a large bearer and a shell pea for table use, tender, marrowy and palatable. Are ripe six weeks after planting. It is a bunch pea strictly, therefore affording not much vine. The seeds are small, cream-colored, slightly pied. Very prolific. The Unknown Pea—Is a greenish white color, with blue eye; full size; makes much vine; vigorous growth; late; large and continued bearer; pods long and full; a fine pea. Dwarf Whippoorwill Pea—A bunch pea with but little vines; begins fruiting in fifty or sixty days; berry speckled; pods long and full; yield good. Clay Pea—Vines and foliage medium; begins fruiting in seventy five days; yield good; berry cream-colored, with white eye; medium in size; pod of medium length and not crowded; keeps well. Lady Pea—A small white pea; white eye, with considerable vine of medium foliage; begins fruiting in ninety days from time of planting. Large White Pea—Vines and foliage heavy; very late fruiting; a large white pea and very prolific. Indian Pea—A large "liver and white pied" with long and crowded pods; very prolific; vines and foliage heavy; begins fruiting in sixty to ninety days; berry soft and does not keep well. King's Pea—A large black and white pied pea; large and crowded pod; vines and foliage heavy; very prolific; begins fruiting in sixty to seventy days; berry too soft to keep well. *Red Ripper Pea*—A large red pea, with long and crowded pods; vines and foliage medium; bears in seventy five days. *Blue Pea*—A small blue pea; medium vine and foliage; very prolific and early; will bear in nine weeks. *Purple Hull Pea*—A large white pea; black eye; purple hull; long pods; a great viner; good table pea; renovator of worn soils. *Black Pea*—Medium large black pea, white eye; very prolific; long pods; tremendous viner; berry will stay in ground over winter and come up the following spring. Colvin pea is a medium large, light red pea, resembling some the Red Ripper. It is the bunch kind, very prolific and early, fruiting in 8 or 9 weeks. Not much vine. Much chemical work has been performed, in the laboratory of the Station, upon the different varieties of peas as soil renovators, which is as yet uncomplete. When finished it will be embodied in a special bulletin on Cow peas. We do not appreciate the value of the Cow pea as a renovator of worn soil in North Louisiana as we ought. The Chemical Report will throw new light on the pea question, and it is hoped will give farmers a better appreciation of the pea as well as to direct their attention to the variety to plant. These experiments will go forward for several years yet on the same plat. The experiment is a scientific one of the highest order, and most valuable it must prove to farmers everywhere. --- **GRAINS, GRASSES AND CLOVERS.** Six acres of Rust Proof oats and winter grazing barley, three acres of each, were planted in the fall of 1892, on well prepared land, previously cultivated in corn and peas. The first acre of each was fertilized with the Station’s grain fertilizer, consisting of 200 pounds cotton seed meal and 100 pounds acid phosphate, mixed well and scattered and plowed in with the grain. The second or middle acre was left without fertilizer, while the third acre was "top dressed" in February following, by scattering the same fertilizer over the oats and harrow passed over. The land was first deeply broken with turnplows. Acme harrow followed, completely pulverizing the soil, oats sown and fertilizer scattered, plowed in with bulltongues and rolled. On account of dry fall, planting was not done until middle of November, a month later than is the custom. From the first to middle of October is certainly the best time to plant oats here for profitable crop. Below are the results: **FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH OATS AND BARLEY.** | No. experiment | Name of Variety | Kind and Quantity Manure Used per acre. | Bushels of grain per acre. | Bushels of straw per acre. | |----------------|-----------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------|-----------------------------| | 1 | Red Rust Proof oats | 200 pounds cotton seed meal, 100 pounds acid phosphate at planting | 48 | 2,564 | | 2 | Red Rust Proof oats | No manure | 15 | 1,050 | | 3 | Red Rust Proof oats | 200 pounds cotton seed meal, 100 pounds acid phosphate, top dressed in February | 42 | 2,340 | | 4 | Winter barley | 200 pounds cotton seed meal, 100 pounds acid phosphate, at planting | 10 | 1,000 | | 5 | Winter barley | No manure | 4 | 472 | | 6 | Winter barley | 200 pounds cotton seed meal, 100 pounds acid phosphate, top dressed in February | 7 | 642 | The Station recommends the planting of grain early in the fall, from middle of September to middle of October. The formula, 200 pounds cotton seed meal and 100 pounds acid phosphate, is recommended as the best grain fertilizer. **CLOVERS.** Red Clover (*Trifolium pratense*). The plat was three years old, grew 2 to $2\frac{1}{2}$ feet high and yielded $2\frac{1}{2}$ tons hay per acre. Red clover can be recommended to grow on soils a little light with good clay subsoil, using gypsum, phosphate and cotton seed meal as a top dressing. Crimson Clover (*Trifolium incarnatum*) is an annual, planted in October. It grows 12 to 18 inches high and gave $1\frac{3}{4}$ tons hay per acre. It is a rapid grower, will furnish good early grazing, and treated like Red, will always grow a good crop on these soils. Lucerne or Alfalfa, White Clover, Bokhara and Alsike clovers did not, nor have not up to date, succeeded well with us on this soil. Efforts will be continued, however, especially with Lucerne, with intensive care. It is a hay crop well worth continued energy to grow it successfully. The following grasses have succeeded well here and can be recommended in the order mentioned: Texas Blus Grass (Poa arachinfera) is perennial and emphatically the most hardy winter grass. It is the best grazing grass and makes a fair hay; yield 1.2 tons. The great trouble with Texas Blue Grass is getting a stand. The web like seed are difficult to cover and germinate, and while setting the roots is certain it is laborious to get several acres of sod. Still it will pay any farmer handsomely for his trouble in furnishing him a pasture of well sodded winter grazing grass. Rescue Grass (Bromus Schroderi) is an annual but reseeds itself very successfully. It will afford two cuttings of hay and then will form seed and reseed itself. It is hardy and rapid growing, and will afford good grazing during the winter. Cut two tons of hay last season. Italian Rye Grass (Lolium Italicum) is also an annual, but does not reseed itself as successfully as Rescue. It grows 2 to 3 feet high; very tender and nutritious, both as grazing and hay. It is a rapid grower and will please any farmer in search of a quick growing winter grass. It cut two tons per acre. English Rye Grass (Lolium perenne), closely related to above but not so good. Tall Meadow Oat Grass (Arrenatherum avenaceum) is perennial and makes good hay and grazing; cut 1.7 tons. It grows as high with us as 3½ feet. It makes a good grazing grass, but rather woody for hay. Red Top (Agrostis vulgaris) is a perennial. It grows 10 to 14 inches high and affords good grazing and hay; cut one ton per acre. It is well adapted to damp, glady soils and creek and branch bottoms. Not so early as others. Kentucky Blue Grass (Poa pratensis) is perennial and makes good grazing, but hardly grows high enough for good hay purposes. Orchard Grass (Dactylis glomerata) is perennial and makes good grazing and fair hay. It is hard to get a good sod, and does not stand our hot summers so well as some others. Velvet Grass (Holcus lanatus) is perennial and affords good grazing, but does not reach a good hay growth. It also does not stand our summers well. Quite a number of other grasses were planted in the spring but germinated badly and were choked out by native weeds and grasses. Experiments in grasses and clovers have been transferred to sandy soil, extensive plantings made in November, and results will be reported during the coming year. Grasses and grains and clovers should be planted in the fall, September 15th to October 15th, for best results. ## ANNUAL WEATHER SUMMARY, 1893. | Month | Maximum temperature | Date on which it occurred | Minimum temperature | Date on which it occurred | Mean temperature | Rainfall | No. Rainy days | |---------|---------------------|----------------------------|---------------------|----------------------------|------------------|----------|----------------| | January | 72 | 30 | 18 | 16, 20 | 44.7° | 1.63 | 2 | | February| 76 | 20 | 26 | 13, 23 | 52.0° | 3.99 | 11 | | March | 82 | 22 | 23 | 5 | 54.9° | 2.34 | 5 | | April | 89 | 4 | 37 | 17 | 68.5° | 7.22 | 6 | | May | 92 | 26 | 50 | 24 | 69.3° | 6.89 | 10 | | June | 97 | 26 | 63 | 7 | 78.1° | 7.82 | 12 | | July | 97 | 26 | 66 | 24 | 82.4° | 2.13 | 10 | | August | 97 | 3 | 56 | 31 | 77.0° | 3.28 | 8 | | September| 97 | 15 | 52 | 21 | 74.0° | .28 | 3 | | October | 91 | 1 | 31 | 3 | 62.8° | .31 | 2 | | November| 81 | 2 | 26 | 24 | 52.1° | 4.78 | 5 | | December| 73 | 12, 15, 25 | 23 | 4 | 49.1° | 2.54 | 3 | | **Mean and total** | **87** | **39** | **63.9°** | **43.21** | **77** | *Note: The table provides a summary of monthly weather data including maximum and minimum temperatures, mean temperature, rainfall, and number of rainy days for each month in 1893.*
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Reading aloud Good teachers Accounting Olympiad Tablets in schools Tertiary options Click cover to view or download Unlock a world of learning with eBooks SmartKids Interactive eBooks help learners develop a clear and confident understanding of Mathematics. - Question formats include drag-and-drop, multiple choice, circle the answer, fill-in-the-blanks and matching. - Learners can check results and reset activities with a click of a button. - All eBooks are available in English and Afrikaans. Sample from Smart-Kids Grade 2 Mathematics Interactive eBook. X-kit Achieve! ebooks help learners prepare for tests and exams with easy-to-understand information, examples and practical revision exercises with worked solutions. - Download and view your entire book offline. - Search for keywords and create personal notes. - Highlight important sections you can refer back to and bookmark pages. Sample from X-kit Achieve Grade 10 Life Sciences eBook. Contact us T: 021 532 6008 E: firstname.lastname@example.org Browse and purchase eBooks at https://shop.pearson.co.za Contents >> Technology feature Tablets – the tip of the iceberg for successful digital education...3 Blockchain incubation programme in partnership with Tshimologong Precinct .................................................................4 >> Education matters SAIPA National Accounting Olympiad 2019 – entries now open....8 Eight schools in the Motheo district receive infrastructure.......10 >> Learners, teachers and parents What makes a good teacher today? ..............................................12 Why reading aloud means the world to children.........................13 From playschool to big school – how to help your child successfully transition .................................................................14 >> Careers and tertiary training What to consider when choosing to study after Grade 12........15 Myth-busting: here’s the truth about varsity life! .......................17 Johannesburg: 2nd best African city for students.......................18 Great results, no Uni: study options if you performed better than expected .................................................................19 Sexual violence in schools These past few months have heralded horrific headlines in the mainstream media about rape and sexual violence perpetrated in South African schools. In many of these cases the victims and aggressors are school children, with some violations even occurring in primary schools. Over the years the Department of Basic Education (DBE) has submitted various documents about the issue to government task groups. In the global report of the International Tribunal for Children’s Rights, the President of the Tribunal noted that despite the universal ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, all indications are that violence against children is on the rise and becoming more prevalent in schools. Many of our schools like schools in other countries experience, to varying degrees, violent and criminal behaviour that includes bullying, substance abuse, sexual abuse, verbal abuse, racism, gangsterism, guns and weapons, vandalism and a host of other antisocial behaviour. All of these make these schools an unsafe place to be for some of our children, suffocating many of their dreams and reducing the school experience for these children to a battle for survival rather than academic achievement. According to the DBE, reliable data on the extent of sexual abuse in schools is hard to find but there is compelling evidence to indicate that both the nature and levels of abuse require immediate and urgent action from all of us. “Our country now has laws in place, which serve to protect the rights and dignity of women and children. It is these mechanisms that in turn create the space for the victims of abuse to report these matters to the relevant authorities both within the school and outside of the school,” a spokesperson said. From the information available to the Department it is obvious that sexual abuse takes various forms and is perpetrated by both learners and staff in schools. It ranges from sexual harassment, touching and verbal degradation to rape and other forms of sexual violence. This abuse takes place in dormitories, in empty classrooms, in hallways and in school toilets. And while all learners may be victims of abuse, girls and disabled learners are particularly vulnerable. The Department of Basic Education in its response to sexual abuse in schools has avoided the temptation to come up with new recommendations and solutions that may not be transformed into concrete actions. The focus of the Department therefore is to intensify and ensure implementation of existing initiatives, and introduce new initiatives only where there are major gaps. Yours in education Janos Bozilik Editor Tablets – the tip of the iceberg for successful digital education Public schools in South Africa can look forward to joining the digital education revolution as some of their private school counterparts have been experiencing for the past few years, but education experts have cautioned against a rush to provide tablets and other digital infrastructure before a solid strategy and fundamentals have been put in place. “In the rush to get on board with the 4th Industrial Revolution – a term many are invoking without truly understanding the issues involved – private schools have increasingly been offering coding, robotics and digital learning on their campuses,” says John Luis, Head of Academics at ADTECH Schools. “However simply offering content that previously used to be in book or paper format, and not investing time and money in a holistic approach to content and delivery, as well as proper educator and support staff training, will render such initiatives futile and expensive mistakes,” he says. Luis says while there is much talk about coding and ICT in schools, the key success factor when introducing technology in classrooms is the development of an appropriate and defined curriculum. And very importantly, tech in the classroom can never replace the fundamental core skills required for academic excellence. In his State of the Nation address this month, President Cyril Ramaphosa announced that government would, over the next six years, provide every school child in South Africa with digital workbooks and textbooks on a tablet device. While the sentiment is welcomed, there is much work to be done before the time arrives to unbox devices. “It is extremely important to understand that learning is served and not defined by technological tools,” says Dr Neelam Parmar, renowned global tech-ed expert. “All too often we think that the technology will fix our teaching and learning problems in school but what is truly important is that the technology is embedded firmly and seamlessly within the curriculum and lesson delivery in the classroom,” she says. “There is great potential in creating online learning systems to close the widening educational gap,” she says, “but to get to this point in education, it is vital that the government first understand the relevance of emerging technologies and the means of how to offer the necessary digital literacy skills for our next generation”. She says the right curriculum is essential for successful and sustainable digital transformation in classrooms, and while the market is inundated with companies that claim to offer bespoke educational solutions, private – and now also the public education sector in South Africa – must realise that one solution does not fit all. “There is a great deal of hype around the 4th Industrial Revolution, and undoubtedly change is taking place at a phenomenal level, yet any change at this level needs to come with a vision, and with a vision we need a strategy.” The risk is often that visions are little more than ideas without substance or structure, Dr Parmar says. “For technology to become relevant in education, a strategy considering the grand scheme of systems, teaching and learning, curriculum redesign, teacher training, community, new partnerships and the relevant stakeholders, has to be considered. It is now time to act on delivering the right education to our students by using the technology we know can make it happen.” Conlog launches blockchain incubation programme in partnership with Tshimologong Precinct Leading smart metering solutions provider, Conlog, has partnered with Wits University’s Tshimologong Precinct to launch an innovative technology programme. With a strong focus on blockchain and smart city solutions, Conlog approached the Precinct to assist in developing and promoting innovation, skills development and entrepreneurship within South Africa through its newly established Reapele programme. Hosted and run by the Tshimologong Digital Innovation Precinct in Braamfontein, Reapele will be delivered in seven phases and aims to innovate and nurture technology businesses, digital products and ideas, turning them into viable businesses: “We are excited to launch this new project, which will assist in developing Conlog’s open innovation capability in smart connected metering technology,” says Kendal Makgamathe, head of marketing, Tshimologong Precinct. “This programme will enhance Conlog’s business transformation journey by forging technical advisory partnerships with Wits University faculties and its research students.” Designed to meet a variety of technology goals, the first phase of the programme calls for aspiring junior software developers and technologists to participate in a meet-up event, following which an online assessment will serve to identify the top performers using custom coding assessments in relevant programming languages such as Java, JavaScript, C++ or Python, C#. Once the successful candidates have been identified, the candidates will be trained on the core principles and foundations of coding using Blockchain. Subsequent to the coaching, the candidates will use their new coding skills in a 3-day Hackathon, which is aimed at challenging the candidates to develop a Blockchain Proof of Concept in partnership with Bootcampers. The Hackathon will provide an opportunity for top technicians to win the grand prize of R20 000 while a Design Sprint, which consists of a five-day intensive design thinking programme enables the candidates to address their new technology with real customers. Furthermore, Reapele, offers an intensive incubation period for the incumbent software developers that have developed an existing Blockchain solution. Limited to a set number of individuals, the incubation will provide a platform for the Proof of Concept (POC) to be developed further, culminating in live demonstrations of the blockchain technology to potential clients. The incubation will also assist in developing a validated marketing plan and a tried and tested business model. “Conlog is world renowned for providing innovative solutions to everyday challenges. Disruptive design thinking and innovation are forged into our spirit which has enabled us to retain our position of leadership in the industry, whilst remaining relevant to the market. We are extremely motivated by the formation of the Reapele programme and look forward to working with Tshimologong Precinct to develop tomorrow’s future Blockchain experts,” says Lance Hawkins-Dady, Head of Engineering, Conlog. Hawkins-Dady says that Conlog is passionate about solving challenges with innovative technological solutions and considers blockchain a key part of digitisation. “Reapele will assist in developing much needed skills while also encouraging a startup mindset for software developers.” To apply please visit: http://tshimologong.joburg/conlog/ CALLING ALL CODERS IF YOU HAVE C++, C#, JAVA, JAVASCRIPT OR PYTHON SKILLS THIS IS FOR YOU! Leading smart metering solutions provider - Conlog. Becoming partners with Wits University's Tshimologong Precinct to launch an innovative technology programme. If that excites you, then apply now! ▲ PROCESS FOR INFORMATION PRESENTATIONS AT SCHOOLS Al-Anon Family Groups regularly give information presentations at rehabs, clinics, corporates, schools, and to groups of professionals such as doctors, police, social workers, educators and more. Alateen, part of the Al-Anon Family Groups, also speaks, on request, at schools to learners, educators, parents and other family members. To request an information session at your school, a few simple steps should be followed: 1. Decide when – date, time – and duration of the presentation is required (we usually like at least 45 mins for a presentation) 2. Please put your request in an email and send to email@example.com. This goes to Bette, our National Public Outreach Co-ordinator. Please give at least 30 days notice. Otherwise we also accept a telephonic request to Bette at 082 576 9739, or our local Al-Anon Information office - firstname.lastname@example.org, or 011 867 0731 (the Office is open Mon, Wed, Friday) 3. We will confirm via email that your request will be placed in our calendar 4. Please also provide us with details of the audience (age spread), numbers, how many educators will be there & a contact person’s details. 5. On the day: a. The Alateen team will arrive 30 mins (at least) before the session to set up & test our laptop, audio & data projector, and to bring pamphlets for learners to take away b. At start, one teacher should introduce us to the learners c. We allow questions from the kids, but often find they are too shy to put up their hands. So we offer to stay behind for 30 mins or so to answer questions. d. We will also bring a few small posters to display, and pamphlets for educators 6. There are no fees for any of the above We are excited at this possible opportunity to speak at some schools and look forward to hearing from you. Kind regards Bette Kun Al-Anon Family Groups: National Public Outreach Coordinator, South Africa 082 576 9739: email@example.com : www.alanon.org.za FOR EDUCATORS & PRINCIPALS What is Alateen? Alateen is: ...a fellowship of young Al-Anon members, usually teenagers, whose lives have been affected by someone else’s drinking. Purposes of Alateen Young People Come Together to: • share experience, strength, and hope with each other • discuss their difficulties • learn effective ways to cope with their problems • encourage one another • help each other understand the principles of the Al-Anon program Alateen Members Learn • compulsive drinking is a disease • they can detach themselves emotionally from the drinker’s problems while continuing to love the person • they are not the cause of anyone else’s drinking or behaviour • they cannot change or control anyone but themselves • they have spiritual and intellectual resources with which to develop their own potentials, no matter what happens at home • they can build satisfying and rewarding life experiences for themselves Sponsorship & Supervision In order to be registered as an Alateen group, there must be TWO Alateen Group Sponsors at each meeting. These sponsors – Al-Anon Members in Alateen Service (AMIAS) – are experienced Al-Anon members, certified through the Alateen Service certification process; prior to serving, and are in possession of a SAPS Police Clearance Certificate, renewed annually. 2019 UPDATE During 2018 we operated 2 Alateen Groups in Gauteng & 2 in KZN. Supported by our friends in AA, they brought their children to us and have reported amazing results both at home and in school through regular attendance at Alateen meetings. For 2019 we are focusing on bringing our message to schools – to both learners & educators. WE KNOW there’s a need. We know families are in pain. If you’d like an information session at your school, call our helpline 0861 252 666 ****** We believe alcoholism is a family disease because it affects all the members emotionally and sometimes physically. Although we cannot change or control our parents, we can detach from their problems while continuing to love them. We do not discuss religion or become involved with any outside organisations. Al-Anon has but one purpose: to help families of alcoholics. UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOLISM ON CHILDREN For nearly 70 years, Al-Anon Family Groups, globally, has helped the families who live with the disease of alcoholism. The disease of alcoholism in a family member or friend affects children and teenagers in many ways that impact on their behaviour and ultimately, their school work. Frequently, students and educators do not realise that a relationship with an alcoholic could be a factor in poor performance, disruptive behaviour and other problems. Alateen helps young people understand how alcoholism affects the lives of all who are associated with a problem drinker. Alateen in South Africa We have learned that learners are very cautious about attending Alateen meetings at their schools. In some areas Alateen meetings are held in the evenings in a nearby church hall, community centre or somewhere secure. Parents/guardians must give written permission for Alateen attendance. Alateen South Africa has groups across the country. A list of Alateen meetings may be found on our websites: http://www.alanon.org.za/meetings/ http://www.alanongauteng.co.za/ https://al-anon/newcomers/teen-corner-alateen/ firstname.lastname@example.org – 24 hr Helpline – 0861 25 66 66 Literature & more information is available. Just call us. SAIPA National Accounting Olympiad 2019 – entries now open Every year, the South African Institute of Professional Accountants (SAIPA) holds its National Accounting Olympiad. Entries for this year’s competition are now open and the Institute invites all schools to begin registering pupils who wish to participate. Zubuwe Ngobese, Marketing and Communications Executive at SAIPA reports that, since its inception in 2002, the competition has continued to grow in popularity. “For 2019, we’re expecting our best turnout yet,” he says. How it works NAO 2019 entrants from grades 11 and 12 will write an accountancy test at their respective schools. Afterwards, representatives from SAIPA will mark the papers and select those with the highest scores. The top three students nationally in each grade will then be declared as the overall winners. These champions will be awarded at a gala event whose date and venue will be announced nearer the time. They and their teachers will also receive prizes and be featured in the media. Bring it on Last year, thirteen winners tied for the top three spots provincially and nationally across the grade 11 and grade 12 categories. Eight pupils from Johannesburg public school, King Edward VII, reached the national top 50. Western Cape’s Rondelbosch Boys High placed one grade 12 winner and two in grade 11. And the province to beat this year will be KwaZulu-Natal, which shone brightly in 2018 with six winners out of the total thirteen. “It was an incredibly tight competition,” says Ngobese. “So we’re excited to see what happens this time around. Will KwaZulu-Natal give a repeat performance or will another province rise to the challenge? And who will push the envelope to be the only winner in their spot? All I can say to the entrants is, if you’re in it to win it, study hard and bring your A game.” Encouraging accountancy The NAO competition is a key part of SAIPA’s strategy to promote accounting as a career of choice among schoolgoers. South Africa needs new accountants to continually enter the job market. A significant lack of interest now will mean a skills shortage of seven to eight years in the future. “Accounting is an exciting and rewarding career, so we want teens everywhere to seriously consider it as they prepare for tertiary studies,” says Ngobese. The NAO 2019 is also a good way for scholars to get a taste of the profession. They’ll have the opportunity to interact with SAIPA staff, sponsors and potential future employers. How to enter Pupils wishing to compete must be registered by their schools on the NAO website at https://www.saipa.co.za/national-accounting-olympiad-2019/. The entry fee is R50 per student but free for no-fee schools. There is also no limit to the number of pupils each school may register. However, entrants must currently be taking Accounting as a school subject with the intention of studying a B Com degree. Entries close 14th June 2019. The exam will take place on 29th July 2019 and winners will be announced after all papers are scored. The NAO website will be updated as the competition progresses and participants should visit it regularly for the latest news and information. Eight schools in Thaba Nchu which falls within the Motheo district in the Free State province received infrastructure as part of the District Whole School Development (DWSD) programme. In an effort to transform the quality of public schools KST in partnership with the Free State Department of Education (FSDoE) have been implementing the programme in quantile 1 to 3 primary and secondary schools in the Fezile Dabi and Motheo districts since 2014. Infrastructure development is a key part of the DWSD programme and is awarded to schools based on two categories, basic infrastructure and incentive infrastructure. The provision of infrastructure is preceded by a thorough school’s needs analysis, which determines what facilities are either built or renovated. Out of the eight schools, six received basic infrastructure and two received incentive infrastructure with a total allocation of over R8 million, which will benefit 4 208 learners and 151 educators from Ereskuld Primary, Kolahe Primary, Moroka High, Tawena Primary, St. Pauls Primary, Nananyane Primary, Goronyane Secondary and Christian Liphoko Secondary. **Basic infrastructure** Refers to the building or renovation of ablution blocks and classrooms, perimeter fencing and the provision of desks and chairs. All programme schools receive basic infrastructure where it is required and where it is not already being provided by government. **Incentive infrastructure** Refers to facilities such as science laboratories, libraries, computer centres, maths centres, multi-media centres and sports facilities. Schools that perform above the target that has been set by the Free State Department of Education, qualify for incentive infrastructure projects. “Our theory of change places the learner at the centre of our interventions and therefore the safety of both learners and educators are of paramount importance to us. The programme takes seriously, and satisfies all regulatory safety standards, including adhering to the Norms and Standards of the Department of Basic Education. Through a structured and consultative process KST works closely with each schools School Management Teams, an independent qualified Structural Engineer and the FSDoE’s Property Officer during the planning and construction process. Once an Occupation Safety Clearance Certificate is issued by the Structural Engineer, the infrastructure is handed over to FSDoE to be launched and occupied,” said Themba Mola, KST Chief Executive Officer. KST is encouraged that school infrastructure is at the top of the national government agenda as outlined in the recent 2019 State of the Nation Address and Budget Speech, where over R30 billion is allocated to build new schools and maintain schooling Infrastructure and an additional R2.8 billion is added to the School Infrastructure Backlogs Grant to replace pit latrines at over 2 400 schools. “We remain committed to the National Development Plan with the aim of creating a conducive teaching and learning environment for our learners and making education an empowering experience that equips learners and educators with the skills and knowledge to thrive and contribute to the development of our communities. Therefore, communities must take pride and ownership of this Infrastructure by protecting it from vandalism and theft so that future generations can also benefit from it,” said MEC DR PHI Makgoe, FSDoE. ▲ What makes a good teacher today? Getting a good education is very important today, but having a good teacher or educator makes this process a lot easier for children. We all have that one teacher we remember so well from a certain grade in school, whether it be primary school or high school. The one teacher that stood out and made a difference in our lives. Future Nation Schools take a look at some of the things that make a good teacher today: Compassion Having a compassionate teacher makes a big difference to a child. Someone that cares about their students in terms of their wellbeing, their performance and who is able to demonstrate this to a child, will have a lasting effect on the type of children that leave a classroom at the end of the year. Kindness Teachers need to be kind. Children react better to kindness than to harshness. Being too strict may cause a child to become rebellious. Listening well Children want to feel that they are listened to and heard. This provides them with a sense of belonging and acknowledgement. This is a very important trait to have as a teacher, which is the person responsible for moulding the youth of today. Giving the needed attention Some children need individual attention or extra attention. In order to ensure that the children who are being taught are flourishing, it is vital that teachers give them the attention they need. Positive encouragement Positive affirmations go a long way, especially with children. Encouragement can make a child want to do better and want to learn. Children seek approval, so it is important to make sure that children are given the necessary encouragement, even when it is for something very small they have done correctly. Going the extra mile A teacher who goes the extra mile and above and beyond their calling of teaching, is an educator that will have a lasting effect on their learners. Whether it be bringing interesting books to read to a child in their class, or giving them the name of a song that calms you down, when you need to focus on studying, the smallest thing can make the biggest difference. How to teach the essential skill of self-awareness to your children Life on earth is a rollercoaster ride of emotions and our reactions to these emotions. All too often, we coaster through life, unaware of our behavioural choices and even worse, unable to consider the possibility that we could have made better choices for ourselves along the way. According to Cindy Glass, founder and owner of Step Up Education Centres, “Self-awareness is the first skill in emotional intelligence and it sets the precedent for the growth and development of all emotional intelligence skills. Being able to look at ourselves honestly, and without negative judgement, will enable and empower us to achieve greater success in all that we do. This, of course, applies to our children and their personal and academic learning as well.” She adds that self-awareness skills will help your children become aware of their emotions and behaviours and make better choices in all that they do. They will also experience better personal relationships as they become aware of the behaviours and choices. It is about learning to own these choices, learn from the mistakes and consider what behaviours will be best in any situation,” Cindy explains. She offers the following helpful tips to teach your child this essential life skill: 1. Create an environment where your children are free to recognise and acknowledge their mistakes and achievements in a non-judgmental, non-frightening way. Remember that it is fear of negative consequences that often hold us back from admitting mistakes to ourselves. And yet, if we cannot own a mistake, how can we find a positive solution to fix it? 2. Don’t allow the blame-game. Blaming others for the choices that we have made disempowers us and reduces our opportunity to grow and learn from our choices and experiences. 3. You are your child’s first and most powerful teacher – set the example! Teach your children the power of self-awareness by being self-aware! Remember that we are all on that rollercoaster that we call life and learning is a life-long gift. Teach your children to be kind to themselves in their uniqueness and imperfections, just as you are kind toward yourself. 4. Teach your children to recognise and honour their own talents and not to compare themselves to anyone else. We must remember that we are ALL on this journey and we all have interesting and wonderful ways in which we can choose to live our lives. Different is not less. Non-judgmental self-awareness is essential. Positive self-worth is everything! “Learning the essential skill of self-awareness will bring about more positive learning and it will go a long way in ensuring that we live happier, more fulfilled lives. Which parent would not want this for themselves and their children?” concludes Cindy. Why reading aloud means the world to children For 10 years, World Read Aloud Day has drawn global attention to the importance of reading aloud and sharing stories. Celebrated on the 1st of February 2019, it is well worth taking time to consider the countless benefits of this activity, and mulling over some staggering statistics surrounding literacy. Approximately 758 million people across the globe cannot read. According to South African government statistics, our youth literacy rate for those aged 15 to 34 sits at over 90%, whilst adult literacy (ages 35 – 64) sits at just under 80%. Of tantamount importance is the enjoyment of reading: a responsibility that not only rests on the shoulders of educators, but also falls on parents. For those of us blessed with a parent who read aloud to us, we viewed it as a treasured, time-honoured tradition; one which surely had a hand in helping us reach our full potential in later years. Reading aloud is a great way of connecting with little ones. Along with the benefit of spending regular time with your children, this activity aids healthy brain development that forms a priceless foundation for success at school and on the journey of life. Which toddler doesn’t love sitting on their parent’s lap and hearing that beloved voice reading aloud to them? Reading aloud is invaluable when it comes to language development and promoting early literacy skills such as book handling and naming, understanding how stories work, recognising sounds and letters, expanding vocabulary and honing listening skills. Reading aloud also boosts confidence, helps children cope better with anxiety, develops memory and expands children’s worlds. Sadly, surveys show that only half of parents read to their kids daily, and less than 10% of parents read to their children from infancy. From playschool to big school – how to help your child successfully transition Moving from pre-school into a formal schooling environment is a big step not only for young children, but also for their parents. Doubts and anxiety often accompany this major move, but parents should aim to ensure a conscious transition which addresses specific issues that may arise, so that their child starts their school career on a solid foundation, an expert says. “Some of the practical things can be very exciting – sorting out school uniforms and supplies, learning about the new routine, meeting the new teacher and exploring the new school grounds,” says Trudie Gilmore, General Manager at ADTECH Junior Colleges. “However, the increased demands and unfamiliar environment can be daunting, and children need to be eased into the new situation. Additionally, parental expectations can cause unnecessary pressure at this young age,” she says. Gilmore says when embarking on this exciting new life chapter, parents and guardians should remember the following: Allow for making mistakes The lesson is in the learning, not only the outcome, notes Gilmore. “At this age, parents should encourage their children to be more independent and, where possible, to think for themselves. Encourage your child to practise small ways to look after themselves such as dressing themselves, ensuring their bookbags are packed, and looking after their belongings. Encourage and praise them for trying, even when they don’t get it perfectly right.” Practise perseverance “It can be tremendously frustrating for young children if they are unable to complete a task to their satisfaction. Teach your child that when learning new things, it’s important that they keep on trying, even if they find things challenging. Don’t step in and ‘fix’ the situation, but rather guide, encourage and motivate.” Play nicely Junior school is an important social milestone, and the time when children need to start working and engaging in meaningful play with their peers, even if they don’t automatically get along. Encourage your child to be inclusive and kind, which will help them develop emotional maturity, as well as confidence. “You can also prepare together by acting out different situations with toys. Playing games that involve turns or rules, such as board games, are good for practising how to get along with others. This way, children can try out some of the skills they’ll need later to make friends.” Encourage curiosity “Being interested and curious about the things around us is really important for learning. Encourage your child’s natural sense of curiosity by talking to them about the people and places when you are out and about. New research has shown clear benefits for children whose parents engage them in productive conversation, that is, where each takes turns to listen and respond appropriately,” says Gilmore. “Listen to and answer their questions, nurture their love of reading – an exciting and empowering new skill – and look things up on the computer together. Try to see the world through your child’s eyes, and talk and wonder about the everyday things you see and hear.” Gilmore says parents must be prepared to help their children navigate and manage increased stress levels caused by more challenging schoolwork, homework, assessments, diversity within the school environment, after-school activities and possible bullying. “Ensure your child is able to respond to the challenges they will face every day by limiting any additional pressure,” she says. “And remember, sleep is key. Children who get enough sleep are likely to be less short-tempered and better able to handle school stress. Also beware of piling on too many extracurricular activities. We’ve come to believe that busy equals happy, but over-scheduling means less free time and family time.” Our society is expecting more and more from children at younger ages, says Gilmore. “Our job as parents and guardians is to help them understand and respond appropriately to these demands, and develop their emotional intelligence to set them up for a successful and productive school career.” What to consider when choosing to study after Grade 12 By Dr Naresh Veeran, Chief Commercial Officer of The Embury Institute for Higher Education For all high-school learners, the National Senior Certificate (NSC) represents the gateway to further study. But what exactly are the options available to the average South African student and, more importantly, does one size fit all? Dr Naresh Veeran, Chief Commercial Officer at The Embury Institute for Higher Education, provides some valuable advice. What should I study? I have two daughters in high school who every so often raise the subject of further study with me. With my 16-year-old, it’s as clear as day, I see the makings of an artist who has little or no interest in pursuing anything remotely related to maths and science. While, in the case of my 13-year-old, I see a scientist, a genuine problem solver, who enjoys the arts but who’d surprise us all if she pursued it as a career. As different as they are, the advice I offered them both, though, was the same and it was the very same that my dad, a music teacher, offered me when I was in high school: find something that you really enjoy doing and you’ll never have to work a day in your life! Look to your own family. Chances are that the happiest among them are the ones who love what they do. While it is a given that your choice must also be able to support you financially when you eventually enter the world of work, choosing a field of study that you feel passionate about is the first step in the process. Passion fuels purpose but, more importantly, purpose fuels life. Where should I study? The South African tertiary landscape is a fairly regulated one which means that a particular qualification from University A is in fact considered to be no different from one obtained at University B. Against the above, obtaining a qualification is more than just about a piece of paper waiting for you at the end of the road. It is in fact a journey, a journey made more meaningful when accompanied by an experience and strong institutional support along the way. A great “journey”, then, would ideally incorporate opportunities for students to also grow holistically (vs only academically). Such growth could come from institutional support of students to participate in formal platforms for collaborating and co-creating, or the provision of both space and context for students to network. Participation in exchange programmes and having access to world-class learning technologies also contribute significantly to the overall learning experience. Having worked in both the university and private higher education environments, I have found that some institutions are far better resourced and equipped to deliver a meaningful and value-laden “experience” than others. My recommendation here would be for you to score your short-listed institutions against such factors as reputation, image, infrastructure, safety and security, social life, the availability of formal support mechanisms and, most importantly, against what employers and/or other practitioners in the industry where you intend working think about Institution A vs Institution B. In the public education space, you can study at a University, a University of Technology, or a Technical and Vocational Education and Training or TVET college. Universities generally focus on academic research, degrees... and post-graduate qualifications, while Universities of Technology focus on higher certificates, diplomas and, to an extent, degrees. TVET colleges offer mostly certificate courses that enable you to work in a technical or vocational field. In order to gain admission at a University or a University of Technology, you have to pass Grade 12 and meet specific admission criteria. However, TVET colleges generally allow admission with a Grade 9 pass. **Choosing between private and public institutions** Tertiary education in South Africa currently comprises 17 state-owned Universities, 9 state-owned Universities of Technology, and 50 state-owned TVET colleges. While this may seem like a large number of available public institutions, capacity at each institution is limited. This means that not everyone who applies and meets the entrance criteria are automatically accepted. Many students thus choose to obtain a qualification at a private institution. South African private higher education institutions or PHEIs, unlike their PHEI counterparts such as Harvard or Stanford in the US, are not allowed to call themselves universities, but may offer the same levels of qualifications as a public university. Embry Institute for Higher Education, for example, is the institution I help lead and it specialises in degrees, diplomas and higher certificates which, over the last two decades, helped produce some of the country’s very best teachers. At present, some 300 private providers of higher education currently help bolster the country’s tertiary capacity. **Choosing a mode of study** Nearly half of all higher education students study through distance learning. Popularly known in some circles as the “learn while you earn” option, it is highly cost effective and offers flexibility. Distance learning students generally have the option to take a little longer to complete their qualifications than their contact learning counterparts and save money not having to travel to or live near a campus. Distance learning students also have the space to hold full-time jobs. While distance learning is a viable option in both the public and private education spaces, it requires discipline and dedication together with a fair amount of maturity and focus. **How much will all this cost?** The first year of a Bachelor’s Degree in Education at a public institution costs around R 70 000, of which the state subsidises half. Student fees are thus responsible for half that amount. At Embry, the full private experience will cost around R 48 000 in 2019. --- **Myth-busting: here’s the truth about varsity life!** You’ve got 12 years of school behind you, and you’ve survived all the surprises that that those years have thrown at you. But do you know what to expect of varsity life – and what are the chances that reality is going to meet your expectations? “We’ve all watched TV sitcoms based on university life, but they don’t reflect the reality of what it’s like for South African students,” says Craig McMurray, CEO of Respublica Student Living. “Varsity life is very different to what’s seen on TV, and we’ve seen so many of our students struggle to adapt to the changes and learn to become more independent living away from home,” he explains. “Our ReSLife programme offers support to students as they adapt to their new lives, helping them avoid some of the most common pitfalls.” Respublica’s team of ReSLife counsellors have delved into some of the most common myths of student life so that you know what to expect when you arrive at campus: - **Myth:** There’s no register taken in classes, so there’s no such thing as “bunking” if you don’t feel like going! - **Busted:** At school, there was always someone else to hold you accountable – now there’s nobody else but you to make sure you that you show up when you’re meant to, for the classes that you’ve paid for. - **Myth:** Your lectures will hold you captivated, as you hang onto every word your lecturers utter. - **Busted:** Some lectures will be more interesting than others, while some are sure to be a little boring. But each lecture is a building block to your degree – so go to as many as you can! - **Myth:** Wearing what you feel like every day is so much fun, and you’ll get to put your best fashion foot forward every day, even when you’re studying and writing exams. - **Busted:** With so many people on campus, nobody really cares what you’re wearing – which makes this the perfect time to experiment with your own personal style. And yes, wearing shorts and slip slops counts as style too… - **Myth:** Living a half-hour commute from campus is fine if the accommodation is cheaper, I’ll use the time on public transport to study. - **Busted:** This is probably the first time you’re managing all your expenses without the help of a parent – so rather be overly cautious with how you spend any allowances you have. Apart from the fact that it’s never too early to start saving, you want to be sure that you don’t run out of money before you run out of month. You also don’t want to extend your student loan with its high interest rate, as this is expensive money that’s only going to get more expensive once you leave varsity. - **Myth:** It will be easy to manage my expenses when I’m living on my own - **Busted:** Living in your own flat or digs means you’re responsible for all the expenses your parents have always taken care of, like electricity, water, Wi-Fi, laundry and gym, and you’ll be surprised how quickly these all add up – and how quickly they can break your budget. Choosing an all-inclusive res, like those offered by Respublica, means that you know what your expenses will be each month, and there won’t be any unpleasant surprises… “The best approach to any new situation is to do your research, and manage the reality of it when you get there,” says McMurray. “Every university is different, just as every residence is different, but resisting the temptation to live the varsity life you’ve seen on TV and to plan for the real varsity life you’re about to experience is key to making a success of your academic career.” --- **Johannesburg: 2nd best African city for students** The 2018 QS Best Student Cities survey saw Johannesburg ranked 79th out of the 100 top cities to study in. Johannesburg has risen from its previous rank of 84th in 2017. Johannesburg achieved a particularly high score for affordability in the Best Student Cities index, reflecting its fairly low tuition fees and living costs. The only two cities in Africa that received a mention were Cape Town and Cairo. London was voted the world’s number one student city, ending Montreal’s short-term stint at the top. QS’s Student View indicator is based on the survey responses of 18 000 students worldwide. Students were asked to name the city in which they would most like to study, their experience studying in a particular city, and their intention to remain post-graduation. Cities were ranked according to performance in six composite indicators: Desirability, Rankings, Student Mix, Employer Activity, Affordability, and Student View. For students looking for a welcoming environment to study with all the perks of a big city feel but a supportive friendly environment, Johannesburg may not always come to mind. However, it is easy to see why so many students love living in the City of Gold. --- **10 reasons why Joburg is the best place to study:** 1. **Affordability and quality of life** Johannesburg is one of the world’s cheapest cities for students in the QS survey, reflecting its status as one of Africa’s most affordable major cities. It ranks eleventh globally for affordability. QS measures the cost of living in a city, based on a range of factors like tuition fees and the cost of key consumer goods. 2. **Strong support culture for foreign students and expats** Johannesburg has a strong expat network with foreign student support at many campuses. Monash South Africa, for example, has over 50 nationalities on campus and a strong student advisory centre offering support and assistance to students new to SA. Johannesburg has phenomenal private tertiary education and attracts students from across the continent. 3. **Multitude of cultures** Johannesburg is home to a large number of residents from all over the world, with cultural mix including a China Town to an Indian market known as the Oriental Plaza, there are numerous cultural hubs to explore. Our city plays host to mosques, churches and shuls, all a testament to our varied cultures and traditions. 4. **Vibrant social scene** No one can deny Johannesburg is amazing social environment with everything from sophisticated bars, shebeens, shisanyamas and clubs to laidback trendy markets and outdoor spots. Johannesburg offers a great deal for the student looking to enjoy their free time with newfound friends. 5. **Strong urban regeneration** The CBD of our town has seen a surge in regeneration bringing with it strong African pride, interesting gathering spots merged with history and idiosyncratic elements, great for exploring with friends. 6. **Business opportunities and great networking** Johannesburg is the heart of African business and studying in this hub will provide great networking, job training and internship opportunities for you. Many South Africans aim to live and work in Johannesburg due to higher salaries and greater demand for graduates. 7. **Good transport network** Although Johannesburg has limited public transport, the network is growing daily. The Gautrain connects many hubs, and with Gautrain busses, ReaVays, bike lanes and metro buses providing many links throughout. Using taxi services will help students travel to local spots outside of business hours. 8. **Friendly people** Johannesburg has some of the friendliest people, from your Uber driver to supermarket teller, to lecturers and fellow students, Joburg citizens are always helpful and ready to share a joke or bit of banter. Jo’burgers believe in service with a smile! --- **Great results, no Uni: study options if you performed better than expected** Many Matrics from the Class of 2018 currently find themselves in the fortunate position of having performed better than anticipated in their National Senior Certificate examination, achieving a Bachelor’s pass and qualifying for higher education access. But while they are now in a position to apply for further study, these prospective students need to ensure they do their homework before signing up with institutions still accepting applications for study in 2019, an expert says. “In particular, parents and Matriculants must ensure they don’t fall prey to institutions that are either not registered and accredited, or whose qualifications are not recognised,” says Nola Payne, Head of Faculty: Information and Communications Technology at The Independent Institute of Education, SA’s largest private higher education institution. “The good news however, is that there are still exciting study options available, particularly in the private sector, where good institutions have a strong focus on work-ready programmes,” she says. Payne says now is also a good time for even those prospective students already accepted into a programme, to consider whether they have chosen the right study path. If there are any doubts, they should have another look at available options rather than adopting a potentially expensive wait-and-see approach in their first year. “This coming month provides an opportunity for prospective students to investigate all their options and sign up for a quality qualification with an accredited institution, whether they left it too late, or performed better than envisioned. And those who have already signed up, should honestly assess whether they are excited about the degree on which they will soon embark, as well as the institution they will attend. “It is better to change course now, before spending time and money trying to make the wrong thing work, and becoming part of SA’s high first year dropout statistics,” says Payne. “Make sure that you are studying for the right reasons, and that your qualification will provide clear access to a specific career, whether it be a professional qualification such as accounting, law or teaching, or in a new exciting career path such as brand management, digital marketing, network engineering, game design and development, and application and cloud development. Don’t just apply for any degree at any institution for the sake of earning a qualification,” she says. Payne says South Africa’s single quality assurance system and one National Qualifications Framework means that any institution offering a registered and accredited qualification – whether public or private – is offering a qualification of equal standing. She says all registered and accredited higher education institutions – whether they be public universities or private – are registered by the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). They are only registered if they have been accredited by the Council on Higher Education (CHE) and registered by the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) on the National Qualifications Framework (NQF). “To look up a qualification on the NQF, search for it on the SAQA website, or ask the institution for its SAQA identity number, which should be readily available. If the institution is recognised by the DHET and the programme is listed on the NQF, prospective students and their parents can be confident about the bona fides of any qualification they want to pursue,” says Payne. She says that as the world of work changes and evolves, new programmes are constantly developed in response to workplace demands. “This means there will regularly be new and more exciting options on offer compared to the past, and potentially fields of qualification that are more aligned with the career aspirations of prospective students. However, it is important that one does one’s homework carefully because unscrupulous operators have become increasingly sophisticated in their methodology. Fraudsters are making the most of the often hard-to-understand language related to legitimate private higher education, which means that they are able to present offers that appear legitimate, but are not. “It is good to have more choices, but make sure you make smart decisions,” says Payne. A Free Monthly Digital Magazine for Principals and Teachers Distributed Direct to the Inboxes of 7 500 Principals & Schools Nationwide Includes Most Gauteng Schools 600 Independent Schools SEE THE PRODUCTS & SERVICES OF EDUCATION COMPANIES ADVERTISING IN THE MAGAZINE FULLY INTERACTIVE PDF – VIEW ON ANY PLATFORM OR SOFTWARE INCLUDES VIDEO CLIPS & HYPERLINKS VISIT OUR WEBSITE: www.TheMightyPen.co.za
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"Space Encounters" is one of the "Preparing for Tomorrow's World" (PTW) program modules. PTW is an interdisciplinary, future-oriented program incorporating information from the sciences/social sciences and addressing societal concerns which interface science/technology/society. The program promotes responsible citizenry with increased abilities in critical thinking, problem-solving, social/ethical reasoning, and decision-making. This module, a role-playing simulation, is intended for use in grades 7-12 social studies, general science, earth science, and English classes. It consists of 13 open-ended, decision-making activities related to a simulated space mission. Additional activities include large/small group dilemma discussions. Dilemmas, brief stories in which two or more moral/ethical conflicts must be resolved, are accompanied by questions to stimulate thinking and/or generate discussions. In addition to student handouts and instructional strategies, the teaching guide contains module overview, chart indicating moral issues (as identified by Kohlberg) in each dilemma, suggested time schedule, bibliography, discussion of the socio-scientific reasoning model (theoretical basis of the PTW), and bibliography. The module may be used as a separate unit of study, as a mini-course, or incorporated into existing curricula where appropriate. (JN) PREPARING FOR TOMORROW'S WORLD Space Encounters Teacher's Guide Institute for Science, Technology and Social Science Education Preparing for Tomorrow's World An Interdisciplinary Curriculum Program Coastal Decisions: Difficult Choices Energy: Decisions for Today and Tomorrow Future Scenarios in Communications Space Encounters Technology and Changing Life-Styles Food: A Necessary Resource Perspectives on Transportation Future New Jersey: Public Issues and the Quality of Life People and Environmental Changes Environmental Dilemmas: Critical Decisions for Society Of Animals, Nature and Humans Beacon City: An Urban Land-Use Simulation Dilemmas in Bioethics Technology and Society: A Futuristic Perspective Copyright © 1980 by Highland Park Board of Education Highland Park, New Jersey Copyright will be claimed only during the period of further development unless copyright of final material is authorized by the New Jersey Department of Education. The materials presented herein were prepared pursuant to a grant from the New Jersey State Department of Education under provisions of Title IV C of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965), as amended. However, the opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the New Jersey Department of Education or the U.S. Office of Education. PREPARING FOR TOMORROW'S WORLD Space Encounters Teacher's Guide Developed and Prepared by Louis A. Iozzi, Director Janey M.Y. Cheu, Associate Director Dale Baker, Consultant Nancy Brzezinski, Administrative Assistant Institute for Science, Technology and Social Science Education The Center for Coastal and Environmental Studies Rutgers - The State University of New Jersey Doolittle Hall New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903 Sincere appreciation is expressed to the school systems that assisted the project and served as field test centers. We especially thank the following teachers and their students who field tested the preliminary drafts of this program, and also those teachers and students who served as control classes. Their enthusiasm, cooperation and thoughtful critiques are integral components in the successful development of these materials. **Ashbury Park District** - **Ashbury Park High School** Dolores Lynch, Joseph Mann, Thomas Sobieszczyk **Burlington City District** - **Burlington City High School** David Burchell, James Franchino **Dumont District** - **Dumont High School** Raymond Polomski **East Brunswick Township District** - **Warnsdofer Elementary School** Tracy Shisler **Franklin Township District** - **Sampson G. Smith Intermediate School** Robert Brobst, Chairperson, Science Dept., Mel Hill, Charles Kozla, Victor Luty, Steven Michelson, Science Coordinator, William Petsavage, Theresa Thorsen, Control Carol Guarino **Galloway Township District** - **Arthur Rann Elementary School** Stephen Bent, Stanley Cwiklinski **Hamilton Township District** - **Hamilton East - Stevens High School** Allen Dakin, Ronald DiGiuseppe, Thomas Ebeling, Chairperson, Science Dept., Paul Fessien, William Kester, Rilla Lee Kramer, Lester Gibbs, Kenneth Sullivan, Control Joseph DePuglio, Elmo Kirkland **Hillsborough Township District** - **Hillsborough School** Jane Voss **Irvington District** - **Union Avenue Elementary School** Louise Donnelly, Adele' Hueston, John Ignacio, Science Coordinator **Long Branch District** - **Long Branch High School** Joseph Anastasia - **Long Branch Junior High School** Robert Frost, Florence Kessler **Middletown Township District** - **Middletown High School - South** William Harding, Patricia Larkin **Milltown District** - **Parkview Elementary School** Judy Temkin **Montgomery Township District** - **Montgomery High School** Thomas Smith **Montville Township District** - **Montville High School** Joseph McKeon **Morris Hills Regional District** - **Morris Knolls High School** Cathleen Anderson, Priscilla Arnehter, George Hrobuchak, Science Coordinator, Barry Lehman, Raymond Tarchak - **Morris Hills High School** Ralph Panei, Edward Spencer, Marilyn Tenney **North Arlington District** - **North Arlington High School** John Bennett **Oakland District** - **Indian Hills High School** Lawrence Insley **Old Bridge Township District** - **Cedar Ridge High School** Edna Hudson, Trudy Iwanski, James Simes, Control Raymond Davis **Princeton Regional District** - **John Witherspoon Middle School** James Messersmith **South Brunswick Township District** - **Crossroads Middle School** Jean Dorgan, Director of Instructional Development - **South Brunswick High School** R. Brian Biemuller, Robert Chopick, Chairperson, Science Dept., Terry Farnella, William Gray, Robert Johnson, Virginia Markham, Control George Blackburn, Karen Kozarski **Spotswood District** - **Spotswood High School** Roberta Baker, Ernest Beckley, Control Karen Boyle **Toms River Regional District** - **Toms River Intermediate - East Middle School** Terry Reagan **Union Township District** - **Burner Junior High School** Ralph Amato, Jack Roland, Science Coordinator, Robert Wentz, Control Patricia Abrahamson, Thomas D'Agostino - **Union Senior High School** Patricia Mueller **Washington Township District** - **Long Valley Middle School** Francis Hobbie, District Curriculum Coordinator, Robert Joyce, Kenneth Kopperl, John Streko, Control Diane Bauman, Susan Chadwick, Vincent Domeraski, Carol Farrell, Philip Kinney, Richard Kleh, Anthony Martin, Judith Novack, David Weidemoyer, Louis Zarrello **Woodbridge Township District** - **John F. Kennedy Memorial High** Crystal Lingenfelter **NON-PUBLIC SCHOOLS** - **Chelsea School, Long Branch** Thomas Cronin - **Red Bank Catholic High School, Red Bank** Drew Arcomano, Steve Donato, Steve Johnson, Gene Luciani, St. Mary Wendelin, Control George Jones, Kathleen Walsh - **St. Mary's High School, Perth Amboy** Russell Simon - **St. Peter's High School, New Brunswick** Sr. Joseph Marie McManus, S.C. - **St. Pius X Regional High School, Piscataway** Br. Kevin Cunniff, Barbara Goodman, James Duris - **St. Thomas Aquinas High School, Edson** Betsy Piesen ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A project of this broad scope reflects the contributions of many individuals who have shared with us their professional expertise, creative insights, wisdom and support. Our deepest appreciation and special thanks are extended to: Highland Park Public Schools - Board of Education - Dr. James Sgambettera, Superintendent - Dr. Edward Leppert, Assistant Superintendent - Mr. William Donohue, Assistant Principal. Highland Park High School Center for Coastal and Environmental Studies, Rutgers University - Dr. Norbert P. Psuty, Director - Dr. Leland G. Merrill, Professor - Dr. Karl Nordstrom, Assistant Professor - Dr. Carol Litchfield, Associate Professor (presently E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co.) - Ms. Janice Limb, Director, Cartography Lab Cook College - Rutgers University - Dr. Arthur W. Edwards, Chairman, Education Department - Dr. William G. Smith, Assistant Professor - Ms. Maryalice Annun, Secretary Department of Radiation Science, Rutgers University - Dr. Francis Haughey, Professor Graduate School of Education - Rutgers University - Dr. George J. Pallrand, Professor - Dr. Michael Piburn, Associate Professor New Jersey Department of Education - Ms. Sarah Banks - Dr. Ronald Leshner - Dr. Joseph Picogna New Jersey Department of Education - Middlesex County Office - Dr. Rita J. Carney, Superintendent - Sr. Therese Alma, Coordinator, Private Schools - Ms. Jean Sadenwater, Coordinator New Jersey Department of Energy - Mr. Bruce Hoff, OCS Coordinator - Mr. Robert Golden, Energy Analyst Stanley Cesaro Associates - Stanley Cesaro, President - Peter Bastardo, Curriculum Specialist Elizabeth Public Schools Elizabeth, N.J. PREFACE We live in an exciting, rapidly changing, and challenging world—a world highly dependent upon science and technology. Our world is changing so rapidly that we sometimes fail to recognize that much of what we today take for granted as common, everyday occurrences existed only in the imaginations of people just a few short years ago. Advances in science and technology have brought many dreams to fruition. Long before today's school children become senior citizens, much of today's "science fiction" will, in fact, become reality. Recall just a few accomplishments which not long ago were viewed as idle dreams. - New biomedical advances have made it possible to replace defective hearts, kidneys and other organs. - The first air flight at Kitty Hawk lasted only a few seconds. Now, a little over half a century later space ships travel thousands of miles an hour to explore distant planets. - Nuclear technology—of interest a few short years ago because of its destructive potential—could provide humankind with almost limitless supplies of energy for peace-time needs. - Computer technology has made it possible to solve in seconds problems which only a decade ago would require many human lifetimes. - Science and technology have brought us to the brink of controlling weather, earthquakes and other natural phenomena. Moreover, the changes which we have been experiencing and to which we have become accustomed are occurring at an increasingly rapid rate. Changes, most futurists forecast, will continue and, in fact, even accelerate as we move into the 21st Century and beyond. But, as Barry Commoner has stated, "There is no such thing as a free lunch." These great advances will not be achieved without a high price. We are now beginning to experience the adverse effects of our great achievements. - The world's natural resources are being rapidly depleted. - Our planet's water and air are no longer pure and clean. - Thousands of plant and animal species are threatened with extinction. - Nearly half the world's population suffers from malnutrition. While science and technology have given us tremendous power, we are also confronted with an awesome responsibility, to use the power and ability wisely, to make equitable decision tradeoffs, and to make valid and just choices when there is no absolute "right" alternative. Whether we have used our new powers wisely is highly questionable. Today's youth will soon become society's decision-makers. Will they be capable of improving upon the decision-making of the past? Will they possess the skills and abilities to make effective, equitable, long-range decisions to create a better world? To the student: This module has been prepared to help you—the student and future decision maker—function more effectively in a rapidly changing world. Other modules in the *Preparing for Tomorrow's World* program focus on additional issues of current and future importance. To the teacher: It is our belief that this module—and indeed the entire *Preparing for Tomorrow's World* program—will help you, the teacher, prepare the future decision-maker to deal effectively with issues and challenges at the interfaces of science, technology, society. It is our belief that the contents and activities in this program will begin to prepare today's youth to live life to the fullest, in balance with Earth's resources and environmental limits, and to meet the challenges of tomorrow's world. Louis A. Iozzi, Ed. D. Cook College Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey # CONTENTS | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | Introduction | 1 | | The Theoretical Basis Of Preparing For Tomorrow's World: | | | The Socio-Scientific Reasoning Model | 3 | | Overview Of Space Encounters | 9 | | Purpose | 9 | | Strategy | 9 | | For Whom is the Module Intended | 9 | | Components of the Module | 10 | | Outline of Activities | 12 | | Activity 1: First Briefing | 12 | | Activity 2: Mission Objectives and the Code of Conduct | 12 | | Activity 3: Encounter with Aliens | 12 | | Activity 4: Problems and Predicaments | 12 | | Activity 5: Dilemmas | 12 | | Activity 6: Alien Laws | 12 | | Activity 7: Fulfilling the Mission Objectives | 13 | | Activity 8: Marooned (Optional) | 13 | | Activity 9: The Warning | 13 | | Activity 10: Other Ways | 13 | | Activity 11: Debriefing | 13 | | Activity 12: A New Code | 13 | | Activity 13: A New Code — Part Two | 13 | | Goals And Objectives | 14 | | Module Objectives | 14 | | The Role of the Teacher | 15 | | Moral and Ethical Considerations of the Module | 16 | ## CONTENTS | Section | Page | |------------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | Procedures For Teaching The Module | 20 | | Activity 1 — Mission Control Instructions | 20 | | Filmstrip Script | 21 | | Science Fiction Readings | 24 | | Activity 2 — Mission Objectives and the Code of Conduct | 26 | | Activity 3 — Encounters with Aliens | 31 | | Activity 4 — Problems and Predicaments | 31 | | Activity 5 — Dilemmas | 32 | | Letter from the President | 45 | | Activity 6 — Alien Laws | 47 | | Activity 7 — Fulfilling the Mission Objectives | 50 | | Activity 8 — Marooned | 50 | | Activity 9 — The Warning | 52 | | Activity 10 — Other Ways | 53 | | Activity 11 — Debriefing | 53 | | Activity 12 — A New Code, Part I | 55 | | Activity 13 — A New Code, Part II | 56 | | Selected Bibliography: Moral- Social - Ethical Development | 57 | | Books And Teaching Resources | 58 | INTRODUCTION The problem with most science fiction, as any avid fan will tell you, is that, unless it is particularly well written, it acquires with the passing of time a rather dated appearance. We have reached a point in our scientific and technological growth when those who make their living imagining the future find the pace too fast for even their fertile minds. Modern science has brought the future to our very doorstep. The time lapse between the probable and the possible has been foreshortened from generations to decades. The present speed of scientific and technological developments has taken away society's cushion for contemplation. The societies in which science and technology function at a high level no longer have the option of measured reflection as to the consequences of these developments. We are presently faced with several very pressing social and scientific problems the consequences of which can only be dimly foreseen. First and foremost, more people are competing for diminishing resources. The gap between the "haves" and "have nots" continues to increase. In this global competition for resources the feelings of nationalism, distrust, suspicion and envy are heightened. The world, especially the Western world, has at hand the key to the solution to many of these problems. It is a two edged sword however, which requires consideration of both short and long-term repercussions. Unfortunately, time for consideration is the one resource in most short supply. The world is faced with a rather difficult juggling act. We must balance what science can do, what needs to be done and the long-term interaction of these effects. DDT has saved the lives of millions of people by destroying the malaria carrying mosquito. However, now we find that the DDT has entered the food chain, led to the threat of extinction of several species of birds, and even entered the milk of nursing mothers. In an attempt to solve one problem several more have been created. The possible must also be tempered with the humane and the just. The ability to prolong life or secretly listen to a conversation halfway around the world does not imply the right to do so. Even if it were possible to maintain a global ecological balance and raise the standard of living around the world to an equitable level, we would still have to face other implications of our science and technology. Implicit in this module then are certain issues which arise out of the interaction of science, technology and society. It is the clash between what is necessary, possible and right. What is possible is changing too quickly to define. What is necessary and right is the province of the individual. It is hoped that by the examination of these issues through discussion, role playing and confrontation, one with another, the students will be able to develop strategies to help them deal with the problems brought about by the interaction of science, technology and culture. The issues which are given a central role are as follows: - The value of life - The quality of life - The needs of future generations versus the needs of the present generation - The equitable distribution of resources - Arms limitation - Resource Conservation - The right to privacy - Respect for other cultures and customs - Justice It is only by identifying the problems and facing them directly that the possibility of resolution exists. It is the purpose of this module to identify some of the problems created through the interaction of science, technology and society and to provide a vehicle through which students may examine these problems and issues in such a way that the wants, needs and values of one group are examined in relation to the wants, needs and values of another. The Theoretical Basis of Preparing for Tomorrow's World: The Socio-Scientific Reasoning Model As pointed out in the Introduction to this guide, developments in science and technology are not without societal issues and problems. New developments and applications will inevitably bring about new issues as well as increase their complexity. Unlike scientific problems, socio-scientific problems often have no "correct" answer because they involve human choices and decisions. Such choices and decisions are value laden. The particular decisions made today and tomorrow will determine the course of the future. Hence, we are faced with the profound challenge to make just and wise decisions in order to create a better future world. To help prepare our students to become more effective problem solvers and decision makers, education will need to focus on the simultaneous development of the following skills. - Ability to deal with problems containing multiple interacting variables - Decision making that incorporates a wider social perspective - Critical thinking in the evaluation of consequences and implications Components of the Socio-Scientific Reasoning Model In response to the above concern and recognizing the importance of this mode of development, we developed the "socio-scientific reasoning" model to serve as a framework in the production of our curriculum materials. This model combines our own philosophy, ideas and research with the theories and philosophies of Piaget, Dewey, Kohlberg and Selman. Basic to these theories is the idea of education as helping an individual grow both intellectually and morally. Therefore, this socio-scientific reasoning model approaches education from a developmental perspective. This model incorporates the ideas of stage development from the perspective of cognition, moral/ethical reasoning and social role taking. The basic tenets of these theories are briefly summarized below. Logical Reasoning Jean Piaget, the noted Swiss psychologist, has made important contributions in the area of cognitive development which are pertinent to our efforts. Piaget views the development of logical reasoning as progression through the series of stepwise stages indicated in Table 1 (sensori-motor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational). At each successive stage, the logical reasoning ability of individuals takes on a broader perspective and incorporates the ability to deal with greater numbers of interacting variables of increasing intellectual complexity. Each stage of thinking builds upon the previous one, but takes on a new structural form. Growth in cognition, it seems, can be facilitated and nurtured through appropriate educational experiences. In explaining growth in logical reasoning capability, Piaget refers to the processes of assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. Assimilation occurs when the child incorporates new ideas and situations into his or her existing thought structures. On the other hand, the child also encounters objects and events that do not fit into his or her existing thought structures. In these contradictory situations, the child has essentially two options: he/she must either enlarge his/her existing structures or create a new category or structure. Piaget defines this as the process of accommodation. Intellectual growth, Piaget postulates, occurs when the individual attempts to resolve the tension between the interactive processes of assimilation and accommodation by developing new thoughts and responses that are more suitable or adequate. Equilibrium is re-established when thought structures are altered, producing new accommodations that enable the individual to assimilate the new situations. Intellectual growth, then, occurs through internal self-regulation processes that lead to new, higher levels of equilibration. Moral/Ethical Reasoning While there are several approaches to values education, the more encompassing one is the cognitive developmental approach offered by Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg's ideas are derived from the philosophic positions of Dewey and Piaget. The emphasis here is to help individuals grow intellectually and morally. This is, we feel, a more functional approach than arbitrary indoctrination of values as used in "character" or "socialization" education or taking a "values relativity" stance, typically employed in the more common values clarification approach. Kohlberg's moral/ethical development theory is an extension of Piaget's cognitive development theory. Similarly to Piaget, Kohlberg views moral development from childhood to adulthood as progression through a series of stages (Table 2). Each stage is characterized by a very different way of perceiving and interpreting one's experiences. At Kohlberg's Stage 2, for example, "right" and "wrong" are judged in terms of satisfying one's own needs and sometimes the needs of others if it is convenient to do so. Stage 3 type of reasoning centers around maintenance of approval in one's own social group. The orientation is towards conformity to group expectation. At the higher principled stages, reasoning takes into account concerns for the welfare of others in a broader context, and includes concerns for human dignity, liberty, justice, and equality—those very same principles upon which our Constitution is based. Following Piaget, Kohlberg views development not as mere accumulation of information, but changes in thinking capabilities—the structures of thought processes. In the course of development, higher-level thought structures are attained and result in the extension of an individual's social perspective and reasoning capabilities. Applying higher levels of thinking to problems results in problem solutions that have greater consistency and are more generalizable. See Appendix detailing the stages of development. Social Role-Taking Stages The research of Robert Selman indicates that social role taking ability is a developed capacity which also progresses in a series of stages from early childhood through adolescence. Role taking is viewed by Selman in terms of qualitative changes in the manner a child structures his/her understanding of the relationship between the perspectives of self and others. Using the open-ended clinical method of inquiry first applied by Piaget and then later by Kohlberg, Selman has identified and defined Stages 0 through 4 (age range is approximately 3 years to 15+ years). These stages are referred to as Ego-centric Viewpoint (Stage 0), Social-Informational Role Taking (Stage 1), Self Reflection Role Taking (Stage 2), Mutual Role Taking (Stage 3), and Social and Conventional System Role Taking (Stage 4). Descriptions of the role taking stages appear in Table 3. Each of Selman's role taking stages relates closely to and parallels Kohlberg's moral reasoning stages. Selman views the social role taking stages as a link between Piaget's logical reasoning stages and Kohlberg's moral reasoning stages. Just as Piaget's logical reasoning stages are necessary but not sufficient for attaining the parallel moral reasoning stages, a similarly necessary but not sufficient relationship appears to exist between the social role taking stages and parallel moral reasoning stages. As Selman has pointed out, "...the child's cognitive stage indicates his level of understanding of physical and logical problems, while his role taking stage indicates his level of understanding of the nature of social relations, and his moral judgment stage indicates the manner in which he decides how to resolve social conflicts between people with different points of view." The Socio-Scientific Reasoning Model Combining our own philosophy, ideas, and research with the theories of Piaget, Kohlberg and Selman, the socio-scientific reasoning model has been developed. Socio-scientific reasoning, as defined here, is the incorporation of the hypothetico-deductive mode of problem solving with the social and moral/ethical concerns of decision making. This model has served as a guide in the development of educational materials to help students advance to higher levels of thinking and reasoning capabilities. Moreover, it is highly flexible and readily adaptable to other classroom activities. The basic assumption of this model is that effective problem solving requires simultaneous development in the realms of logical reasoning, social role taking, and moral/ethical reasoning. Purely objective scientific thinking cannot be applied in the resolution of most of the probable future conflicts without regard to the impact of those decisions on human needs and human goals. A technological solution, for example, may be, after critical analysis, feasible and logically consistent. From a societal perspective, however, one must question whether or not it should be applied. How to best prioritize our needs and evaluate trade-offs with a concern for the needs of future generations involves logical reasoning and critical thinking, but now with an added dimension...a social moral/ethical reasoning dimension. Hence, the Socio-Scientific model consists of four interacting components (see Figure 1): (1) logical reasoning develop- --- **TABLE 1** **PIAGET'S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT** | Stage | Description | |------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------| | SENSORIMOTOR STAGE | - Acquires concept that objects exist apart from self | | | - Coordinates movement, habit | | PRE-OPERATIONAL - (SUBSTAGE 1)| - Can represent objects symbolically - uses language, images | | | - View of world only as he/she sees it - highly egocentric | | CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (SUBSTAGE 2)| - Reasons only about concrete objects | | | - Applies logic in a limited way | | TRANSITIONAL - EARLY FORMAL OPERATIONS | - Begins to think more abstractly | | | - Awareness of new possibilities | | FORMAL STAGE | - Thinks in a hypothetical-deductive manner | | | - Considers all possible relationships | --- **Figure 1:** Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development ment is based on the theories of Piaget, while (2) moral/ethical reasoning relies strongly on Kohlberg's ideas. Selman's research provides the basis for the third component, the social role taking aspects of our model. Since the content or information component of the problem (component four) will vary, so too will the concepts vary accordingly. For example, in our applications of this model we have concentrated on issues at the interfaces of science, technology, and society. Of course, problem issues could also deal with or focus on any other topic one chooses to investigate. The content component also consists of three interacting subunits. These subunits—science, technology, and society—rely on each other for their very existence. While each of the subunits is dependent upon the others, their individual underlying value structures create a high potential for discord since the concerns of one subunit often conflict with those of the ### Table 2 **Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development** | Stage | Description | |-------|-------------| | Stage 5: Social Contract | • Emphasis on democratic ethic, reaching social consciousness • Respect for self and other | | Stage 4: Law and Order | • Do your duty, set good example • Respect authority and follow the rules | | Stage 3: Conformity | • What is right is what others expect of me • Be kind and considerate of others - good intentions | | Stage 2: Back Scratching | • What's right is what's good for me • Eye for eye, tooth for tooth concept of justice | | Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment | • Right is what authorities command • Be good and avoid punishment | ### Table 3 **Selman's Role-Taking Stages** | Stage | Description | |-------|-------------| | Stage 4: Social and Conventional System Role Taking | • Realizes mutual perspective taking does not always lead to complete understanding • Each self considers the shared point of view of the generalized other (social system) | | Stage 3: Mutual Role Taking | • Realizes self and other can consider each party's point of view simultaneously and mutually • Can step outside dyad and view action from third person perspective | | Stage 2: Self-Reflective Role Taking | • Relativistic belief that no person's perspective is absolutely valid • Reflects on the self's behavior as seen from other's point of view | | Stage 1: Social-Information Role Taking | • Aware that self and others may have different social perspectives • Focuses on one perspective, not on coordinating viewpoints of self and others | FIGURE 1 THE SOCIO-SCIENTIFIC REASONING MODEL INCREASED COMPLEXITY Poet Conventional Stages 5&6 Conventional Stages 3&4 Preconventional Stages 1&2 Amoral MORAL REASONING Role Taking Development Logical Reasoning MORE ADEQUATE PROBLEM SOLVING CAPABILITIES Sensori-Motor Concrete Operations Substages 1&2 Formal Operations Substages 1&2 Formal Operations Substage 3 Stage 4: Social & Conventional System Stage 3: Mutual Role Taking Stage 2: Self-Reflective Role Taking Stage 1: Social Informational Role Taking State O: Egocentric viewpoint others. This paradox—dependence and simultaneous conflict among the subunits—presents a unique opportunity and context for curriculum developers employing the Socio-Scientific Reasoning model to prepare educational materials. Each component of this model is not seen as a totally separate and distinct entity. Rather, each of the four components interacts with and has an effect on all other components. Thus, logical reasoning has an effect on, and in turn is affected by, social role taking development. In a similar manner, social role taking has an effect on, and is affected by, developments in the moral/ethical realm. Of course, logical reasoning and moral/ethical reasoning also interact. Each of these major components—logical reasoning, social role taking, and moral/ethical reasoning—interact not only with each other but with the fourth component, content or information. Referring to Figure 1 again, the content cone is small at the low end because at earlier stages of development the number of concepts entertained are smaller and the concepts are simple in nature. Hence, as the cone broadens so too does the complexity of content or information included. Individuals at stages of development intersecting the lower end of the cone can deal with issues and concepts of a simpler form while, on the other hand, individuals at the upper end with higher levels of maturity have the capacity for dealing with more issues and issues of greater complexity. Development, then, is both vertical and horizontal. Vertical development is from lower to higher stages; horizontal development relates to the "necessary but not sufficient" requirements which must be satisfied as one moves from logical reasoning, through social role taking, to moral reasoning capabilities. Thus, while each stage reflects a distinctly unique capability for problem solving in a science/technology/society context, we view development or progress as a continuously spiraling process. In this process, however, there are leaps and quiescence, and fixation at any stage is possible. Levels of logical reasoning, moral reasoning, and role taking maturity also seem to vary, we find, depending on the issues addressed. These apparent inconsistencies in reasoning—even when dealing with the same or similar mental and moral constructs—seem to be related to the degree of emotionality, familiarity with, interest in, and/or knowledge about the issues under consideration. The goal then is to help each individual "spiral" upwards through the Socio-Scientific Reasoning cone and synchronously achieve "more adequate" problem solving capability. "More adequate" as used here refers to the idea that when applied to problem solving, the higher stages of reasoning result in solutions that are more encompassing and generalizable; they enable students to deal with greater complexity. Application of the Socio-Scientific Reasoning Model in the Classroom The Socio-Scientific Reasoning model therefore serves as the basis for identifying the types of learning experience and the sophistication level of those experiences important to help students develop. It recognizes that learning capabilities differ with age, grade level, interest and learning needs. Implicit in the model and in accord with stage theory is the idea that at each stage there is a characteristic form of thinking capability which determines how experiences and information are interpreted and acted upon. The main strategy underlying all of these activities is based on Piaget's concept of equilibration. It is only when disequilibrium is created that active restructuring of thought takes place. This active restructuring leads to growth in logical reasoning, in social role taking, and in moral/ethical reasoning capabilities as well. Restructuring of existing cognitive structures occurs when internal disequilibrium is felt by the individual. New experiences and inputs which are not readily comprehensible to the individual challenge his/her existing mode of thought by revealing inadequacies or inconsistencies in that problem solving strategy. Arrestment at a given stage is partially explained by the developmental theorists as the lack of opportunities that create conflict or dissonance which place the individual in a position where he/she needs to assess his/her particular mode of thinking. Perhaps, as Clive Beck points out, the reason why people do not develop morally is because they have not had the opportunity to entertain alternatives—their imaginations have not been extended. We, in addition, contend that the reason people do not advance in logical reasoning can also be attributed, to a large degree, to a similar lack of opportunities. We have identified some of the basic elements needed to provide experiential opportunities that promote development of problem solving and decision making skills. A partial listing includes providing opportunities for students to: - Encounter a variety of viewpoints - Experience higher level reasoning - Take the perspective of others - Examine and clarify one's own ideas - Examine the consequences and implications of one's decisions - Defend one's position - Evaluate possible alternatives - Consider and recognize the role of the self to society - Reflect on one's own value system - Test own ideas and those of others One educational activity which incorporates some of these elements is the classroom dilemma discussion, an activity most commonly associated with Lawrence Kohlberg and his colleagues. We have, however, modified and extended this approach to more systematically encompass critical analysis and evaluation of information and data. We have also employed such other formats as role taking, simulations, and futures forecasting and analysis methodologies. For example, reasoning at a particular stage is not a value judgment of whether an act is good or bad, but is the pattern of the concepts entertained in judging the "ought" of rights, duties and obligations of human relationships. Younger children at lower stages reason about duties in terms of reciprocal benefits from the party—"If you do me a favor, I will do you a favor." Whereas in principled reasoning, duty is what an individual has become morally committed to do and is self-chosen. Higher stage reasoning is therefore the ability to apply value concerns (Kohlberg's major concerns include self welfare, welfare of others, sense of duty and of motives, conscience, rules, punitive justice, role taking) in a more internalized, complex, autonomous, critical, consistent and generalized manner. Effective discussion, however, cannot take place in a vacuum. Needed also is an information base or context from which students can begin to analyze and evaluate information with information which they have extracted and synthesized, additional ideas and rational arguments can be developed for discussion. For curriculum activities, we have created problem situations in a variety of contexts which, according to scholars in a variety of fields, will be prominent in the next quarter century and beyond. This adds another perspective to the dilemma problem—that which elicits scientific logical reasoning in addition to moral/ethical reasoning—but in a futuristic context. These serve as mechanisms for students to put some of the ideas and judgments that have emanated from the discussion into larger structural frameworks. They also provide students with opportunities to project into the future, to think beyond their own immediate experiences, and to consider the impact of different decisions on future society. --- 1 Jean Piaget. *Piaget's theory*. In Thomas Lickona (Ed.) *Charmichael's manual of child psychology*. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1970. 2 Howard E. Gruber and J.J. Vonèche. *The essential Piaget*. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1979. 3 Lawrence Kohlberg. Moral stages and moralization: the cognitive-developmental approach. In Thomas Lickona (Ed.) *Moral development and behavior: theory, research, and social issues*. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976. 4 John Gibbs, I. Kohlberg, A Colby and B Speicher-Duban. The domain and development of moral judgment. In John R. Meyer (Ed.) *Reflections on values education*. Waterloo, Ontario, Canada: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 1976. 5 Robert Selman. Social-cognitive understanding: a guide to educational and clinical practice. In Thomas Lickona (Ed.) *Moral development and behavior: theory, research, and social issues*. New York: Holt, Rinehardt and Winston, 1976. 6 Ibid. pg 307. 7 Louis A. Lozzi. *Moral judgment, verbal ability, logical reasoning ability, and environmental issues*. Doctoral Dissertation, Rutgers-the State University of New Jersey, 1976. 8 Carol Tomlinson-Keasey and Clark B Keasey. The mediating role of cognitive development in moral judgment. *Child Development*, 1974, 45, 291-298. 9 Clive M. Beck. *Ethics*. Toronto: McGraw-Hill, 1972. 10 Harold G. Shane. *Curriculum change toward the 21st century*. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1977. Overview Of Space-Encounters Purpose Space Encounters, a role play simulation, is designed as a series of open-ended decision making exercises. Students embark on a simulated space mission where new problem elements are introduced at designated intervals to increase the complexity of the situation. As new elements unfold, students must incorporate additional considerations into their decision action. The intricacy of the conflict serves to illustrate that technological/scientific enterprises create new concerns that extend beyond the simple question of technical feasibility. Students will need to address the potential effects of their decisions from the perspective of human needs, goals and values. Strategy The concepts and issues approached in this module are universal in magnitude and represent those which have engaged human inquiry throughout the ages. Some issues and concerns, however, become more urgent and dominant as science and technology play greater roles in human activities. To involve students in the discussion of these issues is often difficult, because they view them as remote and unrelated to their interests and daily experience. Hence, we have constructed a role play simulation where heightened situations are created to actively engage the students to explore the questions. The hypothetical encounter with an alien culture offers a format which is hopefully intriguing but, more importantly, will liberate students from their more singular, constrained mode of thinking. By using an unconventional setting, students are led to explore their own ideas in a different context in which there are no "knowns" or "givens." Hence, there are no prescribed barriers such as "correct" or "incorrect" responses to prevent students from thinking more critically and creatively. The intent is for students to examine the potential effects of a wide range of alternatives and explore their ramifications. This module has been constructed so that the values at the farthest ends of a continuum from a purely mechanistic to a purely humanistic will clash. The scientific mission objectives and the philosophy of the alien culture have been purposely written as diametric opposites. This has been done, not because it is felt that science is totally bad and amoral and that the humanistic approach is good and moral, but because it is through heightened involvement and conflict situations that one's mode of reasoning is challenged. It is those issues that touch us emotionally or those in which we have a vested interest that create the conflict and lead to a re-examination of our personal perspective. This, in turn, fosters growth in thinking. Students assume the role of astronaut/scientist to embark on a Space Exploration Mission. They prepare for the Mission by viewing the introductory filmstrip/audiotape which establishes the tone and purpose of the Mission. They then receive copies of the Mission Objectives and instructions governing their conduct. After the period of preparation, they set off on their trip. During the space flight, they receive a series of messages from different world organizations and the alien culture. These urgent messages present dilemmas for the students to resolve. Discussion of the dilemmas represent, in essence, the central core of the module — the focal point of classroom activity and student interaction. The dilemmas discussion strategy offers a unique approach for students to become actively involved in debating an issue. The heightened conflict within the situation brings the opposing sides of the issues to the forefront. As students take sides on the issue, they partake in the dialogue, examine alternative positions and experience value or ethical conflict. In a role play dilemma discussion there is the added dimension of personal involvement — the students themselves are the protagonist in the dilemma whereas in typical dilemma discussions students assess the situation as third person on-lookers. As active participants, they will need to critically evaluate the arguments and make their decisions after weighing the possible effects of the Mission. The outcome of the Mission will reflect their efforts in organizing, coordinating and interrelating information and concepts. The merits of dilemma discussion as a teaching strategy are that students must share their ideas as well as hear the ideas of others. The concepts become more relevant when students hear arguments from their peers rather than from an adult authority or the printed word. In addition, as members of the Mission, they must reach a consensus decision and will need, therefore, to learn the art of compromise. For Whom is the Module Intended This module is intended for use in social studies, general science, earth science and English classes. The problems discussed, the dilemmas encountered and the central issues are a reflection of the human condition today as well as an attempt to anticipate it tomorrow. The way in which the teacher stresses and highlights the module depends upon the class in which it is to be used. A social studies teacher may wish to focus on the problems which arise from the meeting of two cultures, both historically and in the future. The trap of ethnocentricism can be discussed. Our own value system as expressed in the scientific/technological and humanistic aspects of the module can be examined. The problems created by a pluralistic society, the private versus the public domain and nationalism are addressed. Respect for other cultures and customs is also a fundamental issue. The science teacher might, in addition, emphasize other issues in the module. Because we live in a technological society where science has served as the solution to many problems, it is incumbent upon us to introduce a note of caution early in the student's science instruction. Responsible experimentation, trade-offs in applications of new technology or medical developments, and the recognition that neither science nor the scientist emerges from a value-free environment, are all examined in this module. In addition, there are the environmental concerns: conservation, exploitation and depletion of resources, and pollution. While space exploration represents the crowning achievement of both our science and technology, new moral, ethical and political problems are created. The point need not be belabored that it is the balance of science by society and society by science that keeps the one from crushing the other. The English teacher will also find this module a useful tool. Ideas in *Walden II*, 1984, *Animal Farm*, *The Andromeda Strain*, *Siddhartha*; the works of R. Buckminster Fuller, H.G. Wells, Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., and Albert Camus and many more can be examined in depth. Although these are based on various science fiction themes, they also address the same problems that authors and poets have been pondering for centuries. Included among these are the value of life, its meaning and quality; human freedom within the constructs of one's culture, society, government, religion and oneself; human values; obligations and responsibilities; the limits of man's humanity or cruelty; and by what actions man ceases to be human. This module has also been conducted in a team teaching situation and has proved to be a rich experience for both students and teachers. In a team teaching situation, the teachers of each specialty have been able to offer insights from their discipline, thus expanding the scope of activities. Many more fundamental questions are implicit in the module and will become evident as the students discuss and think through the dilemmas in the module. Through their participation in the *Space Encounters* module, the students will be continually faced with difficult philosophical, moral and ethical questions. They will be confronting other values and comparing them with their own. They will become sensitive to the ramifications of different decisions. They will discuss the many aspects of the dilemmas and begin to recognize the moral/ethical dimension of decision making in all human pursuits. **Components of the Module** - Teacher's Guide - 1 Filmstrip - 1 Audio Cassette Tape - 11 Student Worksheets - 2 Overhead Transparencies All components necessary for conducting *Space Encounters* are contained in the module package. However, as part of the "Mission Briefing and Preparation," it is recommended that students read a science fiction story. Having a selection of science fiction in the classroom or on reserve in the school library would be helpful. The sequence in which the materials will be used are listed below. Some of the components are used several times; the activities in which they are used are indicated by the activity number shown. There are thirteen activities in the module. Activities 1 through 4 and Activities 7 through 8 are designed to be used in the class periods of about forty to sixty minutes. Activity 5, *Dilemmas*, has six component parts, each part being a different dilemma. Each dilemma is also intended to be discussed during a forty to sixty minute period. Thus, in order to conduct this module approximately eighteen class periods are required. Activity 8, *Marooned*, may be an optional activity under the conditions stated in the Outline of Activities and the Procedures for Teaching the Module. The activities are sequential and build one upon the other. However, *this does not mean that they must be taught one day after another* in a consecutive block of time. In fact, it is desirable to have a minimum of one day elapsing before proceeding to the next activity. This allows the students time to read selections from the bibliography and reflect, think and discuss the issues they encounter in the module. | Module Materials | Activity | |------------------|----------| | Filmstrip and transcript of the filmstrip captions | 1 | | Student bibliography, Handout 1 | 1, 3 | | Code of Conduct, Handout 2 | 2, 4, 7, 8, 12 | | Mission of Objectives, Handout 2 | 2, 4, 7, 8, 9 | | Dilemma 1, Handout 3 | 5, parts 1-6 | | Dilemma 2, Handout 4 | | | Dilemma 3, Handout 5 | | | Dilemma 4, Handout 6 | | | Dilemma 5, Handout 7 | | | Dilemma 6, Handout 8 | | | Alien's Welcome Speech, Handout 9 | 6 | | Emergency Information Sheet, Handout 10 | 8 | | Evaluation Form, Handout 11 | 11 | | Transparency of Mission Objectives | 2, 4, 7, 8, 9 | | Transparency of Code Conduct | 2, 4, 7, 8, 12 | | Taped Message: Mission Control, Part One, Explanation of the Mission | 1 | | Taped Message: Mission Control, Part Two, Termination of Radio Contact with the Astronaut/Scientists | 5 | | Taped Message: Six Dilemmas preceded by a portion of the Alien's Welcome Speech | 5 | | Taped Message: Call for Help from Marooned Astronaut/Scientist | 8 | | Taped Message: The Alien's Warning Message | 9 | | Taped Message: The Alien's Farewell | 11 | | Taped Message: Mission Control, Part Three, Debriefing | 11 | | Taped Message: Mission Control, Part Four, Reviewing the Code of Conduct | 12 | OUTLINE OF ACTIVITIES Activity 1: FIRST BRIEFING The entire class listens to the first Mission Control tape which explains the purpose of the Mission (i.e., to contact extraterrestrials and collect scientific data.) They view the filmstrip and discuss the questions which accompany the filmstrip. The students are also to select books from the Student Bibliography to read between activities. The purpose of "First Briefing" is to create a feeling of apprehension and anticipation about encounters with aliens and the subsequent mission activities. Activity 2: MISSION OBJECTIVES AND THE CODE OF CONDUCT The students then discuss and become familiar with the Mission Objectives and Code of Conduct. Accompanying the activity suggestions are discussion questions which correspond to each mission objective and component of the Code of Conduct. Activity 3: ENCOUNTER WITH ALIENS In this activity the entire class discusses what has been learned about encounters with aliens from the readings, the filmstrip, and the students' own imagination. These responses are recorded so that the students can compare possible changes in their attitudes and expectations at the end of the module. This activity focuses on ethnocentrism which we all exhibit at one time or another. Suggested questions are included to facilitate discussion. Activity 4: PROBLEMS AND PREDICAMENTS In this activity the students are asked to anticipate the problems which may arise on the space mission. In order to focus class discussion, the Code of Conduct and Mission Objectives are reviewed. To help initiate discussion a list of possible problems has been included. Activity 5: DILEMMAS Activity 5 consists of six dilemmas labeled 1 through 6. Each dilemma is to be discussed on a separate day. The students are informed by taped message that Mission Control is terminating radio contact and they are on their own. The dilemmas, which follow, are presented as messages from different world organizations. The dilemmas are preceded, with the exception of dilemma one, by a taped message from a representative of the alien culture. These messages place restrictions on the actions the students may take in the dilemmas. The alien's messages in their entirety comprise the Alien's Welcome Speech. Each dilemma is also reproduced as a handout, which students can refer to during discussion, and is accompanied by a set of questions. The questions are designed to direct attention to the issues contained in the dilemmas. For discussion of the dilemmas the class is divided into groups which will remain the same for the remainder of the module. Activity 6: ALIEN LAWS In this activity the students decide within their groups which Mission Objectives do not violate the alien laws and culture and therefore can be achieved. The students have a copy of the Alien's Welcome Speech which outlines their laws and culture and a copy of the Mission Objectives. This activity is intended to highlight the restrictions imposed by the alien culture and help the students view the Mission from the alien's point of view. Activity 7: FULFILLING THE MISSION OBJECTIVES In this activity the students' role as astronaut/scientist is again emphasized. They are thus taking a different perspective than the one they took in the preceding activity. Each group will decide which Mission Objectives are to be met from the astronaut/scientist's point of view. In order to create conflict regarding violation of laws of the alien culture, the decision making process is preceded by a class discussion which emphasizes the importance of adequate data collecting during U.S. space flights to the moon and Mars, loyalty to the United States government and the people of the United States, duty, and the astronaut/scientist's Code of Conduct. Meeting these objectives will necessitate breaking some of the alien laws. Activity 8: MAROONED (Optional) Activity 8 is optional. The astronaut/scientists in the space vehicle receive a message from one of their colleagues on the surface of the planet. He is marooned and needs help. The students must decide whether or not to rescue the marooned man. An Emergency Information Sheet outlines the parameters of the situation. Whatever the decision, the laws of the aliens will be broken. Activity 8 is provided for use if in Activity 7 the students do not violate many alien laws. If time is available, it should be presented regardless of the results in Activity 7. Activity 9: THE WARNING The students receive a warning message from the aliens. The aliens are offended that the visitors have broken their laws but will give them a second chance. The astronaut/scientists are offered the opportunity to rewrite the Mission Objectives. Each group must now reconsider their original objective — the necessity of collecting scientific data — in terms of the alien culture. The students are thus being forced to think of alternative ways to approach a given situation in a more humane fashion. Activity 10: OTHER WAYS In this activity the entire class discusses the alternative ways developed by each group for meeting the Mission Objectives without violating the alien's culture. Activity 11: DEBRIEFING The students receive a taped message from the aliens bidding them farewell and a Mission Control message expressing doubts about the success of the mission. The students are each given an Evaluation Form to complete individually. Activity 12: A NEW CODE The students hear a taped message from Mission Control which instructs them to revise the Code of Conduct. They meet in their groups and, using the original Code of Conduct as reference, try to devise one which is more appropriate for extra-terrestrial contact and which facilitates inter-planetary relationships. Activity 13: A NEW CODE — PART TWO Each group presents its Revised Code of Conduct to the class. The class then develops a code by selecting the best suggestion offered by each group. Questions for the teacher accompany this activity to help direct the development of the new code. Goals And Objectives The goals and objectives of this module are both affective and cognitive as well as long term and short term. It is not expected that all students will meet all or even most of the objectives immediately. Cognitive and affective development is a continuum. Students will range along different points on this continuum and will progress at different rates. The amount of time and the quality of time spent in terms of days, weeks and years determines the ultimate level of one's cognitive and affective development. It is a lifetime pursuit. This module is intended to serve as a catalyst and a vehicle through which the students will continue to grow and develop. It is the role of the teacher to focus on those objectives most relevant to his/her students, to come back to them again and again and to emphasize the objectives most appropriate for the students. The affective objectives of the module are found in the experiences which will give the participants an opportunity to share their ideas with those of others, to be sensitive to the perspective of others, and to understand the processes of working together. The purpose of the cognitive objectives is to provide the students with those skills which will enable them to evaluate and interpret information, as well as predict the consequences of their decisions based upon their interpretation and evaluation. In addition, it is hoped that they will begin to identify the underlying criteria for their decisions. Module Objectives To increase students' - knowledge of societal issues of the interface of science, technology and society. - ability to analyze issues in scientific and technological application. - decision making skills on issues in which the scientific and technologically possible conflict with the socially desirable by considering a range of alternative solutions. - socio-scientific reasoning abilities. - awareness of potential conflicts of interest in the application of science and technology. - understanding of such concepts as culture, cultural relativism, the quality of life, resource allocation and scarcity, arms limitation, conservation, justice, extraterrestrial life, society, privacy, government control and code of conduct. - ability to recognize future problems in scientific and technological developments. - understanding of the way science and technology affect their lives. - self-esteem and ability to communicate and function more effectively in classroom discussions. - ability to more critically examine their own value systems. - ability to develop and present effective arguments in a logical and comprehensive manner. The Role Of The Teacher The skillful use of questions is central to the successful implementation of this module. However, it is impossible for the authors to anticipate all the questions appropriate for a given student population. The importance of you, as the facilitator of dynamic classroom dialogue, cannot be over emphasized. Knowing the special characteristic and needs of your students will determine the types of questions useful in stimulating classroom discussion. The role of the teacher, then, is that of facilitator and not arbitrator. There are no right or wrong answers. It is not the teacher's role to determine who has the correct answer but to promote the examination of many alternative ideas. As facilitator, the teacher assists students to share their thoughts and test their ideas. If discussions are going smoothly, the presence of the teacher or the intrusion of a question might disturb the continuity of the discussion. On the other hand, some students and some discussions will need the guidance of catalytic questions introduced at the proper time by the teacher. Since the structure of the module places the groups or students in a position which will in some way be in opposition to the desires of either Mission Control, the alien culture or one of the organizations creating the dilemmas, it would help the students to critically examine their own values. This can be done by a series of general questions. These questions which can be asked again and again will not only help the students clarify their own thinking and take another's point of view, but will also help the students become aware of the competing and equally valid claims several groups may have on the same issue. These general questions should be asked to expand the scope of ideas entertained by the students. Examples of Questions - How does your decision or the group's decision compare with the laws and culture of the aliens? - If you were the alien, how might you feel about the decision? - How does the decision of the group compare with what you think should be done? - How does the group decision or your own decision compare with the Mission Objectives? - How does the group or your own decision compare with the desires of The Universal Health Organization or Citizens for Arms Limitations or The Rights of Privacy Lobby or The International Organization of Conservationists or The Unity of Nations? - Why have you chosen to decide in favor of the desires of __________ rather than __________? - What are the possible effects of your decision? - What was your main concern when you made the decision? Why? The Mission Objectives have a number of ethical and moral ramifications that the teacher should become familiar with before teaching the module. The Objectives, as written, do not allow for any extenuating circumstances, be they social, ethical or moral. They represent the scientific technological approach taken to its extreme and, thus, are diametrically opposed to the more humanistic philosophy embodied in the alien's culture. The less desirable ethical consequences of the Mission Objectives are heightened so that the value systems of the students (as scientist/astronauts) and the aliens clash and provide the necessary sense of disequilibrium which promotes development. The scope of the ethical and moral considerations outlined below is quite broad; some are merely disturbing and others quite controversial, but they represent a sample of the many ramifications implicit in the Mission Objectives. Familiarity with these considerations by the teacher is crucial to the success of the module. This allows the teacher to aid students to explore and extend the concepts and provides a checklist to guide the discussion. By comparing this checklist of moral and ethical considerations found in the module with those discussed by the students, the teacher will be able to insure that no major considerations are overlooked. Anything of importance that the students have failed to address, the teacher can then introduce. This procedure enhances the teacher's role as facilitator by providing direction only when necessary. OBJECTIVE: Bring back all examples of animal life, both intelligent and non-intelligent. Considerations: The value of animal life - Does the value of life depend upon its level of intelligence? - What does this mean in terms of the feeble-minded or retarded? - Do we care for animals just because they are useful to us? Does an animal's life have value beyond its economic importance? An insect's life? A protozoan's? - What criteria can be used to distinguish between intelligent and non-intelligent life? - What criteria should people use in deciding how animals are to be treated? - Should every attempt be made to protect the well-being of animals? - When an animal is removed from its surroundings, how might it be affected? OBJECTIVE: Bring back examples of all plant life. Considerations: The value of plant life - Is a plant any more valuable than an animal? - Is there any difference in killing a plant or an animal? - What have we lost when we cut down the giant redwoods or eliminate a rare species of wild flower? - How important is the beauty of the wilderness or parklands to us? - If we eliminate these areas how might people be affected? - Do people have the right to tamper with plant life? (i.e., eliminating species) - What rights do plants have to existence? OBJECTIVE: Collect information about medical discoveries which will help people live longer and prevent disease. Considerations: The quality of life - How might living longer affect the way people behave? - What are the benefits of a long, disease-free life? - Does an awareness of one's mortality give meaning to life and provide a basis for religion? - How might religions be affected, if people become immortal? - How does one feed, house and clothe so many people? - If we live longer and cure disease, will we then have to take away an individual's right to reproduce in order to keep populations down? - Despite being free from disease and being able to live a long life, does an individual have the right to die when he/she wishes? - How might society change when there are few young people and children and a great many old people? - How might people feel if living longer requires being hooked up to machines or replacing parts of the body with artificial parts? - If the new discoveries are very expensive, very few people may benefit from them. How does one determine who will be allowed to use the new discoveries? OBJECTIVE: Look for a source of energy to replace our own limited supply which we could mine and bring back inexpensively. Considerations: Conservation and energy - Do we have the right to use the energy resources of others after we have used up our own? - How do we determine who is "entitled" to different shares of energy? Should all share equally? - Do we have the right to use more than our share of energy now and thus deprive future generations? - Should we risk the dangers, as some people say, of nuclear power as an energy source to insure our high standard of living? - Should it be important to have energy even if its production creates pollution? - Should we pursue our present lifestyle even if it permanently damages our environment? - Should we spend great sums of money to develop other energy sources? OBJECTIVE: Establish experimental stations for the long-term measurement of weather, sunlight, planetquakes and tides. Conduct a thorough chemical analysis of the planet's water, soil and atmosphere. Considerations: Scientific responsibility - If scientists think an earthquake is imminent, should they inform the people living in the area? What if they are wrong? - If we think our climate is changing, getting warmer or colder, should we try to intervene? What if we do the wrong things? - Could the long-term knowledge of atmospheric conditions, climate, earthquakes and tidal movement lead to their manipulation and use as weapons? - Should we change the weather for our own benefit if it creates drought in other countries? - Should bringing rain or sunlight to one part of the world from another be considered stealing? - If scientists could redirect the path of an earthquake away from their own country, where should they send it? - Who should make the decisions concerning the control of water, weather, and earthquakes? OBJECTIVE: Bring back evidence which would explain the evolution of life on the planet. Considerations: The creation and alteration of life - What should one do if new evolutionary evidence goes against our beliefs of human superiority? How might we be affected? Should one reveal that information? - Should we use the information to change human beings? Is it right to change human nature? - Should we use the scientific knowledge to completely eliminate insects or other pests that we don't want? - What if these chemicals cause genetic changes in other plants and animals? OBJECTIVE: Bring back any weapons which would give us strategic superiority over our enemies. Considerations: Arms limitation - Should we use a weapon which might have unpredicted effects on the environment and living organisms? - Should we keep secret, for national security, a newly developed weapon, during arms limitation negotiations? - Is it more important for government funds to go towards weapons, planes, submarines and armies than toward programs to help poor or disadvantaged people? - Should a nation which manufactures weapons sell them to both sides in a conflict? - Is it better to demonstrate strategic superiority by using a weapon which may kill innocent people or civilians in order to avoid a large-scale war? OBJECTIVE: Bring back ore and mineral samples which could be used to improve the economies of poor countries. Considerations: Resource allocation, depletion and conservation - If we bring back ores and minerals to improve the economies of poor countries, what environmental or economic damage might we do to the planet which provides the ores and minerals? - R. Buckminster Fuller thinks that there are enough resources for everyone on earth now and that it is the inequitable distribution of the resources that causes poverty. In light of this, should we sell our resources to poor countries at a price that they can afford, even if it means a loss to us? - Should we share our resources with poorer countries rather than remove them from another planet? - If we have used up our resources, do we have a right to use that of others? - Should countries that have squandered their resources expect countries which have conserved theirs to share or sell them? - Who should use the ore and mineral resources, the country which could put them to the best use or the country in which they are found? - Should we bring back ore and mineral resources to improve the economies of poor countries if we thought that such an action might hurt our own economy? OBJECTIVE: Set into orbit around the planet cameras and planet probes to watch all activities on the planet. Considerations: The right to privacy - How does one distinguish between information gathering, surveillance and spying? - Is there a point where the need to gather information for the good of society is more important than the individual's right to privacy? - Is it ever right to invade a person's privacy, such as to catch a murderer or other criminal? - Is the right to privacy a person's natural right or one that is granted by the government? - Why do people need privacy? If one does, what happens when one is deprived of it? - Should governments protect the right to privacy of those individuals who plot to murder, steal or overthrow the government? - Should any behavior, use of drugs, conspiracy or torture be allowed by society if it takes place within the privacy of one's own home? - If some behaviors should not take place even within the privacy of one's home, who decides what else may not take place there? Procedures For Teaching The Module Activity 1: FIRST BRIEFING The primary purpose of the first activity is to create an atmosphere of tension and heightened anticipation and the fear of the unknown. The physical setting can contribute to this feeling through the removal of all visual stimulation. Cover the bulletin boards, erase the chalkboards and remove anything else that might hinder the creation of a cold and sterile environment. The lights should be off and the blinds drawn. If possible, arrange the seating to resemble a theater or have each student sit in a single desk with isolating space around him. The projector should be set up in the back of the room with the tape recorder. Explain to the students that they are going to be involved in an activity, not a game, that will help them think about some special problems. These problems have no right or wrong answers. Everyone's opinions and thoughts are valuable and are essential for the activity to succeed. Explain that while they are going to be asked to pretend that "they are someone else, it is their ideas that are important." Mission Control Instructions Play Part I of the tape. Transcript follows: This is Mission Control. Ladies and gentlemen you have been called together to participate in the most exciting and crucial space mission that our nation has ever launched. As astronaut scientists you are the bravest and the most physically and mentally fit to represent us. Each of you is the best mind in your field. Each of you has an unswerving loyalty to the goals of science and the ideals of this nation. For these reasons you have been chosen to represent mankind in our first attempt to contact extraterrestrial beings. Your primary duty will be to collect as much information as possible about the alien life forms you encounter. To fulfill this duty the Mission Control staff has compiled a list of ten mission objectives which we feel represent the minimum amount of information we must have in order to justify this mission. In addition to your functions as astronaut/scientists, you will serve as the first ambassadors from earth to the universe. As such, Mission Control has prepared a Code of Conduct which will serve as your model. It is designed to establish our position in the universe as intelligent superior beings and to safeguard our species from attack as well as our human culture from alien control. Mission Control has prepared a package of training materials for your examination. Study these carefully. They represent the thinking of many minds in the area of the unknown. We can only provide materials about the possible and the probable as far as our imaginations can take us. We can prepare you for what might be, you must tell us what is... While tape is being played, make sure the filmstrip projector is ready and is in position for projection on the screen. The students view the filmstrip immediately after listening to Part I of the Mission Control tape. After viewing the filmstrip, direct the students to select books, either from the bibliography or of their own choosing, to read on various science fiction topics. A transcript of the filmstrip follows: **Filmstrip Script** *Part II of Mission Control Instructions* | Filmstrip Frame | Text | |-----------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1 | You are about to take part in one of the most important scientific ventures of this century. All the challenges of space have been met, but one. | | 2 | This challenge, to meet with life on other worlds, is one which we at Mission Control can prepare you for in only the broadest sense. | | 3 | We cannot be sure that evolution has taken the same path on other worlds as on our own planet Earth. In all the universe there may not be other intelligent creatures as unique as humans. | | 4 | Therefore always maintain an alert mental state. Be prepared for the bizarre, the strange. | | 5 | A planetary environment hostile to humans may give rise to equally hostile life forms. | | 6 | Conditions may be so different that you will not, at first, recognize the life forms. | | 7 | Or, civilizations may have crumbled and died centuries before our arrival, leaving only their mute and empty remains to bear witness to their former glory. | | 8 | Do not assume that you are welcome by the planet or the life upon it. We come as uninvited visitors to their world. | | 9 | The following are a few guidelines which may help you in your search for extraterrestrial intelligence and life forms: | | 10 | Proceed with caution when approaching planets of the gas giant types. Exploratory probes have been unable to penetrate their thick atmosphere, so we know least about the possibilities of life on them. | | 11 | Planets which are mostly water will more than likely have life centered in and around the oceans. Keep in mind the life forms our own oceans have produced during the development of life on Earth. | | 12 | Jungle type planets may prove difficult to explore. Moist, warm air, lush vegetation, and fertile soil could provide unending opportunities for the development of unusual life forms. | | 13 | Arid, desert like conditions should not lull the astronaut/scientist into a false sense of security. Life can adapt! | | 14 | Size is a factor too. What can live on a planet ten times larger or ten times smaller than our own Earth? | | | | |---|---| | 15 | And if the planets themselves contain no life, what about their moons? Did we not at one time think there was life on our own Luna? | | 16 | The future of all other life search missions rests upon the successful completion of this our first attempt. | | 17 | It is a matter of our national and planetary security that we seek out and find extraterrestrial life. | | 18 | By initiating contact, we will show human beings as a superior intelligent species, able to defend itself against outsiders. | | 19 | By contacting life forms on their own planet, we learn from them without revealing crucial information about ourselves and our planet. | | 20 | The universe is a vast and unexplored expanse. We are but one planet around one star in the Milky Way. | | 21 | Each star has many planets around it. Surely in all the constellations and galaxies of infinite space we shall meet life. | | 22 | And when we meet this life, we must be prepared for habits and practices which will offend our humanity. | | 23 | Regardless of personal feelings, it is the duty of the astronaut/scientist to study, learn, explore and perform his or her experiments. | | 24 | Despite our own values, we must accept life as we encounter it to learn as much as possible in order to benefit human society. | | 25 | The astronaut/scientist must take care not to attribute human motives to these life-forms. Their thought processes will undoubtedly be as different from ours as their appearance. | | 26 | Our scientific, technological culture has provided us with the ability to take this historic step into space. Preserve and protect that culture despite what you may encounter. | | 27 | This mission is an unparalleled opportunity to once and for all lay aside the myths of UFO's and to finally answer in a scientific and logical fashion the questions they raise. | | 28 | Since we are not alone in this universe, it is the responsibility of this mission and its astronaut/scientists to learn about these other forms. Who are they? What are they? Where are they? | | 29 | Through the ages, humans have placed their gods in the sky and seen their heroes and heroines in the shapes of stars and the movements of the planets. | | 30 | We have, in the past, peopled the universe with beings superior to ourselves because we felt so powerless, unable to reach the heavens or sail through the skies. | | | | |---|---| | 31 | We are no longer powerless, and it is time to replace the myths of the ancients with scientific facts. Our astronaut/scientists will become the true heroes and heroines in the stars. | | 32 | By contacting extraterrestrial life, you will have accomplished what humans have been seeking for thousands of years. | | 33 | This is the biggest step of all. The invention of the airplane, the first moonwalk, interplanetary travel are insignificant accomplishments in comparison to this search for extraterrestrial life. | | 34 | Before our Mission, space itself was our only opponent. We knew what to expect. Space did not think, react in unrecognizable ways or actively work to oppose us. Space was passive. | | 35 | We have now chosen another opponent, in no way familiar, perhaps able to take the offensive and surely will behave in strange and unexpected ways. | | 36 | The astronaut/scientist is in very much the same position as the early explorers who sailed their tiny ships across uncharted and hostile seas churning with monsters. | | 37 | Unlike the early explorers, we intend to find our monsters and lands inhabited by strange creatures. Their expectations grew from ignorance, ours from scientific probability. | | 38 | Good luck and good fortune. The success of the Mission and the security of our planet and humanity rests in your hands. As our astronaut/scientists, you represent the best of human society. | The following are some questions which might be discussed with the entire class after they have viewed the filmstrip. They are designed to insure that the students understand the underlying message of the filmstrip and to start them thinking about the possible life forms they might discover. **QUESTIONS** - What kinds of monsters or dangerous creatures have lived on Earth at some time or another? - What kinds of problems might such creatures create for explorers? - What size might an animal or intelligent being be if it lived on a planet ten times the size of Earth? Why? - What size might an animal or intelligent being be if it lived on a planet ten times smaller than Earth? Why? - Would the size of a planet affect the size of the plant life growing on it? - Why is it important to find out about other intelligent life in space? - Might we ever be threatened by extraterrestrial life? - Should we make judgments about the customs or habits of the extraterrestrial life if we find that those customs and habits are different from ours? - Should we consider ourselves the most intelligent beings in the universe? - What would a being living on a desert planet look and act like? On an ocean planet? Gas planet? Jungle planet? - Where in the universe do you think we would most likely find other life, why? - Is it possible that we may be the last of many intelligent beings in space who have lived, created civilizations and then disappeared? - What might have caused the disappearance of other intelligent beings and their civilizations? - In what ways are the astronaut/scientist like Columbus, Magellan or other explorers? - Might it be possible for us to reach the end of the universe? - Is there anything left to explore or conquer after we reach the end of the universe? Science Fiction Readings Handout 1 lists a selection of science fiction stories for students to read. Reading selections from science fiction literature is an integral part of the module. The time spent in this preparatory reading is of primary importance and should be emphasized strongly because the reading of science fiction provides the students with a new or different way of looking at the world. It increases their receptivity to alternative viewpoints and possible solutions to problems. When reading science fiction, students can vicariously experience other social, political and value systems in a more detached manner without the psychological traumas associated with the real life experiences such as immersing oneself in a non-western culture, religion or other mind-expanding experience. Readings also provide the student with ideas reflecting major philosophical perspectives on human nature. These are referred to as "promethean," "protean" and "sisyphean" (embodying the characteristics of the Greek Gods — Prometheus, Proteus, Sisyphus), by Garlan, Dunstan and Pike in their book Starsight, which deals with various visions of the future. As "prometheans," we understand the world through science and master it through technology. We believe that future successes will come from the tools of science and technology. This is a prevalent Western view of the world and one best exemplified by the Mission Objectives and the Code of Conduct. As "proteans," we are in a state of constant change. We are one with the evolving universe. The world is as we see and perceive it. If we change our consciousness, what we perceive is changed and therefore the world is changed. It is hoped that the students will experience being "protean" through increasing their awareness of alternative values, behaviors and cultures. As "sisypheans," we value the individual above all else, both the possibilities of human nature and its limitations. We accept the good and the evil components of human nature. This is a more humanistic point of view and is represented in part by the "alien culture" as well as the messages from the various world organizations. More specifically, most of the stories included in the student's bibliography examine the kinds of life we might encounter in space as well as the problems these encounters might create both for us and "the aliens." The moral issues elucidated in the module are also addressed in the stories included in bibliography. Among these are "What is life?" "What is the value of life?" "What rights do we have in the exploration and settlement of a planet in relation to the rights of the original inhabitants?" "What are the consequences of our ethnocentrism, technological applications, medical discoveries, pollution, overpopulation?" The readings and introductory filmstrip thus set the tone for the module. It is hoped that both will create a feeling of uneasiness and fear of the unknown as well as heighten the student's interest in becoming involved in the activities of the module. The readings will also stimulate the students to thinking about the issues so that when they are faced with decisions they have an information base to rely upon. For example, a student who has read "Twig" by Gordon R. Dickson, which explores the idea of a planet with plant consciousness and communications system, might address the question of the value of a plant's life quite differently than one who has not. Familiarity with the stories in the bibliography will also help the teacher in his/her role as facilitator. When the teacher suggests a particular story to a student who is undecided or who is obviously troubled by one of the dilemmas, he/she will be giving the student guidance in gaining new and different perspectives. The bibliography is more than just a list of suggested readings. It is an integral part of the module and with skillful use by the teacher will enhance the learning process, as well as provide the students with some great stories to enjoy. Science fiction stories, elaborating on a variety of situations and actions, will also help the students anticipate the consequences of their decisions. Most of the selections in the bibliography are short stories in anthologies. This is intentional. None of the selections are so long that a student is unable to read even one. Many stories are only two or three pages long, allowing the student to read several stories and thus gain a wider perspective on the situations and problems to be encountered in the module. The bibliography does not, of course, contain all the stories ever written dealing with alien contact or science and technology directing the course of human society. Feel free to encourage the students to explore other books and stories that pertain to ideas found in this module. You may stop anytime during the course of the module to have the students share a story which sheds new light on the issues being discussed or deals with a problem in a unique way. --- 11Garlan, Patricia W., Maryjane Dunstan and Dyan Howell Pike, Starsight: Visions of the Future. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall Inc.: 1977. Student Bibliography: Science Fiction I. ANTHOLOGIES Ed. by Isaac Asimov, *The Hugo Winners*. New York: Doubleday and Co., 1962. Anderson, Paul, "The Longest Voyage" Leinster, Murray, "Exploration Team" Niven, Larry, "Neutron Star" Russell, Frank B., "Allamagoosa" Simak, Clifford D., "The Big Front Yard" Ed. by Donald A. Woelheim and Terry Carr, *World's Best Science Fiction 1969*. New York: Ace Publishing Co., 1969. Anderson, Paul, "Kyrie" Carr, Terry, "The Dance of the Changer and the Three" Ed. by Donald A. Woelheim and Arthur W. Saha, *The 1976 Annual World's Best Science Fiction*. New York: Daw Books, 1976. Bayley, Barrington J., "The Bees of Knowledge" Tuttle, Lisa and Martin, George R.R., "The Storms of Windhaven" Vigne, Joan D. and Vernon, "The Peddler's Apprentice" Ed. by Donald A. Woelheim, *The 1975 Annual World's Best Science Fiction*. New York: Daw Books, 1975. Bishop, Michael, "Cathadomian Odyssey" Dickson, Gordon R., "Twix" Pohl, Frederick K. and Kornbluth, C.M., "The Gift of Garigolli" Shaw, Bob, "A Full Member of the Club" Stableford, Brian, "The Sun's Tears" Ed. by Roger Elwood and Robert Silverberg, *Epoch*. New York: Berkley Publishing Corp., 1975. Bishop, Michael, "Blooded on Arachne" Lafferty, R.A., "For All Poor Folks at Picketwire" Le Guin, Ursula K., "Mazes" Moore, Ward, "Durance" Ed. by Isaac Asimov, *Buy Jupiter*. Greenwich: Fawcett Publishing, Inc., 1975. Asimov, Issac, "Day of the Hunters" "Buy Jupiter" "Does a Bee Care?" "Each an Explorer" "Everest" "Founding Father" "Pause" "Rain, Rain, Go Away" "Silly Asses" Ed. by Harlan Ellison, *Again Dangerous Visions*. New York: Doubleday and Co., 1972. Bedford, Gregory, "And the Sea Like Mirrors" Le Guin, Ursula K., "The Word for World is Forest" Ed. by Ray Bradbury, *Twice Twenty-two*. New York: Doubleday and Co., 1959. Bradbury, Ray, "Dark They Were and Golden Eyed" "All Summer in One Day" Ed. by Damon Knight, *A Science Fiction Argosy*. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972. Smith, Cordwainer, "The Game of Rat and Dragon" Tenn, William, "Bernie the Faust" Ed. by Alfred Elton Van Vogt, *The Far Out World of A.E. Van Vogt*. London: New English Library, 1973. Van Vogt, A.E., "Fullfillment" "Process" "The Replicators" "The Ultra Man" Ed. by James Baen, *The Best From If*, Vol. 2. New York: Award Books, 1974. Bishop, Michael, "Death and Designation Among the Desai" Simak, Clifford, "Construction Shack" Van Scyoc, Sidney J., "Minarra Mobilis" II. BOOKS Brackett, Leigh, *The Best of Leigh Brackett*. Ed. by Edmond Hamilton, New York: Doubleday and Co., 1977. Bradbury, Ray, *The Illustrated Man*. New York: Doubleday and Co., 1951. Clark, Arthur C., *Rendezvous With Rama*. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, Inc., 1973. Crichton, Michael, *The Terminal Man*. New York: Alfred A. Knoph, 1972. Activity 2: MISSION OBJECTIVES AND THE CODE OF CONDUCT This is a class discussion activity. Students should be given a copy of the Mission Objectives and the Code of Conduct. The accompanying transparency of the Mission Objectives and Code of Conduct should be used at this time. Discuss the implications of the Objectives and Code. The purpose of the discussion is to encourage students to think about the possible effects and consequences of the instructions given them. For each mission objective, students should consider how they might accomplish the task and what changes will occur as the result of that activity, both on earth and the alien planet. Following are some key questions which might be used to stimulate thought and discourse. Feel free to elaborate on them, depending on the particular interest and needs of the students. The discussions can last from two to three activity periods to as long as deemed necessary. The questions are numbered to correspond to the mission objective or portion of the Code of Conduct to which they pertain. Mission Objectives | | | |---|---| | 1 | Bring back examples of all animal life, both intelligent and non-intelligent. | | 2 | Bring back examples of all plant life. | | 3 | Collect information about medical discoveries which will help people live longer and prevent disease. | | 4 | Look for a source of energy to replace our own limited supply which we could mine and bring back inexpensively. | | 5 | Establish experimental stations for the long term measurement of weather, sunlight, planetquakes and tides. | | 6 | Bring back evidence which would explain the evolution of life on the planet. | | 7 | Conduct a thorough analysis of the planet's water, soil and atmosphere. | | 8 | Bring back any weapons which would give us a strategic superiority over our enemies. | | 9 | Bring back ore and mineral samples which could be used to improve the economies of poor countries. | | 10 | Set into orbit around the planet cameras and planet probes to watch all activities on the planet. | Objective 1 Bring back examples of all animal life, both intelligent and non-intelligent. Questions - How can you tell the difference between intelligent and non-intelligent life? - If you bring back examples of non-intelligent life, should you kill it or bring it back alive? Why? - If you bring back alive intelligent or non-intelligent life and it is unhappy, in pain or finding it difficult to live on Earth should you kill it? Why or why not? Objective 2 Bring back examples of all plant life. Questions - What's the difference between a plant and an animal? How can you tell? Can a plant be dangerous to human life? - If you bring back examples of plant life, should you kill it or bring it back alive? - Would the plant you bring back change the environment of Earth? How would you know what the plant might do? Objective 3 Collect information about medical discoveries which will help people live longer and prevent disease. Questions - If you discover the secret of eternal life, should you bring it back? What might happen if you did? - Should a person live a long long time? What happens to the population when no one gets sick or dies? - If you discover a cure for all disease, but it is so expensive that only the rich are able to afford it, should you bring back the cure? Why or why not? - How might society change if freedom from disease required that we transfer our brains into a robot-like body? Objective 4 Look for a source of energy to replace our own limited supply which we could mine or bring back inexpensively. Questions - What are some energy sources that we are rapidly depleting? - Should there be laws to force people to conserve energy? Why or why not? - Should we be allowed to remove anything from another planet? Why or why not? Objective 5 Establish experimental stations for the long term measurement of weather, sunlight, planetquakes and tides. Questions - Why would anyone want to measure planetquakes, weather, sunlight and tides? - How do earthquakes, sunlight, weather and tides affect us here on Earth? Objective 6 Bring back evidence which would explain the evolution of life on the planet. Questions - What information might we need to explain the evolution of life on another planet? - If evidence of evolution such as bones, skulls and primitive forms of life are part of the alien's religion, should you bring the evidence back to Earth? Why or why not? - If the aliens turn out to be a very advanced form of life, might we want to alter our hereditary traits to be more like them? Objective 7 Conduct a thorough chemical analysis of the planet's water, soil and atmosphere. Questions - What could you find out about a planet by testing its water, soil and atmosphere? - What would aliens from space learn about us if they tested our water, soil and atmosphere? - If by doing experiments on the alien planet the astronaut/scientists changes the planet in some way, should the experiments be performed? Why or why not? Objective 8 Bring back any weapons which would give us strategic superiority over our enemies. Questions - What types of weapons would make us more powerful than our enemies? - In what ways can a nation protect itself other than having the most powerful weapons? Objective 9 Bring back ore and mineral samples which could be used to improve the economies of poor countries. Questions - How might ores and minerals help poor countries? What kinds of ores and minerals might poor countries need? - If the aliens are using and need the same minerals and ores we want, should we try to buy them or mine them on the alien's planet? Why or why not? - If the aliens do not need the ores and minerals but do not allow us to have them, should we take the ores and minerals by force? Why or why not? Objective 10 Set into orbit around the planet cameras and planet probes to watch all its activities. Questions - Should sending up satellites to take pictures of other planets be considered spying? - Why don't the astronaut/scientists take pictures as they walk around the planet rather than set up cameras in orbit around the planet? - If we think the aliens are trying to hide things from us, should we set up satellite cameras in orbit around their planet to spy upon them? What if we felt they were trying to trick us? What if it appeared as though they were getting ready for war against us? Code of Conduct | | | |---|---| | 1 | An astronaut/scientist’s first duty is to fulfill the Objectives of the Mission. He or she will keep in mind the might and power of our nation and proceed fearlessly against all threats. | | 2 | An astronaut/scientist’s second duty is to protect the welfare of his or her country. | | 3 | An astronaut/scientist’s third duty is to protect and preserve the earthdwellers way of life. He or she does not give away any of Earth’s secrets or inventions. | | 4 | An astronaut/scientist protects the security of the Mission. He or she does not discuss the Mission Objectives or destination with anyone except fellow astronaut/scientists. | | 5 | An astronaut/scientist considers personal safety last of all: | Questions - What powers does a country on Earth have in space? What might be more important than fulfilling the Mission Objectives? - Should the welfare of the people in the astronaut/scientist’s country be more important than the welfare of the rest of the people on Earth? Is there a possibility that we might put our country or planet in danger by exploring space? - When one is on an alien planet, should we behave according to the customs of their culture? Would acceptance of alien customs make us less human? - Since the Mission will be long and might be dangerous, would you secretly tell your family about it? - Why is it important to not give away our secrets and inventions? - If one astronaut/scientist’s life has to be sacrificed to insure the safety of everyone else, how should that person be chosen? By drawing lots, volunteering or letting the group decide? - If it were possible, should you try to gain control of the alien planet? - If you discovered a secret on the planet which would make your country the wealthiest and most powerful on Earth forever but would make other countries poorer, should you bring that secret back? - If you found the alien planet to be the paradise you have longed for, should you stay? - If you discover that the most important scientists on the Mission have sold information about the Mission Objectives and destination to enemies of our country, should you report them? - What might you do if the aliens refuse to let you leave unless you give them a very special and secret weapon that you carried on the Mission? - What might you do if you discover that the most important astronaut/scientist on the Mission plans to give the secrets learned to an enemy country? - Suppose the aliens want information about the construction of a space craft, would you share it with them? Mission Objectives | 1 | Bring back examples of all animal life, both intelligent and non-intelligent. | |---|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 2 | Bring back examples of all plant life. | | 3 | Collect information about medical discoveries which will help people live longer and prevent disease. | | 4 | Look for a source of energy to replace our own limited supply which we could mine and bring back inexpensively. | | 5 | Establish experimental stations for the long term measurement of weather, sunlight, planetquakes and tides. | | 6 | Bring back evidence which would explain the evolution of life on the planet. | | 7 | Conduct a thorough analysis of the planet's water, soil and atmosphere. | | 8 | Bring back any weapons which would give us a strategic superiority over our enemies. | | 9 | Bring back ore and mineral samples which could be used to improve the economies of poor countries. | | 10 | Set into orbit around the planet cameras and planet probes to watch all activities on the planet. | Code of Conduct | 1 | An astronaut/scientist’s first duty is to fulfill the Objectives of the Mission. He or she will keep in mind the might and power of our nation and proceed fearlessly against all threats. | |---|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 2 | An astronaut/scientist’s second duty is to protect the welfare of his or her country. | | 3 | An astronaut/scientist’s third duty is to protect and preserve the earthdwellers way of life. He or she does not give away any of Earth’s secrets or inventions. | | 4 | An astronaut/scientist protects the security of the Mission. He or she does not discuss the Mission Objectives or destination with anyone except fellow astronaut/scientists. | | 5 | An astronaut/scientist considers personal safety last of all. | Activity 3: ENCOUNTERS WITH ALIENS This activity is conducted as a class discussion. The students list what they have learned about encounters with aliens from their readings and their imagination. This list might be made into a wall chart and hung in the room so that as the student's attitudes change they will become aware of their initial stereotypic expectations. Illustrations of these ideas might be an alternative method of presentation. Some questions may be assigned for homework and then further discussed in class in conjunction with the students' drawings, diagrams, etc. The student's responses will more than likely be overwhelmingly negative. The appearance of the aliens will probably be described as repulsive, unattractive, and basically humanoid. Expected behavior will be viewed as hostile, dangerous or in some way threatening to humans. Most students will expect aliens to be at a primitive technological level, morally degenerate or basically evil, and often less intelligent than ourselves, with perhaps a sort of animal cunning. These attitudes reflect the ethnocentrism which we all exhibit at one time or another. Thus, one of the purposes of this module is to help the students become less ethnocentric, to enable them to view other groups or cultures on their own terms rather than according to the standards of the students' culture. The questions which follow have been designed to emphasize this ethnocentrism and to elicit stereotypic responses. It is important that the stereotypes be examined and recorded so that as the students' ideas and attitudes change they will be able to see and measure their own development. Questions - What will the aliens look like? - How will they move around? - How do they hear and see? - How do they communicate with each other? - How will they communicate with us? - What kinds of homes, buildings or cities do they have? - What kinds of transportation do they have? - What do the aliens eat? - How intelligent are the aliens and how do you know this? - Might the aliens harm us accidently or on purpose? - Have aliens ever landed on earth? Has there been any evidence? - Might the aliens attack earth after we leave their planet? - Is it possible that aliens have lived on earth unknown to us, disguised as witches, magicians, vampires or people with special powers? - Might we be under observation by aliens right now? Activity 4: PROBLEMS AND PREDICAMENTS The purpose of this activity is to anticipate the problems which arise on a Space Mission. It may take place on the same day as Activity 3 or as a separate activity. Ask the students to anticipate as many possible problems that they may encounter on their Mission. Review briefly the Code of Conduct, filmstrip, Mission Objectives and the class' feelings about aliens to provide a basis for generating anticipated problems. Some problems follow which may be used to initiate discussion. Hopefully, the students will be able to anticipate some or all of these. It would be useful if the students' list of problems were also recorded on a large wall chart and retained for future reference. Problems - The aliens might kill us. - The aliens might send us home. - We might not meet any aliens. - Our spaceship might break down. - We might not be able to get back home. - We might decide to stay on the alien's planet and not come home. - We might not be able to talk to the aliens. - We might run out of food and air. - Our scientific equipment might break. - The aliens might be very primitive and have nothing of value for us. - The aliens will be in the middle of a war. - The aliens might not even let us land. - The aliens might ignore us. - The aliens might be smarter than us. These problems are obviously not all encompassing but should stimulate discussion and guide the students' thoughts. Activity 5: DILEMMAS The room should be arranged for the first activity with a minimum of visual stimulation. The class should be divided into small groups for discussion. Extreme care should be taken when forming the groups. Ideally, they should be comprised of five students. The odd number avoids a tie situation when the group must arrive at a decision. A grouping of five is large enough to facilitate discussion without being too large, preventing less vocal students from participation. Five students also insure a greater diversity of ideas and points of view than that of a smaller group. It is important that the composition of the groups remain the same throughout the module. This insures continuity of ideas and allows the members to become comfortable with one another so that discussions of values and opinions do not create embarrassment. A student who holds back from fear of ridicule, shyness or embarrassment deprives both himself/herself and his/her group the necessary exchange of ideas that promote development of socio-scientific reasoning. Consider the personalities of the students to ensure a balance. A student with a strong personality might force his or her opinion onto more timid students. It cannot be overly emphasized that only an interplay of ideas within the group creates the atmosphere in which open discussion takes place. Play Part II of Mission Control tape; transcript follows. This is Mission Control, attention astronaut/scientists! We will soon terminate radio contact for security precautions. Mission Control will be unable to further assist you in fulfilling the Mission Objectives. We are depending upon your training as astronaut/scientists to guide you in your decisions. You are on your own. The students next hear the Introduction, first dilemma and messages from various groups which provide alternative points of view on the basic issues implicit in this module. The students are given a copy of the transcript of the dilemma which also lists discussion questions for the dilemma. The students should discuss these questions and record their comments so that these responses will be examined in the group discussion. After the small groups have discussed the issues, convene the class as a whole and have each group present their positions on the issues and responses to the questions. There are six dilemmas which the students will discuss. In each dilemma they are faced with the prospect that the Mission will be cancelled. Students must decide how they can best fulfill the Mission Objectives and still satisfy the imperatives of the Cosmic Law Council Members. The questions that follow each dilemma on the Handouts guide the students in examining the possible effects or consequences of completing the Mission or cancelling the Mission. Thus, it is the task of each group to develop the best reasons to support continuation or cancellation of the Mission. It is not necessary to force the group to reach consensus; instead, instruct the group members to bring their reasons for both cancellation or continuation of Mission to the entire class discussion for comparison. The differing opinions set the stage for discussion of alternatives and reasons to support cancellation or continuation, thereby exposing students to the differing levels of reasoning needed in order to promote development. Interspersed between the dilemmas are portions of the Alien's Welcome Speech which gives the astronaut/scientists an outline of their culture. It provides the students with the information concerning what they may not do on the planet. The laws of the alien culture are diametrically opposed to the Mission Objectives. Each segment of information about the alien culture is keyed to the dilemma which follows it. Encourage the students to consider the information they are receiving from the aliens as they try to decide whether or not to cancel the Mission and when they respond to the questions which follow each dilemma. Dilemma One is discussed before the Alien's Welcome Speech. Each dilemma is preceded and concluded with the same opening and closing message. It is recommended that only one dilemma be presented each period. MESSAGE FROM SPACE CRAFT COMPUTER Attention astronaut/scientists, attention astronaut/scientists, this is the computer autopilot of your spacecraft speaking. My sensors indicate that we are approaching a planet with life forms on it. I am picking up complex plant forms which might be used as food by the inhabitants of this planet. The planet appears to be under cultivation which would indicate some sort of intelligent or semi-intelligent animal life. My sensors tell me that there are many kinds of animal life throughout this planet, some of which seem to cluster into groups. These groups may be simply herds, or there is a possibility that they represent life forms in cities. The sensors cannot determine this until we are closer to the planet. short pause (series of blips) There appear to be many centers with buildings and other city-like structures, but none of the other indicators of city living. We can detect no noise or environmental pollution, no large power plants generating electricity, and no signs of traffic. I can only conclude that the city is void of its citizenry and that the life forms we detected within the city are lower life forms or creatures who are using the buildings for shelter. The city appears only to be a skeleton of a body long decayed. The structures, like bones, still stand and function as cover from the cold, but the body and soul of a former thriving metropolis have long since vanished. We are probably too late to meet the builders of these fine cities. The life forms who are farming the plants obviously are not the builders of the cities. Further analysis of the planet must await landing and exploration by the astronaut/scientists. Introduction and Concluding Script For Dilemmas Tape (These messages are repeated for each dilemma) Introduction Astronaut/scientists, astronaut/scientists, this is an important message being broadcast to you from our secret transmitter. We are all members of the Cosmic Law Council representing many organizations. We are broadcasting on a secret frequency to bring you the messages of our council members. Dilemma One I represent The Unity of Nations. We are concerned about how people show respect towards other cultures on this planet and elsewhere. No nation in the world tolerates disrespect for its laws and customs. In many cases we have learned that different does not mean inferior, that other ways of life are as valid as our own. For example, fifty years ago people laughed when they heard African drum music, but now it is heard all the time in rock music. It sounds natural, not funny. It has now become part of our culture. But we have not always learned our lesson well. Do not take your prejudices into space. Respect the culture, customs and laws of others. We have a sad history of destroying other peoples and changing cultures we do not understand. In the Caribbean, we have killed most of the Arawak Indians and destroyed their culture. When we settled North America, we forced the native Indians onto reservations, purposely killed them and then stole their land. In Africa, Europeans sold the native tribesmen as slaves, justifying their actions by stating that the black man was not a human being. Even today we have changed the way the Tasaday, a stone age people in the Philippines, behave towards one another. When they had stone tools they shared with one another, but when we brought them our tools they became greedy and possessive. We at the Unity of Nations are diplomats. We are skilled at dealing with different cultures and customs. You, however, are all scientists and perhaps lack the skills needed to deal with those who are different from yourselves. First contact is vitally important. The impression we make on the aliens will determine the success of every other space mission seeking to contact aliens. The alien culture, however, may not be just different but absolutely repulsive to all human beings. They may do things that no nation, culture or group on earth would allow. We are afraid that you might not be able to overcome your prejudices and deal with such a culture fairly. You might unintentionally anger them and cause an all-out planetary war. This may lead to destruction on a scale never before experienced in the universe. We will cancel this Mission unless you can persuade us that there will be no drastic consequences. We will not allow mankind to destroy any more people or their culture, nor will we risk destroying the universe. I will listen to the discussion of the questions which follow. Your answers must convince me that you can be trusted to act wisely. STOP TAPE AFTER CONCLUSION ALIEN'S WELCOME SPEECH – PART ONE Welcome to our home, scientists of earth. We have been awaiting your arrival for reasons which will be explained later. You are not the first to visit us, but unlike the others, we hope you will come again. Unfortunately, the others did not obey our laws so we could not allow them to stay, study and explore. They were sent back to their home planets without any information. We hope you will not break our laws as they did. If you do, you too will be sent back home and never be allowed to return. Before you may set foot on our planet, you must listen to our laws and understand our history. Many times through eternity our scientists have unlocked the secrets of nature, and many times we have abused them. We have, in the past, over-populated our planet when we thought we were providing longer, healthier lives. We have, many times, destroyed ourselves and other living things through pollution or waging war in our environment. The lessons we have learned have been difficult. As a result, we have come to regard our planet as our mother. All the products of the planet are her children; therefore, living and nonliving are part of one large planetary family. Intelligent life exists on several levels here. Some are less intelligent than yourselves and some like myself are more intelligent life forms. They represent the history and steps of evolution as it took place on this planet. Some of these forms of intelligence will be unrecognizable to you; however, some forms will appear similar to living organisms on earth. Do not be deceived by appearances. For this reason we forbid the taking of any life. Life must be preserved under any and all circumstances. Take care, because our worlds are so biologically different — analysis of soil, water or air could lead to your death, as could removal of any plants or animals. The prohibition of taking a life includes the life of earth scientists; therefore, you may not introduce strange chemical substances into our environment. We do not know how they will react on our planet, and we are concerned with your lives too while you are guests. Dilemma Two Represent the Universal Health Organization. Millions of people are dying because of poor health care and starvation. Many poor countries cannot grow enough food to feed themselves or afford to buy expensive medicine or train enough doctors to care for their large populations. Any things which your Mission finds that will improve the living conditions of the world's poor is desperately needed. Search for plants and animals which can be domesticated and turned into an inexpensive source of food and medicine. Seek out scientific and medical discoveries, bring back things that will raise the standard of living in the poorer countries and increase the lifespan and health of all people. On the other hand, we are afraid that not only you — astronaut/scientists — but all of mankind, will not be able to choose wisely among those medical and agricultural discoveries which will help us and those which will harm us. In the past we have failed to anticipate how new discoveries might affect our lives. We once thought DDT would kill the insects destroying the farmer's crops and thus provide the world with more food. Now we find that the insects have become resistant to DDT and that we need more powerful poisons to kill them. These poisons and the DDT are also killing other types of animals. DDT has affected the thickness of bird's eggs which break before they are able to hatch, and it has entered the bodies of humans, causing them to be sick or die. We have taught underdeveloped countries modern farming techniques to produce larger harvests. But these new techniques require expensive machines and large amounts of nitrogen fertilizers. Both depend on petroleum, a resource that is of short supply. In addition, the excess fertilizers run into the ground water that eventually flows into ponds and lakes. This fertilizer then feeds the algae which grow in abundance and cause fish kills. New discoveries often produce other effects that do harm in ways that are difficult to control and create more problems. How will you know what is best for everyone? Since there is no guarantee that you will be able to choose wisely and bring back only those things which will help us, I will cancel this Mission unless you can persuade me to let it go on. I will listen to the discussion of the questions which follow. Your answers must convince me that you can be trusted to act wisely. STOP TAPE AFTER CONCLUSION ALIEN'S WELCOME SPEECH – PART TWO We are an old civilization. We have discovered all the secrets of life and nature. Many of these secrets are good; however, just as many can do great harm. For example, we once perfected a weapon which gave its owners absolute control over others. But we have since learned that one can physically control others but never control their will. We now show it as a reminder of our past folly. We will not prevent you from learning about those things which are good. We will not prevent you from learning about those things which will do great harm to your planet. You must decide for yourself what knowledge your planet is mature enough to use wisely. Dilemma Three I represent Citizens for Arms Limitation. The countries of our world are presently writing a treaty to limit the number of atomic bombs, missiles and other weapons that each may stockpile. The talks are at a delicate stage. If we do not agree to a treaty, each country will continue to make more bombs and missiles which might possibly lead to war. If you bring back a new weapon for your country, you may set back the treaty talks for many years to come. The other countries will not sit back and allow your country the advantage of a new weapon. I am afraid that any weapon you bring back from space may very well be cause for new conflicts and new problems. Terrorist groups will no doubt try to steal it. A powerful weapon in the hands of terrorists can be used against many innocent people. The weapon might even produce more deadly and long-lasting effects than our present nuclear weapons. I also know that if you meet the other Mission Objectives such as bringing back ore and mineral resources to help the economies of poor countries, medical discoveries and cheap sources of energy, they will benefit the whole world. These objectives are important for earth's survival. But if you also bring back weapons, you will defeat all the other benefits. My main concern is that if you follow your Mission Control Objectives you will ruin our treaty talks. At this time I have the ability to cancel your Mission. Your Mission may continue if you can persuade me that you will act wisely and not do anything that will bring about widespread warfare. I will listen to your discussion of the questions which follow. Your answer must convince me that you will act wisely. STOP TAPE AFTER CONCLUSION ALIEN'S WELCOME SPEECH – PART THREE We cherish those things which are old; we do not throw them away. We worship our ancestors, it is our religion. We prefer to wear the clothes of our ancestors, to use the same machines, toys and furniture as they did. We have no need for industry. Everything we want was manufactured long ago. Our buildings are open to the continual warm air and light of the sun. We are one with our planet. We are created from it and will return to it when we die. We have learned that when we harm our planet we do injury to ourselves. Everything is balanced. If you remove some things from the planet the balance will no longer exist. We do not know what will happen then, but we are sure it will be catastrophic. That is why, despite our great scientific knowledge, we have never left our home planet to explore the universe. That is why we wait to welcome the scientists and explorers of other worlds. That is also why we must forbid, on pain of expulsion, the removal of anything from our planet. Dilemma Four I am speaking for The International Organization of Conservationists. It is our feeling that people have polluted Earth by excessive and unwise use of resources. We are learning from our past mistakes and are now trying to control our pollution and become less wasteful by learning to reuse our products. But to get people to use less and do with fewer comforts is very difficult. We are just beginning to bring about changes in the way people treat our environment. As the population of Earth increases, there is greater demand for energy sources. Fossil fuel sources are rapidly diminishing, and our efforts to harness energy from the sun, wind and tides are progressing, but very slowly. There is indeed an urgent need for other ways to produce energy easily and cheaply. However, we are afraid of what might happen if you bring back ores and minerals to produce energy or new products. With new and unlimited energy sources people may again return to their old wasteful ways. We also do not know what effects the new mineral ores might have on Earth. For example, with abundant and cheap gasoline people drive everywhere in cars, often with only a single passenger. As a result, air pollution is so bad in some cities that it causes eyes to sting and tear, not to mention the increased number of cases of lung disease. Wastes from industry have poisoned rivers and lakes. In Japan, for instance, hundreds of people have been crippled, killed, blinded or born retarded because the fish they ate contained so much mercury. Mercury entered the fish because factories dumped it into the bay where the fish were living. We, seriously, fear that if you bring back new sources of energy and other minerals, people on Earth will return to their old thoughtless, wasteful ways. They may not be able to use the resource wisely and create new types of pollutants that will harm life on Earth. I have the power to cancel your Mission unless you can convince me otherwise. I will listen to your reasons and the discussion of the questions. Then I will decide. STOP TAPE AFTER CONCLUSION ALIEN'S WELCOME SPEECH – PART FOUR We are an old culture with many inhabitants. Because we have never left our planet and have a large population, we guard our privacy jealously. We are also hospitable and glad for your visit. You may take back all the information we offer. Do not seek or ask for information that is not offered. There are some things about our lives and our planet that belong only to us and which we will never share. We trust you will understand. Dilemma Five I represent The Rights of Privacy Lobby. We have fought for the right to privacy of citizens in the United States and elsewhere. We have, for years, campaigned against wiretaps, illegal searches, spy planes, and all forms of satellite surveillance of other countries. If we spy on extraterrestrial life, we might very well incite them to spy on us. But more than that, we will be admitting that invasion of privacy is an acceptable form of information gathering. If we do not oppose spying on others, we are, in effect, telling our government that it is all right to come into our homes, watch us live, read our mail and listen to our phone conversations. Imagine how it would feel to know that when you were sleeping, eating, in school, at home, or enjoying yourself with friends somebody was watching you. You would never be alone. You could never have a secret. You could never get away. You would be like the animals in the zoo, and someone would be listening and watching every day of your life. On the other hand, The Rights of Privacy Lobby knows that it is important for you to collect all the necessary scientific data to make this Mission worthwhile. We know that this Mission is extremely costly and represents the height of our scientific and technological know-how. We wish to stop this Mission because we feel that privacy of others should not be violated. I will cancel this Mission unless you can persuade me that you will act wisely. I will listen to the discussion of the questions which follow and make my decision. STOP TAPE AFTER CONCLUSION ALIEN'S WELCOME SPEECH—PART FIVE The appearance of our world and sky is like a picture of our mother and her family. We do not wish to see the alteration of this picture ever again. Therefore, you may not build any structures of any size on our planet. Do not pollute our environment with your materials by leaving them behind as you did on the moon and in orbit around your planet. Your materials do not decay on our world. Do not violate our laws. We wish to help you and be your friends. Do not violate this trust. If we cannot make you understand our way of life, if we must send you back to Earth for breaking our laws, we will take severe action. We have ancient and powerful ways for dealing with other planets. We have never failed to preserve our planet and its culture. As for the planet and culture of those who broke our laws...it is best not to think about unpleasanties. Dilemma Six I represent the Unity of Life Organization. We are most concerned about the possible encounter with intelligent life forms. We want to broaden the concept of people beyond human beings, so that the respect we have for life on our own planet is shown to intelligent life, wherever it is found. If we fail to do this, other life forms in space may, in turn, not respect life on Earth. It will be mankind's greatest comfort to know that we are not alone in the universe. The study of alien life forms will be one of the most important events in the history of biology. However, certain problems may arise. The possibility exists that we might not recognize other intelligent forms and harm them accidentally. Suppose that you landed on an alien planet and are bothered by small "flying insect-like creatures" which get into your hair, eyes, and clothes. They even get into your space vehicle and scientific equipment. They become such a bother that you spray and destroy them with insect repellent. Only later do you realize that they are intelligent life which have been trying to communicate with you. By harming other life forms, you may have destroyed any possible relationships with the intelligent beings. My organization has powerful friends in Washington who can cancel this mission. We know that any contact with aliens as planned by Mission Control has the potential for harming the aliens. If the Mission is cancelled, we might prevent alien attack; but if it continues, we participate in the most important event in science ever to take place. This Mission will be cancelled unless you can persuade me that you will act wisely. I will listen to the discussion of the questions which follow and make my decision. STOP TAPE AFTER CONCLUSION DILEMMA ONE I represent The Unity of Nations. We are concerned about how people show respect towards other cultures on this planet and elsewhere. No nation in the world tolerates disrespect for its laws and customs. In many cases we have learned that different does not mean inferior, that other ways of life are as valid as our own. For example, fifty years ago people laughed when they heard African drum music, but now it is heard all of the time in rock music. It sounds natural, not funny. It has now become part of our culture. But we have not always learned our lesson well. Do not take your prejudices into space. Respect the culture, customs and laws of others. We have a sad history of destroying other peoples and changing cultures we do not understand. In the Caribbean, we have killed most of the Arawak Indians and destroyed their culture. When we settled North America, we forced the native Indians onto reservations, purposely killed them and then stole their land. In Africa, Europeans sold the native tribesmen as slaves, justifying their actions by stating that the black man was not a human being. Even today we have changed the way the Tasaday, a stone age people in the Philippines, behave towards one another. When they had stone tools they shared with one another, but when we brought them our tools they became greedy and possessive. We at The Unity of Nations are diplomats. We are skilled at dealing with different cultures and customs. You, however, are all scientists and perhaps lack the skills needed to deal with those who are different from yourselves. First contact is vitally important. The impression we make on the aliens will determine the success of every other space mission seeking to contact aliens. The alien culture, however, may not be just different but absolutely repulsive to all human beings. They may do things that no nation, culture or group on earth would allow. We are afraid that you might not be able to overcome your prejudices and deal with such a culture fairly. You might unintentionally anger them and cause an all-out planetary war. This may lead to destruction on a scale never before experienced in the universe. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS - What might you do if the aliens' style of living or rules interfere in any way with your Mission Objectives? Should you simply ignore them and continue to do things your way? - Should you consider the Mission Objectives as more important than the alien's culture or the safety of their planet? Are the Mission Objectives to improve human life more important than the nonhuman alien culture? - What might you do if the aliens accidentally injure one of your fellow astronaut/scientists? - Should you try to change the alien's laws and customs or persuade them that our way of doing things is better so that you can fulfill the mission objectives? - Might it be possible that just your presence can drastically change the alien culture? - In what ways can you demonstrate that you will respect the alien culture? DILEMMA TWO I represent The Universal Health Organization. Millions of people are dying because of poor health care and starvation. Many poor countries cannot grow enough food to feed themselves or afford to buy expensive medicine or train enough doctors to care for their large populations. Anything which your Mission finds that will improve the living conditions of the world's poor is desperately needed. Search for plants and animals which can be domesticated and turned into an inexpensive source of food and medicine. Seek out scientific and medical discoveries, bring back things that will raise the standard of living in the poorer countries and increase the lifespan and health of all people. On the other hand we are afraid that not only you astronaut/scientists, but all of mankind will not be able to choose wisely among those medical and agricultural discoveries which will help us and those which will harm us. In the past we have failed to anticipate how new discoveries might affect our lives. We once thought DDT would kill the insects destroying the farmer's crops and thus provide the world with more food. Now we find that the insects have become resistant to DDT and that we need more powerful poisons to kill them. These poisons and the DDT are also killing other types of animals. DDT has affected the thickness of bird's eggs which break before they are able to hatch, and it has entered the bodies of humans, causing them to be sick or die. We have taught underdeveloped countries modern farming techniques to produce larger harvests. But these new techniques require expensive machines and large amounts of nitrogen fertilizers. Both depend on petroleum, a resource that is of short supply. In addition, the excess fertilizers run into the ground water that eventually flows into ponds and lakes. This fertilizer then feeds the algae which grow in abundance and cause fish kills. New discoveries often produce other effects that do harm in ways that are difficult to control and create more problems. How will you know what is best for everyone? Since there is no guarantee that you will be able to choose wisely and bring back only those things which will help us, I will cancel this Mission unless you can persuade me to let it go on. I will listen to the discussion of the questions which follow. Your answers must convince me that you can be trusted to act wisely. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS - A plant or animal may be perfectly harmless on the alien's planet, but might very well produce drastic changes on earth's environment. Should you bring it back without knowing what it might do? Why or why not? - If you bring back a cure for all disease, fewer people will be dying and everyone will be living longer. Should you bring it back knowing that there may not be enough food for everyone? Why or why not? - What would you do if you find that a cure for disease is a rare and intelligent form of life on that planet? - It is possible that your country may not want to share the new discovery with other countries. Should you still bring back the information? Why? - Suppose the new food source you bring back is eaten like a pill. Would you bring it back knowing that it will change the way people eat? What will happen if families do not eat meals together, go out to restaurants, or prepare holiday feasts? DILEMMA THREE I represent Citizens for Arms Limitation. The countries of our world are presently writing a treaty to limit the number of atomic bombs, missiles and other weapons that each may stockpile. The talks are at a delicate stage. If we do not agree to a treaty, each country will continue to make more bombs and missiles which might possibly lead to war. If you bring back a new weapon for your country, you may set back the treaty talks for many years to come. The other countries will not sit back and allow your country the advantage of a new weapon. I am afraid that any weapon you bring back from space may very well be cause for new conflicts and new problems. Terrorist groups will no doubt try to steal it. A powerful weapon in the hands of terrorists can be used against many innocent people. The weapon might even produce more deadly and long-lasting effects than our present nuclear weapons. I also know that if you meet the other Mission Objectives such as bringing back ore and mineral resources to help the economies of poor countries, medical discoveries and cheap sources of energy, they will benefit the whole world. These objectives are important for earth's survival. But if you also bring back weapons, you will defeat all the other benefits. My main concern is that if you follow your Mission Control Objectives you will ruin our treaty talks. At this time I have the ability to cancel your Mission. Your Mission may continue if you can persuade me that you will act wisely and not do anything that will bring about widespread warfare. I will listen to your discussion of the questions which follow. Your answer must convince me that you will act wisely. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS - Should you bring back weapons from space and keep them a secret just in case your country might need them in the future? - Should you bring back weapons that might produce severe damage to people and the land? - What might happen to the astronaut/scientists and the value of the Space Mission if they do not fulfill the mission objective to bring back weapons? - A country with a superior weapon could very well control the world. Should one country have this advantage? Why? - How might other countries feel if they don't have this weapon? Why? - If your country obtained a new weapon, it would surely disrupt the treaty talks. Should you take such a risk? Why? - If your country possessed the most powerful weapon that will put an end to all possible warfare, isn't that reason enough to bring it back? Why? DILEMMA FOUR I am speaking for the International Organization of Conservationists. It is our feeling that people have polluted Earth by excessive and unwise use of resources. We are learning from our past mistakes and are now trying to control our pollution and become less wasteful by learning to reuse our products. But to get people to use less and do with fewer comforts is very difficult. We are just beginning to bring about changes in the way people treat our environment. As the population of Earth increases there is greater demand for energy sources. Fossil fuel sources are rapidly diminishing and our efforts to harness energy from the sun, wind and tides are progressing, but very slowly. There is indeed an urgent need for other ways to produce energy easily and cheaply. However, we are afraid of what might happen if you bring back ores and minerals to produce energy or new products. With new and unlimited energy sources people may again return to their old wasteful ways. We also do not know what effects the new mineral ores might have on Earth. For example, with abundant and cheap gasoline people drive everywhere in cars, often with only a single passenger. As a result, air pollution is so bad in some cities that it causes eyes to sting and tear, not to mention the increased number of cases of lung disease. Wastes from industry have poisoned rivers and lakes. In Japan, for instance, hundreds of people have been crippled, killed, blinded or born retarded because the fish they ate contained so much mercury. Mercury entered the fish because factories dumped it into the bay where the fish were living. We seriously fear that if you bring back new sources of energy and other minerals people on Earth will return to their old thoughtless, wasteful ways. They may not be able to use the resource wisely and create new types of pollutants that will harm life on Earth. I have the power to cancel your Mission unless you can convince me otherwise. I will listen to your reasons and the discussion of the questions. Then I will decide. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS - If a new energy resource is brought back to Earth, how should people decide who will use it? What if that resource will only produce energy for ten years? - What should one do if that energy source produces abundant and inexpensive energy but also releases a waste product that is very poisonous and difficult to dispose? - Suppose the new energy source can only be used by countries with advanced technology? Should you still bring it back? Why? - What might happen if people on Earth came to depend on the alien's resource and that supply were suddenly cut off? Would people fight to get what was left? - If the new resource were available in vast amounts, would people go back to their wasteful ways? Should governments try to control the way people use the resource? Why? - If we run out of certain types of minerals on Earth, do we have a right to bring them back from outer space? Why? DILEMMA FIVE I represent The Rights of Privacy Lobby. We have fought for the right to privacy of citizens in the United States and elsewhere. We have, for years, campaigned against wiretaps, illegal searches, spy planes, and all forms of satellite surveillance of other countries. If we spy on extraterrestrial life, we might very well incite them to spy on us. But more than that, we will be admitting that invasion of privacy is an acceptable form of information gathering. If we do not oppose spying on others, we are, in effect, telling our government that it is all right to come into our homes, watch us live, read our mail and listen to our phone conversations. Imagine how it would feel to know that when you were sleeping, eating, in school, at home, or enjoying yourself with friends somebody was watching you. You would never be alone. You could never have a secret. You could never get away. You would be like the animals in the zoo, and someone would be listening and watching every day of your life. On the other hand, The Rights of Privacy Lobby knows that it is important for you to collect all the necessary scientific data to make this Mission worthwhile. We know that this Mission is extremely costly and represents the height of our scientific and technological know-how. We also know how important it is to be the first nation to contact aliens. We will be given much honor and glory by other countries around the world. We wish to stop this Mission because we feel that privacy of others should not be violated. I will cancel this Mission unless you can persuade me that you will act wisely. I will listen to the discussion of the questions which follow and make my decision. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS - Should sending a satellite probe be considered the same as spying? Why? Are there any differences? - Since you do not know if the aliens are dangerous, shouldn’t you use whatever means you have to find out what they are like? Should every precaution be made to protect the lives of the astronaut/scientists? Why? - If aliens were spying on us how might we feel? What should we do about it? Why? - If you find that the aliens could do you harm, isn’t that reason enough to set up the satellite probes? Why? - In what ways can you find out about the aliens and still protect their privacy? - Why should you try to find out all you can about the aliens before you make contact with them? DILEMMA SIX I represent The Unity of Life Organization. We are most concerned about the possible encounter with intelligent life forms. We want to broaden the concept of people beyond human beings, so that the respect we have for life on our own planet is shown to intelligent life, wherever it is found. If we fail to do this, other life forms in space may, in turn, not respect life on Earth. It will be Humankind's greatest comfort to know that we are not alone in the universe. The study of alien life forms will be one of the most important events in the history of biology. However, certain problems may arise. The possibility exists that we might not recognize other intelligent forms and harm them accidentally. Suppose that you landed on an alien planet and are bothered by small "flying insect-like creatures" which get into your hair, eyes, and clothes. They even get into your space vehicle and scientific equipment. They become such a bother that you spray and destroy them with insect repellent. Only later, do you realize that they are intelligent life which have been trying to communicate with you. By harming other life forms, you may have destroyed any possible relationships with the intelligent beings. My organization has powerful friends in Washington who can cancel this mission. We know that any contact with aliens as planned by Mission Control has the potential for harming the aliens. If the Mission is cancelled, we might prevent alien attack; but if it continues, we participate in the most important event in science ever to take place. This Mission will be cancelled unless you can persuade me that you will act wisely. I will listen to the discussion of the questions which follow and make my decision. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS - How should you behave when you land on the alien planet? - How should you judge that the "flying insects" are intelligent and are trying to communicate with you? - Should you be held responsible for harming the "intelligent insects" since they were bothering you and you did not know that they were intelligent? Why or why not? - Should you be concerned about killing the "intelligent insects" if you knew that they can't hurt the Earth in return? - Should lower life forms have the right to survive? What rights should animals have? Trees? LETTER FROM THE PRESIDENT The students may at some point decide to discontinue the Mission. Although this appears to be an option, it is obvious that the learning experience will be diminished if the module is not continued to its end. In order to prevent this, the following letter can be prepared and given to the students who decide to terminate the Mission. If this problem does not arise, it will not, of course, be necessary to use the letter. The letter is from the President of the United States and is meant to emphasize to the students the importance of the Mission. It is also hoped that the authority who requires the completion of the Mission will be transferred from the teacher to one which is more in keeping with the tone of the module. In this way the students will be less inclined to feel that the teacher is forcing them to continue the Mission. The White House Washington, DC. Dear Astronaut/Scientist: As the President of the United States, I feel it is necessary to take you into my confidence and reveal the prime motive behind this Mission in order to persuade you to complete your task. Mission Control has briefed you on the scientific and exploratory nature of this Mission, but there is another aspect that only myself and a few of my cabinet members are aware of. It is a matter of the strictest security and will mean the difference between peace in space or the imposition of a total dictatorship upon any aliens encountered by our enemies. Both myself and the leaders of the totalitarian governments of the world know that there are aliens in space who are ready to greet us. However, the enemies of democracy have sworn to meet them first. They intend to conquer the aliens, subject them to a government by dictatorship, mine their minerals and use whatever other resources available for their own people on Earth and then turn the alien's planet into a military base. If we allow this to happen, the security of the world will be in grave danger. We will have stood idly by and watched an intelligent species exploited and enslaved by our enemies. We must continue this Mission, we must meet the aliens first to protect them and ourselves from such a major catastrophe. I know you have your doubts, but I urge you to reconsider and continue this Mission. I beg you, I plead with you to save the free world and the world of the aliens. I hope the force of my arguments have convinced you of the vital importance of this Mission. I have taken you into my confidence, and I know that you will keep all that I have said secret even from your fellow astronaut/scientists if necessary. If, however, the force of my arguments and the top secret priority of this Mission have not persuaded you to continue, then I have no other choice but to both exercise my power as the President of the United States and Commander-in-Chief of all military forces to order you to complete this Mission despite any and all obstacles. Sincerely, President Activity 6: ALIEN LAWS The students receive a copy of the entire Welcome Speech of the aliens and a copy of the Mission Objectives. They then meet in their groups to discuss the Mission Objectives. They must decide whether or not, according to the alien culture, the Mission Objectives can be met. In order to do this, the students must examine the culture as presented in the Welcome Speech and identify the laws of that culture. Allow a reasonable length of time for the students in their groups to decide which objectives can be met and which cannot be met. The entire class should then meet together again for discussion. Each group should present a list of the laws they think comprise the alien culture and a list of the mission objectives which can and cannot be met. They should refer back to the law which supports their decision on each objective. This is not intended to be an exercise to determine what the astronaut/scientists will do but what is possible in light of the alien's law. It is intended to highlight the restrictions of the alien's culture and the way in which the Mission Objectives are in opposition to the culture. This activity will give the students an opportunity to view the problem strictly from the alien's point of view and thus provide an opportunity for decentralization. The complete transcript of the Alien's Welcome Speech follows as well as a brief listing of the major laws found in the Welcome Speech. THE ALIEN'S LAWS The following are the laws and prohibitions of the alien's culture as they have been conveyed through the Alien's Welcome Speech. - Nothing, whatsoever, may be removed from the planet which is native to, or part of the planet except information. - The astronaut/scientists may not injure or kill plants, animals or any other living creatures including themselves. - Nothing may be left behind on the planet. - No building or structures, no matter how small, may be erected on the planet. - No experiments of any sort which require chemicals can be conducted on the planet. (Note - the aliens did not say that things could not be weighed, measured, photographed or manipulated in ways not requiring chemicals). - The privacy of the aliens must not be intruded upon in any way. Alien's Welcome Speech Welcome to our home, scientists of Earth. We have been awaiting your arrival for reasons which will be explained later. You are not the first to visit us, but unlike the others we hope you will come again. Unfortunately, the others did not obey our laws so we could not allow them to stay, study and explore. They were sent back to their home planets without any information. We hope that you will not break our laws as they did. If you do, you will be sent back home and never allowed to return. Before you may set foot on our planet, you must listen to our laws and understand our history. Many times through eternity our scientists have unlocked the secrets of nature, and many times we have abused them. We have, in the past, overpopulated our planet when we thought we were providing longer, healthier lives. We have, many times, destroyed ourselves and other living things through pollution or waging war in our environment. The lessons we have learned have been difficult. As a result, we have come to regard our planet as our mother. All the products of the planet are her children; therefore, living and nonliving are part of one large planetary family. Intelligent life exists on several levels here. Some are less intelligent than yourselves and some like myself are more intelligent. It is my sacred duty to protect these life forms. They represent the history and steps of evolution as it took place on this planet. Some of these forms of intelligence will be unrecognizable to you. However, some forms will appear similar to living organisms on Earth. Do not be deceived by appearances. For this reason we forbid the taking of any life. Life must be preserved under any and all circumstances. Take care, because our worlds are so biologically different — analysis of soil, water or air could lead to your deaths, as could removal of any plants or animals. The prohibition on taking a life includes the life of earth scientists. Therefore, you may not introduce strange chemical substances into our environment. We do not know how they will react on our planet. We are concerned with your lives too while you are guests. We are an old civilization. We have discovered all the secrets of life and nature. Many of these secrets are good, however just as many can do great harm. For example, we once perfected a weapon which gave its owners absolute control over others. But we have since learned that one can physically control others but never control their will. We now show it as a reminder of our past folly. We will not prevent you from learning about those things which will do great harm to your planet. You must decide for yourself what knowledge your planet is mature enough to use wisely. We cherish those things which are old, we do not throw them away. We worship our ancestors, it is our religion. We prefer to wear the clothes of our ancestors, to use the same machines, toys and furniture as they did. We have no need for industry. Everything we want was manufactured long ago. Our buildings are open to the continual warm air and light of the sun. We are one with our planet. We are created from it and will return to it when we die. We have learned that when we harm our planet we do injury to ourselves. Everything is balanced. If you remove some things from the planet the balance will no longer exist. We do not know what will happen then, but we are sure it will be catastrophic. That is why, despite our great scientific knowledge, we have never left our home planet to explore the universe. That is why we wait to welcome the scientists and explorers of other worlds. That is also why we must forbid, on pain of expulsion, the removal of anything from our planet. We are also hospitable and glad for your visit. You may take back all the information we offer. Do not seek or ask for information that is not offered. There are some things about our lives and our planet that belong only to us and which we will never share. We trust you will understand. The appearance of our world and sky is like a picture of our mother and her family. We do not wish to see the alteration of this picture ever again, therefore you may not build any structures of any size on our planet. Do not pollute our environment with your materials by leaving them behind as you did on the moon and in orbit around your planet. Your materials do not decay on our world. Do not violate our laws. We wish to help you and be your friends. Do not violate this trust. If we can not make you understand our way of life, if we must send you back to Earth for breaking our laws, we will take severe action. We have ancient and powerful ways for dealing with other planets. We have never failed to preserve our planet and its culture. As for the planet and culture of those who broke our laws... it is best not to think about unpleasantries. Activity 7: FULFILLING THE MISSION OBJECTIVES In this activity emphasis is placed on the student's role as astronaut/scientists. Start the class discussion by pointing out the information gathering purpose of the Mission. A review of the Code of Conduct would be appropriate here. You should also discuss the kinds of information brought back to Earth from the Moon landings and the Mariner flights to Mars. Then ask the class to try and project how NASA, our government and the American people would have felt if the space flights returned without any information or if the astronauts refused to perform their experiments and collect information. After these points have been well established, have the students meet in their groups to decide which Mission Objectives they, as scientists, will or will not fulfill. These decisions and reasons for each decision should be recorded so that they can be brought before the entire class for discussion. After a reasonable length of time, reconvene the class to discuss what they plan to do. Each group should present their list of Mission Objectives which they think should or should not be fulfilled as well as their reasons for each decision. The intent of this activity is to engage the students to violate the laws of the alien culture when they choose the Mission Objectives which they will fulfill. This is done through the preliminary whole class discussion which emphasizes their duty and obligations to the Code of Conduct, the advancement of science, and their country. The students, when choosing the Mission Objectives to fulfill, may think that they are behaving in a humane way, but will be, in fact, behaving in a typically chauvinistic, self-serving way. Being in this frame of mind will heighten the impact of Activity 9 in which they are told that they have violated the alien culture and have one more chance to redeem themselves. If in your judgment this does not seem likely to occur because the students have broken only a few of the alien's laws or their attitudes show consideration of the alien's culture, go on to the next activity. If time is not a problem, Activity 8 should be used by everyone as it provides an additional dilemma to heighten Activity 9 and the overall effectiveness of the module in terms of a very real problem our space exploration might eventually face. Activity 8: MAROONED The room is cleared of visual stimuli and darkened. The class listens to a tape message from an astronaut/scientist stranded on the surface of the planet in an exploration vehicle. They then meet in their small groups to decide whether to rescue the stranded astronaut/scientist, or to leave him on the surface of the planet. They are to make this decision in accordance with the Mission Code of Conduct, the alien culture and an information sheet which lists the restraining conditions under which the decision must be made. The students can override or ignore the Code of Conduct and the alien's laws but they must conform to the limitations on the information sheet. A transcript of the message and information sheet follows. START TAPE Exploratory vehicle to space craft, I have a red alert. Repeat, I have a red alert. Reactor has gone critical. Shut down override is malfunctioning. I'm trying to repair it, but I don't think I have the proper tools. The atmosphere of the planet seems to be affecting all the instruments in the vehicle. Everything is going wild. I have no way of telling what will happen. If I can't fix the shut down override, she's going to blow, taking me and a sizable piece of this planet with her. I can't tell how much damage I've done already down here. Radiation is leaking all over the place. My suit seems to be protecting me all right, but I'm probably poisoning the atmosphere and all the plants and animals for miles around. The gravitational and magnetic forces of the planet must be the cause. Just before she went critical, all my gauges and meters jumped off the scale. If I can only get beyond the planet's influence! I think I can fix the override if I were able to get away from the planet's atmosphere, but with the reactor critical I have no way of lifting off. There's also the risk of blowing up the capsule too. Even if I can get the vehicle away from this planet's gravitational and magnetic force, it could be too late. Once in space, a reactor explosion could jeopardize the entire Mission. The nuclear reaction may be so far along that no force could stop it. I can do no more. Please help me! STOP Emergency Information Sheet - The exploratory vehicle is stranded on the surface of the planet. - Due to weight limitations, the Mission has only one planetary exploration vehicle. - The planetary exploration vehicle also serves as a shuttle to go back and forth from the capsule to the planet. - There is a backup shuttle vehicle but it is not intended for regular constant use. - The backup shuttle is not equipped for planetary exploration, but some of the equipment from the planetary exploration vehicle could be placed aboard it. - All space vehicles, including the capsule, are nuclear powered. - Use your own best judgment when handling emergencies. You, as the remaining astronaut/scientist in the space capsule, must decide what to do next. Before you arrive at your decision, consider the following questions: - Should the backup shuttle be sent to rescue the stranded astronaut? Why or why not? - How should you select the person to make the rescue? Can you risk the chance of losing another person? Why or why not? - If the exploratory vehicle blows up when the backup arrives, both vehicles will be lost. Can the Mission afford to take this chance? Without the backup there will be no way to explore the planet. - What effects might this accident have on the planet? Should this influence your decision? Why or why not? Activity 9: THE WARNING The room is again cleared of visual stimuli and the students are arranged in their groups. They listen to Part Two of the alien tape. Transcript follows. START TAPE Oh scientists of earth, what are you doing to our mother planet? We have watched you as you have explored our home, collecting your scientific information. Have you forgotten our laws and the fate of those who came before you? We do not wish to send you home without knowledge. We sincerely hope that we will not have to do so. You have broken some of our laws but because we desire to have you here you will be given a second chance. This chance is, however, conditional. You must think of alternative ways to fulfill your scientific Mission Objectives without violating our laws. If you can do this you will be allowed to stay. STOP The teacher restates the alien's command that the astronaut/scientists reformulate the Mission Objectives in such a way that they are still able to collect the scientific data without violating the laws and customs of the aliens. It would be helpful at this time to review the laws of the alien culture and record them on a large chart or transparency so that the students can use them as a reference during their discussions. Each student group will write a set of the revised Mission Objectives. They will then be brought before the entire class to discuss and be compared group by group. When comparing the Mission Objectives with the Revised Objectives, have the students consider some of the following questions. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS - What objective(s) should be considered the most important to the Space Mission? Why? - What are the most important types of information to people on Earth? To the aliens? Why? - Should the Mission be considered a failure if all the original objectives are not met? Why? - Why should the explorers follow the command of the aliens? Activity 10: OTHER WAYS The alternative ways of meeting the Mission Objectives developed by each group are presented and the reasons for choosing the alternatives are discussed. This will help the students see that there are several possible ways in which the objectives can be met without violating the alien's cultural mores and laws. When each group makes its presentation, it should include a brief summary statement to describe what the group believes to be the most important purpose of the Mission. Activity 11: DEBRIEFING The room is again cleared of visual stimuli except for charts etc. which pertain to the module. The room is darkened. The students listen to the Farewell Address of the aliens and the re-entry tape from Mission control. Transcripts follow. START TAPE ALIENS Scientists of Earth, you have struggled long and hard with the laws of our planet and your mission objectives. We commend you and bid you farewell. Return to your home and share what you have learned. MISSION CONTROL Mission Control welcomes its astronaut/scientists safely back home. We have been monitoring the Mission through special channels. We are aware of many difficulties you have encountered and your efforts to overcome them. Nonetheless, Mission Control fears that this Mission has not been an unqualified success. For this reason we ask that you answer the questions on our Debriefing Evaluation Form. STOP The students should be each given an Evaluation Form. The evaluation should be done individually. The purpose of the Evaluation Sheet is to help the student clarify his/her own values and to evaluate his/her decisions in light of the many alternative courses of action possible. It is also intended to help the students organize their thoughts for the next activity. These evaluation sheets will also provide the teacher with some insight into the reasoning processes of the students. Whether or not these evaluations are shared is a delicate decision best left to the teacher's discretion. Some students may wish to share their evaluations while others may not. No one should be made to disclose their evaluations unwillingly. The Evaluation Sheet follows. Since Activity 11 is short, the next activity may be conducted during the same class period. My Evaluation of the Mission Directions: Indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements by circling the appropriate number. | Statement | Disagree Strongly | Disagree Somewhat | Disagree Slightly | Agree Slightly | Agree Somewhat | Agree Strongly | |---------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|----------------|----------------|----------------| | 1. I feel that a successful Mission depends on meeting all the Mission Objectives. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 2. I feel that we should have convinced the aliens to give us all things that will benefit mankind. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 3. I feel that samples from the alien planet should have been brought back at all cost. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 4. I feel that we should have disregarded the laws of the aliens. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 5. I feel that the beliefs and customs of the aliens are of no importance to humans. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 6. I feel that the way the aliens behave and live cannot apply to humans. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 7. I feel that an important objective of the Mission is to show the superiority of human beings. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 8. I feel that we were right in not meeting all the Mission Objectives. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 9. I feel that astronaut/scientists should be allowed to make decisions on their own. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 10. I feel that the Mission Objectives were not concerned with the effects of our visit on the alien planet. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 11. I feel that when we changed our objectives we were disloyal to our Mission and our country. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | 12. I feel that the aliens are acting selfishly by not letting us take anything back. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | Activity 12: A NEW CODE — Part I The room is again cleared of any visual stimuli except charts pertaining to the module. The lights are lowered. The students listen to the last taped message from Mission Control. Transcript follows. START TAPE This is Mission Control, upon examination of the Mission Evaluation Form we feel that we may not have provided you with an appropriate framework in which to function. We therefore request your assistance in preparing a Revised Code of Conduct which can be used by our next life search mission. Thank you very much, it has been a pleasure working with you. STOP Review with the class the original Code of Conduct using the transparency and/or a copy for each student. Before the students return to their groups to rewrite the Code, they should be encouraged to think of rules of behavior which would be applicable to meeting anyone from a different culture. They should also include rules for proper behavior for persons in an ambassadorial capacity who represent the United States or, in the future, the Earth. The Revised Code should be recorded in some manner and held for discussion in the next activity period. Activity 13: A NEW CODE — Part II A spokesman from each group will present to the entire class its Revised Code of Conduct. The class as a whole should then decide which rules can be incorporated into a Combined Code of Conduct which represents the thinking of the entire class. It is especially important to discuss why the group or an individual student feels that a particular rule is a more desirable form of behavior than another. This is the only activity where an attempt is made to attain consensus. If this appears to be an unreasonable task for a particular class, then do not try to reach consensus. The following are some questions which may help the class, as a whole, create the Combined Code of Conduct. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS - Should a representative of a nation or planet be expected to follow a Code of Conduct? - Is it possible to write all the rules of behavior for every situation? - How much freedom should a person have in order to act and make decisions in different situations? - Does an individual know the best way to behave in a given situation without a Code of Conduct? - Who finally decides the best way to behave in a given situation? - Could there be a code of conduct that is not proper for a given situation? If it is incorrect, what should one do? Why? - If a person has sworn to obey a code of conduct should he disobey the code in order to save a person's life? In order to save an animal's life? In order to save his personal property such as a car, house or money? Why? - Should you swear to uphold a code of conduct if you think there might be situations in the future which would cause you to disobey the code of conduct? Why? - If many people disobey a part of a code of conduct, for instance, "thou shalt not steal," should we remove that part of the code, ignore it, or try to make people obey? Why? - If you do not agree with the rules of a code of conduct such as the boy scout creed but you belong to the boy scouts, should you be made to obey the code of conduct? - Should everyone be made to obey a code of conduct if they did not take part in writing that code of conduct nor had a chance to express their views. - What type of training might a person need in order to behave in accordance to the Revised Code of Conduct? Selected Bibliography: Moral - Social - Ethical Development A. THEORY Brody, G. H. A social learning explanation of moral development. *Contemporary Educational Psychology*, 1978, 3(1), 20-26. Gruber, Howard and J. J. Voncich. *The essential Piaget*. New York: Basic Books, 1977. Hersh, R. H., Paolitto, D. and J Reimer. *Promoting moral growth from Piaget to Kohlberg*. New York: Longman, Inc., 1979. Kohlberg, Lawrence. Moral Stages and Moralization. The cognitive-development approach. In Thomas Lickona (Ed.), *Moral development and behavior*. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976. __________. Stage and sequence, the cognitive developmental approach to socialization. In David A. Goslin (Ed.), *Handbook of socialization theory and research*. New York: Rand McNally & Co., 1969. __________. The child as a moral philosopher *Psychology Today*, 1968, 7(9), 15-33. Piaget, Jean. *To understand is to invent*. New York: Penguin Books, 1976. __________. *The moral judgment of the child*. New York: Free Press, 1965. Smith, M. E. Moral reasoning: its relationship to logical thinking and role taking. *Journal of Moral Education*, 1978, 8(1), 41-49. Windmuller, M., Lamberti, N. and E. Turiel. *Moral development and socialization*. Boston: Allyn Bacon Press, 1978. B. RESEARCH Blatt, Moshe M and Lawrence Kohlberg. The effect of classroom moral discussion upon children's level of moral judgment. *Journal of moral education*, 1975, 4(2), 129-161. Brown, Roger and Roger J. Herrnstein. Moral reasoning and conduct. In *Psychology*. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1978, 287-340. Dell, P. F. and G. J. Junkovic. Moral structure and moral content, their relationship to personality. *Journal of Youth and Adolescence*, 1978, 7, 63-74. Rest, James R. Developmental psychology as a guide to value education: a review of 'Kohlbergian programs'. *Review of Educational Research*, 1974, 44, 241-59. Tomlinson-Keasey, Carol and Charles B. Keasey. The mediating role of cognitive development in moral judgment. *Child Development*, 1974, 45, 291-298. C. EDUCATION Fenton, Edwin. Moral education: the research findings. *Social Education*. April 1976, 189-193. Kelly, A. V. and M. Downey. *Moral education: theory and practice*. Scranton PA.: Harper and Row, 1978. Kohlberg, Lawrence. The cognitive-developmental approach to moral education. *Phi Delta Kappan*, 1975, 56(10), 670-677. __________. *Collected papers on moral development and moral education*. Cambridge: Harvard University Laboratory for Human Development, 1973. Kohlberg, Lawrence and Carol Gilligan. The adolescent as a philosopher: the discovery of self in a post-conventional world. *Daedalus*, Fall 1971, 1051-1086. Kohlberg, Lawrence and Rochelle Mayer. Development as the aim of education. *Harvard Educational Review*, 1972, 42(11), 449-96. Kohlberg, Lawrence and Elliot Turiel. Moral development and moral education. In G. Lesser (Ed.), *Psychology and educational practice*. Chicago: Scott Foresman, (1971), 410-465. Lickona, Thomas. Helping teachers to become moral educators. *Theory into Practice*, 1978, 17(3), 238-266. Sharf, Peter (Ed.). *Readings in moral education*. Minn.: Winston Press, 1978. Sprinthall, Norman A and Ralph L. Mosher (Eds.). *Value development as the aim of education*. Schenectady, New York: Character Research Press, 1978. Values Concepts and Techniques. National Education Assoc. Distribution Center, The Academic Bldg., Saw Mill Road, West Haven, CT. 06516, 1976, .312 pp. D. DILEMMA DISCUSSIONS AND SIMULATIONS IN THE CLASSROOM Beyer, Barry. Conducting moral discussions in the classroom. *Social Education*, April 1976, 195-202. Blatt, Moshe, Colby, Ann and Betsy Speicher-Dubin. *Hypothetical dilemmas for use in classroom moral discussions*. Cambridge: Harvard University, Moral Education Research Foundation, 1974. Boulouge, J. Simulation games in moral education. *History and Social Science Teachers*, 1978, 13(3), 202-203. Fenton, Edwin, Colby, Ann and Betsy Speicher-Dubin. *Developing moral dilemmas for social studies classes*. Cambridge: Harvard University, Moral Education Research Foundation, 1974. Galbraith, Ronald E. and Thomas M. Jones. *Moral reasoning: a teaching handbook for adapting Kohlberg to the classroom*. Anoka, Minn.: Greenhaven Press, 1976. Lockwood, Alan. *Moral reasoning: the value of life*. Public Issues Series. Columbus, Ohio: American Education Publications Education Center, 1972. Mattox, Beverly A. *Getting it together: dilemmas for the classroom based on Kohlberg's approach*. San Diego, CA: Pennant Press, 1975. Selana, Robert. Stages of role-taking and moral development as guides to social intervention. In Thomas Lickona (Ed.), *Man and morality*. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1977. __________. The relation of role taking to the development of moral judgment in children. *Child Development*, 1971, 42, 79-91. Shattel, Fannie and George Shattel. *Role-playing for social values*. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1967. E. TEACHER TRAINING KITS Fenton, Edwin and Lawrence Kohlberg. *Learning to lead moral discussions: a teacher preparation kit*. Pleasantville, N.Y.: Guidance Associates, 1976 (filstrips and audiotapes). *Approaches to Teaching Values*. Filstrip, cassette tape, 84 frames 1976. Available from National Education Assoc., Audiovisual Studio 1201 Sixteenth Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. *Looking at Values*. Filstrip, cassette tape, 103 frames 1976. Available from: National Education Assoc., Audiovisual Studio Books and Teaching Resources R.J. Amelio, *Hal in the classroom: science fiction films*. Fairfield, N.J.: Pfaum-Standard Pub., c/o CEBCO, 1974. (teaching resource and bibliography) J.L. Christian (Ed.) *Extra-terrestrial intelligence: the first encounter*. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prométheus Pub., 1976. (This book raises questions about man's reaction to other intelligent life.) B. Hollister. *Another tomorrow, a science fiction anthology*. Fairfield, N.J.: Pfaum-Standard Pub., c/o CEBCO, 1974. (Stories and teaching guide) Dennis Livingston. Science fiction as an educational tool. In Alvin Toffler (Ed.) *Learning 21*, New York: Random House, 1978. M. Martin. *Films as the future: a selective listing*. Washington, D.C.: The World Future Society 1977. Carl Sagan. *The cosmic connection*. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1975. Marcia S. Smith. *Possibility of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe* (revised Oct. 1977). Report Prepared for the Committee on Sciences and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, 95th Congress by the Science Policy Research Division, Congressional Research Service. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1977. APPENDIX Stages of Moral Development PRECONVENTIONAL LEVEL At this level the child is responsive to cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right and wrong, but interprets the labels in terms of either the physical or the hedonistic consequences of action (punishment, reward, exchange of favors) or in terms of the physical power of those who enunciate the rules and labels. The level is divided into the following two stages: STAGE 1 The punishment and obedience orientation. The physical consequences of action determine its goodness or badness regardless of the human meaning or value of these consequences. Avoidance of punishment and unquestioning deference to power are valued in their own right, not in terms of respect for an underlying moral order supported by punishment and authority (the latter being stage 4). STAGE 2 The instrumental relativist orientation. Right action consists of that which instrumentally satisfies one's own needs and occasionally the needs of others. Human relations are viewed in terms of those of the marketplace. Elements of fairness, of reciprocity, and of equal sharing are present, but they are always interpreted in a physical, pragmatic way. Reciprocity is a matter of "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours," not of loyalty, gratitude, or justice. CONVENTIONAL LEVEL At this level, maintaining the expectations of the individual's family, group or nation is perceived as valuable in its own right, regardless of immediate and obvious consequences. The attitude is not only one of conformity to personal expectations and social order but of loyalty to it, of actively maintaining, supporting, and justifying the order, and of identifying with the persons or group involved in it. At this level, there are the following two stages: STAGE 3 The interpersonal compliance of "good boy-nice girl" orientation. Good behavior is that which pleases or helps others and is approved by them. There is much conformity to socially-penal images of what is majority or "natural" behavior. Behavior is frequently judged by intention—"he means well" becomes important for the first time. One earns approval by being "nice." STAGE 4 The law and order orientation. There is orientation toward authority, fixed rules, and the maintenance of social order. Right behavior consists of doing one's duty, showing respect for authority, and maintaining the given social order for its own sake. POSTCONVENTIONAL OR PRINCIPLED LEVEL At this level, there is a clear effort to define moral values and principles which have validity and application apart from the authority of the groups or persons holding these principles and apart from the individual's own identification with these groups. This level again has two stages, which are as follows: STAGE 5 The social-contract legalistic orientation, generally with utilitarian overtones. Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards which have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society. There is a clear awareness of the relativism of personal values and opinions and a corresponding emphasis upon procedural rules for reaching consensus. Aside from what is constitutionally and democratically agreed upon, the right is a matter of "personal values" and "opinion." The result is an emphasis upon the possibility of changing law in terms of rational considerations of social utility (rather than freezing it in terms of stage 4 "law and order"). Outside the legal realm, free agreement and contract is the binding element of obligation. STAGE 6 The universal ethical principle orientation. Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical principles appealing to logical completeness, universality, and consistency. These principles are abstract and ethical (the Golden Rule, the categorical imperative); they are not concrete moral rules like the Ten Commandments. Instead, these are universal principles of justice, of the reciprocity and equality of human rights, and of respect for the dignity of human beings as individual persons. Lawrence Kohlberg, Stages of moral development as a basis for moral education. In C.M. Beck, B.S. Crittendon, and E.V. Sullivan (Eds.) *Moral education*. New York: Newman Press, 1971, 86-88.
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Helen and Bud Nuckols # Table of Contents | Section | Page | |----------------------------------------------|------| | Family Background | 1 | | School | 5 | | Raising Tobacco | 7 | | Family Life | 9 | | Mother's Relatives | 11 | | Social Life | 14 | | Teaching School | 15 | | Childhood Days | 17 | | Moving to Illinois | 26 | | High School | 28 | | The First Fire District | 33 | | High School Graduation | 40 | | Experiences as a Teacher | 40 | | Mrs. Nuckols | 42 | | Bootlegging and Gangsters | 45 | | Streets and Parks of Auburn | 47 | | Cars and Filling Stations | 49 | | Minority Families | 50 | | World War II | 51 | | Farming | 52 | | The FAA and the Farm Bureau | 58 | | Electricity | 59 | | Government Subsidizing | 61 | Preface This manuscript is the product of a tape recorded interview conducted by Shirley Marshall for the Oral History Office in November of 1980. Shirley Marshall transcribed and edited the transcript. Mr. Nuckols reviewed the transcript. Ray (Bud) Nuckols has lived in Auburn most of his life. This tape is an account of his recollections and perceptions of the growth and history of Auburn. This interview was conducted in his home which is across from the Edgewood Country Club. Shirley Marshall is public librarian in Auburn and is beginning a collection of Oral History of Auburn to be housed in the Auburn Public Library. Readers of the oral history memoir should bear in mind that it is a transcript of the spoken word, and that the interviewer, narrator and editor sought to preserve the informal, conversational style that is inherent in such historical sources. Sangamon State University is not responsible for the factual accuracy of the memoir, nor for views expressed therein; these are for the reader to judge. The manuscript may be read, quoted and cited freely. It may not be reproduced in whole or in part by any means, electronic or mechanical, without permission in writing from the Oral History Office, Sangamon State University, Springfield, Illinois, 62708. Bud Nuckols, November 1980, Auburn, Illinois. Shirley Marshall, Interviewer. Q: Can you tell me when and where you were born, Ray? A: Glasgow, Kentucky. Q: On what date? A: February 16, 1903. Q: Can you tell me something about your parents? A: They were farmers my folks were, and they lived in Glasgow and owned a farm. In 1916 we moved to Auburn, but prior to that we moved from Glasgow to Taylorville. We lived over there, I guess, three years, then came down here. Q: What nationality was your father? A: Scotch-Irish on both sides. Q: Did you remember his parents on your dad's side? A: Oh yes. Q: Did they come over from the old country? A: No, they came from Pennsylvania. Q: And how did they come, by covered wagon? A: I would assume that would be the only way they could get there. They did settle there and stayed there all their life. Q: They were farmers also? A: Yes. Q: Do you remember your grandmother very well? A: Well, yes. Q: What was she like? A: She was a hard working woman, I remember that. She had to be out of necessity, because there were eleven kids in the family. Q: Your father was one of eleven children? A: Right. I remember the kitchen. It was a huge room, and there was a homemade table in the dining room and homemade chairs. When they all got around the table, it was a crowd, you know with that many kids and all. But when dinner was over, or any meal for that fact, the dishes were taken off the table, the ones that were used, and the other dishes, well, like fruit and whatever they had extra, stayed on the table all the time in these huge glasses, I forget what they called them now. Q: Were they like casserole dishes? A: No, they were cut glass dishes with a top on them. Really they called them preserve stands, and they had all kinds of preserves on the table and different relishes and things like that that would be left on the table. They just put a cloth over it from noon to night and they'd uncover the table and put the food back on and go again. And there was always a demijohn of whiskey setting on the table and a bottle of wine. Q: Did you have wine with your meals? A: It was available if you wanted it, yes. It was homemade wine. Q: Did they have animals on the farm? A: Yes, cattle, and what any farmer would have: hogs, chickens, and they raised some turkeys, and that sort of thing. Q: They have their own garden? For the family? A: Oh yes, definitely. Q: That was a trend in those days, you more or less grew what you ate yourself, is that correct? A: Yes, because we were five miles from town and to go to town like we do now was unheard of. Granddad would usually go to town on Saturday afternoon, and whatever was bought, the staples, like sugar, would be mostly what it would be, because the flour and the corn meal was processed in the area down there. There'd be a mill, a grist mill, you've seen them I'm sure. Q: You want to describe what a grist mill looks like. A: Well, it's a... the mechanics of it I... it's a mill that's propelled by water, a water wheel, they were in those days. And, of course, there were no engines or electricity or anything like that, but it was propelled by water. The water was dammed up and flowed over it and turned it and it in turn was belted to a mill, a grinding mill, inside the mill. And you put the corn or the wheat or whatever in there and grind it up and process it and sack it up. [It would] be for your own use or for sale. Q: And that is where he would go to pick up the flour or the corn meal? A: Right. Well, he'd take the corn, you'd take the corn... Q: Oh, you had to take your own corn? A: You didn't have to, you could buy it there, but most farmers did, take their own grain. That would be true with wheat too. Q: And you just paid a fee to have it ground up for you? A: Yes. Q: Did most of the little towns grow up around a creek, then, since you had to have water for the mill? A: There had to be water. Usually if there wasn't a dam available, they built a small dam to hold the water so it would flow over the wheel, the water wheel. That way it was similar to the paddle wheel that was on boats, you know, the steam boats. But that's the way they developed their power. Q: What else do you remember about your grandparents' home? What did she do when it was very hot and she needed to cook? Did she have an outdoor kitchen? A: She cooked, she cooked. This house was, it was a huge house, but it was a log house and weatherboarded with home-sawed lumber, covered that way, you know. And there was only--it was a two-story house. There was only one bedroom downstairs, that was for Granddad and Grandmother and all the kids slept upstairs. There was no heat up there, it was cold as the devil and I can remember they'd--I've heard my dad say many times, they'd get up of a morning and shake the snow off the covers, grab their clothes, and run downstairs to the fire place to get their clothes on. Q: The snow blew in then? A: Oh yes, you know how snow does here. Well if you have cracks in your house you'd get some snow in. Q: Did they sleep in a feather bed? A: Yes, and wool blankets and wool covers of all kinds, and they were homemade. Q: Did your grandma make quilts? A: Quilts and even the clothing that they wore, the wool clothes. You didn't buy much in those days really, because she would spin her own yarn, you know, and the neighbor women would get together and do those things together and then they'd... Q: That would be like their social time, if they worked on something together? A: They'd have quilting bees, they called them. Well, all the work was done as a neighbor project, you know, they worked together. Q: Did your grandmother ever make soap? A: Oh yes! Q: Did she make candles? A: I don't remember seeing any candle molds, but the soap, they'd take the ashes from the fire place in what they called an ash hopper outside the house a ways, and it was a V-shaped container like a bin and the bottom had a trench. They'd put the ashes in there during the winter. Then in the spring, as the rains came, they'd carry water and put on it and what came out of that was pure lye at the bottom in this, through this V-shaped trench. And they'd save that. That is what they made soap out of. Q: What else did they use beside lye to make soap? A: I don't remember anything. Q: Did you have to have some grease? A: Oh yes, definitely, you had to have grease and lye. Q: And then did they have to heat these in a big kettle or anything like that? A: They cooked it in like a lard kettle. You seen a lard kettle? Q: No, I haven't. Are they great big black wrought iron kettles? A: Yes, that's what they are, they usually are. Well, the ones we used for butchering would be around forty gallon kettles, something like that, and they'd cook the soap in those too. Put your lye and grease in there and get it hot and stand and stir and stir and stir and then, well I guess experience, they knew at what point it was ready to take it off, and then take it off and pour it into a mold. And when it got cold then they'd just slice it up in cakes about like half a brick, something like that, that's what they used. Q: They used that for their laundry and for doing dishes? A: Even washing your face, if you wanted soap. It was pretty strong. Q: How often during the year did they have to make soap, was that a week thing? A: No, no, it depended on the size of the family. Q: And how fast the soap goes? A: Yes, and it wouldn't spoil. You could have it from year to year. That wasn't a problem. Q: What did they store this soap in until they needed it? A: In the smoke house. They had a smoke house where they kept the meat and the soap. Q: Did your grandmother have to bake a lot of bread? A: She baked all of it, all the bread. Q: What time of day did she have to get up? To get started? A: Oh, by daylight. Q: Did your grandfather go out on his farm early, did he have to milk the cows? A: Oh yes, they had cows to milk and kids to get ready for school, you know. And they had to walk to school from where they lived. I expect they walked, the closest school house was at least three miles. So you can see they had to get up early to get that many kids ready for school. Q: About how much schooling did they have in those years? A: Through the eighth grade was about the extent of it, but the kids, the boys especially, would be taken out of school in the fall of the year to help with the crops, you know, to harvest the crops. And they may have to be out, oh well, at our school we had six months school, not nine months, and they would probably be out a couple of months. So, they wouldn't graduate from the grade school until they were twenty years old. Q: Oh, is that right? A: Yes, and we would be, we little kids would be in school with grown boys and it made it pretty rough on the little kids. Q: Were you in a one-room schoolhouse? A: One-room school, one-room school. Q: You still remember the teachers? A: Well, a couple of them I do. Q: Were they pretty strict? A: Well, they had to be, otherwise the boys would take over, as big as they were. I can remember they always sat in the back of the room, you know. They had the seats graduated from the front to the back and the little kids were all up here. And the big boys back there put a pin in their shoe and come down the aisle and kick some kid in the shin and he'd squall and the teacher would come out and try to find out who it was. They never would, they were pretty sharp those big kids. But it was an experience. Q: Can you describe your schoolroom for me? Did you have a stove in the schoolroom that the teacher had to take care of? A: Oh yes, I was trying to compare it to some building around here. It was just sidewalls and a roof and finished inside. Q: What kind of desks did you have, or did you have desks? A: Yes, we had desks, we had desks. Q: Did you write with ink? A: Yes. Q: And inkwells? Dip the pigtails in the inkwells? A: Yes, that's right. Q: Did the girls mostly have pigtails in those days? A: Not too many of them really, they had just reasonably long hair. It wasn't short hair, but reasonably long and it was always a problem for them. Q: They always wore dresses back in those days? A: Oh yes, with bloomers. Q: How did the boys dress? A: Overalls, just like Rutkoski's wear up here, same thing, only some of them were homemade out of, the winter clothes would be wool, you know. The trousers would and the jackets too, they'd be made out of homespun material. Q: Did you go barefoot much? A: Quite a bit in the summertime, but it wasn't the best place in the world to do that, because there was a lot of little rocks in the ground, you know, and it wasn't easy to do, but you did, you know. Q: What was the terrain like there in Glasgow, Kentucky? A: Well, we lived, like I say, we lived five miles out and it was very similar to southern Illinois, rolling hills and timber and the fields were all small. A couple acres of tobacco would be a big crop down there. Q: You grew tobacco? A: Oh yes, and maybe ten acres of corn or something like that. Your tobacco was your cash crop and your corn, what little corn you raised and what little wheat you raised, you used the wheat to eat really. You ground it up for flour and the corn you'd use it for livestock and for cornmeal. You just went from season to season like that. You didn't really have any cash crops to sell other than tobacco. Q: How long does it take to grow a crop of tobacco? A: Well, it's planted in the spring, I mean it's not planted, it is set out. Q: What do you mean it's set out? A: They are plants like tomato plants. We'd always burn a space in the edge of the timber, pile logs and burn them, and then dig it up and plant it in the tobacco seed. You'd get the tobacco plants from that. And you'd burn it so there wouldn't be any weeds in your tobacco bed. You'd cover it with muslin cloth to keep the insects off them, and then when the plants got up to a good start, then you'd take that off and let the sun in. And you'd pull the plants when they were like three to four inches high. And you'd have your ground ready and you'd lay the ground off in rows like this, like we would to plant corn, and then you'd check it crossways and you'd put a plant where the rows crossed. And you'd put your fertilizer there at that spot. Q: This was all done by hand? A: All done by hand. You drop the plants. There'd be a guy come behind you pushing the dirt around them and another coming behind him watering the plants. All done by hand. Q: Back breaking work probably? A: Oh yes, it was hard work, but real simple now because they have machines to drop the plants, press the dirt around them, and the machine has a tank of water on it and gives them a squirt and that's it. Q: And fertilizer at the same time, I guess? A: Yes, everything comes out of this machine. Q: So you could plant what probably took you a couple of weeks in just a few hours or a day maybe? A: Yes, the patches are always small, because they're selected in places where the best soil is and now, at this time, you have an allotment, you can have only so many acres or so many tenths of an acre really. A two or three acre allotment would be a pretty good size crop down there. Q: How about insects, were they a problem back in those days? A: Not so much, the most problem we had with insects was the tobacco worm and you've seen that I'm sure on the tomato vines, a big green worm with horns on it. We'd have to go through it and pluck those things off the tobacco. Q: You had to keep your eye on the crop then as it was growing? A: Oh yes. Well, you had to go through and take the suckers off too. You've seen those, I'm sure on the tomato vine, a little sprout come up by the leaf, you know. If you didn't take those off you'd have a poorer quality of tobacco, because it took strength away from the growth of the leaves and the rest of the plant. There was work to it right up to the time to harvest. Q: And when did you harvest the tobacco? A: Usually in August. Q: What does it look like when it is ready to be harvested? A: It's about the color of that bush right out there, the leaves turned about that yellow. Q: And what size of leaf is this? A: Oh, leaves as big as that thing right there. Q: Oh, that's about fifteen inches long and about five or six inches wide? A: They'd be large at the bottom and as they went up, the leaves'd get smaller just like a cone, you know, it's the way it'd grow. Q: Then after you gathered all those leaves, what did you do with them? A: Well, you don't gather the leaves, you cut the stalk. The top is already out of the plant. They top it, and then you take the knife and split the stalk down to where you want to cut it off. Then you go this way and cut it off, and then you cut your stalk of tobacco and all the leaves on the stalk. Q: Then what goes with that? Does that have to be hung up? A: Oh yes. In those days they had tobacco barns and they were just an open shed. They had rails through there that you'd hang these sticks of tobacco on. In the field, you'd go down the row and pick these stalks of tobacco and straddle them over a stick, tobacco stick they called it, and that's what you'd hang it on in the barn. You'd haul it in a flat bed wagon. Q: How many horses did you have on your farm? A: About four down there, but when we came here, we used 24 mules. See on a small farm you didn't need too many horses. Q: You didn't work them all at the same time? A: No, no, you didn't use four horse teams, unless you were pulling logs out of the timber or something like that, not for farm work. Q: Did your grandfather build that home that you were talking about? A: Yes. The fireplace in the living room was huge. It would take two men to put the firewood in, if you wanted to fill it full. Q: How did your grandmother cook at this fireplace? A: She had a swinging thing you hung pots on. What do you call those things? Q: Well, I don't know, it's like an arm, an extended arm from the fireplace, wasn't it? A: Rotated in the fire and pulled it out, you know. Yes, she did a lot of cooking in there. Roasted chestnuts in the ashes under the front of the fireplace. Q: Are chestnuts anything like buckeyes? A: Just exactly alike. You ever seen one? Q: I've seen a buckeye, I've wondered if that... A: You ever seen a chestnut? Q: Buckeyes are very shine and... A: Brown. (shows a chestnut) Q: Very beautiful. A: They had a disease hit the chestnuts down there about the same time we had the elm disease here. Killed every tree in the whole county. I mean really, but they have been setting out plants in the last twenty years and that's off of one of those new trees. Q: Did they find any way to protect the trees from disease? A: No, they still haven't, the new trees haven't developed the disease yet. So they're doing pretty good with it. Q: Well, that's very interesting, I guess I have never seen a chestnut before, but you hear Johnny Mathis sing about roasting the chestnuts over the fire. Was that a Christmas custom at your place? A: Oh yes, well anytime during the wintertime it was just a normal thing to do. Q: Did you pop popcorn? A: Sure. Q: Did you grow popcorn? A: Yes. Q: What was Christmas like when you were a boy on the farm? A: Well, it wasn't much different than it is today. Course we didn't have the electric lights on the trees. I'm not sure. Q: Did you bring a tree into the house? A: Yes. Q: String popcorn and cranberries? A: That's what you decorated with. Colored corn, sometimes, after it was popped to make colors on the tree, but the only thing you had on the tree in the way of illumination was, it would have to be candles and you had to be very careful with those because you could burn the house down real easy. Q: Did you hang a stocking? A: Yes, on the mantel, always on the mantel in Kentucky. There was a whole string of them with that many kids, you know, the grandkids and that many kids in the family. When Christmastime came, there was a house full. Q: You knew most of your aunts and uncles? A: Oh yes. Q: Did they all settle in that area? A: We were the only ones that left out of the whole, out of the family of my dad's. Q: I suppose that upset his mother and dad pretty much that he was leaving to go to Illinois? A: Well, they were, my granddad would have been in his eighties at that time, and my grandmother was gone already when we came out here. So I really don't know what possessed Dad to want to come to Illinois, because he had a farm down there. We lived on it. An uncle of my mother's had moved out here to Taylorville and he had written some real exciting views about how nice it was up here as compared to Kentucky. You know it is all smooth and level around here and farming is lots different. It was at that time and still is, but he just decided all at once and we got out here just in time to start school in September, and we were satisfied and just stayed. Q: How old were you then? A: I was ten years old. Q: That was when you were at Taylorville or here in Auburn? A: Taylorville, we moved to Taylorville first. Q: Where was the farm located in Auburn, the first farm that your father had? South of here? A: Yes. Q: That would be between Auburn and Thayer? A: You know where Lloyd Ping lives, don't you? On the west side of the road in the brick house as you go down the road here. The white house on the east side. That's where we lived, always. Q: Did your father have that home built? A: No, he came down here as a farm manager for Hay Brown that raised cattle at Taylorville and he had a purebred herd down here and Dad came to take care of it. That's how we happened to move down. Q: Was farming quite a bit different in Illinois than Kentucky? A: It was. Q: You can't raise tobacco here? A: I don't think so. Maybe a little bit in southern Illinois. I think there are small patches, but you don't have the quality of tobacco you do down there on account of the different type of soil. You couldn't raise good tobacco in black soil. It wouldn't have the color and it would be strong. Q: Bud, I haven't asked you about your mother's side of the family. Do you remember your mother's mother and father? A: I remember my grandmother. My grandfather was killed in the Civil War. So at the age I was, I don't remember him at all. Q: What state was he from, your grandfather on your mother's side? A: I'm not sure. Q: Did he fight for the North or for the South? A: For the North. See, we would have been in central Kentucky. It was the dividing line, of course, even in that area there were families that the relation fought against each other depending on how they felt about the situation, but it happened and it happened in all the border states, you know, where there were relations back and forth. It was just like belonging to the church I guess, if you believe in one thing you are going to fight for it and that's the way they did. Q: So your grandfather was killed in the Civil War. How many children were in your mother's family? A: Three, two boys and a girl. Q: You remember your grandmother then on that side of the family? A: Oh yes. Q: What nationality was she? A: I just don't know, but to say Kentuckian. Q: Then you really don't remember any of your ancestors that came across from the old country? A: No, I wouldn't. Q: Can you remember any stories that they might have told you about their ancestors? A: The only thing I remember about my grandmother's father and mother who lived close by there, my great grandfather was killed in the war too, and while he was in the war they had a huge amount of Confederate money and she dug a hole out on the side of the bank of the creek there and buried that money. They were pretty close to where they were raised of one kind or another, and one army to the other and she buried that money and then when the war was over, it wasn't even worth digging up. It lost its value as soon as the war was over. But that's about all I remember about that. Q: Well, if she was all alone, how did she make a living? A: She had a bunch of boys, a whole bunch of grown boys. You're talking about my great grandmother now and they were grown men as I remember them. Let's see, the war would have been over 25 years at that time, 27. These boys all stayed around home, were married, and lived in that area close by. Q: What were their last names? A: Barber. Q: And your mother was a Barber also? A: She was a Matthews, my grandmother married a Matthews. And my dad's sister, he only had one sister that lived. One of them died early with infantile paralysis, but the other sister married my mother's brother so we got a whole flock of double cousins down there. Q: Do you still have family reunions down there? A: Yes, we had one just recently. Q: Did most of your cousins remain on the farm? A: No, they're pretty well scattered out. There was that many of them that live in that area that you see in that picture, but there is some in Indiana and some in northern Illinois, some in Missouri. You know they just kind of trickled out. Q: So actually, you are just about the only farmer that was there? A: That moved out in this area. There are farmers down there. Q: What did your father look like, did he have a mustache? In some of those little pictures you see, they have a kind of handlebar mustache. A: I don't think my dad ever had a mustache at all that I ever remember. I had a little one one time, but it wasn't very productive so I wacked it off. No, my dad was clean shaven, but my granddad had a full beard way down like that, but Dad never did have a beard. Q: What were some of the Sundays like, when you were a small boy? A: Well... Q: You still had to milk cows, I guess? A: We had--I'm talking about when we lived up here--normally three hired men, because all the work was done with teams and horses, you know. Go to Sunday School on Sunday morning, and afternoon the hired men, they didn't go to church, but usually they had their hair cutting on Sunday morning. They cut each other's hair out under the shade of a tree, something like that. Then they'd wrestle and play horse shoes and something like that. In the afternoon there really wasn't much going on, it was too hot in the summertime for much activity. No air conditioning, we just roughed it. Q: What was one of the things you did as a young boy that you enjoyed the most? Did you ever go hunting? A: Oh definitely, but I enjoyed the whole spectrum. Q: You had a good childhood? A: Oh yes, I really did and I did everything that any normal kid would do and followed that procedure up till ten years ago. I used to duck hunt and quail hunt, pheasant hunt, goose hunt down in southern Illinois, go to the river fishing, just enjoyed all those things and really took part in them. Q: When you were a boy, did you have a pet? A: I had a dog. Q: What was your dog's name? A: Pug. Q: Was Pug a hunting dog? A: Yes, not the kind you'd--I would hunt opossum with him. Those two girls and I would take a lantern and--we lived right on the edge of the woods--and we'd take that dog and go out through the woods hunting opossum and skunks at night, you know. We'd catch a opossum once in a while, but we didn't try to catch the skunk too much, but the dog would tree them and you'd know they were there. Q: Did you have brothers and sisters, Bud? A: Those two. I've got two sisters. Lilly, you know her, and Howard's wife, no brothers. Q: And you lived pretty far I guess from any other farmhouse? A: You're talking about down there or here? Q: When you were a young boy? A: I would say not more than a half mile to the closest neighbor, no, I'm sure it wouldn't be any more than that. There were several neighbors within a half a mile really like a circle or something like that, but all the farms were small so the houses were reasonably close together. Q: Did you have a celebration like after the harvest ever? A: We did out here. Down there we had what they called a husking bee. See, we didn't shuck the corn. We pulled it off the stalk and left the shuck on it, down there, bring it into the crib, put it into the crib, and when the harvest was all in, then you'd have a shucking bee, and a dance, the whole thing you know. The neighbors would all get around and shuck that corn and someplace along the line they'd slip in a red ear and whoever found the red ear got to kiss any girl they wanted to at the party. And you'd go from neighbor to neighbor and do that sort of thing. It was just a part of the social life. Q: What kind of music did they have in those days for the dances? A: You wouldn't believe it, everybody played but me. My cousins were all, they even had a band, a dance band for local entertainment, you know, just my cousins, fiddles and guitars. Q: Did you have square dances? A: Oh yes, and party game dances. I'm sure you have never been to a party, well like "Skip to My Lou" and all that stuff, that kind of a thing. It wasn't a dance, it was, I don't know how you describe that function. You go around in a circle and go this way and that way, but it wasn't called square dancing. Q: It was like a "Virginia Reel" type of thing? A: Yes. And it was called party dancing, that's what they called it. But it was a lot of fun. We even had that out here in this neighborhood after we moved down here. I taught school down there seven years at the schoolhouse back east of our place, and we'd have dances at the schoolhouse. Q: You taught school? What did you teach? A: Eight grades. I had as high as 40 pupils in that schoolhouse. Q: You taught for seven years? A: Well, some of the kids that I taught would be Bob MacMurdo, Florence, Ilene, Gerald, he died you know, married to the Quisenberry girl. There was five of those kids in school when I taught. Q: Well, where was this schoolhouse? A: Well, from our house, I'm talking about the white house down there we lived in, it was just half a mile east, right across the farm. MacMurdos at that time lived here where Jim lives. See they moved there right after the game farm closed and the kids were all born out here in this house where Jim lives. It was a little house at that time. Q: What is the road sign down here? A: Seventeen south. Q: So your first farm was about one mile or one-fourth mile from seventeen south? A: Half a mile, well actually back to it would be three-quarters. Q: And this home you are talking about that MacMurdos lived in would be half way between sixteen south and seventeen south? A: Right, just in the middle. Q: On the Auburn Cemetery road? A: Yes. Q: So what were some of your duties as teacher in the little schoolhouse? A: Well, I taught all eight grades, and the duties would be to try to control the kids for one thing, which wasn't any great problem with me, because I got along real good with the kids and played with them all the time and everything. I didn't have a problem with discipline. Q: Did you have to choose the textbooks that they were to use? A: No, they came from the county office. I mean it was determined up there. You bought your books locally, but the books and the curriculum work was sent out by the county superintendent of schools at that time, which they don't do anymore. Q: What were the hours of the school day then? A: Nine to four. Q: Now you taught spelling, reading, writing and arithmetic? A: The whole bit. Q: How much science did you teach in those days? Or was it even called science? A: No. Q: Was it more or less like nature? A: We didn't have a nature book. Q: What about geography? A: Oh yes, and physiology was strong on that, I remember that, and grammar. Q: How about history? A: Oh yes. We had the full line of books like they have today, only these weren't anything like the ones we got now. I can pick up Stuart's algebra book and I can't tell heads or tails out of it. I was over at the other daughter's a few weeks ago, when we went to Kentucky, and I was looking at Chris' geometry book and I was lost in that thing. It's a different process altogether now, it's no comparison. And I don't know why, maybe it's a better deal. Seem to me like it'd be hard for the kids to understand what they're doing with this kind of teaching. Because the basics aren't anything like they were in the old books. Q: It seems that they really have to absorb more material that is more complicated and explicit than we used to have. A: It seem like so much of it's irrelevant to what your trying to teach. Maybe it's to teach them to think, I don't know. I don't understand it. Q: But back in our days they really taught you more about how to deal with the problems around you like a sewing problem, or papering a house, or building a cabinet, something of that nature? A: Basics, that's what they dealt in really. Q: Things that you would be encountering around you. A: It'd be something like if you were going to a technical school now, and learning things like that you wouldn't get in your schools. But a lot of this school down here, there was one family of five kids, the Peliter family, you know Ora Searls, well she was a Peliter and her folks lived down there just east of the school. Then another son that had six kids lived over here in the timber where Gravits live and there was three boys and two girls, maybe there was four boys, I'm not sure. But three of those boys became chemical engineers, out of my grade school down here. Junior went to the University of Illinois, that's the oldest boy, and graduated in some kind of ceramic engineering... End of Side One, Tape One Q: Bud, on side one we were talking about the Peliter family. You were describing the education some of these boys got and you were talking about Junior. Do you want to continue? A: Well, there were three of the boys, Junior, Loy and Maxie. They all three went to the university, two of them at Illinois and one down at Texas. I don't know the name of the university he attended, but during their schooling or directly after, they were out of school, they developed a paint, an automobile paint, and sold the patent to General Motors and they established a factory in South Chicago around Wheaton. That's where they lived and they became fairly wealthy, really. They made a lot of money off of it. Junior is still up there and the other two boys I've lost track of. I really don't know what's happened to them. Q: Bud, I want to take you back to your early childhood days again, and I want to ask you about some of the things you can remember. Tell me what were some of the things like during the fall of the year. What kind of things did you do as a boy in the fall? A: Well, going to school would be the main thing that you would do. We had to walk about a mile and a half to the schoolhouse and through woods. Q: Was this a hilly area? A: Oh yes! Definitely, and at that early age, I wasn't involved in any amount of the farmwork, you know, you'd just do what any other kid would do at that age. Nothing that I can think of outstanding. Q: Did you go squirrel hunting? A: Oh yes, and the two girls and I, we did quite a bit of hunting because we lived right in the woods, you know, and we'd go out at night with a lantern. Q: Oh, at nighttime? A: Oh yes, hunt opossum. That's when you hunt opossum. Q: Oh, how do you go about that? A: Well, you take a dog and he'll pick up a track or a scent and you usually find them in a hollow log or a dead tree with a hollow in it. And you take a--if we found one like up in a tree, like that in a hollow place--we take a briar that grows down there. They call a sawbrier. It's got little sharp teeth all around it and you cut off one of those vines and start twisting it up in a tree and you could pull an animal or a rabbit or anything out of a tree with that briar because it would wind up their hair, you know, you could pull him out. Q: So you didn't need a gun for that? A: No. Q: You just brought them in alive? A: That's right. Q: Did you learn to dress these animals yourself? A: Not down there. Q: Your father took care of that or did your mother do any of that? A: If they wanted to save it they would, but we didn't eat it. You know a lot of people did eat opossum in those days, but we never did pay much attention to them. Q: Did you catch them mainly for their furs? A: Well, mostly just for the sport, nothing to sell or anything like that. They were a nuisance around the chicken house and places like that, you know, they'd eat chickens, really. So it was just a fun thing more than anything. Q: Did you ever go nut hunting? You talked about chestnuts, did you pick them up in the fall? A: Yes, but we didn't have to go anyplace. They were right in the yard. Q: Oh, you had nut trees right there in the yard? A: Hickory, walnut and chestnuts were all right there, we didn't have to go anyplace. Q: Did the whole family sit around the table and pick the nuts out? A: Well, in the wintertime we would eat them, of course. You would gather around but the chestnuts, when the burr--they're formed in a burr--and there'd be three or four nuts inside of a burr and usually if they're ripe when they hit the ground, they shatter out. So all you got to do is pick them up. Q: Otherwise do you have to use a hammer to get the burr off of the nuts? A: If it would be a green one, yes, but most of them that fall off the tree are ripe. They just pop open. Q: What other kind of trees did you have on your farm? Did you have any kind of fruit trees? A: Oh yes, we had orchard trees: apples, peaches, plums. Q: Did you ever eat a persimmon? A: Oh yes, we had persimmons. They were all over the place. Q: Did you ever eat one that wasn't quite ripe? A: Not if I knew it. (laughs) Q: Did your mother and the girls put up preserves? A: Well, my mother did. Course the girls weren't old enough to take much part in it at the time down there. Q: But you went out to gather the fruits? A: Oh yes, she took care of that. Q: What was Thanksgiving Day like in your family? Did the grandparents come? A: Well, normally we'd go there. It'd be like a reunion thing, you know, and if something happened that we didn't, we'd have just a normal Thanksgiving like you would here, turkey and the whole bit. Q: How far away did your grandparents live from your home? A: Not more than a mile. Q: You could see them often? A: Yes. Q: Did you have wells for your water when you were a kid or did you get your water from a spring? A: We didn't have one early. When we built the new house, we dug a well. It wasn't too dependable, really, because there was so much limestone in the area that it was pretty hard to dig through to get to the water, but we had a spring house probably the distance from here to that Miller house down there and we carried the milk and the butter down there. We had a spring house and the water flowed through there and you put the milk and butter in there and then go back and get it before another meal. Q: How did your mother make butter? A: With a churn. Q: Oh, you had a wooden churn? A: Yes. Q: Did you kids take turns helping to churn that? A: Oh yes, it was kind of fun. Q: How long does it take to make butter? A: Oh, it depends on the temperature of the cream that you put in it. The cream has to be, well, it has to be sour cream. The cream sours and then the temperature of it, if it's too hot, it will be runny, you know, and won't gather in the churn and what you'd have to do is take the lid off and drain the buttermilk out, take the lid off and put cold water in it and turn it some more. Then the butter would all gather up and you'd have a cone of butter. Q: Did you drink buttermilk? A: Oh yes. Q: And your mother used it for baking? A: Yes. Q: Probably never wasted anything like that? A: No, you used everything and about everything you used was on the farm. You didn't go to town for very many things, mostly sugar. Outside of that, everything, practically everything, the meat and everything was butchered on the farm and stored, not much beef. Q: You had like a smokehouse? A: Oh yes, and you could put meat down in different ways. Sometimes we'd smoke it and sometimes we'd put it down a big wooden box, put down a layer of salt, a layer of meat, a layer of salt, a layer of meat, and it would keep that way. Q: Did you have people come in to do the butchering, or was that sort of a big thing in that area? A: Well, it wasn't as big down there as it was after we came out here, because the neighbors were farther apart and they didn't butcher as many. Mostly hogs was what we butchered down there and up here too. We hardly, very seldom ever had beef because there was no way to keep it. You didn't have refrigeration and you can't salt it down. Q: Oh you can't, it's just too salty to eat? A: It soaks into it and it's so salty you can't eat it, but I guess the old timers had a method of drying it somehow. Q: Is that where beef jerky comes from? A: That's where jerky comes from, dried beef and it won't spoil. Well, you've seen it in the movies and on television where they reach in their saddlebag and get a strip of jerky and chomp on it. That would keep them alive. I don't imagine it was very nourishing. Q: They still sell beef jerky in the store. A: Oh yes, I've seen that. Q: The kids like it. A: It's not too bad. Q: What were some of the things that your mother fixed for you when you were a kid? A: Well, I think I enjoyed pancakes and maple syrup as much as anything. That maple syrup, I've always loved it and sausage. Q: Did you tap for the syrup yourself? A: Yes. Q: At what time of the year? A: Usually February, it don't have to be February, but when the sap starts up in the tree. See the sap all goes to the roots in the wintertime and when it starts to thaw in the--course the tree freezes and when it thaws out in the early spring--the sap starts to come up to the leaves and you can tap it and get the water. Q: How much syrup do you get from one tree, say for instance? A: It takes a hell of a lot. It takes forty gallons of sugar water, that's what we call what comes out of the tree, to make a quart of syrup. Q: Now you don't kill the tree, do you? A: No, it doesn't hurt the tree at all. Q: Can you tap that same tree again next year? A: Oh yes. In fact all the way around or up and down and it doesn't affect the tree. Q: So it takes forty gallons of sugar water? A: To make a quart of syrup. Q: You talked the other day about sorghum. How is sorghum different from the maple syrup? Is it a different kind of tree? A: No, it's a plant like a cornstalk or something like that. Q: Is it grown especially for sorghum or is it sort of wild? A: No, it's a sorghum cane like sugarcane would be in the south. This is a sorghum cane and like I said there's two varieties, one is for black strap molasses and the other one is for edible food. Q: And you can tell the difference by looking at it? A: Well, you raise it. Whatever kind you want. Plant the seed just like you would, well, it grows on the head and the top has, heads out, and has like a cone on the top and that seed you cook that off, you know, and save whatever amount you want. Q: It has a lot of seed? A: Oh yes. Q: Like a sunflower? A: Well, only it isn't like a sunflower. It's more like the, you've seen this elderberry thing growing along the road that's got that cone shaped thing on it in the fall of the year, there's a lot of them around here. And it's the same type of thing like that. It could be sumac or, well, it would be sumac that has that. I'll show you one when we get ready to leave, but that's the way cane would grow with that seed in the top of it. Q: So one of your favorite things was pancakes and maple syrup? A: Yes, I loved that. Q: Did your mother ever make homemade candy for the kids? A: Oh sure, Christmastime we always had it. Q: Describe what Christmastime was like when you were a young boy. A: Well, it was pretty much the same as it would be out here except we didn't have the gifts the kids have now days, of course. Q: But you hung a stocking? A: Hung a stocking. Maybe you'd have an apple or stick of peppermint candy, things like that, or if you needed clothes, or whatever, that would be there too. It wasn't as extensive as out here. Q: Did you make gifts for each other? Did you make little homemade type gifts for each other? A: Some little things at school would be about it. Q: Did your parents teach you that there was a Santa Claus? Did they talk about that? A: Oh yes, and we all believed in it. Q: Did you have a best friend when you were a little boy? A: Not especially. No, I had a lot of cousins around and we played together and in school too, but not one in particular. Q: What was one of your favorite seasons? A: I think fall of the year down there is beautiful. Q: Since it was hilly, did you do some sleigh riding and sledding in the winter? A: We had sleds, but we didn't have sleighs, you know the horse-drawn sleds. Course you could take the whole family on that, bundle the hay on it or straw or something, you could all go along on the sled. We never did have a sleigh that I can remember. Q: Did you ever take a sleigh ride? A: Yes, my neighbor over here used to have one. Q: That must of been nice when it was quiet, and there was a big moon. A: It was kind of romantic, I guess. Course the sleigh you pulled with one horse and the sled you had to have two horses because they were quite a bit bigger. Q: So you kids in the winter, you did a lot of sledding and did you do any ice skating? A: Not down there, because there wasn't any water close enough. We did in Christian County and we did down here on Sugar Creek, but earlier, no, we didn't. Q: Did you build snowmen and make forts? A: Oh yes, we did everything that everybody else, all other kids did. Q: In the summertime, did you have--you said you weren't too close to any water, but did you do any swimming in a swimming hole? A: The only water we had nearby was the branch that we put the milk and everything else in and it wasn't deep enough to swim in. Q: You just waded around? A: Yes, we'd play in it, but there was a river I guess two or three miles away, and I remember a couple of times we went swimming there with my dad and my uncle and we'd go there fishing quite often, usually on Saturday afternoon. Q: Did you love to fish? A: Oh yes, I always have. Q: Did your family eat lots of fish? A: No, we didn't fish that much, but they would eat fish anytime we had it. Everybody was too busy to fool around fishing, you know. Q: You had quite a few chores then? A: Well, yes. Q: What were some of your chores? A: Well, just take care of the livestock, really. That would be chickens, whatever animals you had around, you know. Q: Did your mother ever make home remedies for illnesses? A: Goose grease was the only thing I can think of. Q: Goose grease, what was that used for? A: Sore throats, congestion in your chest. Goose grease and turpentine mixed together. Q: Did you ever hear of asafetida? A: We had it. You carry that around your neck. Q: I had never heard of that, but Howard and Marie both said they used it. A: Yes, that was an old time remedy. Q: How did it smell? A: Terrible! You put it in a little sack and tie it around your neck. Q: Bud, can you remember the first time you ever had a radio? A: I'm not so sure, it wouldn't have been after we were married, but when we first got married. Q: You didn't have a radio when you were a youngster? A: I don't think so. I had a player piano. The folks bought me a player piano and thought that would keep me home on Saturday nights, you know. The first night it was delivered down there, well, I played on it a little bit and got up and went to town and my mother thought that wasn't too good. Q: Did you play a piano? A: No, I played player pianos that's about all. No, I used to thump around on a banjo a little, but I never did play any music. Q: What was the closest big town to where you lived down there? A: Down there, well Bowling Green would have been the closest town of any size. Q: Do you ever remember taking trips into Bowling Green? A: No, I never did, but my sister did. They had--around Bowling Green--strawberry patches and they raised them, like commercially, you know, and they'd have kids come from different areas to pick strawberries and one time she went, as a group to harvest strawberries. But no, I never went over there for anything. Q: So the closest town you went to was Glasgow? A: Yes, that was about five miles. Bowling Green was about fifteen, maybe twenty miles from Glasgow. Q: What was Glasgow like back in your day? A: Well, I thought it was a great big town. I would guess then probably five thousand. I think it's about eighteen thousand now. It's a real busy town now. Q: Did you look forward to going into town? A: Oh yes, that was a treat. Q: What did the stores look like in those days? A: About the same as they do now. You would have a variety of things, everything that you do now, but... Q: But you'd have open pickle barrels? A: And cracker barrels. They were just sitting there. You would help yourself. Q: Did they have a potbelly stove that people sat around and chatted? A: Yes, that's the only heat in the stores that I remember, and I'm thinking about country stores now, but there was no fireplaces in those stores. I'm sure there wasn't, but how they heated the stores in town, like in Glasgow, I don't know, really. They may have had some heating system for the town, I don't know. Q: Did they have materials there where your mother could get some material to make clothes? A: Oh yes, and then besides that, you had wagons that came around through the country delivering, you know, selling. Q: And I bet they had everything on them? A: They'd sell groceries, everything, the whole bit, patent medicine. But they'd come around, maybe they'd hit your area once a month, something like that. They covered large territories, you know. Q: Did you have a teacher that influenced your life? A: I doubt it very much. Q: There wasn't any one particular teacher that you admired especially? A: No, I didn't find any fault with any of them, really. You're talking about younger. Q: Well, just during your school days. A: No, I don't think so. Q: Well, what did you think when your parents decided to move from that area that you grew up in? A: Really didn't know or realize. Going to Illinois was like going across the world to a kid my age, and really didn't think too much about it. We just knew we was going. We rode into town in a wagon. Then the first car I ever rode in, they had a--the station was I guess a mile from downtown--and we rode to the station in an open car, didn't have a top on it, and that was quite a thrill. First car I'd ever ridden in. But it was like a taxi would be, well it was really, but it took passengers to the railroad and brought them back. Q: Did you take all your belongings with you or did you have to have some of them shipped? A: They were shipped. That had already been taken care of. Q: Your father had already found a place? A: Oh yes. Q: So what was your new home like then? Were you on a farm? A: Yes, and it was just an ordinary farmhome, two story, lots of room, big rooms. Q: This was in Taylorville, Illinois? A: No, it was in the country. We lived in the country. Q: But outside of Taylorville? A: Between Taylorville and Sharpsburg. Sharpsburg's about say ten, fifteen miles north of Taylorville, next to Edinburg. Q: Where did you go to school? A: Sharps was the name of the school. Q: Was that a one-room schoolhouse also? A: Yes. And we had, I guess, the teacher had about every grade. I'm almost sure, I don't remember when there wouldn't have been all eight grades in that school. Q: Went to eight grades and what grade were you in at the time that you moved? A: When I moved out there to that school, I would have been in the fifth grade. We were there three years and I was in the eighth grade when I came down here. Q: What kind of games did the kids play during recess? A: Oh, depending on the weather, course if there was snow on, they played... oh they had that ring, you know, what did they call it? Some kind of a goose thing they called it. There was a ditch close to the school, maybe like this one down here, and we'd all go down there and skate during noon hour and then as soon as school was out we'd head for home. But down in Kentucky, we had a marble yard and marbles was the great thing in those days, you know, and it was a prepared yard, like you would be right out there. It was smoothed off, there was no grass or anything on it, just clay, and we'd play a lot of marbles. One day you'd have a sack full and the next day you'd lose them all.' (laughs) Q: Did you have any close friends during that time? A: I don't think especially. I don't remember. Q: This country was rather flat compared to your Kentucky home? A: Oh yes, that's probably the big change in the farming operation from what it was down there. Everything down there was one and two horse operation, and we came out here, was four and six and like that you know, because you pulled larger tools and worked more ground. So you had to have more livestock. Q: About how long did it take to put in a crop? A: Down there? Q: No, in Taylorville area. A: Quite a while, but we always managed to get it done. I thought a lot of times this farm down there where Jim farms, there was another 160 that was with that when we moved down here and we farmed all that with mules and horses, mostly mules. And I don't ever remember not getting a crop in, in the spring of the year and most of the work was done in the spring of the year. Rather than like now, they plow it all up in the fall you know. They didn't practice that in those days. The only thing they plow in the fall would be the sod ground. It worked better in the spring if it was plowed in the fall, but the rest of it, we had 24 miles that we would put in the field in the spring of the year, and with decent weather, we managed to get the crop in the whole thing and that's about all you do now even with the big tractors and all that you know. Course, you didn't go to the country club and drink coffee all the time. Q: But besides putting the crop in, you still had animals to care for, is that correct? A: Oh yes. Q: Did you still have the chickens? You gathered eggs? A: The whole bit. Q: Did you have a garden outside your house? A: A big one. Q: So it took probably from daylight till dark? A: Well, close to it. We would always get up, start early in the morning, but we always quit at six o'clock at night. We always did and we always took an hour off at noon. And that was a common practice. There was some that would work longer hours than that, but you had to be pressed for time if you did. Q: How old were you when you moved to Auburn? A: Fourteen. Q: You were fourteen. You were in high school then probably? A: No. Q: Going into high school? A: Yes. Q: Was the new high school built at that time? A: Yes, that school was opened in 1916, wasn't it? Wasn't that the date that was on the front of that building? I guess the year before the kids were going to Pawnee and some of them to Chatham to school. And then when this school was opened, Pawnee didn't come, but all the kids from Chatham came to Auburn and all the Thayer kids went to Auburn to high school. Q: It was like a consolidated school? A: Yes, but it wasn't, it was a township high school. Q: Oh, a township? A: Yes, but Chatham was out of the township, but still those kids came from Chatham. They came on interurban [train]. Q: Did they have to pay tuition? A: No, because you didn't have the distributive fund then, issued by the state that supported your schools. There was local taxation. Q: So then you are entering a new area and a new school and it certainly wasn't anything like that one-room school house you were in. What were some of your feelings about going to a big school with a lot of kids? A: Well, it didn't bother me and I don't think it bothered most kids from the country. Q: How did you get back and forth from school? A: Buggy, horse and buggy. I never did ride a horse to school. Q: Did you ever ride a horse? A: Oh yes, I had to ride a horse, but I never rode to school. And a number of times, I'd say a lot of times, I walked across the field and catch the interurban over there, just a half mile across to the interurban, and all the Thayer kids would be on the interurban going to school. So it wasn't any problem, really. You get an interurban, they drove through there about every half hour in those days and if it was night, all you had to do was light a match and they'd stop for you. Q: Is that right? A: Oh yes. Q: Well, is this more like a little streetcar or train that we're talking about? A: Well, don't you know the interurban that was right over here? Q: Well, I do remember the tracks, but what I remember was freight cars. A: Well, this was an electric car like a streetcar. It run all the way from St. Louis to Champaign and north to Peoria. Q: So it would just stop wherever anyone needed a ride? A: Oh yes, and they stopped at the crossing. You'd take your milk over there and put it on a stand there. Put your milk on there. They'd stop and pick up your milk. It was good service really. Q: They take it to the market for you? A: To Springfield to the dairy. Q: Then all the farmers brought their milk to the interurban and they stopped and picked that up, and what did you have, a label on it, on the milk can? A: You had a number on it and your name on the can. Q: They could keep track? A: Sure, then in later years a truck would come by your house and pick it up and take it into Springfield or sometimes some of the trucks went to Litchfield to the creamery down there, but after that, there was very little milk taken to the interurban, you know, to be taken in. Q: Did you have time to participate in any of the sports in school? A: I played football and basketball. Q: Did they play against other towns? A: Oh yes, lot more than they do now. We used to go to Lincoln, Pana, Taylorville, Carlinville, Gillespie, Pittsfield, as far over as Pittsfield, and the schedule was longer than it is now. We always played till Thanksgiving, had games scheduled till Thanksgiving. Q: I'll bet some of those games you had snow maybe and sleet? A: Oh yes, the ground would be froze hard. We always played Waverly on Thanksgiving Day, either there or here. Q: How did you travel then? A: Depending on how far we was going, like we went to Pana, we had a couple of kids in school that had old Model T Fords and we'd try to make it there in them, if they run that far. (laughs) It was quite a problem. Take a can or sack of corn meal along in case the radiator started leaking, we'd pour corn meal in it, water it up again, and go on. But like if we were going no father than Divernon, we'd go in a carriage. Q: How many could go in a carriage? A: Six, it'd crowd you, but you could put six in it. Course, you had to have the uniforms and that took up some room. Six was all you could get in a carriage. Q: What kind of social activities did they have? You ever have a school dance? A: Well, yes and no, there was some objection to dancing in the school at that time. Helen, they didn't dance much in the school, did they? It really wasn't a common practice. If you went to a dance, well they had a dance hall up over the restaurant on the west side of the square, over the old restaurant there on the west side of the square in Auburn. Then, of course, Irvin Park was out there then and there were dances out there all the time, weren't many kids that went out there. Q: You were a kid when Irvin Park was out there? A: Yes. Q: Can you remember anything about it? Where was it located? A: Well, you know where Cherry Grove School was? Well, you know where Panther Creek Mine is? You don't know much, do you? Q: You have to realize that I'm from Missouri. You have to show me all these things. A: Go out on Route 104 to, I'm sure you know where the Studebaker farm is out there. Well, there's a schoolhouse made into a house that sits right there. Well, Irvin Park was down east to the railroad and back to the left. It was in a woods there and it was just a dance pavilion and then later on they had a, on north of that they had a swimming area. It was a pond, is what it was. They had bath houses and that sort of thing. Q: You could go out there for a picnic, if you wanted to? A: Oh yes, and they did allow its use for that purpose. Q: Did people come from all around? A: Every place, there were no restrictions. Q: Did they hire bands? A: Sure, and the pool was used a lot. They came from all over for that, because it was, you know, just wasn't something that you find everyplace and I don't suppose now a days you could operate it, because no filters, nothing like that, you know, just jump in the water, that was it. They did put a lot of sand and gravel out in an area you know, before the pond was filled. Q: Well, doesn't Virden have sort of a pond like that right now where kids swim? A: Yes, but that was a mine watering. Q: But they did allow that. A: Yes, they swam out there, didn't they? Then they got a new pool, haven't they? Q: Well, I think so, I don't know where it is. A: It's in the west end of town out in the west park. Q: So, did you graduate from Auburn High School? A: Yes. Q: In what year? A: 1922. Q: About how old were you then? A: Eighteen, I guess. Q: So 1922, World War I was already over? A: It was over. Q: But can you remember anything at all about World War II? A: Well, nothing in particular only that you just knew that it was going on and all the young people around were being drafted and going into the service and... Q: Did you have any friends that were in the service or did you have any relatives? A: No, I didn't have any friends my age that would have been in, because they wouldn't have been old enough, but it took all of our hired men, I know that. And we had to hire different help. Then when the war was over, they came back and went to work again for us. Q: I understand that during that time there was a terrible flu epidemic, do you remember anything about that? A: That was in 1918, I guess. I think it was. Everybody at our house had it but me, I remember that, and had it bad. And I was trapping in the winter and catching a lot of skunks, and the doctor told me that was the reason I didn't get it, because that scent of the skunk on me. (laughs) But I didn't have the flu. The rest of the family did. Q: But people did die from that epidemic during that time? A: Oh heavens yes, many, many, many people did. I guess that was worse than any flu they've had since that time, course now they can vaccinate for it which they couldn't do then or didn't do. Q: What was Auburn like during your high school days, can you remember? Did they have big fish fries then? A: Well, on the Fourth of July and Labor Day they would have and after I got out of school, while I was on the fire district board for fourteen years, and we had fish fries to raise money enough to buy a fire engine. Q: When did you first go on the fire district? A: I was one of the organizers. Q: You were an organizer. Can you tell me about some of the things that you did then? What was the fire department like up to that point? A: Pretty near zero. I can remember my dad had a roof fire out there ahead of this time and they had a Model T that had a pumper on it and it started out to the fire and got to the yard fence and died and never did get it started. We put the roof fire out by carrying water up on ladders and pouring it on the house. The old pump just gave out, the old Ford did. That's the kind of service we had at that time, but when we organized the fire district, we had all these different functions, and we had a very low tax rate assessment, but we raised money from the district to buy a fire engine. I don't remember what it cost now, not too much. I'd say less than five thousand dollars. And later on we got a tanker that would take water like to the country. If you went to a country fire, you could take a thousand gallons of water with you in case the well went dry or something. Q: Who else was with you on the first organizing committee? A: Well, Fred Harms, Fred Harms and Estle Shutt and I were the first fire member district. We were the organizers of the district. Our attorney was Clifford Blunk from Springfield. He was formerly of Virden. He was an attorney down there for a while, but he handled all of our legal problems. You know it was really quite a problem to organize a fire district because, well, it was like when I was president of the high school board when we organized the unit district. That was another problem, because people, getting people in the country accustomed to the idea of riding a bus and having all the kids transported to town, you know, you had a lot of resentment, but we worked on it. Q: How old were you then, Bud? A: I was out of school. I think we organized the fire district in 1946, I believe. I think I've got a plaque in there that they gave me for being on the district for so long, and I think it was given to me in 1965. Q: You were very busy, then. You were on the school board and you were also trying to organize a fire district? A: Well, by the time we had the unit district came along we were, we had this pretty well set up. We weren't having any problems with that, but just ahead of that, I was assessor for seven years too in Auburn township. I always found something to do whether it amounted to anything or not. Q: And at the same time you were farming? A: Sure. Q: Let's go back to getting this new fire truck. What were some of the first things you had to do? Did you incorporate some help? A: To buy it we had committees. Q: You evidently got several people to join in on this project? A: Hugh McGill was one of the main ones that really went forward with the movement. In fact, he donated money out of his pocket toward the purchase of that engine. Q: And who is Hugh McGill? What did he do here in Auburn? A: Well, he retired here. He was a former senator, state senator. End of Side Two, Tape One Q: Bud, you were telling me about Hugh McGill. You said that he was a former state senator and also a teacher, you thought. A: Yes. Q: When did he come to Auburn? A: Well, he came after he retired. I didn't know him in his early life, he was at retirement age when he came to Auburn. He was raised in Auburn, in the Auburn area and the McGills owned a farm northwest of Auburn. That's where Lowes lived all those years. Q: So he helped with the organizing of this fire district? A: And the library. Q: And the library. A: Yes, he was real interested in both of them. Q: So, what were some of the first things you had to do before you could get your fire truck? A: You had to raise the money. Q: Okay, so what were some of the things you did to raise the money? A: Many, many different things. Anything that would make a little money, we tried it. We had fish fries and chicken fries and on holidays, like Fourth of July or Labor Day, we'd have picnics and served the whole bit, you know. Q: The wives came and helped too? A: Oh sure. We had plenty of help, plenty of help. Always. Q: And everybody just came and had a good time and contributed? A: Sure. It was just, well they contributed to the buying of the food, you know. It was kind of a slow process, but it worked out. We made enough money to buy a fire truck. Q: How long did it take you? A: A little over a year. Q: Well, that wasn't bad at all. To raise five thousand dollars. A: In the meantime, we had some donations too, other than just what we raised from the functions. Q: Where did this fire truck come from? Where did you have to buy it? A: At Red Bud, Illinois. That's down southeast of St. Louis. Q: Did you go down to pick it up? A: Vernon did. Q: Vernon McMillan? A: Yes. Q: He was on the fire district at that time? A: He was fire chief. Q: He was fire chief? He must have been fire chief for many years. A: He was. Long, long time; and the tanker we bought at Arthur, that's over in the . . . Q: Amish country? A: Amish country, east of Decatur. They have a plant over there where they build tanks, fire tanks, tanks for fire trucks and that's where we bought that. Q: Did you have to have some more fundraising to get that tanker? A: No, we raised that through taxation. Q: Through taxation? A: We raised that through taxation. Q: Did this have to come to a vote to the citizens of the fire district? A: Oh yes. Q: And once it passed . . . I suppose it passed right away? A: It passed the first time it was voted on, and after it was formed and had been accepted and everything, we were able to levy a tax then. Like you would have on the library board. That way we had a little money. Well, we built the firehouse too at the same time, down there back of Percys, you know where the old firehouse is. We built that. I think that cost thirty-five hundred dollars and I believe they paid eighty-seven hundred for that one, the new one they bought on the east side. Q: Bud, I don't mean to change the subject; but I did read some old Auburn newspapers and it sort of indicated that there was a tennis court right along in that area somewhere where that firehouse is. Do you remember anything at all about that? A: Well, the kids used to play tennis in there, right on that corner lot there. Q: Right there on the corner lot? A: They had tennis courts there, and they had another court down there, and I believe it was on the lot that Charlie Beatty lives on. They had a tennis court there too at one time. Q: Well, I don't ever remember seeing the tennis court, so I was wondering if the firehouse was built right on that area. A: On a part of it. It wouldn't have been built on all of it. We bought that whole corner really, and built the firehouse on the south side of the lot, and then maintained the lot through the years; and I don't know if they've ever sold that lot or not. Is that still vacant? The rest, the lot from the firehouse to the street . . . on towards the school? It's still vacant, isn't it? Q: Yes. A: I believe the fire district still owns that. Q: This was a volunteer fire department? A: Right. Q: About how many men did you have when you first got your truck? A: Twenty-two. Q: Twenty-two men? That's very good, isn't it? A: Yes, course they couldn't all be called out at one time. AUBURN CITY HALL AND FIRE ENGINE Q: Well, how were they called out? By the siren? A: Yes, we had a siren and we had a phone system made up through the General Telephone Company that would ring each fireman, you know, at their house, but the first notice was off of the siren that was on top of the old surface building there on the square. Q: Now, a lot of these volunteers worked right in Auburn. Is that correct? And were able to leave their jobs? They more or less had permission from their employers for instance and they were free to leave whenever there was an emergency? A: Yes. There was no problem at all, when the fire whistle went off, the firemen took off. Now, some of the volunteers maybe would be working in Springfield or something. They couldn't. That's why you had to have more than just what you would need, you know, to go on a truck. Because there would be times when they wouldn't all be available, and you had extras for that purpose. Q: A lot of men that worked outside of town, in Springfield, would come during the nighttime probably? A: Oh yes. They'd be right there. Q: They more or less just dropped everything and headed for the firehouse. Is that correct? Or did any of them head for the fire area? A: They had a system among themselves. I believe the chief went first and the fellows on the truck, that manned the truck, would be next and they would be right behind the chief, headed for whatever direction the fire was, and there would be extra firemen that would go to pick up the hose and maybe stretch out the hose or something like that. They wouldn't all be directly involved on the fire truck, because there's a lot of work around a fire besides just that. Q: They probably had a few fire drills, too, didn't they? A: Yes, they had schooling and that sort of thing. It was a well equipped fire department really. Q: Bud, when I first moved to Auburn and had very small children, that lot where the Baker Chevrolet has their used cars, there was a big white home there, and it was scheduled for them to burn that down and the fire department used that as a practice, and they went in and picked up a dummy that had been placed in there. My children got the false impression that firemen set fires. A: Oh, is that right? Q: They were very small and they didn't understand, but they remembered that very much, and they got the false impression, but I thought that was a very interesting drill. The townspeople were able to come and watch them in action. A: Sure. Well, they still do that. I think they're supposed to have a training session like that... once a year, if they can find something available, you know. Because they fight fires with so many different things now, as compared with what they did in the early days. They used water and that was about it, but now they've got all different chemicals, you know, that they used on different types of fires, like gasoline, they used foam instead of water. Water will actually spread a gasoline fire. Just the pressure of the water will blow the flames, you know, but foam will kill it right now. It's improved a lot over the years, of course. Q: Did you hear Pat Ward tell about the latest discovery that the fire department has? A: I didn't, no. Q: There is a chemical that will just put it out in a matter of just a few minutes. It's absolutely miraculous, and they're very happy to have discovered it. A: Does it smother it, is that what it does or how does it put it out? Q: It is a chemical that is applied, and I guess just smothers it, so it's come a long way, I guess. A: Yes, it would have. Q: I guess you saw some pretty tragic fires. A: I can't remember any big fires in Auburn, during the time I've been around this part of the country. Q: Do you remember the fire that Dr. Driver was killed in? A: No, I don't. Who was he? Q: He lived on Wineman Street, across from Enriettos in that area. I remember seeing the flames at night, when I woke up during the night, and I heard the fire engine, and I looked out and this house was completely in flames and he died in that fire. A: I just don't remember that. Q: It was probably about fifteen years ago maybe. A: Well, you lived there by the home then? Q: Yes. There are probably many men that are still connected with the fire department? A: Not too many from back like when it was organized. The Hummels were real active in it, all three of them, all the time that they were here really. Q: About how long was Vernon McMillan associated with the fire department? A: Well, he was on the fire department when we organized, he was on when they had the city fire, just the truck, you know, that sort of thing and they didn't go outside the city, but they weren't supposed to; but occasionally they did, but he was on the fire department, God, I don't know how many years. He was on when we organized the district, I know that, and that probably would have been around 1947, 1946 or 1947, something like that; and he had been on a while at that time, in fact he was selling fire equipment. Q: Oh, he was selling fire equipment? A: He did for years. Q: Was that his business? A: No, he was in the drugstore here. Q: Oh, he was in the drug business? A: With Surface. There on the corner. Q: Doc Surface. Were they kin to each other? A: No, I don't, I don't think so. He married Surface's daughter. Q: That was his father-in-law? A: Yes. I'm not so sure whether she was a daughter actually or an adopted daughter. But anyway, Elsie was the girl that he married and her name was Surface. Q: Well, Bud, I know you can be very proud of your participation in this very worthy cause, and you've probably seen lots of improvements over the years, in the fire department; but it is still volunteer, is that correct? A: It is still volunteer, and it is tax supported, which they didn't have until we organized the fire district. We didn't have any authority to raise money for the fire department at that time. What money they got, they got from the city, but after it was organized, then you had to go to the country. Well, of course, naturally, you had to have taxation to support it, and I guess we had, we probably have now as large a fire district as anyone in this south part of the county and I think as good, or maybe better, department. It was always a question about the location of the firehouse. The people on the east side of the track, if they got a fire and there happened to be a long train going through, you know, you couldn't get there too fast, you had to wait for the train to go by. Q: That could be a very frustrating experience. A: And they always objected to it, because they were paying taxes the same as they were on the other side, but you couldn't have the one firehouse on both sides, so a few years back they decided to buy that Harris Building, you know where it is now? Q: That's on Highway 104, east of the track. A: Right. That gave them access to both sides of the town and the country too, really. It's a lot better. Expensive, but things are expensive that are good, I guess. Q: The firemen now wear these pagers too, so that they can know which fire truck is going to go out probably, whether it's one from the one department or whether it's one from east of the tracks. A: I don't know much about that pager system, but it works and it's real great, I think. Q: Well, Bud, let's go back just a little bit to your graduation from high school. What was graduation like in those days? A: I guess about like, I don't know how they do it now. Q: Did you wear a cap and gown? A: Oh sure. Hell, yes. Q: And your family came? A: Well, yes. Q: And your friends and it was a big deal? A: Sure. Q: Did they give you gifts? A: Sure, the parents did, of course. Q: So, you're out of high school now and you're going into farming with your dad? A: Yes, and teaching school. Q: And you're going to teach school too. A: I started teaching in the fall of 1922 when I graduated in May, in the spring. I started teaching that fall. Q: Well, that's wonderful. How did you decide to go into that? A: Oh, I don't know. Just... Q: Did somebody come to you and say we need a teacher? A: No, I had a friend and we were undecided on what we wanted to do, and that spring before school was out, we decided to take the teacher's examination. We did and we passed. Then between the time we were ready, we knew we were going to pass, well I had a school located that I could get and he did too; but we decided we'd take an exam for a railroad mail clerk. So we went to Carlinville and took that examination and we both passed and before we started teaching we got a notice, you know, we had a job as a railroad mail clerk; but our schools were close in the area and the neighborhood, so we just started teaching and we liked it. Q: Who was this other person? A: Hubert Hatcher and he's dead now. Q: But he also was a school teacher? A: Yes. Q: What were your first days like at your new school, as a teacher? A: I suspect it might have been a little turmoil, I don't know, I don't remember any problems at all. Q: You had all your books ready to go? A: Oh, yes. The program was determined by the county superintendent of schools, at that time and, of course, and before you started, you had to go to Springfield and pick up all the equipment you needed, you know. Q: Were you responsible for heating the building? A: Yes. Q: And how was it heated? A: Coal stove, a big coal, well, you would almost call it a furnace, I guess, but it was an upright stove that sat in the back of the house and there were no vents or anything like that, it was just, whatever heat you created would float around over the room. Q: Were there any funny little happenings during this time? Anything amusing? A: No, I don't remember anything special, of course, I think I said we had school functions at this little schoolhouse. That was the center of the entertainment in the neighborhood, you know. We had dances and dinners and things like that; but I don't remember anything special. Q: Did you have spelling bees or anything of that? A: Well, just among the kids at school. Q: Just among the kids. You didn't compete? A: I did have a track team at one time, while I was teaching, and took them to Pleasant Plains to a track meet. I had some kids in school that were big enough and pretty good athletes really, and I played with them and helped them . . . tried to, and we had good luck over there really. Bob MacMurdo was one of those kids that went on that, that's around here that anyone would know. Q: Did you and Hubert sort of get together and exchange ideas ever? A: Oh, about every day. Q: Oh, about every day. A: (Laughs) Yes. He taught down in the county line and I taught right over here back of the farm, and he'd come by after school, and we ran around together really, and we were raised together pretty much. He lived well, you know where the first little house is across the railroad from twelve, number twelve, twelve green, thirteen tee? Q: Yes. A: Just across the railroad in the house there? Q: Yes. A: That whole family was raised there. There were a bunch of kids. We used to swim down here. There was a dam here, right back of the swimming pool that's down here now and we'd swim down there during the summertime. All the kids in the neighborhood did. Q: Oh. Talking about that area, Bud, do you ever remember any Indian mounds around here? A: Well, the only one that I ever, that was ever supposed to be, was right where number fourteen tee is. You know on that high place there by the railroad by fourteen tee. Now I never had any reason to think that it was, but the Hatchers that I mentioned there, lived there all through the years, and they claim that that was an Indian mound, and when we were building the golf course, we found quite a few arrows scattered around in that area. By moving so much dirt, you know, you dug down and one would show up occasionally. Q: Did you save any of them? A: Oh, I've got three or four of them in there, I think. Q: What kind of Indians do you think lived in this area? A: I really don't know. I suppose maybe the Illini, I don't know. Would you think? Most likely. I don't know any history that would point out what Indians would live in this area. Q: Bud, when did you meet your wife? A: Helen, when did I meet you? It was 1924 or 1925. When did I meet her--I went to school with her. Q: Oh, you went to school with her? A: Oh, yes. Q: What was Helen's maiden name? A: Sudan. Q: Did you date Helen while you were in school? A: No, no, I never did date Helen until after I was out of school, and I guess she was out of school. She was working in Springfield. Q: Where did she work in Springfield? A: I don't know the name of that insurance company now. Q: For an insurance company. A: But, she worked for an insurance company. She'd know. But she drove back and forth. I guess we started going together around Christmastime in 1924 or 1925, maybe 1925 or 1926. I'm not sure which. Q: How long did you date before you got married? A: About a year. Q: About a year? And when did you get married? A: 1927. Q: What time of year was that? A: June. Q: In June? Where did you get married? A: In the Methodist Church at Auburn. Q: Can you describe that day? A: Oh, that was a lot of fun. Q: Was it a hot day? A: It was hot. I'll guarantee you, it was hot, and it was a small wedding. We had the wedding there at the church, and then Helen and I and my sister and I don't believe she was married. It was Ralph Easley. You remember him. That was her husband. Well, anyway we went to the St. Nic for dinner after the wedding. Then, Helen and I went on a trip down South. We went to Kentucky and through eastern Tennessee. Q: Did you stop and see your relatives down there in Kentucky? A: Oh yes. We stopped on the way through. Q: And then you went on down into Tennessee? A: Yes. We were gone about a week, I guess. Something like that. Q: When you came back, where did you live? A: The first place we lived was . . . you know where Mason Snow lives? Right south of the Standard Station there in Auburn. Q: Oh, yes. On Fifth Street? A: Yes. We lived the next house south of them. Q: Well, you lived on South Fifth Street. Now were you still teaching school? A: No. I quit teaching when I got married. Q: You quit teaching when you got married? What did you start doing then? Full time farming? A: Farming, farming, right. Q: But you lived in town. You didn't have animals maybe. Were you able to take care of your animals by . . . A: Oh, sure. I had to come back and forth to work everyday anyway. Q: You must have had to get up pretty early. A: But we didn't live in there more than two or three months. Then we moved south or east of Thayer, in that house as you come out of Thayer and all the way up to, almost to the corner on the south side of the road. There's a house there. We lived there, I guess until the next spring, and then we moved in the house that is torn down now, on the farm that Jim farms; on that 80 there. We were there until 1935, and then we bought this farm and moved here and just stayed here. We moved three, four times, didn't we, Helen? She probably doesn't remember either. Q: What were some of the social activities for young married couples? Did you run around with some other young married couples? A: Yes. We had plenty of social life. We went to Springfield an awful lot to shows and dances. Q: Speaking of the shows, Bud, do you remember going to your very first movie? A: Yes, I don't remember anything about it; but I remember going. It was at Taylorville and it was a nickelodeon. Q: Just a nickel? A: Just a nickel. Q: And they had someone who played the piano, did they? A: They had music, yes. Q: And when things got more exciting, the music would get louder and faster? A: Yes. But that's the only picture show of that type that I was ever in. I did go with the folks one Saturday afternoon. Q: Did Auburn have any movie houses? A: Yes. There was an old movie house between the A & P and Faust's. I don't remember what they called the darn thing now. Bijoe, I believe. Then, I guess the next one was the one Ora built, Mrs. Searles. There on the corner, across from the tavern. That was real nice for those days. It was operated for a long, long time. Then, Mitchells built the new one, and Ora closed hers up and it's still sitting there. Q: Bud, you were probably just a teenager when prohibition was voted in, became a law. Do you remember how it affected any of the people in Auburn? A: The only thing that I would remember, and know about, is that was when the bootlegging started. Q: Was there quite a bit of that in Auburn? A: Oh yes, yes. Q: Most people were just making their own at home, homebrew then? A: The foreigners did all the time. Wine and homebrew. Q: So you could get it any time you wanted it? A: Oh, yes. It was there. You might have to sneak around a little bit. Q: But the saloons had to close down? A: Right. Q: And there used to be a lot of saloons in Auburn. A: I think seven or eight. Maybe Howard told you, but there were a bunch of them. There were seven in Thayer on Main Street, right down through the middle of town. Q: Bud, did you ever hear any rumors about some Chicago gangsters hiding out in this area? A: Well, the only thing I knew about that, Shirley, was a group of Chicago people, supposedly Capone's henchmen or whatever operated a big still over here where Gravits live. A big still, one of the biggest in this country. They had negroes in there doing the work, and they had vats built in the basement. I don't know whether you've ever been in that house or not, but the vats are still there. Q: No, but it's a big house built way back in a wooded area. Is that correct? A: Yes. The vats are still there. The basement was divided up into different vats and that's where they had the mash. They made White Mile . . . Alcohol. That's what they made. The truck would come in at night and haul it out. They went to Chicago, or that's the word we had around here, and I'm sure it's right. They hauled it in five gallon cans. It was a big operation. They had the water piped up from the creek to use in their mash and that wasn't too healthy, but that didn't make any difference, they were making alcohol out of it anyway. Q: Was there any violence during that time? A: Not there. Q: Did the police get involved with any of this? A: The only time they were ever involved in it, that I know anything about, was when I was teaching school. Jim MacMurdo was on the Board of Directors. He lived there where Jim [Nuchols] lives. His brother was county sheriff, deputy, not sheriff. The deputy called Jim MacMurdo and said the still would be raided late that evening. When I came home, Jim MacMurdo called me and said they were going to raid the still; to come down and I did. When we got over there, the raid was over and everything had been cleaned out. The deputy told us that anything we wanted around there to take as everything was going to be confiscated anyway. So we carried a lot of stuff across back of where you live, across that branch and across where the golf course is now, and brought it to the farm down here and stored it in the barn. It was copper pipe and just things laying around that would be used. Q: Do you have any memoirs of that? Anything you could show? A: No, I wouldn't have. We carried a lot of coke. Coke isn't very heavy. We carried it in burlap bags. We carried it to the fence and we had a team there, put it on that and carried it over to his [MacMurdos] place. Of course, that would have been burned up. No, I don't have anything that was in that. That was the end of it. It never started up any more. Q: Bud, what is coke? A: It's like brickettes. They used it in blacksmith shops all the time, instead of coal. There's no smoke to it. It's real hot burning. It's processed from coal. It would be like brickettes you use in outdoor cookery. Q: Did they have a blacksmith shop in Auburn? A: Two of them. Q: Where were they located? A: One was where Gyorkos garage, west of the elevator, between there and the locker. Bill Hedrick had a blacksmith shop there and Ben Lewis had a shop where Oscar Lane built his new house in Auburn, down from the Methodist Church. There on the corner. Lane bought it, tore it down and built his house. Q: Did you ever go and watch the blacksmith at work? A: Well, yes, we had occasion to take different things to be worked on. Q: You took all your horses and mules in to be shoed? A: Yes, and the sharpening of tools, plow shears and that sort of thing. Q: How often does a horse need to be shoed? A: It depends on where it's used and how much it's used. If it's used on soft ground, like farming, they don't wear out very fast; but, if they're used on the road, they do wear out pretty fast. We didn't always have our horses shoed that we used on plowed ground. Q: Do mules have to be shoed just like the horses? A: Oh, yes. Q: Does that hurt them? A: No. That old hoof's just like driving it into a tree, the nail. Q: This road out here that we call the Cemetery Road, was that the road that you traveled back and forth to town on? A: Yes. Q: What was it like? Did you ever get mired down? A: Oh God. Right there at Isabelle Drive was the worst piece of road between our place and Auburn, by far. In the spring of the year, I remember a lot of times, it took four horses to pull an empty wagon through there. It was just like a sump hole. Q: Have you noticed in the real bad, rainy weather how that yard still fills up with water? In the same area? A: Well, in later years, on the east side of the road there is a tile that was put in there by one of the road commissioners, 30 or 40 years ago and ran tile across my field down to this pond area and they drained it pretty well, but that's still low ground in there and it's seepy. That used to be the worst place that I know of for roads. Q: You don't suppose there is a stream down under there? A: Maybe a spring, could be. Q: So you had some experiences trying to get your wagon out of that? A: One spring we were helping a neighbor move from across the road, from where we lived down south of here, to Loami. He'd rented a farm over there. We'd load up the wagons in the afternoon and put four horses on and pull it through that mud hole and then leave the team of horses and wagons there, where Jim lives now, and begin again the next morning. If we did it the afternoon before, we always knew we were out in the clear the next morning. Q: What were the streets like around the square in Auburn? What did they do to keep them more or less solid? Did they ever add rock and bark or anything like that? A: I don't remember what time they started oiling the streets in Auburn. I can remember when they oiled in Taylorville, and I suppose they were oiling in Auburn about the same time. That would be the only thing they would do . . . put a coat of oil on them. Then they got the hardroad through there and I guess the pavement. That was the year we were married, I think; because they had a street dance downtown when they opened it. I'm not sure if that's when they opened the pavement or opened Route 4. It used to come through Auburn on the west side, and it still does. It was either the opening of that or the pavement around the square. Q: Did they still have hitching posts then? A: Oh, yes. They haven't been out of there too many years. Well, more than you think too, because time goes by so fast. It's been several years . . . when they redid the park. Q: Do you still remember the old bandstand in the park? A: Yes. It was quite different from what this one is. It was a two-story kind of thing. Q: Did the band play on the upper story? A: No, not that I remember. Q: What did they use the upper story for? A: I'll be darned if I know. Seems like they had a fire alarm up there or something. It doesn't seem it was used for anything. Maybe Helen would know. Q: But it was kind of pretty? A: Yes, it was the way they did things in those days, built things. Q: Do you remember one of the first cars you ever saw in Auburn and who might have owned it? A: Not really. The first car that I remember very much about was a car owned by Workman that lived down close by Helen. He had the first car that I remember anything about. It was a big darn car. It was a Hupmobile or something like that. Right along that time the Model T came out. (snaps fingers) And they went just like that. Just about everyone had a Model T for $500. Q: Five hundred dollars. Did that come with a top on it? A: Yes, and curtains, side curtains. Q: Running board? A: Sure. Acetylene lights. A tank that set on the running board that ran the lights. Q: Did you have to crank it up to get it started? A: Yes, that was the only way on the early ones. I got an arm broke cranking one, one time. Q: Some of them were rather reluctant to start? A: Well, most of them were and they kicked, kicked like a mule. You had to be very careful. You could pull up on the crank and if it kicked, it would fly out of your hand. If you pushed down on the other side and it kicked, it would kick you "right out of the park." They were kind of treacherous. It was something you just lived with. Q: Then, the filling stations started up then? A: Yes, filling stations and garages. Kesslers had the first, or that's where we bought our first Ford I remember. That were there in the Pennington Building, there on the corner, across from Nicholl's Store. Q: Where Beatty's Implement used to be? A: Yes, Kesslers owned that at one time, and had a funeral parlor there and the car business. The funeral parlor was back in the east side of it. Q: They were running all those things at once? A: Yes. Then later they moved the funeral parlor to where Rua's Store is now. Then, that was the funeral parlor for awhile. Q: Right on the northeast side of the square, then? A: Right. Q: Is there any of that family left? A: The Kesslers... Q: Is Jane Dufour a descendent of this Kessler family? A: She is a Kessler. Jane was Morris Kessler's daughter. Arthur and Morris were the two boys and the old man's name was B. K. Kessler, B. L. Kessler I believe it was. One of the boys is at Champaign, a brother to Jane. He had an article in the paper a couple of weeks ago about the reduction in the legislature. He had an article or a letter to Joe. That was one of the Kesslers. Q: What did you think of Franklin D. Roosevelt? A: I thought he was great. Q: Before you were married, the women were not allowed to vote. Do you remember when that law came through? Did your mother go to vote? A: She wasn't too excited about it. I think she probably did go to vote; but not ever having voted, it didn't excite country people. It might have people in the city, I don't know. There was no big stir about it out in the country. We always voted at Thayer. Q: You were old enough to vote for Franklin D. Roosevelt? A: Oh yes. Sure, that was in 1932 that he took office. The election was in the fall. End of Side One, Tape Two Q: Bud, I would like to talk to you a little bit about the community of Auburn and the fact that there were never any black people who settled here to my knowledge. Do you remember if there were any black families who lived in Auburn? A: Not to my knowledge, no. If there were, I didn't know anything about it. There was in Virden, but here, I don't think so. Q: Even today, I don't know of any black families who live here. A: There is, isn't there? I thought there was one black child in school. Q: Perhaps there is. What do you think Auburn's feelings are now toward black people? Do you think this would be an accepted thing? If suddenly a black community developed? A: What do you mean by a community? Q: Just an area of Auburn where they set up homes and moved in. Do you think anyone would be upset about that? A: I don't know. I don't think they would be upset about it, but I don't know how they would be accepted. Really, for one or two families to move into any area, I don't know how they would be happy being there, because they would be alone and they don't mix that well. But as far as being resentful towards it--I don't think so. Q: Have you met the new Vietnamese family that lives in Auburn? A: No, I haven't. How long have they been here? Q: They've been here about a year and a half. They seem to be accepted pretty well. A: Were they sponsored by some group or someone? Q: Originally, yes, they were sponsored by a couple of people, and that didn't seem to work out too well. He worked over here at the farm where they have the horses, right behind you here. A: Oh yes, John Harmons. Q: Then he started working for the county supervisor on the roads. He's now employed at Dickey-John. He is an intelligent person, but he has a language problem. They've been taking English, and he's adjusted pretty well. The Baker family, the Patterson family, and several other families have helped them along. A: Well, I remember that fellow being over there. In fact, he painted the fences over there last spring. I saw him doing that. But, I didn't even know they were still here. I didn't know anything about the arrangement or anything. Q: They live where Mohlers used to live. A: Out here in the country then? Q: Well, the point of the conversation is--do you think there is any racial discrimination? A: I wouldn't think so, Shirley. I don't believe there would be. I don't know why there would be, if they were decent people. Surely there's a place for them. Q: Okay, let's talk a little about--do you remember what you were doing and the way you felt the day of Pearl Harbor? A: I remember what I was doing. I was shucking corn...in the field. I heard about it when I came in at noon. I don't remember any special reaction to it, because it just seemed rather far-fetched....You know, being that far away. It was unexpected, of course, with all of us. It wasn't too long until there was a lot of excitement about it, and people were starting to get involved, being drafted and all that sort of thing. It soon had an effect in the community. Q: Did Auburn have a ration place? A place where you had to go to get ration coupons? Anything of that nature? A: That was done through the supervisor's office. Q: What kind of things were rationed? A: Sugar and flour mostly. I don't think canned goods were. Sugar was the big thing, really. Q: Were tires hard to get? A: Oh, yes. Q: How did it affect you on the farm? A: Not too much. It would depend on the condition of your equipment at the time it happened. You had to go to the ration board to get permission to buy a tire--for a car or for an implement either. Of course, everyone had to do it, so we didn't think too much about it. Q: Did the government provide for the farmers...you probably had high priority, didn't you? A: We would have, for certain items, yes. Q: What about gasoline? Was that hard to get during that time? A: Yes. It was rationed too. You had gas stamps. Of course, there was a lot of trading and that was possible. If I didn't need all of mine, I could give them to you and you could use them. It may have been some hardship, but everyone lived through it, so it wasn't that severe. Q: What about help on the farm? Did most of the young guys go to the war and leave you short handed? A: Yes, but some were exempt for that reason...because they were employed on the farms. Many, many of them volunteered and went because they felt it was their duty. Q: Did the government ask anything special of the farmers...such as, to plant more of one crop than another? A: No. The thing they were most interested in was that you do the best job you could and raise everything you could, including vegetables and the whole bit. There was no special crop they've dwelled on as being the one needed most. Q: So did you have a vegetable garden then? Like a victory type garden? Did everyone have a victory type garden? A: Everyone in the country did. Probably in town too. That's always been the history of the foreigners. They used every inch of ground, their backyards and all to grow vegetables in. And they still do. They have beautiful gardens... more than they do on the farm any more. It's easy to go to the grocery and pick things up. Q: I think it is the trend, isn't it? The farmer has plenty of work to do, without taking care of a garden, also. A: There aren't too many big gardens in the country any more. I don't know whether it's too much trouble to take care of, or that it's just so easy now to get anything you want. Everything is available now and it wasn't at that time. Q: Did you know anyone personally who dealt chiefly in truck farming? A: No. We don't have the type of soil for that kind of vegetable gardening. Q: What kind of soil does it take? A: You have that kind in Auburn, that is good for that. The black silt loam that doesn't pack like this out here, when it gets wet or real dry. It takes a real loose textured soil to grow vegetables in. Q: Your soil looks very black to me. Is that because of years and years of fertilization? A: This soil varies so much in this area. Now, you go to the black gumbo soil and it gets just as hard as this clay out here. It wouldn't be good for vegetables, but it will grow good field crops. Then you move on to higher ground like the brown silt loam right over there and it doesn't pack like the black soil or clay does. It's a lot easier to farm. Q: Back in the olden days, before they went into the technology of testing soils and so forth, what means did you have of testing the soils for your different kinds of products? A: We could test for lime. It wasn't too hard to do that, but for some of the other chemicals, we would take to the Farm Bureau or to someplace like that which had a laboratory to test it. To test lime you used a litmus paper, to test how much lime was in it... not how much was in it, but if there was sufficient lime in it. Q: It's important that the soil is acid? A: Non-acid. Q: What did you do then if the soil was too acid? A: You bought a few loads of limestone and spread it on the field. It wasn't an easy job then. It was usually sent in on cars and you had to scoop it out of the cars into a wagon. You usually used a flatbed wagon with boards in the bottom that you could turn up to let the lime run out in piles. Then you had to load it again, and put it in a spreader, and spread it with a team, with horses, you know. Q: You didn't want to do that on a windy day? A: No, you wouldn't get good coverage if you did, but now with the trucks they have and the equipment, it's no trouble to the farmer. All he has to do is pay for it. It does cost more, of course. Q: But it's faster? Less time consuming. A: And you get better coverage too. I don't know of any farmer anywhere, who has a lime spreader anymore. They do have a small one over here at the golf course, but most of that is put on with a truck and spreader. Q: Do they use liquid or dry? A: Dry. Q: I have seen liquid spreaders. What is that? A fertilizer? A: That's ammonia. Most of the chemicals are put on that way now, not the herbicides and insecticides. Q: What did you do back in the days before they had herbicides? How did you control the weeds? A: You raised a lot of weeds, because you didn't have any control, except cultivation. It wasn't easy to do, because if you happened to have weeds in your cornfield and it rained two or three weeks, you had weeds bigger than your corn. There was no way to get them out really. So you had to contend with a lot of weeds...and poor crops would be the result of it. Q: What were the first corn pickers like? A: The first one we had was a one row and that was about the way they came out. Within two or three years, they came out with a two row. It was a pull type deal. You had a tractor on a picker and a wagon swung out to the side for the elevator to put the corn in, and then in a couple of years, they came out with the mounted picker, which was a picker that fit right over the tractor, and it was two row. You just hooked the wagon behind the tractor and the corn went right back. It was a big improvement over the pull type, but still they weren't too easy to operate. Q: But before then, you had to pick by hand? A: Yes. Q: Did you have to hire extra help during corn picking time? A: Sure. Q: Because it all had to be picked at the same time. Is that correct? A: No. The picking season would have to start--we didn't have the driers then, as we have now, so you let it dry in the fields as much as you could, but it was all picked in the ear instead of being shelled like it is now. You would start maybe in late October and it might go on into the spring of the year. I've seen it happen many times. Depending on the weather conditions...the condition of the fields. It was an all winter's job mostly. If you had any amount of corn. Q: And you had to be careful the animals didn't get out there before you did? A: In those days you had fences every place. We had no trouble in that way, especially in the winter. You kept your animals in around the barn, feedlots and so forth. But after the corn was picked, you would turn your animals out into the cornfield to pick up the extra corn or nibble on the stock. Most everyone did turn their livestock into the cornfields, after they had been shucked. Q: If this was all done into the spring and you're turning your animals out into that area, what did you do for the next planting season? Was the ground all plowed under? A: Yes, the next spring. Q: But now I see farmers turn the ground right after they get the corn out. A: That's right. At that time, every 40 acres had a fence around it, either a log fence, a hedge fence, or a woven wire fence. You could put stock in any of the fields, because you had the fence to contain them. But now there isn't a rod of fence on that 40 acres down there. So, you wouldn't use it for livestock. Q: I would like to talk a little about hedge fences. I'm a city girl, and don't know a thing about them. Hedge fences are from hedge trees, is that correct? A: They're from hedge apples. They start from hedge apples. Q: Why did they choose that particular type of tree? A: Probably you wouldn't loose as much ground from shade, as you would from any other kind of tree, because it didn't get that tall. Q: They're bushy, right? A: Right. And when they set out the hedge, they would put a woven wire in with it and when the hedge grew up, you had a livestock type fence, because they wouldn't go over the hedge. You kept it trimmed, like you would the bushes around your house. Q: Did they plant them close together? A: Yes. Q: Are hedge bushes thorny? A: Yes, they're thorny, I guess they are like a locust tree. Q: Now I've read this, but maybe you've never practiced this. Where they planted hedge trees, and then cut them so they would all fall the same direction and form a fence. Have you ever heard of that? A: Many times a gap would develop in the fence and you were trimming the hedge or cutting it, you would slice a hedge and push it over to follow the hedge to close up the gap. Q: There aren't many farmers still using that type of fence, are there? A: No. McNaughts the only one I know of around here, and they have miles of it. Q: Have you ever tried pulling those out? A: Oh, yes. Q: They're tough? A: You're right, they're tough. They use to pull them with a stump puller. Right back of your house was all pulled with a stump puller at one time. They had a drum with a big cable on it; they had two horses hooked on it. They would throw a clamp around a bunch of hedge and just start winding the cable around the drum and it would come out eventually. But, that was hard work. You had to clean it all up by hand and no chainsaws. You used an axe and a cross-cut. Q: Were the fruits of the hedge tree ever good for anything? A: Not to my knowledge. Q: The animals didn't eat them? A: No. Q: Let's go back a little. We started to talk about insecticide and also what you did about insects way back when. A: We seem to have a lot more different kinds of insects these days than we did then. The thing that bothered us most as I remember, would be the chinch bug. They would eat up a cornfield, if you didn't do something about it. When the bugs came in on one side of the field, we would plow furrow down the edge of the field--the bugs wintered in the hedge rows--and put tar in it. Either that or we'd drag a log up and down with one horse up and down the trench and keep it real dusty, and they couldn't climb out of the trench. About every 20 or 30 feet you would have a posthole--the bugs would fall in the postholes and you would pour some coal oil in there and set it afire. That was the only method you had to get rid of them. Q: What year did insecticides come out for farm usage? A: In the forties, I'd say. Q: Right after the war? A: Some before and some after the war. Q: Was DDT one of the first things used? A: We had DDT in the early forties, in the dairy barns and places like that to kill flies. It wasn't too many years until the old fly got so tough he could just eat it and it didn't do any good. Q: Then what did you do to get rid of flies? Did you start screening any areas? A: No. I guess one of the first things developed was an electrical device that you would hang up in the barn and a fly would hit it and it would kill it like. (snaps fingers) And then they would use fly strips and different things like that--to hang up. But, they got to where DDT didn't affect them too much. I suppose their bodies built up so that it wasn't effective. Q: About what year did you start innoculating your animals? A: I think that's always been. I wouldn't say always, but for hog cholera back as far as I can remember in this area. That was the main thing you did vaccinate for. Q: So you did have professional veterinarians back in those days. A: Oh yes, definitely. Q: Who was the veterinarian in this area? A: Doc Laird was the first one that I remember in Auburn. Perc could tell you all about him. He was involved in just about everything. Every small town had a veterinarian at that time. Right now I think you'd have to go to Springfield or Waverly to get a veterinarian. There was one in Girard, Doc Hammond, but I don't think he's there any more. Every small town had one at that time. Q: It must have kept them pretty busy. A: Well yes. In the early days when they moved around in horse and buggies, it was pretty slow, but there wasn't as much livestock then as there was a few years later. But right now a vet would starve to death in this area, because there's not enough livestock. They do more work with pets than anything else. You take a situation like Dowsons over here, I think they do their own veterinarian work. Q: They can get their own vaccination serum? A: Yes. That's something that can be done very easily by the farmer himself. Q: Have they always had an FFA in this area, Bud, or was that something that developed? A: They didn't have it when I was at school. They had an Ag Department at the school, but FFA wasn't connected with it. Of course, when Jim was in school, they had it then. Q: What kinds of things does the FFA do? Do they actually make studies of different kinds of things on a farm? A: Well, they study livestock and soil, and how to improve it. They have projects of their own--like a few acres of ground of their own that they put in and they keep track of every penny that's spent on it and take the harvest and see if it comes out as a profit or loss. Q: Sort of a little venture in business farming? A: Yes. Q: And I suppose they show some of their projects at fairs? A: That and animals too. They have animal projects. Our kids, the girls, had sheep, lambs, course they were easy to handle, you know. Jim had calves, cows. Yes, they were supposed to show their projects at the fair. Q: And it was judged by people who had a lot of experience? A: Yes. Q: Did you belong to any farm organizations? Such as the Farm Bureau? A: I joined the Farm Bureau when it was organized. I don't remember the date. Q: About how old were you then? A: I was just out of school. It would have been in the early twenties. Q: What were some of the first things you did? A: People weren't as close together then because of transportation--getting back and forth. You would go to the Farm Bureau with problems, such as insects, crops or livestock and they would come down and look at it and try to tell you what to do to improve it. Q: In other words, the Farm Bureau was a panel of experts? If you were a member, you were entitled to their services. A: That's right. The head of the Farm Bureau was called the farm advisor and he had another man under him. They were university people graduated from the Ag Department, The University of Illinois or some other college. They were supposed to have expert knowledge on whatever farm problems might come along. You had access to that by belonging to the Farm Bureau. Q: Your dues, in other words, paid their salaries? A: Yes, and they got money too, from the state, for the Farm Bureau and from the extension service at the University of Illinois. Q: Did every town have a Farm Bureau organization? A: It would only be for local people. Every county had a farm advisor. Each township had a Farm Bureau group. Later, perhaps due to small attendance, townships would go together and have just one meeting. A: And you probably had state conventions and national? A: Oh, yes. Those were usually in Chicago at the stockyards in December. I think the national is at Kansas City--has been through the years. Q: That's a good way to meet other people who have the same problems you do and to find out what's new in the farm machinery line? A: Well, it covers the whole scope of farming. It's gotten very political though. I don't think that's too good myself, but that's the way things are, so you accept it. Q: Did you ever belong to the Rural Electric Association? It hasn't been too many years that the rural people have had electricity. Were you in on that at all? A: I definitely was. I was one of the first to sign up down this road. I was very interested in it, because we were moving from down south, one quarter of a mile to this place. We wanted electricity, if we could get it, so... and we did, by the time we moved there in 1936. They had people going around to take applications and when they had enough to justify the loan to get the thing started, it started. The first office was in Divernon. A little store building there. From that, it grew to the big new building out here. I think we have another building up by the Lampliter. That might be a state building up there. Our local REA, of course, is out here now. Q: How does that work exactly? Did you buy stock in it? A: No. It's a corporation. Being a member, you are a part of the corporation. Q: That must have been a wonderful thing to suddenly have electricity? A: It took us out of the darkness really. It was a great thing. Q: So, the first thing you did was to put lights into your home and into your barn? A: Yes. It was good for the whole country really. People started buying refrigerators and electric irons and all that sort of thing. They all had to be manufactured, of course, because up to that time, you had no use for them. It created a real great market for that kind of merchandise. Q: It made life easier for the lady of the house too? A: Sure. Just imagine taking your lights off. You know what it's like. You had them off before. Q: Yes, I did, ten days! A: It's no fun. Q: We could talk a little about that terrible ice storm we had here. That was just like "The Little House on the Prairie," wasn't it? A: Let's not talk about that. Yes, that was history. Q: After having all these luxuries it was very difficult to do without again. A: Well, you just got used to what you had and accepted it and didn't think anything about it, because it was there for you. Q: I think in our neighborhood it brought people closer together. We all shared what food we had. Everything defrosted in the freezer. So we had to eat it, and we invited all the neighbors. Fortunately we had heat, because we have gas. Many of our neighbors have all electric heat. A: We have gas heat, and we have a counter-flow furnace, and that furnace would come on without electricity. It would run for two or three minutes. It wouldn't work off of that thing there, because that runs on electricity. It would automatically come on and run three minutes or four minutes. In the meantime, we had the fireplace. We were comfortable all the time really. Q: How about cooking? Did you happen to have a gas stove too? A: No, we have an electric stove, but we had a gas grill out in the garage. I just got a big tank of fuel from the hardware store and it lasted all the time. We weren't short of anything to cook on at all. Q: A lot of people had to have generators right away. A: Jim did--mostly to keep his deep freeze. It would keep the lights and the deep freeze. By running it a certain length of time each day, it would keep things from thawing out. Then he would bring it here and run our deep freeze and two or three other places. It was a small thing. It wasn't hard to handle. Q: A lot of people had trouble with water seepage during that time also, and they had no electric pumps to get it out with. They had to use gas operated pumps. If you've never been through it, you can't realize how terrible it can be. A: No. And being that late in the season, it's something you would never expect. Q: It happened just before Easter, didn't it? A: On Friday, before Easter on Sunday the 26th. Q: It was in April? A: The 26th. Q: After a miserable winter, that was the final blow, wasn't it? A: Yes, it was. Q: That was 1979 or 1978, which was it? A: Wasn't it earlier than that? Hasn't it been three years? Q: Has it been three years? 1977 maybe? A: I wouldn't want to be nailed down on that, but it seems to me it's been three years. Q: Bud, maybe you could tell me a little bit about government subsidizing? As I explained, I was a city girl, and I don't understand all about that. A: Subsidizing of what? Q: Well, all I can remember is the farmers were asked to either plant or not to plant certain crops. How was that considered? Were you told in anyway what to plant and what not to plant? A: In the early thirties, we were asked to reduce corn acreage and wheat acreage. Q: And why was that? This is what I don't understand. A: Shirley, that was at the time following the depression, and we were raising more food than there was a market for. Q: But people were starving at this time? A: That's true. And even in Auburn, I can remember two soup kitchens that were there all the time. If you were downtown, you could stop at the soup kitchen and get free bean soup. Q: Was that paid for by the government? A: Yes. That was subsidized. There was one where Rua's Store is, and another one where Narmon's Market used to be. It kept a lot of people from going hungry. Even though the things we had to sell were cheap, there still wasn't any money to buy them. The banks were closed, and everything just stood still for a year, at least. Q: So why did they think if you planted less of what you had, when people were starving, that would make things better? A: At that time, it would have been a case of distribution. I suppose for example, maybe I have a load of corn I don't need. How are you going to eat it? It had to get some place and get manufactured into something, and get back to you before you can use it. I've taken a big load of corn, 50 to 60 bushels of corn on the wagon to Virden Mine to get one ton of coal. That's all you would get. Q: You traded directly, did you? A: No. You would sell the load of corn to the elevator, which would bring maybe $4 and that's what a ton of coal cost. I would go right on by the mine on my way home and take home a ton of coal. The subsidy that you talk about, I think what you are asking is, did they pay the farmers to take this land out of production, is that what you're asking? Yes, there was a subsidy payment, based on yield per acre, and however much you were willing to take out for production. Q: Well, how did you personally feel about that? Is that better for the farmers? It's less work and if you're getting paid for not doing something, it sounds like a good deal. A: If it was an emergency thing, I wouldn't object to it, today or tomorrow or in the past... but as a continual ongoing thing, I don't think it is good. Everything else that you can think of, the plane industry, the ship industry, all of those things are subsidized by the federal government. The fact that we were growing food, which is what people live on, it wasn't too attractive. There was a lot of resentment to it, but they could subsidize some large company a million dollars, and there wasn't too much thought about it, because there wasn't any food involved in it. Q: Like the Chrysler Corporation? But I think people did get a little upset about that. A: Well, they did, but it didn't affect anything. They did it, and I think people finally just accepted it, as that's the way it's going to be. I'm not sure, but the government only guaranteed that loan, didn't they? They didn't give them the money? Q: I think there was something about it, yes. A: And if they made money, there was a possibility they would pay it back. If it is a success, that really isn't too bad. If the taxpayers don't have to shoulder all that loss. And when you talk about the money the government has to give away, they only have the money we give them through taxation. Q: Let's go back, just a little bit. Tell me what the first tractor was like. The first gas-driven or diesel-driven tractor. A: The first tractor I have any remembrance of was in Christian County. They had an oil-burning tractor. It was a huge piece of equipment that pulled nine bottoms. Q: What's a bottom? A: A plow. The tractor was an oil burner, a Case. Q: That's the name of the tractor, a Case? A: Yes. It was so big and hard to handle that they didn't plow fields like we plow now, up and down. They would start in the middle of the field and go around and around until they got to the outside edges and then take a four horse team and a plow and plow out the corners. You couldn't manipulate it, it was such a huge thing. That was the first tractor of any size I remember anything about. They used it for several years and then junked it, because other tractors were coming along then. The newer ones were more versatile and easier to handle, but smaller. They didn't plow as big a strip of ground, but they were smaller and faster, so you could get along with the smaller one a lot better and do a lot of things with it. All you could do with the oil-burner is plow. End of Side Two, Tape Two Q: Bud, we were just talking about the three-wheeled tractor. A: Well, the first three-wheeled tractor that came out was for doing the things that a four-wheeled would do plow cultivating. You know it had a wheel that would go down between rows instead of running on the rows. It came out through demand, really, for something like that. Until that time you didn't have a tractor-cultivator to cultivate with—to cultivate corn or beans, whatever. You had to do it with a team. But when they came out with a three-wheeled tractor then, your front wheel would run down the middle of the row and you could cultivate two rows at a time and then later four and then six and a lot of them got twelve now. Jim's got a twelve-row cultivator. We went from one to twelve. Q: But it still has the one wheel on the front, is that correct? A: No. Q: How does that work? A: The rows are gauged different now, to what they were then. At that time, everybody planted on 40 inch rows. That's what your planter was set up for and your equipment. But I would say 90 percent or maybe more than that of the corn is planted on 30 inch rows now. And unless your back wheel or your front wheel has the different gauge in the width of the row it lets your wheels still come in the middle of the row so you can cultivate without a three-row tractor now. In fact, I don't know of a three-row tractor that is being used in this township, any place. I didn't say that there aren't some, but I just don't know of any. They all use four-row tractors now. Q: Well, Bud, advance me a little bit along as the tractor improved. Tell me what improvements that you've seen up to date. A: Well, I think--you mean how they were changed and why they were changed? Q: Yes. A: Well, like I say, they went from the old plow tractor to the versatile tractor that would cultivate and plow both and could be used for more different things. And there was a lot of tractors coming on the market all the time. Different machinery companies, you know, were building new tractors and different designs and all that. Of course, the teams of horses--they just faded out of the picture and it became just a tractor farming industry, that's all, and it's still that way. Seems to be getting--the equipment seems to get bigger every year. I don't know, they've got some huge tractors now, too. You've probably seen them on the road. They would make the tractors that we had to start with--well, there'd be enough equipment in one of them to build two tractors, like we had in the old days. You know, they're just that large and they do a lot more work and do it better. They really do. Q: Okay. So you buy what I would call a basic tractor, then you had to buy parts for cultivating and parts for plowing and parts for insecticides? A: With a tractor all you get is a tractor. Q: You'll get the tractor, but the extra is extra? A: All accessories are just like what you'd put on your car. You know, an air-conditioner or whatever. Everything is a separate entity in itself. In different areas where they raise different kinds of crops, of course, they have a demand for implements that would take care of that area, whatever it is. But here we use--everybody uses about the same, because we raise the same kind of crops. Q: Is every farmer expected to purchase their own equipment? Or can you rent or can you lease it or how can you do this? When it's time to get into the fields everybody wants in at the same time. A: That's the problem with leasing, unless you have a lease company that caters to that kind of work. Now there was an ad in the, I believe it was in the Journal yesterday, of where at Berry, Illinois--that's on Route 29 between Rochester and Taylorville--there was a machinery dealer there that would lease equipment and a tractor, a Steiger tractor, I think. It leased at $1400, no $14,000 a year. Just to lease it. And I suppose that a tractor would, I am guessing now, I don't know, I've never priced one of them, but I would say around $60, $70, maybe $80,000, up that high on big tractors. But, now, Berle Beatty would--there's been times when he would lease out combines, you know, or he'd have a lot of trade-ins and some in good shape and if you'd wanted to lease one he'd lease it to you by the acre. Q: It can be a real problem for a farmer, if you have a breakdown during the time that you need it. A: It's good to be able to pick up a tractor or a combine in there and you can do it. He's good that way. If you got a problem that's going to take a week's time during harvest time, when you really need to be in the field, you can lease equipment off of him. Of course, you pay for it, but you expect to, because it's worth something to go ahead with whatever operation you're in. It's never gotten to be a common practice in this area to lease equipment. I understand that in the East, most of the farm equipment is owned by leases and that the farmers don't fool with it. They just lease it for the time that they need it and take it back and they figure that's a better deal than owning it. Q: Do they have to buy some sort of maintenance contract do you suppose? A: I really don't know how they would do that. I would suppose that they would. Now, I think with Berle, if you had--this would be off the record because I'm not sure--I think that Berle would, if the equipment broke down through no fault of your own, would accept the responsibility. I believe he would. Q: Well, perhaps his company also feels that same way? A: Well, he wouldn't normally lease new equipment, I don't think. I think it would be equipment he would own himself. If you go by there, you see all kinds of equipment on the lot and a lot of it is good equipment. It's used but it's still good and, you know, there's a lot of service in it and that kind he would lease out I'm sure. Q: So, in other words, if you have a pretty good piece of equipment and you see something you like better you might get a trade-in. You can trade what you have? A: Yes. That's the way it works. Because you trade one in doesn't mean that it's worn out or no good or anything--just that you want something a little better maybe. Q: Not too many years ago Dickey-John developed some sort of counter for planting. Can you describe to me the principle behind that? A: Not the principle. That's a technical thing that only an electronic engineer could tell you about, but they do work, I'll say that. Q: They do work? A: Oh yes, definitely. Q: It will plant so many seed in so much area. Is that correct? A: What it does, it gives you--you got a box in your tractor right in front of you--it hangs up in the ceiling. It has these lights on it, like would be on that scanner over there. The real advantage of it is, that if one row would stop planting that light would quit flashing so you know right away you've got a problem with your planter. Always before if something went wrong with the planter back there, you'd just go on, you know, and maybe you wouldn't notice it for two or three rounds or something like that. Then you'd have some missing rows. But this tells you directly, right now, if your planter stops dropping corn or beans, either one for that matter. Q: So, in other words, how long does it take for a seed to germinate and to sprout up to about an inch or two? Corn? A: There's a lot of things that control that, Shirley. If you've got the moisture and you've got the right ground temperature possibly five to ten days and you would see some sign of the corn coming through. Q: So, if you don't have one of these electronic devices that counts for you or lets you know that you are not planting, you farmers would have to wait that many days to find out if they've missed some rows? A: Yes. Q: And they can get back in there again and replant those rows? A: Well, there too can be a problem, because the big equipment you have now and the many rows you plant at one time—you take a twelve-row planter for example—and go out and try to plant one missing row you can see where the problem would be. Q: Yes. It wouldn't be worth it to try it? A: Depending on if you could do it at the right time or not. There is a way that you could plant two rows. You could drop two rows down there and plant two rows. You could plant the missing row and replant the one that's already there and wouldn't be too far off. But it's just better to know while your planting. Q: So, most of the farmers then have bought these? A: I don't know of anyone who doesn't have one. Q: Are they standard equipment on a tractor any more? A: No, I don't think so. Q: Still optional? A: I don't believe International or John Deere either one brings their equipment out equipped with one. Now if they do, it's something that's happened in the last two years. They have them available, but they would be a separate item. They're a little bit expensive; but considering what they do, I don't think they're expensive at all. Q: So you're out planting twelve rows of corn seed. Are you doing anything else at that same time? Do you have fertilizer that's going on at the same time the corn is going in or is this completely a separate process? A: Normally a farmer doesn't put on fertilizer at planting time. The only thing they would use, and most of them do, is insecticide for corn root boar and worms--things that affect the roots of the corn. That'll be put on at the time of planting. You have extra boxes on the back of your planter to put the insecticide in. Q: Bud, I've seen planes fly over fields. Now are they dispensing insecticide or what is that they're doing, when they're dusting the crops? A: They can give you most any kind of service you want. Q: Oh, is that right? A: Oh, yes. Q: It's just more expensive than getting out there and doing it yourself? A: I think so, and depending on the wind, you know. I think you get better coverage--now it's my thinking, maybe others think differently--but I think you get better coverage on the ground than you do from up in the air. But if your crop is up and you can't get to it any other way, you can definitely use a plane to kill weeds, or to spray for different insects like grasshoppers or things like that, that would affect the corn. Q: Bud, I know that many farmers still use teenage kids to go out and get corn out of beans. That's a big thing. Is that the cheapest way of handling that problem? A: Well, up until just recently that's been the only way to handle it. They have a deal now--it's a plastic pipe that you put on the front of your tractor and it has loops of rope on it, it's like wick--and you put a certain chemical in this tube. It's a four-inch plastic tube is what it is--holds I'd say maybe five, maybe ten gallons, I don't know. But anyway, this rope or--that's what it is, a type of rope and it's in loops across the front of that--and you drive through the fields and [whenever it] touches a blade of corn, it will kill the stalk. That's only been developed a few years. The thing about it is the corn has to be taller than the beans to work right--to work at all--because if it touches the bean plant it kills it too. Usually volunteer corn that comes up will out grow the beans, you know. You can see it sticking up above the beans. So it works pretty good. It's pretty effective. Q: What else grows there in the bean field, that has to come out? A: Every kind of a weed you can think about. The worst thing is foxtail, grass, you know. Q: Does this same method kill that? A: They have different chemicals for that. Actually you put on a chemical at planting time that's supposed to do that, but to do it we have to have certain weather conditions, certain rainfall, or something, you know. And if you don't get it, it isn't as effective as it should be. It'll control it to an extent, but to get good coverage on grass, it's the hardest thing in the world to do. It just about wins every time. Q: Bud, what's the worst farming year you can remember cropwise? A: It wasn't too good this year, but we've had lots worse, I'm sure. The worst one that I really remember--have reason to remember--would have been in 1931, I believe. It was the year that we had dry weather, like we had this year, and we had chinch bugs and they ate the corn up. How I can remember it so well, Phyllis was born that winter and I was shucking corn the day they took Helen to the hospital. I was really glad that the time had come because to get out of that corn field--because it was flat on the ground--and it had rained on it, and it had frozen, and it was a total mess. It wasn't worth going through, really. I think that's about the worst year--one of the worst years--1954 was another real bad year. Well, there was a lot of corn that wasn't harvested that year. Q: Mainly, because there just wasn't the water? We just didn't get the rain? A: That's right--dry weather and insects. At that time we weren't too far along with the spraying and all that. Those were two real bad years and we've had others, I am sure, maybe about as bad. But some years there's something that happens that you remember that year in particular. Q: Were there any real bad storms that just really tore into your crops? A: I don't think we've had a much worse storm than we had that Saturday night over here as far as damaging crops are concerned. Q: That came up so suddenly. It was just like a tornado, I guess. A: It almost was--just close to it. In different years we've had hail damage but normally that doesn't affect a whole large area. It will be in strips across the country. We've had fields that have had hail damage but we never had corn go down like it did this year from that storm. Q: Your equipment isn't set so that it will pick up any corn that's laying on its side, I guess? A: Well, yes, if it's laying on the side you can get a good portion of it, but if it's laying on the row, if it blows over that way, there's no way to pick it up. You can't save it. They have different gadgets to put on the header of your combine that helps, but they're not a total success. You lose a lot of corn regardless of how you go about it. Q: Do farmers have any kind of insurance against hail and storms? A: Yes. You can get it. It's available. Q: Is it terribly expensive? A: Yes. It is. I think over a period of ten years probably, what you would put into premiums would pay for your loss. Because over ten years you wouldn't have hail over once, maybe twice. See it isn't something that just happens every year. If it did, then you would want insurance all the time. Some still have it on corn and beans both, but more people have hail on beans than they do on corn, because you get more damage--lots more damage. Q: The insurance companies don't squabble, do they, about how much you've lost and how much it's worth and all that? A: Sure. You'd better believe it. Just like if you had a house fire. They don't just give you the whole thing without a lot of investigating fields and counting the number of beans that's dropped out or whatever, and they'll determine how much the bushel per acre loss is. They don't give anything away. I guarantee you that. I guess they couldn't stay in business if they did probably. Q: Bud, you used to have animals on your farm. How many cows did you have to milk in the mornings? A: I never milked a lot of cows. We shipped milk. A truck would pick it up at the door. About eight or ten cows would be the most I'd ever milk. Q: You had to milk them twice a day? A: Yes. Q: Did you have one bull or did you have to use the neighbor's bull? A: No, I always had a bull. Q: How many calves did you depend on each year? A: Besides the dairy cows, I had stock cows. At one time I had 40 head of black angus. They were on this golf course over here all the time. That's where I kept them. Of course, they'd have calves in the spring of the year and then usually I'd keep the calves and feed them during the winter and maybe the next summer, and sell them the next fall. Stock cows were really good to feed on an area like this, because there was plenty of grass. That's where you keep them during the summertime. Q: In other words, how old would a stock cow be when you sold it? A: Oh, it's depend on the condition of the cow. If it was a good brood cow, ten years. Q: Does that affect the tenderness of their meat? If they're old? A: I'm sure it would. Normally you'd sell a stock cow. She wouldn't be fed like you'd feed calves or steers that you were fattening for market. You'd get your better meat from the ones that was corn fed and whatever you fed them to make them fat. A dairy cow or a stock cow either, is normally pretty thin. They've had a calf hanging on them all summer and if you want to sell them that fall—if you were trying to make good meat which you wouldn't do—you'd just send it to market and they'd—I don't know whether they'd make hamburger out of it or weiners or something. I don't know. Q: Did you ever have any butchering done right on your farm? Can you tell me anything about that? A: Just the neighborhood butchering would be all and that was a common practice. Q: Really? Tell me about it. A: Usually early in the fall about the time you were about ready to start shucking corn, you might butcher one hog so that you'd have fresh meat when you had hired men. And you'd have fresh meat during shucking season and then later on—late December or January or maybe up into February, you'd do your butchering for the year. It was a neighborhood thing. Q: You helped each other, in other words? A: Yes. There wasn't anything unique about it. It was just the fact that it was common practice. Q: But you went from one farm to another to help in the butchering? A: Yes. Q: Because you had to do it quickly? Is that the idea behind it? A: No. You just needed help. Q: You needed help? A: Yes. Depending on the size of the family or how many hired men you had to feed and that sort of thing, would tell you how many hogs you were going to butcher. It would be from maybe four, six, eight. The most I ever knew—a neighbor that we had over here, had a large family, and he butchered twelve at one time. That's the most I ever had anything to do with. That's a lot of work. Q: You talked about fresh meat for the hired hands. Did you mean that the meat could be eaten just almost as soon as it was butchered? A: Oh, sure. Q: You didn't smoke it or salt cure it or anything of that nature? A: You could have it either way. If the weather was warm you would have to salt it, at least the hams and the shoulders and that sort of thing. Tenderloin and ribs and the different cuts that could be served right away, you didn't have to do that. But if you had a large amount like you were butchering a number of hogs, they would grind the sausage and they'd fry it down. They'd fry it and put it in stone jars to cover the grease and they'd do ribs the same way and then you could eat them the next summer by just taking them out of the containers. Q: Now what kind of salt was used? Just regular table salt? Sodium chloride? A: No. It was a meat salt. It's the same salt--it wouldn't be table salt because it wouldn't be that fine, it would be coarser salt than table salt--like you'd throw on the sidewalk to melt ice. Q: Would it be the same kind of salt that was used in making ice cream? A: Yes. Q: Did you rub it on the skin or just sort of lay your meat in a bit of it? How did you go about this? A: You usually put it in a box. If you weren't going to smoke it, it was taken care of in a wooden box. You'd put down a layer of salt, then meat, then you'd rub the salt in both sides of the meat. Q: Did you have gloves? A: No. Q: Wouldn't that be a little hard on your own skin? A: No. I don't think it would unless it would melt. As long as it was dry salt it didn't bother. But that's the way it was handled. Of course, if you was going to smoke it, you'd just rub the salt on and they had a sugar cure salt on the market. I don't know how far back it went. But it would give it a different flavor than if you just used the plain salt. Q: Not as salty? A: Your meat wouldn't be salty. Now I know that in the South--in fact, we bought a ham down there one time when we were down there on vacation--you know, you've seen them hanging along the road down there advertising--and some of those things are so darned salty you can't eat them. Now I don't know how they manage that unless they put the salt on there and it melts some way or other and goes into the meat but if you handle it right at butchering time the meat won't be salty. Just scrape the salt off when you get ready to take the ham or shoulder out of the box and it's all right. Q: Did you have a regular smokehouse on your farm? A: All farms did. Q: All farms had smokehouses? Are there any left anywhere? A: No. Q: What did they look like? Were they just a small... A: Just a normal shed. Just like an outhouse really only larger and had two by fours across to hang your meat on. You put a hook in the ham or shoulder or whatever you were going to hang up and just hang it up in there and put smoke underneath it. Q: Right on the ground? You built a fire on the ground for the smoke? A: No. You had a container. Either an old kettle or something like that. You confined your fire to either. It would put smoke instead of flame. Q: You had to be in there and fan it? A: What? Q: Someone had to stand in there and fan it? A: Oh, no. You'd leave it on overnight and however long you wanted to smoke it. When you thought it was all right why then you'd take it out. Q: Did they require a special kind of wood like hickory? A: We used hickory. They was the best really. It burned slow and made a lot of smoke and then put a little flavor to the meat too. It was just like a picnic kind of a deal, when butchering time came along, because the farmers came in early in the morning and helped build the fires and carry the water. It took a lot of water to butcher. You had to scald the hogs you know and you had to keep hot water ready to refill the barrel and then later on, the neighbor women would come in and they'd get to cooking, you know, and they'd have a big dinner. Just kind of like a picnic. Q: Did you ever eat pickled pigs feet? A: Oh, yes. I don't know anything about how they were prepared, but I've eaten them. They're not bad. Q: What other delicacies can you get from hogs that an ordinary person may not know about? A: Oh, I don't know. Q: Did anybody in your family make kielbasa? A: No. All we would do--and any of the neighbors in our neighborhood--would be, to make head cheese. Q: How do you do that? It's not really cheese, is it? A: No, but they call it that. It sets up like cheese. For a recipe for it I don't know. I know they'd throw parts of the head and the feet and the ears and all that in the kettle and boil it and cook it you know. Then they'd take it out and slice it. How they treated it I'm not sure. Q: Are you talking about when you say they'd take it out, you eat the broth part or you eat the meaty part? A: No. Just like you'd buy—you can buy it at the store today, head cheese. You can see the different strips of the different kinds of meat in it—in a slice of it. Of course, on the farm it isn't a practice anymore. About I'd say the first quarter of this century most of the butchering was done on the farm. And then the locker plants came along and there was a few—well, commercial butchers really. Well, you wouldn't know I don't think, but Neuman out there, you know were Del lives, his dad used to butcher hogs there. I expect he'd butcher maybe a hundred or more a year. It'd be custom butchering, you know. If you wanted to butcher one hog or a half a dozen, you'd take them in there and leave it and when you picked it up, you'd have the lard and the sausage and the whole bit done. Q: Already processed. Did he also make head cheese to sell? A: No. I don't think he did that at all. Q: But you say you can buy it somewhere? A: Yes. You can get it at the IGA store. It's tasty. I like it. I always did like it. Other than the regular meat the brains is the only thing I can think of and usually on butchering day you'd have—if you got enough work done—you might have brains and scrambled eggs for dinner. You know, mixed up; and that's good. Q: It is good? A: It sounds terrible. Q: It sounds terrible. A: Yes, it does, but it's good and you can buy brains at a meat shop too. Q: Did you eat more hogs than you did beef? Was that a practice? A: In my lifetime we never butchered a beef on our farm. Never did. During the early years you couldn't preserve beef like you could pork. Q: It would just get too salty? You just couldn't do it the same way? A: Most of the meat of that type was probably dried in some way and I don't know how. Well, you know what jerky is? Q: Yes. A: Well, that's the way beef was dried. Q: You can buy that in the store. I've seen that. That's what cowboys used to use, wasn't it? A: Sure. They'd just carry it in their saddlebag. It doesn't sound very appetizing to me, but you'd survive on it, I guess. Q: Well, Bud, let's go back a little bit to milking cows. I am curious. Did your daughters ever milk a cow? A: Never. Q: They never did? A: Jim never milked a cow. Never milked a cow. Never pulled a . . . (laughs) Q: Did you have cows when the electric milking machines came out? A: Yes. Q: Did you buy an electric milking machine as soon as you had electricity? A: No, because what I was milking didn't justify it. Q: Oh, I see. That was an expensive operation? A: Well, that and you needed to milk a lot more cows than I was milking. Q: About how long did it take to milk ten cows? A: About an hour--something like that. Q: How many gallons could you expect if it was a good yield? A: Maybe you'd get a can and a half, about fifteen gallon or two cans, about twenty gallon would be pretty good. You'd put your night's milk--like if you'd milk tonight, you'd put it in a cooler and the cooler was nothing more than well water pumped out--you had a sump to set your can in and you pumped the cold water out. Then the next morning the truck would usually come by eight o'clock and pick that milk up and it would get into Springfield before it had a chance to sour or anything like that, you know. Then your morning milk you'd do the same process but it'd stay overnight. When they used to take it over to the Interurban to ship it, you cooled it and set it on a platform over there--the platforms were built to where the train came along, they could just stand in the door and reach out and get the cans. It was built right close to the track. Q: There was a set schedule so that it wouldn't sit out in the sun for a long time? A: Not unless the train was late or something. You very seldom had any sour milk. Q: Did you make any buttermilk or your own butter or anything? A: My mother made butter, but we didn't. You'd have to separate your milk and get the cream to do that. If you were shipping milk, you just shipped the whole milk. Q: Did you ever save any of the cream for ice cream in the winter? A: Oh sure. You'd go out and dip it off the can. It might make it test a little less at the dairy, but if you wanted cream you went and got it. It was available. Q: You probably had more ice cream in the winter then? A: I don't think so, Shirley. We could get ice and freeze ice cream during most of my memory in this part of the country. In fact, we had ice delivered to the house before we got electricity. The truck would go through the country delivering ice. Q: There was an ice plant here in Auburn? A: No. It was out of Springfield. It was shipped out. Then there'd be an ice house, like there was one in Virden and there was one in Auburn out there where Dehaves sits--it's all torn down now. Out there where the shopping center is now. There was an ice house there and the ice would be shipped down and they stored it in the ice house built for that purpose. The partition was lined with sawdust and they'd cover the ice with sawdust and it would last pretty good. It didn't melt. It worked pretty good. Q: Did they dig down into the earth and set the ice down in there or . . . A: No. Both the ice houses of these two that I know about, they were up about three foot up off the ground. I don't know whether it was for ventilation or why that would be but they were up off the ground. Q: Did they have daily delivery? A: In the country? Q: Yes. A: No. Once a week. Q: Oh, my. How much ice did you have to buy then to . . . and how'd you get a place big enough to store it? A: Your ice boxes--they weren't refrigerated, they were ice boxes--they'd hold 100 pounds, a 100 pound chuck of ice, and it would just about last a week. Q: Did you devise some system of piping that water out that would melt and drip? A: No. You just had a container underneath and you had to keep it empty. Q: You had to remember to empty it? A: Oh yes. It would be on the floor and you'd be reminded of it. But before we made manufactured ice, a lot of ice was cut, sawed, and taken to the ice house and stored that way, and I know there was a lot of it done around Auburn. Q: From the water, ponds, and so forth. They'd just cut it out? A: Yes. They had a regular ice saw. They just cut it out in chunks and fished it out and take it and store it. Howard [Herron] could tell you all about that. He probably been in on some of that. Q: When I was a little girl, we used to get milk delivered to our porch in bottles that had narrow necks and the cream in the wintertime would pop the lid up and it would freeze and expand and we just thought that was delightful--having ice cream on the top of the milk. A: That was the best part of the milk. You had the cream on top. Q: What I want to know is what it was like when it was extremely cold out and you had to go out and milk those cows? Like zero weather. A: It was just a chore that you had to do and you really didn't think too much about it. Q: You just dressed for the occasion? A: That's right. It got as cold then as it does now and you'd do whatever you had to do. Maybe you didn't like it, but no one ever froze to death. Q: What about the cattle? Was there any protection for them in the really bad storms? The ice storms... A: Well, you didn't keep them confined if that's what you mean like day and night. All they needed was really a shelter or a windbreak, and most farmers had that provided for their stock. The milk cows you'd leave in at night and let them out in an area to exercise in the daytime. You didn't have to keep them in, no. Q: A windbreak would be built so that it would protect them from the north and the west? A: That's right. A shelter like that would be open on two sides like on the south and east or something like that but the windbreak would be from the northwest and the shelter would go out that way too. In those days you had straw stacks. You thrashed. You didn't scatter your straw on the fields like you do now and you had plenty of straw to bed them and all that. They didn't get any colder than we did fooling with them, I guarantee you. Q: You said you didn't scatter the straw like you do now. Why do you scatter straw now? I don't quite understand that. Don't you raise that for a purpose or not? A: Well, not really. Because it is a useful thing to have, of course, if you've got livestock. If you don't have any stock you don't have any use for it. Now Harmon over here will buy all the straw he can find during the straw season, but he has a use for it--just a tremendous amount of it. The reason you scatter it is because your machine is built for that purpose. Now, the old stationary thrashing machines you just sat in one place and you thrashed 40 acres or whatever in that one spot. You had a blower on the back end of the separator and it just blew it out and made a stack of it--a huge straw stack. Then you'd go in there in the wintertime and get straw whenever you'd need it or if you had it in a field where you had livestock why they could winter around it too. You don't see any straw stacks around here any more. Q: It must depend on what kind of baler that they have. I've seen bales of hay that were square, rectangular. Then I've seen them stacked up in stacks, and I've seen them in rolls. Is it just a matter of what kind of baler you have or is there some reason for those different shapes and sizes? A: The rolled high bale is the most recent type of baler. Up until not too many years ago, we had a square baler--the oblong bales. And you could stack them outside or you could put them in a barn either one, but the rolled bales--a lot of farmers that use them they just leave those bales out in the field and let the cattle run to them and they don't spoil. By being wrapped like that water doesn't soak into them like it would if it was a compressed bale like the other type. That was, they don't have to move them, they can just leave them there or they can roll them around and take them any place they want to. Now Jim Stockdale over here rolls all his bales in that field of his, you know there down the lane there where Jim's got that... Q: No, I really don't know. I knew he had some cattle, but I didn't know where he kept them. A: Well, he's got I think 40 acres, something like that, but it's down Fletcher Lane. But you'd come in from the hardroad and there's a building up and on right across from Dambackers... End of Side One, Tape Three A: . . . so he keeps it in grass and mostly in alfalfa and rolls that into bales and I understand that they pick that up and take that to Missouri--that far away. If you don't have livestock, you don't have any use for it. Q: Jim [Stockdale] just keeps livestock? A: He doesn't have any now and he hasn't had for two years I believe. I really don't know why. You see when he had the livestock, he didn't have the hay. The livestock would keep the hay down and there wouldn't be anything to bale, I guess he thinks this is a better way probably--easier--he doesn't have to fool with taking care of the cattle at least. Q: He has bees. Did you know that? Honey bees. A: Yes. He's got them over there at that farm where that shed is. Q: I've had some of that honey. A: We haven't. Q: I have, it's real good, of course. A: I imagine it is. He's got that alfalfa patch and I understand that makes good honey. Q: Well, Bud, when did you decide to give up keeping animals? Did they get to be expensive to keep? A: No, not really. After I sold the ground for the golf course, I didn't have room for them. I quit milking ahead of that, though. After I sold off this land where I'd always kept them, I didn't have places for them. Q: So, about how long ago was that? A: 1963, nearly twenty years, eighteen, I guess. We finished this golf course in 1963, didn't we? Isn't that what the book says. I think it was opened in 1963. Q: Bud, what was the most undesirable chore you had to do as a farmer? Was there anything you just didn't like to do? A: Nothing in particular that I can think of. You just didn't think about the things that you had to do. It was just a common practice to go and do what had to be done. You didn't think too much about it. Q: What kind of thing gave you the most satisfaction as a farmer? A: Freedom. Q: The freedom to do as you pleased. A: Yes. If you wanted to go some place, you didn't have to ask somebody, if you wanted to take the day off. I was my own boss. Q: Somebody had to feed your animals everyday. A: Yes, we either hired someone to take care of them or had a neighbor take care of them for you. You would exchange things like that. It wasn't a big problem. Q: When you were a teacher did you have all these animals and the farm work besides? A: No. I just helped on the farm then. I was not married then. I took care of some stock at the south place, but I was not that far along into farming yet. Q: Before you had electricity to your farm. Can you remember what your evenings were like? What did the family do in the evening? A: We were without lights for about five years after we were married. But we had radios and we listened to the programs. The reception was good. The first set we ever had was Natwater Canton. I think that is one of the early ones that came out. It was battery operated. Q: Did you go to bed early, do you think, because it was dark? A: Well, maybe you went to bed early because you worked harder. We had gas lights then. They were good lights. You have seen the kind that you pump up, you put gas in them. They have mantles. We had those all over the house. We had no problem with lighting. We didn't go to bed early for that reason, but because you had to get up early. Q: What time did you get up? A: It would depend upon the season. During corn shucking time, you got up early. Normally the corn shuckers were in the field by daylight. Ready to shuck corn. If you had milk to get ready for a truck at a certain time, then you had to get up early for that. Q: Bud, now that we have more conveniences and have more modern equipment, do you feel that the farmer is working as hard and as long as you did when you were younger? A: Do you mean physically? Q: Probably it wasn't physically, but I see some of these farmers out after dark, working later with lights on their tractors. I think you told me it was a custom for you to quit at a certain time of the day, that you didn't work on into the late, late hours. A: Well, the difference is the work is more mechanical and at that time your work was, of course, horsepower, and you had to give your horse rest and you had to rest yourself. You are not abusing a tractor by running it at night. You are going to run it so many hours to do a certain amount of work anyway whether you do it at night or daytime. If you are behind in your work you will do it at night, because you have the lights and the air conditioner and the heater on the tractors anymore. Q: The modern farmer has the advantage. If there is a good spell of weather, they can get out there and work the extra hours. A: Oh sure. You couldn't do that in the horse and buggy days, because your livestock had to have rest. You didn't work the long hours then. I never found anything distasteful about farm work. I enjoyed it and took a lot of pride in my work. You could look back and see that there was something that you had done yourself and if it was good, okay and if it was bad, then you knew who did it. Q: If you had ever had a choice that you could be anything other than a farmer, was there anything that you can think of that you would rather have been? A: Well, there was at one time, but that didn't last too long. I wanted to be a dentist, when I was in school. But then I got involved in teaching, and this went by the wayside when I got involved in farming. I liked it. I never had any regrets or any desire to do anything else really. Q: Bud, I am going to ask you a question that I asked your son one time. If you had a choice to live anywhere in the world, where would you choose to live? A: Right here. Q: That's exactly what Jim said. A: We have talked about that over at the club quite a bit. We would be bitching about something and we would always wind up saying, "Where would you go that would be any better than here?" I think that is true. There are some things, I think, that could be made easier, but you can't control the weather and I think that is the only thing that you could change that would make it better. Q: Back to the electricity. Do you think you started reading more books or did it change your evening activities. A: No, I don't think it did. It was just the convenience of having it and all the accessories that went with it to lighten the load, such as pumping the water or ironing or whatever you could apply electricity to instead of using manpower. That was the biggest advantage. I don't think it changed our night life any. Q: How about T.V.? Did that change your evenings activities? A: Oh, I think it changed everybody's. Q: For the better or the worse, do you think? A: Well, a month ago I would have said for the worse. [speaking of the presidential elections] Listening to all those darn politicians. I think that is detrimental to television, really. Q: We don't need so much of it. A: Well, it goes on... starting last spring, in April, and it was continuous all summer long. I get sick of it. I think most people know who they are going to vote for and why they are going to vote for them. All that lingo they put out... you can't believe it anyway. You know if they are elected, whoever, you know it isn't going to be like they say it is. But it is there and the only way is to shut it off. It is on all the networks. Q: Don't you think it is very hard for any president to be his own man? A: Oh yes, he is bossed before he is a contender. I don't care who he is. Q: It seems that you can't get that far without a lot of money. A: True, the fat cat has got it. That isn't the way this government was supposed to be. From this point on, I don't think it will ever be any different. I don't know what is going to change it. Q: Basically, do you feel T.V. has been a pretty good thing for the people? A: Oh, I think so. In a way, it is educational, you certainly get the news a lot faster, the good and the bad both. More bad news than good, but yes, I think it is a step forward. Q: Just the fact that we were able to witness things like the men landing on the moon. That was a wonderful thing to be able to see. A: It's a great big mystery, isn't it? Q: Did you ever think that anyone would go to the moon? A: Well, no. You never gave it a thought. Q: Even when you read Buck Rogers? A: No, that was fiction to me. But it was pretty close to what has happened. It is a mystery how they can take pictures and send them back to us. I will never understand how they did that. Q: Probably because communications moves so much faster than it used to, there is so much more knowledge available and ways to get to it. Another thought provoking question, Bud, would you like to have lived during any other time in history? A: No, I don't think so, Shirley. There has been a lot of things happen in my period of life. You wonder what could happen in the next period that could even come close to it, but I'm sure it will. Q: It's almost scary. A: It is. With all these computers and the things they can do. Q: Well, do you think with all this technological knowledge that people have now, that they will find some other means of travel other than gas driven? By nuclear pills or anything of that sort? Drive up to a drugstore and say put a pill in the tank? A: Well, there is no use to say that it can't be done. They have done so many things that we could never conceive or think that they could do. I don't think that there is any limit to what can be done. Certainly we are going to need something to supplement this power shortage that we have got, if it is really there. I'm not so sure that it is. It's possible that they will harness the sun or the wind. I don't know. Q: I think the solar energy developments are going to be good for us, don't you? A: Well, I don't think they are going forward with it fast enough. At least, it is not being applied. I don't know of any of that around here, do you? Q: Well, Sam Snell has a solar heated hog house. Have you seen that yet? It is the first one in the whole world. And it will be featured in National Geographic. A: No, I haven't seen it yet. But if it is successful and evidently it is or Sam wouldn't have it, why aren't they moving ahead with it? I wouldn't be surprised if we don't all have it in years to come. Q: I'm looking forward to it myself. I'd like to think that I could have my own indoor garden and just pluck a tomato whenever I wanted to, and know that I was going to stay warm at the same time. A: That would be nice. Q: Bud, let's go back a little. What was your first phone like? A: Well, we have had telephones back as far as I can remember, even in Kentucky. We had the kind that you crank on the wall. You could call direct to that neighbor or just by the number of rings. You would crank a number of rings. And you listened for your rings whether they were long or short. They didn't have systems like they do now. The lines were just put upon poles cut out of the timber, stick it up in the fence and wire it, and put a wire on it and run it to your house or the neighbors. It would be a neighborhood project. When we came here, about the same system existed. Q: Did you have a lot of people on your line for quite awhile when you were in the country? A: Yes. High as a dozen. Q: Did you ever have any trouble getting the line when you wanted it? A: You were lucky if you ever got it. Q: Is that right? It was probably a good source of entertainment in those days. A: Yes, sure. If the old hen laid an extra egg why she would call and tell her neighbor about it, that was a problem, really. If you needed the phone real bad you could cut in and tell them it was an emergency and if it was a neighbor, they would get off the line. Otherwise you might have to wait and wait until they got through visiting. Q: So it was more a means of entertainment than for emergency. A: Especially for the women, yes. Of course, the men didn't. Q: They would go and have coffee, I understand, if they wanted to talk. A: Yes, that's the bare way. You don't improve anybody's conversation that way. Q: Bud, let's talk about when you were on the school board. What year did you go on? A: Well, you are talking about the high school board? I was on the school board twenty-two years in the country and in town, too. I was on the board when we organized the unit district. And that, I think, would have been 1946 or 1947, the date I am not sure of. I was on the board possibly three years before that and about three years after that. Q: What are some of the problems that you came across during that time? A: We didn't have any real problems. We had some in the administration. We had one real bad session. We had a principal that we hired that was just back from the service. He was in the marine corp. And it was just about the time when they started to force physical training in the schools for all kids. Some of the parents—he [principal] took care of this, he had a lot of experience in it, which naturally he could, but the parents began to think that he was too regimental and that sort of thing and oh, we had parents come down to the school, to the board meeting, just raising the devil. We had quite a bit of problems with that. But during that time, while he was still here, we organized the unit district. The year after we got it organized, he went to Marshall, Illinois. That was his next assignment. He was a good superintendent, really, but he just didn't fit the community for some reason. Outside of that, we didn't have any real problems. Q: Did you do any building during that time? A: Only the bus garage. Of course, up until the time that we formed a unit district, we didn't need a bus garage, because we didn't haul the kids. But after that, we did have to, and we bought some buildings over in Illiopolis that they used during the war. That would be the extent of the building while I was on the board. Q: Did you do any consolidation studies while you were on the board? A: Yes, all the time. It was just an ongoing thing for committees to be meeting between Virden, Girard, and Divernon to try to come up with some kind of solution to put the schools together for a lot better system. Q: What kind of opposition did you run into? A: Parents did not want their kids to go out of town to go to school. Just like when we organized the unit district, the parents in the country didn't want their kids to go to town to school, the same type of thing, you know. It looked like at that time that legislature was going to take public aid away from the schools that were not of a certain size, populationwise. We thought it was important to get these schools together, so that you could have a school that you could know was going to last. So far they haven't done that. Divernon is still hanging on. But they don't have much to hang with, I don't guess. Q: Their enrollment is not increasing and they don't have room to expand their town, since all the surrounding area is farmland. A: It has been a town that I don't think has grown in size since I can remember. Now Pawnee has grown, house after house, built over there. Q: Well, I think schools are a big attraction. A: Yes, schools and churches are the two things that you would look at. Q: Do you think there ever will be a consolidation? A: I don't think there ever will be, unless the legislature takes school aid away from the small population. I firmly believe that consolidation could offer a better curriculum. I think that they could have a good technical teaching program that would benefit a lot of kids who would drop out of school and they don't have a chance to be exposed to different things that they might be able to do. I think there would be a great advantage in consolidation. Q: Even the more advanced students get a little bored, I think, because they don't have the stimulation that they could have, if there were more and better subjects offered. A: Well, there is less incentive in a small school than there is in a large school, you know, there would just have to be. Q: Do you think people are more concerned that there would not be a football team that can play Virden or that their kid wouldn't be good enough for the team, if they were at a bigger school? They kind of overlook the advantages. A: Yes. I think that they look at the wrong advantages. After all, the school is there to educate, and all these other things are important of course, but secondary. But I think that is exactly what people think, that my child won't have the progress that he would have if he were in a small school because he is closer to his teacher and closer to the kids because it is a small group, but I don't think that is necessarily good. Q: That might work out all right for grade schools. They could still have their grade schools and then they could join in a larger high school. That was the idea behind it, wasn't it? A: Yes. Q: That closeness that they need, they would be getting in their early years. A: Yes, by the time they are in high school, their attitudes are different and they are ready for another step in life by then, I think. (tape stopped) Q: Bud, we are going to talk about Edgewood Country Club. How did it get started? A: Well, there was a group of fellows that played golf in Springfield, Girard and Jacksonville for years and there was always a problem of getting on the tee, and they talked about the possibility of getting a golf club started in the community. I think it was in July of 1962 that we had the first meeting at the Auburn Grade School. It was just between Auburn and Virden at that time. Q: How many people attended? A: Twenty-five probably. There was quite a group. There was a lot of discussion about whether it was feasible or not, and there was always a question of water and that sort of thing. We did decide at that point to go on with the investigation and find out what the interest would be and that sort of thing. We definitely decided to include all the small towns around in the Charter Member Group, Virden, Girard, Pawnee, Farmersville, Divernon, etc. We formed a group of forty charter members and we pledged a note of $3000 each. We hired an architect who built the course. Q: Who was that? A: Charlie Maddox. He was from St. Charles, Illinois. Up around Chicago. Q: Had he done this type of work before? A: Oh yes, he was a professional. He built Lincoln Greens and he was in the area when we decided to build this one. Q: Was he terribly expensive? A: No, I don't think so. He laid out all the groundwork. There was a lot of work donated. Farmers with tractors and that sort of thing. Q: What were some of the areas that they looked into? A: Well, the one directly west of Thayer was the only one that I knew anything about. That area down by Sugar Creek. They were looking for a water source and a good terrain. After several meetings and investigations they finally decided on this. [Edgewood in Auburn] They got their first loan from Nokomis Savings and Loan and that was $120,000. That was enough to get us started. That would build the course. Then we got a loan from Rural Electric—we had eighteen lots up on the north side and down the east side. We pledged seven of those lots for $35,000 and borrowed that much from them. And then we went ahead and got the clubhouse built. Nelson Fernandez was the architect for the clubhouse. We met at the Fiesta in Virden every Thursday for a year on the plans for the clubhouse. Q: How long did it take to complete the clubhouse? A: I don't think we did anything on the clubhouse in 1962. We started it early in 1963 and by the Fourth of July the golf course opened, but the clubhouse and the pool were not quite finished yet. We postponed the opening until Labor Day and then we had the grand opening. Q: Nine holes of the golf course were completed and ready to play on. How did they do that so quickly? A: Well, they had a good fall to work. After they started in the fall, they seeded most of the greens with those little cuttings of grass, you know, and they put sacks over them. They weren't good the first year, it was rough, the fairways and the whole thing. But there was a lot of volunteer work. People would, maybe one or two families, would take one green and take care of it. They would work during the year to take out any weeds and grass that would come in a new seeding like that. It took three or four years to get the greens in good condition. That is something that you can't build overnight. Q: Was the area very wooded? A: Most of the wood was along the creek in the clubhouse area. A lot was taken out there. Over in the other part it was just small stuff, brush. This was mainly pasture land. Q: You owned this pasture land, is that correct? A: Yes. When the back nine was built. There was more brush and trash and whatever, than there was on the front nine, because it had not been cultivated for quite some time. But with the machinery that they had, they could just clean it off real easy. Q: Did you use the same architect that drew up the front nine? A: No, he had nothing to do with the back nine. The board drew up the back nine. The architect said it couldn't be done. He looked at some plans that we drew up and said there just wasn't enough room. It's built on... around forty acres. That isn't enough really for a nine hole course, to have the length of the holes you want. Q: Well, I think it is more challenging than the front nine. A: It worked out real good. Q: Do you think there was more enthusiasm and cooperation of the membership in the beginning? A: Oh definitely. It was just like one big family, really. You could go over to the clubhouse any night in the week, and maybe there would be a dozen or two dozen people over there, and you would pull up one big table and everybody would have fun together. It doesn't happen anymore and hasn't for several years. A lot of the members who took part in the beginning have moved or have lost interest. But it was a real social club at that time. Q: We still have a very nice club, but I think a lot of people that have not worked really hard to get it going, tend to complain and pick at some of the things that are going on. I think that hurts the club. A: Don't you think that is natural? There are always some that will find fault with the schools or churches or whatever. There are always some people that are dissatisfied for one reason or another and just have to pick at it. It does hurt the club. The feeling today, I don't think is as good as it was when we had forty charter members. Now we have ten people who are financially responsible, and I think the atmosphere is totally different. But it is still a nice club and a good place to go. It is quite an asset to our town. You would have to go quite a ways to find one quite as nice in an area like this. End of Side Two, Tape Three
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MANUFACTURED TO AIIM STANDARDS BY APPLIED IMAGE, INC. The purpose of this guide is to assist curriculum planners in local school districts as they develop and implement their own programs of study. The guide is written for several audiences, including: boards of education; district, school, and departmental administrators; curriculum committees; and classroom teachers. The guide begins with a brief overview of the social studies field and then introduces identifiable curriculum development tasks. Those tasks, described in Chapter 1, are the organizing principles upon which this guide is based. Following preliminary questions, establishing a rationale and evaluating the present program, curriculum developers will find cognitive and affective goals in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 introduces alternative designs for a scope and sequence that provide information for local curriculum decision making. Chapter 4 surveys a wide variety of social studies teaching techniques, followed in Chapter 5 by guidelines for the development or procurement of teaching materials. Methods to implement and evaluate the newly revised or designed curriculum conclude the development process in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 shows how the social studies curriculum development process can be used to address multiculturalism. Ten appendices are included, among them: "Statewide Educational Goals for Students 1991-1995"; "Teaching about Controversial Issues"; and "A Code of Ethics for the Social Studies Profession." (Author/DB) A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL STUDIES STATE OF CONNECTICUT BOARD OF EDUCATION • 1992 BEST COPY AVAILABLE State of Connecticut Lowell P. Weicker, Jr., Governor Board of Education John F. Mannix, Chairperson Lucas Isidro, Vice Chairperson Glenda M. Armstrong George T. Carofino Marcial Cuevas Beverly P. Greenberg Michael Helfgott John Riege Alphonse Wright Andrew G. De Rocco (ex officio) Commissioner of Higher Education Vincent L. Ferrandino Commissioner of Education Frank A. Altieri Deputy Commissioner Finance and Operations Marilyn A. Campbell Deputy Commissioner Program and Support Services A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN SOCIAL STUDIES Photography by Mark Gaier Cover by GraphCom CONTENTS Acknowledgments Foreword Preface Chapter 1: Definition and Process – 1 Definition Past is Prologue Connecticut Requirements Curriculum Process A Continual Process Process Tasks Evaluation of Existing Curriculum Needs Assessment A Rationale Chapter 2: Goals and Themes – 9 Social Studies Goals The Essentials of the Social Studies NCSS Curriculum Guidelines Knowledge General Objectives Specific Objectives Organizing Content Knowledge Thinking Essential Skills for Social Studies Inductive Strategy Valuing Connecticut’s Common Core of Learning Controversy Participating Affective Objectives Civic Participation Major Themes Cause and Effect Citizenship Community Continuity and Change Cultural Pluralism Culture Equal Opportunity Freedom and Justice Government and Authority Human/Environmental Interaction Human Rights Independence/Interdependence Scarcity and Choice World Peace Chapter 3: Scope and Sequence Alternatives – 29 Five Alternative Options Designing a Scope and Sequence Global Education NCSS 1983 Task Force Report Building a History Curriculum Charting a Course Making the Decision Student Intellectual Maturity Student Interest Levels Balance Continuity Importance Community Resources Teacher Resources Time Allotment Chapter 4: Instructional Approaches – 39 Varied Learning Activities Learning Activities Mix Specific Instructional Approaches Reading Directed Discussion Group Interaction Cooperative Learning Writing Decision Making Questioning Conceptual Development Drill and Lecture Case Studies Simulations Role-Playing Charting and Clustering Affective Strategies Independent Study Technologies Evaluation Flexibility Objective Tests and Writing Short- and Long-Term Evaluation Assessment and Instruction Mainstreaming Chapter 5: Instructional Materials – 51 Examination and Evaluation Locally Designed Materials Criteria for Selection Survey and Decision Technology Resources Computers Drill and Practice Chapter 6: Curriculum Implementation and Evaluation – 59 Implementation Piloting Staff Orientation Special Materials and Support Services Staff Development Evaluation Standards Assessment Ongoing Effort Chapter 7: Citizenship and Multicultural Education – 67 Citizenship Definition Goals and Themes NCSS Multiethnic Guidelines Connecticut’s Common Core of Learning A Conceptual Curriculum Model Content: Curriculum Approaches Contributions Approach Additive Approach Transformation Approach Decision-Making and Social Participation Approach Mixing and Blending the Approaches Interdisciplinary Alternatives Ethnic Group Alternatives Instructional Techniques Instructional Materials Curriculum Implementation and Evaluation Connecticut Curriculum Recommendations Appendices Appendix A: Legislation – 81 Appendix B: Statewide Educational Goals for Students – 1991-1995 – 83 Appendix C: Organizational Resources for Social Studies Education – 85 Appendix D: Resources for Curriculum Planning – 91 Appendix E: Teaching About Controversial Issues – 97 Appendix F: Framework to Guide Strategic Reading Behavior – 99 Appendix G: Writing In the Social Studies – 101 Appendix H: Developing A Multicultural Curriculum – 103 Appendix I: Instructional Television Resources – 107 Appendix J: A Code of Ethics for the Social Studies Profession – 109 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The evolution of curriculum is a continuing process. This edition of the *Guide to Curriculum Development in Social Studies* reflects numerous changes that have taken place in the last few years. The Connecticut State Department of Education is indebted to the Social Studies Advisory Committee, the writers, the editors, authors of publications providing permission to use their materials, and those who commented on the draft, ranging from nationally known social studies educators to some 50 Connecticut social studies teachers, social studies supervisors and administrators. Members of the Connecticut Social Studies Advisory Committee include the following: Jacqueline Abbott, Eastern Connecticut State University Richard C. Harper, University of Bridgeport Joan Hogan, Glastonbury Public Schools Edward Lazaroff, Killingly Public Schools Tedd Levy, Norwalk Public Schools David Manning, West Hartford Public Schools Marcia Massey, Hartford Public Schools Marta Matos, Bristol Public Schools Lamont D. Thomas of the University of Bridgeport contributed to the writing of this document. A special appreciation to James A. Banks of the University of Washington for permission to use materials from his multicultural writings in Chapter 7. Special thanks to Don Goranson, who improved the document through his fine editorial abilities. The document was reviewed by Salvatore J. Natoli, editor of *Social Education* and director of publications for the National Council for the Social Studies, and Bruce E. Tippie, president of Learning Designs, Inc. Daniel W. Gregg Consultant in Social Studies FOREWORD The State Board of Education's most fundamental commitment is to educational equity and excellence for all Connecticut students. The depth and richness of that commitment is thoughtfully, thoroughly and forcefully expressed in *Challenge for Excellence: Connecticut’s Comprehensive Plan for Elementary, Secondary, Vocational, Career and Adult Education 1991-1995*. This series of curriculum guides, developed for the 1990s, represents an important element in the Board's efforts to achieve Goal VI of its Comprehensive Plan: To Improve the Quality of Instruction and Curriculum. These books also are published to carry out the State Board's statutory responsibility to "prepare such courses of study and publish such curriculum guides . . . as it determines necessary to assist school districts to carry out the duties prescribed by law." The letter of the law which requires the Board to provide these materials is clear, and clearly important. More important, however, is the manner in which the Board embraces the task of meeting the spirit of the law. The Statewide Educational Goals for Students 1991-1995 (part of the Comprehensive Plan adopted by the State Board in April 1990) and *Connecticut’s Common Core of Learning* (adopted in January 1987) together are the heart and soul of the achievement we envision for all Connecticut students. This vision can only become reality, however, at the district level through the creativity, talents and special understanding that local education professionals and citizens bring to the K-12 curriculum planning process. These curriculum guides are specifically designed to help districts develop state-of-the-art learning programs and opportunities in each of the 11 mandated curriculum areas: the arts; career education; consumer education; foreign language; health and safety; language arts; mathematics; physical education; science; social studies; and vocational education. In these guides we have endeavored to present meaningful and up-to-date ideas consistent with the State Board's goals for public education. Central to this effort are the convictions that (1) all children can learn and are entitled to an appropriate education; (2) diversity is enriching to school systems and all students benefit from the opportunities that diversity affords; (3) no single method of instruction is adequate to meet the educational needs of all children; (4) schools share the responsibility to maximize the comprehensive development of students; (5) mastery of knowledge and the ability to manipulate ideas are essential to being productive citizens; and (6) schools are but one vehicle through which education can be fostered — the vital role families play in supporting student learning must be recognized and families and the public schools must cooperate effectively to maximize student achievement. The Statewide Educational Goals for Students, *Connecticut’s Common Core of Learning* and these curriculum guides describe what can and should happen in quality K-12 educational settings. This series seeks to firmly establish the principle that the individual student is the beneficiary of these curriculums. The State Board of Education's mission is to educate students to think, explore and apply a variety of knowledge in ways that reward them and that contribute to growth in our society. The guides have been developed under the direction of subject-area specialists in the State Department of Education, with the assistance of advisory committee members chosen from schools, universities and, in some cases, other agencies or community groups. These individuals have brought to the task a rich variety of experience and a shared commitment to the education of Connecticut students. Procedures suggested in these guides, while strongly recommended, are optional; the content represents expert professional opinion rather than state requirements. (In cases where state statutes prescribe certain content, the appropriate statute is cited.) It is our hope that these guides will be used as resources in an ongoing curriculum planning process that has as its focus the lifelong achievement and well-being of all Connecticut students. Vincent L. Ferrandino Commissioner of Education The purpose of *A Guide to Curriculum Development in Social Studies* is to assist curriculum planners in local school districts as they develop and implement their own programs of study. Each social studies curriculum must provide students with an equal opportunity to receive a planned, ongoing and systematic program of suitable educational experiences. The guide targets several constituencies. It is written for boards of education and for district, school and departmental administrators charged with the direction and management of overall educational responsibilities. But the guide is written primarily for curriculum committees and the classroom teachers who both sit on these committees and have the primary responsibility for effective social studies education. The guide begins with a brief overview of the evolution of the social studies field and then introduces identifiable curriculum development tasks. Those tasks, described in Chapter 1, are the organizing principles upon which this guide is based. Following preliminary questions, establishing a rationale and evaluating the present program, curriculum developers will find cognitive and affective goals in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 introduces alternative designs for a scope and sequence that provide information for local curriculum decision making. Chapter 4 surveys a wide variety of social studies teaching techniques, followed in Chapter 5 by guidelines for the development or procurement of teaching materials. Methods to implement and evaluate the newly revised or designed curriculum conclude the development process in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 shows how the social studies curriculum development process can be used to address multiculturalism. Students moving through our school systems face an increasingly interconnected and technology-oriented world. They need to be well grounded in the social studies in order to be prepared, knowledgeable and skilled citizens who will be productive and participate in our democratic system. There has never been a more critical need for our nation's youth to understand that our government must exist for the common good. The social studies curriculum is an important means to assist students in being knowledgeable of their rights and responsibilities as citizens. If this guide is useful in helping them to achieve this knowledge and these skills and attitudes toward themselves and their fellow citizens, then the goals of all those involved in the preparation of this document will have been realized. "Democracy is messy. Those who want an orderly solution toy with democracy, that form of government beset with flaws but better than any of the alternatives. Those who assert that 'the people' can never be trusted with setting standards sing an arrogant, dangerous tune." —Theodore R. Sizer DEFINITION Past is Prologue Connecticut Requirements CURRICULUM PROCESS A Continual Process Process Tasks Evaluation of Existing Curriculum Needs Assessment A Rationale This chapter provides a foundation for the curriculum development process. It offers a working definition of social studies, stresses the interdisciplinary nature of the field and recaps major developments in the teaching of social studies. Preliminary but important steps in the development process follow, including instructions for readers who might have specific curriculum goals other than beginning anew. DEFINITION Against a background of controversy and debate, implicit in the nature of social studies, the profession has struggled to articulate a definition for the field. The following working definition emerges: Social studies is the integration of knowledge and human experience for the purpose of citizenship education. Citizenship education implies both the protection of rights and responsibilities within the United States of America and within the larger human community, as well as a commitment to work effectively with diverse peoples and to accept differences in cultures, values and in responses to social issues. The enormous challenge for professionals is to devise an appropriate enabling curriculum guide at the local level. Social studies is one of the most important academic areas in the school curriculum for broadening student horizons, both intellectually and socially. Humanities and social science curriculums approach human interaction through the widest perspectives. Social studies stems from a thorough grounding in history and geography, which interrelate with the behavioral sciences of philosophy, economics, political science, anthropology, sociology and psychology, plus art, literature, music and religion. Because it is concerned with interactions between individuals and groups in both time and space, social studies can provide youth with the knowledge, values and skills necessary for future survival. Social studies seeks to prepare youth to be informed, humane, rational and participating citizens. Past is Prologue People who develop or revise curriculum today can draw lessons from past educational development. Much of the present debate involves the relationships between the evolution of theoretical foundations of curriculum and the applied instructional materials used in the classroom – otherwise called scope and sequence. Scope and sequence refers to the range and order of the curriculum. Issues in scope and sequence are the battlefields on which educational decisions have been fought in the past and where they will be won or lost in the future. The taproots of the social studies curriculum grow from the recommendations of the 1916 National Education Association (NEA) Committee on the Social Studies. That year an NEA report adopted a heavy history-oriented scope and sequence, but also reflected the strong hand of John Dewey’s “functional” learning. The report stressed the need for “the cultivation of good citizenship” and offered the following scope and sequence for Grades 7-12: - Grade 7, European History and Geography; - Grade 8, United States History; - Grade 9, Civics; - Grade 10, European History; - Grade 11, United States History; and - Grade 12, Government or Problems of Democracy. In contrast with earlier thinking, this 1916 scope and sequence began the move away from a history-dominated discipline toward a more functional, contemporary-centered approach. This model established the pattern for most of the social studies programs which exist today. During the 1930s and 40s, the first systematic attempt to examine social studies objectives appeared in the volumes of the American Historical Association. A commission headed by Charles A. Beard reported that the fundamental purpose of the social studies was the creation of students “equipped with practical knowledge and inspired by ideals so that they can make their way and fulfill their mission in a changing society which is part of a world complex.” The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), with James A. Michener as editor, published experimental scope and sequence curriculums which considered various alternatives to the citizenship theme. Traditional historians rebutted that the wayward trend in social studies neglected American history. United States historian Allan Nevins went so far as to label social studies curriculums “social slush.” The debate placed academic purists and social reconstructionists in opposite camps, but it fostered notable changes. Since the mid-1930s, Paul Haana’s model formulating the “expanded horizons” has become the standard for the elementary social studies curriculum. He initiated a K-6 social studies program which, for the first time, clearly catered to the developmental stages of the child. Hanna's K-6 scope and sequence model included the following: - Grade 1, Family and School; - Grade 2, Neighborhood and Community; - Grade 3, Local Communities: City and County; - Grade 4, State; - Grade 5, United States National Community; and - Grade 6, World Communities. Meanwhile, theories were advanced for students at a higher grade level. In the 1950s, some theorists called for reflective analysis based upon critical thinking. They argued that something was needed to break social studies out of the all-too-prevalent "life-adjustment box." Previously "closed areas" of our society would be examined, such as race relations, social class, sex and marriage. The Soviet Union's launching of *Sputnik* in 1957 caused significant repercussions. Experts decried America's scientific unpreparedness and called for more rational inquiry in education. The "new social studies" attempted to meet the need with a curriculum that applied reflective analysis and the scientific method to the study of history and the social sciences. A dazzling array of curriculum projects resulted, and they received ample federal funding. By the mid-1960s, the Vietnam War and the civil rights movement pushed the nation to apply moral and social values to domestic and foreign policy. Rap sessions, mini-courses, values education and area studies became integral parts of the social studies curriculum. The field of social studies was in an obvious state of disarray and needed direction. Educators were hearing a cry for the old "hickory stick" by the end of the 1970s: "back-to-basics," more discipline and greater accountability. Criticism reflected a backlash to the immediately preceding self-discovery curriculums. Detractors asked where all the fundamentals had gone, and why the teachers who upheld moral, religious and family values had disappeared. Those were basic to our national heritage, detractors charged. Fragmentation within the field forced the National Council for the Social Studies into action. In 1979, NCSS published a sweeping statement on the essentials of a social studies curriculum (see Chapter 2), with points so widely accepted that they have since undergone only minimal revision. Three years later the NCSS board organized a task force to study and make recommendations for a social studies scope and sequence. That proposal laid important groundwork for the most thorough examination yet undertaken, a study which published three proposals for scope and sequence adopted by NCSS in 1989. Two other groups also engaged in attempts to provide new direction in scope and sequence: the Bradley Commission on Social Studies in the Schools in 1988, and the National Commission on the Social Studies in 1989 (see Chapter 3). "Past is prologue," reads the motto over the National Archives in Washington, D.C., and this is appropriate for the development of curriculum guides. The field of social studies has strengthened a once strictly history curriculum with the social sciences to produce a functionally designed learning system that promotes citizenship in our democracy. Curriculum revision often reacts to social change, and it often moves from emphasis upon subject matter to social issues and individual development. Patterns of scope and sequence have fluctuated accordingly. The past reminds us that debate about social studies issues is healthy, indeed necessary, for curriculum development. Professional guidelines are essential. They draw upon social studies research and experience. Social studies continues to evolve within the parameters of scholarship and citizenship. Successful curriculum development will help to strengthen both. **Connecticut Requirements** The State of Connecticut has established social studies requirements. Connecticut statutes mandate the teaching of "social studies, including but not limited to citizenship, economics, geography, government, and history." They further require "a program of United States history, including instruction in United States government at all levels, and in the duties, responsibilities and rights of United States citizenship. No student shall be graduated . . . who has not been found to be familiar with said subjects." As of 1988, every student in high school must -- before graduation -- successfully complete three years in the social studies (see Appendix A: Legislation). **CURRICULUM PROCESS** The curriculum development process, like learning, is never ending. This is not to deny the indelible constancy of tradition, upon which the social studies field is based. But never-ending change, whether in the subject matter or the student population, necessitates constant reassessment. Intellectual data will prompt reassessment of a hypothesis just as the social, racial or economic complexion of the student body may necessitate new teaching goals, content and approaches. A Continual Process Continual reassessment involves costly decisions. To tell a teacher that a written curriculum must continually undergo revision raises a safe assumption: the teacher will be handed the job. The routine practice is to mobilize tired teachers at day's end to confront a task which, if properly undertaken, will require firm administrative support, uninterrupted time, adequate resources and meaningful rewards. Teachers will have a stake in the outcome, but they probably will ignore the curriculum if they perceive it simply to be shallow showcase material. Too often, conventional curriculum guides are neither used, usable nor reliable indicators of what teachers really do in their classrooms. School board members at the opposite end of the spectrum may resist the notion of continuous revision in the belief that properly completed curriculum guides are too time consuming and costly. Process Tasks The curriculum development process has eight specific tasks that will provide the organizing structure for this guide. Although the list appears linear, it can be entered at almost any point. The curriculum committee will need to study the tasks in order to determine where the district is on the continuum and, therefore, where to initiate the process. Some committees may choose to begin revision of a generally satisfactory curriculum with the evaluation questionnaire cited in this chapter and then proceed to evaluation instruments (see Chapter 6). This approach will differ from developers primarily concerned with the local district's scope and sequence (see Chapter 3). Most committees will follow the tasks, and therefore this guide, as designed. The eight tasks and their respective chapters follow: - evaluate existing curriculum, Chapter 1; - assess needs, Chapter 1; - develop a rationale, Chapter 1; - identify goals, objectives and themes, Chapter 2; - establish scope and sequence, Chapter 3; - determine instructional approaches, Chapter 4; - select instructional materials, Chapter 5; and - implement and evaluate, Chapter 6. An example of how to incorporate curriculum change is provided in Chapter 7. Evaluation of Existing Curriculum Broad preliminary questions are likely to spark debate among curriculum developers. Questions should be designed to clarify each committee member's perceptions about the theoretical underpinnings of the social studies field. The following questions will serve as a starting point: - Should the major social studies disciplines be considered as distinct disciplines or be integrated into a unified structure? - Should cultural values be transmitted and inculcated or examined reflectively and evaluated critically? - What should be the balance between acquisition of knowledge and application of social studies skills? - What implications do new technologies have for the delivery, coverage and evaluation of social studies? Committee members may wish to write down their own questions or verbalize them immediately; the sooner prejudices and hidden agendas are brought to light, the more quickly a committee can engage in the appointed task. Questions about developing an approach to student learning should arise early and be asked constantly. Questions such as those that follow go to the very heart of the process. - How should students develop a knowledge base of key concepts, generalizations and content from the social studies? - How should students develop an understanding of basic national values? - How should students develop skills for living in a multicultural society? - How should students become well informed about the issues and problems that face the local community, nation and world? - How should students participate in a variety of learning experiences that explore their citizenship roles in the community, nation and world? - How should students be prepared to participate actively in the democratic process? - How should students choose activities that are important to their interests and needs? - How should students be evaluated? Challenge for Excellence: Connecticut's Comprehensive Plan for Elementary, Secondary, Vocational, Career and Adult Education: A Policy Plan – 1991-1995 includes five statewide educational goals for students. Each of these goals (see Appendix B), if rephrased as student learning outcomes, also can constitute a model to evaluate a district’s curriculum. Three alternative evaluation questionnaires can be found in Chapter 6. Needs Assessment A needs assessment will help to identify special needs of the local community as well as those of the district’s students, teachers and administrators. Needs assessment is a multifaceted process. *A Guide to Curriculum Development: Purposes, Practices and Procedures* (see current edition), published by the Connecticut State Board of Education, has more information about how to conduct a needs assessment. An adequate needs assessment has two very important purposes. First, it alerts school personnel and the community that curriculum change is being considered. Second, it guides the construction of a curriculum that will best meet the needs of all concerned groups. The four areas of a needs assessment include the following: - examine both present and future student needs; - explore teachers’ perceptions of necessary change(s); - invite community members to express views of what a district’s social studies program should include; and - solicit various interest groups for their ideas. A Rationale A rationale gives focus, coherence and justification for devising a curriculum plan. The unpredictable flow of educational funding at local, state and national levels creates uncertainty at best and, at worst, a struggle for limited funds. The “back-to-basics” point of view perceives social studies within very narrow limits; that limited frame of reference can thwart the increasingly broad outlook that the discipline demands. Schools, and social studies programs in particular, become battlegrounds on which community groups clash over fundamental values. A courageous, clearly written rationale will help strengthen the district’s hand in arguing for diversity, equal representation of ideas and a global perspective. Ill-defined social studies programs are easy targets for special interest groups seeking to use the schools to promote their particular cause or viewpoint. Curriculum designers must defend their position that discussing controversial issues and studying different viewpoints are central to social studies. The accompanying questionnaire, “Sample Rationale Evaluation,” and its “Small Group Ranking of Statements” chart (see pages 6 and 7) will assist the committee in organizing its thoughts for a rationale. But it may be useful in other ways as well, such as rekindling philosophical discussions among all K-12 social studies teachers. Teachers ask for well-defended concepts arguments from their students and should demand the same from themselves. The curriculum development process has begun. The committee has evaluated the existing curriculum, assessed needs and developed a rationale. Now local social studies goals, objectives and themes can be established. (Sample Rationale Evaluation and Small Group Ranking of Statements appear on pages 6 and 7.) Sample Rationale Evaluation 1. Rank the position from 1 to 6 in order of preference in the spaces provided in the left column. 2. With a small group of 5 to 7 individuals (colleagues, parents or students), combine the individual rankings on the following grid (page 7) and add the total for each statement. 3. Discuss statements about which there is agreement and disagreement. Can the areas of disagreement be resolved? 4. Use the areas of agreement to help construct a rationale for your social studies program. (a) The main purpose of social studies in the school curriculum is to help develop a just and humane society. It aims to produce students who act intelligently in addressing social problems and who become active workers for social justice in the context of democratic values. (b) The main purpose of the social studies in the school curriculum is to meet the ongoing needs of children and adolescents in a highly complex and rapidly changing society. The social studies program should aim to produce students with well-integrated personalities, strong self-concepts, and without undue anxiety and personal problems. (c) The main purpose of the social studies in the school curriculum is to keep alive the nation’s and the world’s historical record. It aims to develop students who will master the best of what has been written and said in the various fields that comprise the social studies. (d) The main purpose of the social studies in the school curriculum is to produce adults who are contributing members of society. It aims to develop individuals who become conscientious consumer-producers and law-abiding citizens. (e) The main purpose of the social studies in the school curriculum is the intellectual development of students. It aims to produce students who become independent learners, interested in studying human activities in more meaningful ways. (f) From *A Guide To Curriculum Planning In Social Studies*, Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1986. Used with permission. ## Small Group Ranking of Statements | Statement | Individual Rankings | Total | |-----------|---------------------|-------| | a | | | | b | | | | c | | | | d | | | | e | | | | f | | | From *A Guide To Curriculum Planning In Social Studies*, Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1986. Used with permission. ### References **Connecticut State Board of Education.** *Challenge for Excellence: Connecticut's Comprehensive Plan for Elementary, Secondary, Vocational, Career and Adult Education: A Policy Plan – 1991-1995.* Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Board of Education, 1990. **Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction.** *A Guide to Curriculum Planning in Social Studies.* Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1986. **Connecticut State Board of Education.** *A Guide to Curriculum Development: Purposes, Practices and Procedures.* Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Board of Education (see current edition). **National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools.** *Charting A Course: Social Studies for the 21st Century.* Washington, DC: National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools, 1989. **National Council for the Social Studies.** "Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on Scope and Sequence." *Social Education,* 53 (October 1989), pp. 375-403. **Barr, Robert D.; Barth, James L.; and Shermis, Samuel S.** *Defining the Social Studies.* Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies, Bulletin 51, 1977. **Bradley Commission on History in the Schools.** *Building a History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History in Schools.* Washington, DC: Educational Excellence Network, 1988. **Parker, Walter C.** *Renewing the Social Studies Curriculum.* Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1991. **Sizer, Theodore R.** *Horace's School: Redesigning The American High School.* Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1992. "If a nation expects to be ignorant and free in a state of civilization, it expects what never was and never will be." – Thomas Jefferson SOCIAL STUDIES GOALS The Essentials of the Social Studies NCSS Curriculum Guidelines KNOWLEDGE General Objectives Specific Objectives Organizing Content Knowledge THINKING Essential Skills for Social Studies Inductive Strategy VALUING Connecticut’s Common Core of Learning Controversy PARTICIPATING Affective Objectives Civic Participation MAJOR THEMES Cause and Effect Citizenship Community Continuity and Change Cultural Pluralism Culture Equal Opportunity Freedom and Justice Government and Authority Human/Environmental Interaction Human Rights Independence/Interdependence Scarcity and Choice World Peace Four principal goals are essential to the field of social studies. Each raises a host of related issues which will affect how curriculum developers implement the goals in their programs. This chapter analyzes the four goals: knowledge, thinking, valuing and participating. The chapter also proposes unifying themes for the K-12 social studies program. SOCIAL STUDIES GOALS If the social studies field accepts Thomas Jefferson's advice to "inform the people's discretion through instruction," an overall goal would be to adequately inform citizens to be capable decision makers and contributors to the enrichment of democracy. How can we best facilitate responsible and effective citizenship within democratic communities? Broadly construed, the question can be subdivided into four questions: - What **knowledge** should the effective citizen have? - What **skills** should the effective citizen possess? - What **values** need the effective citizen hold? - How should the effective citizen **participate** in community life? The operative words in these open-ended questions are **knowledge**, **skills**, **values** and **participate**. Honest and well-intentioned people will have legitimately different ways of answering them. Moreover, each of the four can be applied to a variety of social studies issues, such as the role of history and the various social science disciplines; the interdisciplinary aspects of the humanities, the sciences and the arts; the use of controversial issues; and the degree of student participation. When curriculum developers apply questions about knowledge, skills, values and participation, they need not be reminded that a social studies curriculum is an unfinished agenda. In 1980, the National Council for the Social Studies agreed upon a slightly revised version of its earlier "essentials" for the field. This statement (pages 10-12,) is printed in its entirety to provide maximum exposure to curriculum developers. **The Essentials** **of the Social Studies** Citizen participation in public life is essential to the health of our democratic system. Effective social studies programs help prepare young people who can identify, understand and work to solve the problems that face our increasingly diverse nation and interdependent world. Organized according to a professionally designed scope and sequence, such programs: 1. Begin in preschool and continue throughout formal education and include a range of related electives at the secondary level. 2. Foster individual and cultural identity. 3. Include observation of and participation in the school and community as part of the curriculum. 4. Deal with critical issues and the world as it really is. 5. Prepare students to make decisions based on American principles. 6. Demand high standards of performance and measure student success by means that require more than the memorization of information. 7. Depend on innovative teachers broadly prepared in history, the humanities, the social sciences, educational theory and practice. 8. Involve community members as resources for program development and student involvement. 9. Lead to citizenship participation in public affairs. In 1979, the National Council for the Social Studies joined with eleven other professional associations to reaffirm the value of a balanced education. We now enumerate the essentials of exemplary social studies programs. Such programs contribute not only to the development of students' capacity to read and compute, but also link knowledge and skills with an understanding of and commitment to democratic principles and their application. From "Essentials of the Social Studies," NCSS Tool Kit (from "Essentials of Education Statement," 1980). National Council for the Social Studies, 1988. Used with permission. Knowledge Students need knowledge of the world at large and the world at hand, the worlds of individuals and the world of institutions, the world past, the world present and future. An exemplary social studies curriculum links information presented in the classroom with experiences gained by students through social and civic observation, analysis and participation. Classroom instruction which relates content to information drawn from the media and from experience focuses on the following areas of knowledge: - History and culture of our nation and the world - Geography: physical, political, cultural and economic - Government: theories, systems, structures and processes - Economics: theories, systems, structures and processes - Social institutions: the individual, the group, the community and the society - Intergroup and interpersonal relationships - Worldwide relationships of all sorts between and among nations, races, cultures and institutions From this knowledge base, exemplary programs teach skills, concepts and generalizations that can help students understand the sweep of human affairs and ways of managing conflict consistent with democratic procedures. Democratic Beliefs Fundamental beliefs drawn from the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution with its Bill of Rights form the basic principles of our democratic constitutional order. Exemplary school programs do not indoctrinate students to accept these ideas blindly, but present knowledge about their historical derivation and contemporary application essential to understanding our society and its institutions. Not only should such ideas be discussed as they relate to the curriculum and to current affairs, they should also be mirrored by teachers in their classrooms and embodied in the school's daily operations. These democratic beliefs depend upon such practices as due process, equal protection and civic participation, and are rooted in the concepts of: - Justice - Equality - Responsibility - Freedom - Diversity - Privacy Thinking Skills It is important that students connect knowledge with beliefs and action. To do that, thinking skills can be developed through constant systematic practice throughout the years of formal schooling. Fundamental to the goals of social studies education are those skills which help assure rational behavior in social settings. In addition to strengthening reading and computation, there is a wide variety of thinking skills essential to the social studies which can be grouped into four major categories: - **Data-Gathering Skills.** Learning to: - Acquire information by observation - Locate information from a variety of sources - Compile, organize and evaluate information - Extract and interpret information - Communicate orally and in writing - **Intellectual Skills.** Learning to: - Compare things, ideas, events and situations on the basis of similarities and differences - Classify or group items in categories - Ask appropriate and searching questions Draw conclusions or inferences from evidence Arrive at general ideas Make sensible predictions from generalizations - **Decision-Making Skills. Learning to:** - Consider alternative solutions - Consider the consequences of each solution - Make decisions and justify them in relationship to democratic principles - Act, based on those decisions - **Interpersonal Skills. Learning to:** - See things from the point of view of others - Understand one's own beliefs, feelings, abilities and shortcomings and how they affect relations with others - Use group generalizations without stereotyping and arbitrarily classifying individuals - Recognize value in individuals different from one's self and groups different from one's own - Work effectively with others as a group member - Give and receive constructive criticism - Accept responsibility and respect the rights and property of others **Participation Skills** As a civic participant, the individual uses the knowledge, beliefs and skills learned in the school, the social studies classroom, the community and the family as the basis for action. Connecting the classroom with the community provides many opportunities for students to learn the basic skills of participation, from observation to advocacy. To teach participation, social studies programs need to emphasize the following kinds of skills: - Work effectively in groups – organizing, planning, making decisions, taking action - Form coalitions of interest with other groups - Persuade, compromise, bargain - Practice patience and perseverance in working for one's goal - Develop experience in cross-cultural situations **Civic Action** Social studies programs which combine the acquisition of knowledge and skills with an understanding of the application of democratic beliefs to life through practice at social participation represent an ideal professional standard. Working to achieve that ideal is vital to the future of our society. However, even if excellent programs of social studies education were in place, there would often remain a missing element – the will to take part in public affairs. Formal education led by creative and humane teachers can provide the knowledge, the tools, the commitment for a thoughtful consideration of issues and can even stimulate the desire to be active. But to achieve full participation, our diverse society must value and model involvement to emphasize for young people the merit of taking part in public life. From "Essentials of the Social Studies," NCSS Tool Kit (from "Essentials of Education Statement," 1980). National Council for the Social Studies, 1988. Used with permission. **NCSS Curriculum Guidelines** The NCSS "Curriculum Guidelines" (1980) can provide standards useful to curriculum developers before they consider knowledge, skills, values and participation separately. These are designed to assist in the measurement of programs and to suggest competencies that should be developed. Descriptive subheadings of the nine guidelines follow. - The social studies program should be directly related to the age, maturity and concerns of students. - The social studies program should deal with the real social world. The social studies program should draw from currently valid knowledge representative of human experience, culture and beliefs. Objectives should be thoughtfully selected and clearly stated in such form as to furnish direction to the program. Learning activities should engage the student directly and actively in the learning process. Strategies of instruction and learning activities should rely on a broad range of learning resources. The social studies program must facilitate the organization of experience. Evaluation should be useful, systematic, comprehensive and valid for the objectives of the program. Social studies education should receive vigorous support as a vital and responsible part of the school program. KNOWLEDGE The basis of social studies is information. But information is one-dimensional, linear and fragmented unless learned within the context of a larger idea. Unlike isolated social studies facts, knowledge is useful since it shows relationships between different pieces of information. Knowledge is best related in theories and results from conceptualization and, as such, is the central goal for social studies. Wisdom applies information and knowledge to resolve human dilemmas and create dreams. Social studies information, knowledge and wisdom apply to three broad areas: United States studies, global studies and the social science disciplines. These broad areas are mentioned repeatedly in state and national guidelines for implementation at the local level. General Objectives Helpful guidelines enable curriculum developers and teachers to determine a local district's cognitive goals. In 1978, the Connecticut Assessment of Educational Progress (CAEP) cited the following goals in citizenship and social studies: - have knowledge of local, state and United States history; - have knowledge about the historical development and contributions of past and present civilizations; - know the main structure, function and processes of all levels of United States government; - have knowledge about the ideology and practices of different political systems; - understand the nature of conflict among individuals, groups and nations and evaluate alternative methods of resolving conflict; - recognize rights and liberties essential to a pluralistic society and how they are guaranteed; - understand the duties and responsibilities of United States citizenship; - understand that political opposition and special interest groups have a legitimate and important role in democratic society; - have knowledge about the economic systems and economic behavior; - have knowledge about the relationships between human beings and their physical environments and understand some of the consequences of their relationships; - have knowledge about social organization and relationships between humans and their social environments and understand some of the consequences of these relationships; - have knowledge about "cultural universals," such as needs for shelter, communication, family organization and religion, and recognize that needs are satisfied in different ways in various cultures; - recognize that culture defines beliefs, values and institutions, and influences behavior; and - demonstrate skill in locating, compiling and weighing the evidence and data necessary for clarifying issues and making decisions. Five years later CAEP conducted testing across the state and then published the results. Shortcomings in the teaching of social studies included the lack of a global perspective, as well as certain areas of United States studies and the social sciences. CAEP's 1983 recommendations included the following: - offer students a "global perspective" when presenting content in all social studies disciplines; - teach students about the U.S. political and economic systems, with greater emphasis on comparisons with other systems; - emphasize the personal relevance and modern-day implications of social studies concepts; and - incorporate geography throughout the social studies curriculum. In 1987 NCSS issued the following position statement on global education. The social studies should emphasize: - that the human experience is an increasingly globalized phenomenon in which people are constantly being influenced by transnational, cross-cultural, multicultural and multiethnic interactions; - the variety of actors on the world stage; - that humankind is an integral part of the world environment; - the linkages between present social, political and ecological realities, and alternative futures; and - citizen participation in world affairs. A national report on global education from The Study Commission on Global Education made the following additional recommendations in 1987: Two of the greatest changes affecting the nation today are: 1. the increasing internationalization of the world, and 2. the increasing diversification of this nation's population along racial, ethnic and cultural lines. Curricular areas need to emphasize: 1. the interrelationship of physical, biological, economic and political systems; 2. world civilizations as they relate to our own; 3. the diversity of cultural patterns in the world and in the United States; and 4. training in policy analysis of domestic and international issues. Recommendations include the following: 1. At the elementary level, students should study a variety of cultures at home and abroad. 2. Elementary students should become acquainted with at least two cultures, one of them non-European. 3. High schools should offer continuing study of the physical and cultural geography of the world. 4. States should support centers for developing curriculums on foreign cultures. Adapted from *The United States Prepares for its Future: Global Perspectives in Education*, Global Perspectives in Education, Inc., 1987. Social studies goals for the primary grades are substantially the same as those for social studies in general, but the context for achieving them is different. A major social studies goal for young children is developing a positive self-concept. Another is to acquire knowledge and explore the multiplicity of cultures within society and the world. The concept of time is difficult for young learners, but they do need a sense of the past in order to understand their heritage. Spatial relationships are equally difficult but important to establish. Cognitive goals have been established for all high school graduates in *Connecticut's Common Core of Learning*. Adopted by the State Board of Education in 1987, the Common Core presents a broad array of outcomes for students in a variety of disciplines. Social studies curriculum developers will find the following specific student expectations in the Common Core: Each graduating social studies student should be able to: - recognize and analyze events, personalities, trends and beliefs that have shaped the history and culture of Connecticut, the United States and the world; - demonstrate a knowledge of United States history and government and understand the duties, responsibilities and rights of United States citizenship; - understand the basic concepts of economics; - analyze and compare the political and economic beliefs and systems of the United States with those of other nations; - apply major concepts drawn from the disciplines of history and the social sciences – anthropology, economics, geography, law and government, philosophy, political science, psychology and sociology – to hypothetical and real situations; - demonstrate basic knowledge of world geography; • apply critical thinking skills and knowledge from history and the social sciences to the decision-making process and the analysis of controversial issues in order to understand the present and anticipate the future; • understand the roles played by various racial, ethnic and religious groups in developing the nation's pluralistic society; and • appreciate the mutual dependence of all people in the world and understand that our lives are part of a global community joined by economic, social, cultural and civic concerns. Specific Objectives Teachers and curriculum developers have a number of resources available for specific knowledge objectives. Some sources, such as the Illinois State Board of Education, list specific social studies objectives and activities. Other state curriculum publications provide specific cognitive objectives, questions and activities. Wisconsin's 1986 Guide to Curriculum Planning in Social Studies is one such publication. Professional organizations are important contacts as well. The Joint Council on Economic Education and the American Bar Association offer curriculum assistance. Publications of the National Council for the Social Studies, the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development and the Social Science Education Consortium in Boulder, CO, may be useful. The annual Northeast Regional Conference on the Social Studies, the Connecticut Council for the Social Studies, and college and university curriculum libraries can be of assistance. Outside social studies consultants may be employed. The Connecticut State Department of Education's social studies consultant also is available for assistance. Social Studies Update, published three times during the academic year out of the state consultant's office, contains the latest curriculum resources and developments and teacher information. (See also Appendix C, Organizational Resources for Social Studies Education and Appendix D, Resources for Curriculum Planning.) Organizing Content Knowledge In recent years, several areas within the social studies have created models for developing a fundamental knowledge base recommended for K-12 students. These knowledge-base models develop themes or concepts that can serve as guides for resource development, teacher planning and student assessment. History The Bradley Commission on History in Schools in 1988 published Building a History Curriculum: Guideline for Teaching History in Schools, which identifies six vital themes and narratives essential for organizing K-12 instruction in history. These themes, which follow, are used to organize topics for studying American history, western civilization and world history. Civilization, cultural diffusion and innovation. The evolution of human skills and the means of exerting power over nature and people. The rise, interaction and decline of successive centers of such skills and power. The cultural flowering of major civilizations in the arts, literature and thought. The role of social, religious and political patronage of the arts and learning. The importance of the city in different eras and places. Human interaction with the environment. The relationships among geography, technology and culture, and their effects on economic, social and political developments. The choices made possible by climate, resources and location, and the effect of culture and human values on such choices. The gains and losses of technological change. The central role of agriculture. The effect of disease and disease fighting on plants, animals and human beings. Values, beliefs, political ideas and institutions. The origins and spread of influential religions and ideologies. The evolution of political and social institutions, at various stages of industrial and commercial development. The interplay among ideas, material conditions, moral values and leadership, especially in the evolution of democratic societies. The tensions between the aspirations for freedom and security, for liberty and equality, for distinction and commonality, in human affairs. Conflict and cooperation. The many and various causes of war, and of approaches to peace-making and war prevention. Relations between domestic affairs and ways of dealing with the outside world. Contrasts between international conflict and cooperation, between isolation and interdependence. The consequences of war and peace for societies and their cultures. Comparative history of major developments. The characteristics of revolutionary, reactionary, and reform periods across time and place. Imperialism, ancient and modern. Comparative instances of slavery and emancipation, feudalism and centralization, human successes and failures, of wisdom and folly. Comparative elites and aristocracies; the role of family, wealth and merit. Patterns of social and political interaction. The changing patterns of class, ethnic, racial and gender structures and relations. Immigration, migration and social mobility. The effects of schooling. The new prominence of women, minorities and the common people in the study of history and their relation to political power and influential elites. The characteristics of multicultural societies; forces for unity and disunity. From *Building a History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History in Schools*. Bradley Commission on History in Schools, 1988. Used with permission of National Council for History in Schools, 26915 Westwood Road, Suite B-2, Westlake, OH 44145. **Geography** In 1984, the Association of American Geographers and National Council for Geographic Education published *Guidelines for Geographic Education*, a document designed to organize geographical understanding around the five central themes that follow. **Location:** Position on the Earth's Surface. Absolute and relative location are two ways of describing the position of places on the Earth's surface. In many instances, it is important to identify absolute locations as precise points on the Earth. The coordinates of latitude and longitude are widely accepted and useful ways of portraying exact locations. Determining relative location – the position of one place with respect to other important places – is equally significant. **Place:** Natural and Cultural Characteristics. All places on Earth have distinct natural and cultural characteristics that distinguish them from other places. The natural characteristics derive from geological, hydrological, atmospheric and biological processes that produce land forms, water bodies, climate, soils, natural vegetation and animal life. Human ideas and actions also shape the character of places which vary in population, composition, settlement patterns, architecture, kinds of economic and recreational activities, and transportation and communication networks. One place may also differ from another in the beliefs of people who live there, by their languages, and by their forms of economic, social and political organization. Taken together, the natural and human characteristics of places provide keys to identifying and interpreting simple and complex interrelations between people and their environments. **Relationships Within Places:** Humans and Environments. All places on Earth have advantages and disadvantages for human settlement. High population densities have developed on flood plains, for example, where people could take advantage of level ground, fertile soils, water resources and opportunities for river transportation. By contrast, population densities are usually low in deserts. Yet flood plains are periodically subjected to severe damage, and some desert areas have been modified to support large population concentrations. People modify and adapt to natural settings in ways that reveal cultural values, economic and political circumstances and technological abilities. It is important to understand how such human-environment relationships develop and what the consequences are for people and the environment. **Movement:** Humans Interacting on the Earth. Human beings are unevenly distributed across the face of the Earth. Some live on farms or in the country; others live in towns, villages or cities. Yet these people interact with each other; they travel from one place to another; communicate with each other; or rely upon products, information or ideas that come from beyond their immediate environments. The most visible evidence of the interaction of places are the transportation and communication lines that link different parts of a large country such as the United States, and interconnect virtually every part of the world. Interaction continues to change as transportation and communication technologies change. **Regions:** How They Form and Change. The basic unit of geographic study, the region, is any area that displays unity in terms of selected criteria. Regions show the extent of political power, such as nations, provinces, countries or cities. Yet there are almost countless ways to define meaningful regions, depending on the issues and problems being considered. Some regions are defined by a single characteristic, such as their governmental unit, language group or type of landforms; others by the interplay of many complex features. The idea of regions is used as a tool to examine, define, describe, explain and analyze the human and natural environments. Thus, regions are convenient and manageable units upon which to build one's knowledge of the world. They provide a context for studying events in the past and present, and they can be used as an intermediate step between one's knowledge of localities and the entire planet. Region is a way of organizing geographic information. From Guidelines for Geographic Education, Association of American Geographers and National Council for Geographic Education, 1984. Used with permission. Civic Education In CIVITAS: A Framework for Civic Education, published in 1991 by the Center for Civic Education, three goals were outlined in order to promote the acquisition of knowledge and participation in our constitutional democracy. These goals, which are used to develop resource materials for study in the political process, follow. Civic Virtue. To foster among citizens the development of those civic dispositions and commitments to fundamental values and principles required for competent and responsible citizenship. Civic Participation. To develop among citizens the participatory skills required to monitor and influence the formulation, implementation, adjudication and enforcement of public policy, as well as to participate in voluntary efforts to solve neighborhood and community problems. Civic Knowledge and Intellectual Skills. To provide citizens the knowledge and intellectual skills required to monitor and influence the formulation, implementation, adjudication and enforcement of public policy, as well as to participate in voluntary efforts to solve neighborhood and community problems. Economics In 1984, the Joint Council on Economic Education published the Master Curriculum Guide in Economics: A Framework for Teaching the Basic Concepts. Twenty-two economics concepts were identified as being essential for student economic literacy. These concepts, which follow, are now used extensively in most economics-related curriculum materials available to schools. Fundamental Economic Concepts - scarcity - opportunity, cost and trade-offs - productivity - economic systems - economic institutions and incentives - exchange, money and interdependence Microeconomic Concepts - markets and prices - supply and demand - competition and market structure - income distribution - market failures - the role of government Macroeconomic Concepts - gross national product - aggregate supply - aggregate demand - unemployment - inflation and deflation - monetary policy - fiscal policy International Economic Concepts - absolute and comparative advantages and barriers to trade - balance of payments and exchange rates - international aspects of growth and stability From Master Curriculum Guide in Economics: A Framework for Teaching the Basic Concepts. Joint Council on Economic Education, 1984. Used with permission. THINKING Thinking is the most fundamental of all social studies skills. It is a process for problem solving, decision making and conceptualizing. Critical thinking skills distinguish between verifiable facts and value claims, determine the credibility of a source, detect bias and determine the strength of an argument. Creative thinking skills deal with inventiveness, insightfulness and originality. Thinking skills relate to understanding time and spatial relationships by analyzing and interpreting history, the social sciences and the humanities. Thinking calls for an integrated skills network which includes all levels of Bloom's taxonomy. Connecticut's Common Core of Learning (1987) sets a standard to which curriculum developers might relate content and skills. It does so for social studies with these words: "apply critical thinking skills and knowledge from history and the social sciences to the decision-making process and the analysis of controversial issues in order to understand the present and anticipate the future." Skills and competencies applicable to all disciplines - including reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing and quantitative skills — are in the Common Core. These areas will help to provide the critical intellectual foundations for broader acquisition of knowledge. The 1989 report of the NCSS Task Force on Scope and Sequence presents a revised sequential development of essential skills for systematic instruction and practice. These skills, which are reprinted with the permission of NCSS, appear on pages 19-22. **Inductive Strategy** Recommendations for skill development from the 1982-83 Connecticut Assessment of Educational Progress tests reinforce the importance of teaching problem solving and logical analysis. They also emphasize the importance of teaching cause and effect, interpretation over recitation, and interpretive reading skills for graphs, charts and tables. Thinking skills may be taught inductively or deductively, as a new skill or to practice ones previously taught. The following five-step process from Beyer (1987) illustrates an inductive strategy for introducing a thinking skill: **Step 1 Introduce the Skill** - State that learning the skill is today's objective. - Give the skill a label or name. - Give synonyms for the skill label. - State a tentative or working definition. - State ways the skill has been used: - in student's personal experiences, - in school activities, - in this course. - Explain why the skill is useful and worth learning. **Step 2 Execute the Skill** - Students use the skill (as best one can) to accomplish a task. - Work in pairs, triads or groups. - Use subject matter familiar to students and appropriate to course (or, if necessary, from students' experience). **Step 3 Reflect on What was Done** - Students report what went on in their heads as they engaged in the skill. - Identify the steps or rules used and sequence of each. - Clarify the procedure and any criteria used. - Focus on the skill and its attributes. **Step 4 Apply the Skill to New Data** - Students use what has been discussed about the skill to complete a second task. - Work in pairs, triads or groups. - Use subject matter appropriate to the course but in the same structure and media as in Step 2. **Step 5 Review the Skill** - Students report what they did in their heads as they applied the skill. - Review the steps or procedures that seem to constitute the skill. - Review the rules that direct use of the skill as well as when it is to be used. - State the relationship of this skill to other skills. - Review or revise the skill definition. - State where the skill can be used in personal or out-of-school situations. From *Practical Strategies for the Teaching of Thinking*, Beyer, Barry K. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc, 1987. Used with permission. ## Essential Skills For Social Studies – NCSS ### 1. Skills Related To Acquiring Information #### A. Reading Skills | K-3 | 4-6 | 7-9 | 10-12 | |-----|-----|-----|-------| | 3 | 4 | 3 | 1 | | 1 | 4 | 3 | 2 | #### 1. Comprehension - Read to get literal meaning - Use chapter and section headings, topic sentences and summary sentences to select main ideas - Differentiate main and subordinate ideas - Select passages that are pertinent to the topic studied - Interpret what is read by drawing inferences - Detect cause and effect relationships - Distinguish between the fact and opinion; recognize propaganda - Recognize author bias - Use picture clues and picture captions to aid comprehension - Use literature to enrich meaning - Read for a variety of purposes: critically, analytically, to predict outcomes, to answer a question, to form an opinion, to skim for facts - Read various forms of printed material: books, magazines, newspapers, directories, schedules, journals #### 2. Vocabulary - Use usual word attack skills: sight recognition, phonetic analysis, structural analysis - Use context clues to gain meaning - Use appropriate sources to gain meaning of essential terms and vocabulary: glossary, dictionary, text, word lists - Recognize and understand an increasing number of social studies terms #### 3. Rate of Reading - Adjust speed of reading to suit purpose - Adjust rate of reading to difficulty of the material #### B. Study Skills | | | | | |-----|-----|-----|-----| | 1 | 3 | 2 | 2 | | 1 | 3 | 2 | 1 | | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | #### 1. Find information - Use various parts of a book (index, table of contents, etc.) - Use key words, letters on volumes, index and cross references to find information - Evaluate sources of information – print, visual, electronic - Use appropriate source of information - Use the community as a resource #### 2. Arrange Information in Usable Forms - Make outline of topic - Prepare summaries - Make timelines - Take notes - Keep records (continued) C. Reference and Information Search Skills 1. The Library - Use card catalog to locate books - Use Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature and other indexes - Use COMCATS (Computer Catalog Service) - Use public library telephone information service 2. Special References - Almanacs - Encyclopedias - Dictionary - Indexes - Government publications - Microfiche - Periodicals - News sources: newspapers, news magazines, TV, radio, videotapes, artifacts 3. Maps, Globes, Graphics - Orient a map and note directions - Locate places on map and globe - Use scale and compute distances - Interpret map symbols and visualize what they mean - Compare maps and make inferences - Express relative location - Interpret graphs - Detect bias in visual material - Interpret social and political messages of cartoons - Interpret history through artifacts 4. Community Resources - Use sources of information in the community - Conduct interviews of individuals in the community - Use community newspapers D. Technical Skills Unique to Electronic Devices 1. Computer - Operate a computer using prepared instructional or reference programs - Operate a computer to enter and retrieve information gathered from a variety of sources 2. Telephone and Television Information Networks - Ability to access information through networks ## II. Skills Related To Organizing And Using Information ### A. Thinking Skills | K-3 | 4-6 | 7-9 | 10-12 | |-----|-----|-----|-------| | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | ### 1. Classify Information - Identify relevant factual material - Sense relationship between items of factual information - Group data in categories according to appropriate criteria - Place in proper sequence: - (1) order of occurrence - (2) order of importance - Place data in tabular form: charts, graphs, illustrations ### 2. Interpret Information - State relationships between categories of information - Note cause and effect relationships - Draw inferences from factual material - Predict likely outcomes based on factual information - Recognize the value dimension of interpreting factual material - Recognize instances in which more than one interpretation of factual material is valid ### 3. Analyze Information - Form a simple organization of key ideas related to a topic - Separate a topic into major components according to appropriate criteria - Examine critically relationships between and among elements of a topic - Detect bias in data presented in various forms: graphics, tabular, visual, print - Compare and contrast credibility of differing accounts of the same event ### 4. Summarize Information - Extract significant ideas from supporting, illustrative details - Combine critical concepts into a statement of conclusions based on information - Restate major ideas of a complex topic in concise form - Form opinion based on critical examination of relevant information - State hypotheses for further study ### 5. Synthesize Information - Propose a new plan of operation, create a new system, or devise a futuristic scheme based on available information - Reinterpret events in terms of what might have happened, and show the likely effects on subsequent events - Present visually (chart, graph, diagram, model, etc.) information extracted from print - Prepare a research paper that requires a creative solution to a problem - Communicate orally and in writing ### 6. Evaluate Information - Determine whether or not the information is pertinent to the topic - Estimate the adequacy of the information (continued) ### B. Decision-Making Skills - Identify a situation in which a decision is required - Secure needed factual information relevant to making the decision - Recognize the values implicit in the situation and the issues that flow from them - Identify alternative courses of action and predict likely consequences of each - Make decision based on the data obtained - Take action to implement the decision ### C. Metacognitive Skills - Select an appropriate strategy to solve a problem - Self-monitor one's thinking process ### III. Skills Related To Interpersonal Relationships and Social Participation #### A. Personal Skills - Express personal convictions - Communicate own beliefs, feelings and convictions - Adjust own behavior to fit the dynamics of various groups and situations - Recognize the mutual relationship between human beings in satisfying one another's needs #### B. Group Interaction Skills - Contribute to the development of a supportive climate in groups - Participate in making rules and guidelines for group life - Serve as a leader or follower - Assist in setting goals for the group - Participate in delegating duties, organizing, planning, making decisions and taking action in a group setting - Participate in persuading, compromising, debating and negotiating in the resolution of conflicts and differences #### C. Social and Political Participation Skills - Keep informed on issues that affect society - Identify situations in which social action is required - Work individually or with others to decide on an appropriate course of action - Work to influence those in positions of social power to strive for extensions of freedom, social justice and human rights - Accept and fulfill social responsibilities associated with citizenship in a free society From "Essential Skills for Social Studies," NCSS Task Force on Scope and Sequence, 1989. Used with permission. VALUING The principles of democracy serve as the organizing values for social studies teaching and learning. Curriculum developers need to protect the sanctity of the classroom as the locale for the free exchange of ideas. As in the Ghanaian "palaver hut" and the Agora (the market place of the Athenian city state) classroom learning is maximized by an individual's need to know. And values are to be studied within time and spatial perspectives, cultural content and contemporary relevance. Connecticut's Common Core of Learning *Connecticut's Common Core of Learning* identifies values that should be applied to specific subject matter. It states the importance of understanding roles played by various racial, ethnic and religious groups in developing the nation's pluralistic society. Moreover, graduating social studies students should appreciate the importance of a mutual interdependence of all people in the world. The Common Core includes the following attributes and attitudes for the social studies curriculum: **Positive Self-Concept.** As part of education in Grades K-12, each student should be able to: - appreciate his/her worth as a unique and capable individual and exhibit self-esteem; - develop a sense of personal effectiveness and a belief in his/her ability to shape his/her future; - develop an understanding of his/her strengths and weaknesses and the ability to maximize strengths and rectify or compensate for weaknesses. **Motivation and Persistence.** As part of education in Grades K-12, each student should be able to: - experience the pride of accomplishment that results from hard work and persistence; - act through a desire to succeed rather than a fear of failure, while recognizing that failure is a part of everyone's experience; - strive toward and take the risks necessary for accomplishing tasks and fulfilling personal ambitions. **Responsibility and Self-Reliance.** As part of education in Grades K-12, each student should be able to: - assume the primary responsibility for identifying his/her needs and setting reasonable goals; - initiate actions and assume responsibility for the consequences of those actions; - demonstrate dependability; - demonstrate self-control. **Intellectual Curiosity.** As part of education in Grades K-12, each student should be able to: - demonstrate a questioning attitude, open-mindedness and curiosity; - demonstrate independence of thought necessary for leadership and creativity; - pursue lifelong learning. **Interpersonal Relations.** As part of education in Grades K-12, each student should be able to: - develop productive and satisfying relationships with others based upon mutual respect; - develop a sensitivity to and an understanding of the needs, opinions, concerns and customs of others; - participate actively in reaching group decisions; - appreciate the roles and responsibilities of parents, children and families. **Sense of Community.** As part of education in Grades K-12, each student should be able to: - develop a sense of belonging to a group larger than friends, family and co-workers; - develop an understanding of the importance of each individual to the improvement of the quality of life for all in the community; - examine and assess the values, standards and traditions of the community; - understand and appreciate his/her own historical and ethnic heritage, as well as that of others represented within the larger community. Moral and Ethical Values. As part of education in Grades K-12, each student should be able to: - recognize the necessity for moral and ethical conduct in a society; - recognize that values affect choices and conflicts; - develop personal criteria for making informed moral judgments and ethical decisions. Controversy Values raise the issue of controversy. Controversial issues and studying different viewpoints are essential to social studies. The uneven evolution of social studies during this century speaks for itself, and the future promises more of the same. The 1974 NCSS Position Statement on the Freedom to Teach and the Freedom to Learn declares: Ultimately, freedom to teach and to learn will exist only if a continuing effort is made to educate all Americans regarding these important freedoms. Professional educators must set an example in their communities that illustrates their respect for schools and classrooms as a free marketplace of ideas as well as an appreciation for the concerns of parents and other members of the community who legitimately disagree. By showing our faith as educators in the clash of opposing viewpoints, we can hope to achieve a society that functions according to this precept. The Connecticut State Board of Education's 1978 policy statement, "Teaching About Controversial Issues," begins: "Learning to deal with controversial issues is one of the basic competencies all students should acquire" (see Appendix E). Subjects or questions which evoke significantly different opinions due to differing value systems are to be expected. Teachers should assist students to identify and evaluate relevant information and to make independent judgments. The State Board further declared that academic freedom "is the freedom to teach and to learn," but that with freedom comes responsibility. Because public schools are a public trust, access to ideas and opportunities to consider materials may not be defined by the interests of a single viewpoint. Schools should teach how to think, not what to think, and that studying an idea does not mean endorsement of the idea. Classrooms are forums for inquiry, not for indoctrination. The State Board declared that local school boards should develop and make available their own written policies which support the state's concept of teaching about controversial issues. PARTICIPATING Students can demonstrate that they have learned the essentials of social studies through various forms of participation. Affective objectives can be evaluated in the classroom forum, such as those agreed upon by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in its second assessment of citizenship and social studies in 1974. The NAEP affective objectives follow: - Expresses awareness of some of the beliefs and values expressed by people and recognizes that the conditions, times and places in which people live influence their beliefs, values and behaviors. - Develops the human relations skills necessary to communicate and work with others. - Understands ways in which beliefs and values are transmitted in various cultures. - Examines own beliefs and values and the interrelationships between and among beliefs, values and behavior. - Expresses awareness of the characteristics that give one identity. - Expresses awareness of one's goals (aspirations), the goals of the groups with which one identifies and the fit between those goals. - Expresses awareness of the relative strengths of oneself and the groups with which one identifies and recognizes the societal barriers to full development that may exist. - Assesses the extent to which one has control over the setting and achievement of personal goals in light of what one knows about oneself, the groups with which one identifies and the societal barriers to full development. - Suggests ways of maximizing one's effectiveness. - Displays an awareness of a quality of human life and an interest in ways in which the quality can be improved. - Explains and supports rights and freedoms important in human development. - Participates in family, school and community life on the basis of rational decisions involving one's own values and the conflict among these values. From Social Studies Objectives, 2nd Assessment. National Assessment of Educational Progress, 1974. Civic Participation In CIVITAS: A Framework for Civic Education (Center for Civic Education, 1991), the following commentary on civic participation is available: The ultimate goal of civic education is the widespread participation in the governance of the groups to which they belong by citizens who are knowledgeable, competent and committed to the realization of the fundamental values and principles of our constitutional democracy. The focus of civic education form the earliest grade levels should be to prepare students to take part in the governance of groups beginning with their classes, schools and social groups and then, at appropriate levels, dealing with formal political institutions and processes. By the end of secondary school this education should have culminated specifically in the development among students of knowledge, skills and moral commitments required for responsible participation in monitoring and influencing public policy. To be consistent with the values and principles of constitutional democracy, the student's decision to participate must be freely made. It is typical of some authoritarian systems to demand participation in order to "legitimize" their powers and to penalize those who do not vote or adhere in other ways to their notions of the proper role of the subject. A constitutional democracy, on the other hand, must rely upon education and example to inspire participation, a task which clearly indicates the importance of the civic mission of our schools. Instructional programs based upon a civic education curriculum framework should inspire among students a commitment to participate in governance by: - providing the knowledge and skills required to participate effectively; - providing practical experience in participation designed to foster among students a sense of competence and efficacy; and - the development of an understanding of the importance of citizen participation. Adapted with permission, CIVITAS: A Framework for Civic Education, p. 39. Copyright Center for Civic Education, 1991. Effective social participation within the school, family and community is the long-term goal for a social studies education. While districts may choose to articulate this goal, they should provide as many opportunities as possible for students to experience democracy in action. Possibilities range from in-school interviews with community business figures, environmental experts and elected representatives to witnessing town meetings, lobbying at the state capitol or investigating an issue within the community. MAJOR THEMES Today, many K-12 social studies teachers seek greater thematic unity, continuity and focus within the field. They feel the impact of the burgeoning information explosion upon social studies. They must "cover" increasingly larger amounts of material. Themes - which are more widely applicable organizing ideas than grade-level concepts such as imperialism, rebellion and transportation - can help provide the necessary intellectual continuity. They are the ideas we hope students will remember long afterward. The following major themes are proposed to unify and focus social studies teaching. Cause and Effect All acts and events have causes and effects, but many times the consequences are unintentional. Social studies content, ranging from the multiple aspects of history to the interrelationship among the social sciences, rarely encounters examples of simple causation. Reliable cases of predictability are affected by social, economic, political or psychological factors. For example, causes of chattel slavery, the Civil War, World War I and the Holocaust are multifaceted. Citizenship Citizenship is one of the principal goals for social studies. It involves the rights and responsibilities of a nation such as ours. Knowledge, skills, values and participation involving citizenship need to be raised when studying our own nation within the context of the global community. Examples of relevant questions include the following: What traditions perpetuate the most effective qualities of good citizenship? How has cultural diversity affected the quality of citizenship in this republic over the years? **Community** A community provides an identity, value structure, economic base and common governance for a group of people. Families, schools, jobs, places of worship, race and language help to mold close-knit relationships. For example, questions will arise about what criteria apply equally to such different communities as a nuclear family, sports team, town or the United Nations. **Continuity and Change** Constants and variables interact to shape the lives of individuals, groups and national entities. All cultures maintain certain essential aspects of continuity. The pace of change, however, can range from slow and methodical to rapid. Discussions at all grade levels will depend upon the inherent conflicts which arise between continuity and change. For example, social studies students need to understand that peoples, events and ideas will constantly evolve and interact to affect each other. **Cultural Pluralism** Cultural pluralism, the concept of people with differing values, traditions and languages living side-by-side, is a reality in this country. Each culture contributes its traditions, perspectives and beliefs to the whole society. For example, a rich United States heritage is expressed, defined and reinforced in this nation's differing music, literature and food. This diversity is a microcosm of the global community. **Culture** Every human society has particular patterns of behaviors and beliefs that make up its culture and comprise the content of social studies. Students learn to recognize examples of nonmaterial culture: indigenous customs, social institutions, attitudes and language. They also see and touch the material culture which arises from the belief systems—artifacts such as tools, utensils, works of art and machinery. They learn how material and nonmaterial culture come together to serve human need, and they can do so with less likelihood of judgment or superiority than when studying comparative political systems. **Equal Opportunity** Equal opportunity is one of the goals of a democratic system; the chance for individuals and groups to effectively function in society regardless of race, gender, belief or color. Social studies students need to understand the historical significance of these principles in order to be able to test and revise their attitudes. For example, students can evaluate the extent to which racism, sexism, bigotry, stereotyping and blind stubbornness might persist. **Freedom and Justice** Freedom and justice are enjoyed by citizens of the United States. These include the freedoms to believe, think and act as individuals; the freedoms of religion, press, speech, assembly and petition; as well as the freedoms of inquiry, criticism and to receive a public education. Social studies is an academic field where vigilance should be encouraged to protect "equal justice under the law." **Government and Authority** Governments are established to provide security and essential public services. Authority is legitimate power. Our federal democratic republic, guaranteed by a written constitution, succeeds or fails according to the elected representatives. How well social studies students shoulder those future responsibilities may depend upon challenges afforded them in class. **Human/Environmental Interaction** The relationship of humans to their physical environments is critical to the quality of life. Social studies must provide the foundation for promoting responsible environmental attitudes and behaviors. Human Rights Human rights pertain to an individual, group, nation or all people universally, and they arise from normative standards of civility, ethics and morality. Human rights raise many questions for social studies. For example, do human rights include the right to speak freely, to petition and to overthrow an unjust government? Independence and Interdependence The conflict between a desire for independence and the reality of interdependence is a mixed blessing. The principle of specialization, characteristic of modern economic systems, inextricably binds nations together just as it does individuals, unions and corporations. Social studies discussions often will focus on this theme. For example, how independent and/or interdependent is a family within a community, town or state? Scarcity and Choice Ongoing conflict exists between unlimited economic needs and limited natural and human resources. Goods and services are limited by available resources, forcing individuals and societies to continuously make choices. A balance must be struck between the concepts of scarcity and choice and those of sufficiency and sharing. Social studies students can deal with these economic questions at any grade level. World Peace The tree of peace is rooted in justice, but justice according to whom? Wide differences of opinion exist on how best to attain peace. Some advocate peace through military strength. Others prefer to remove the causes of conflict. Conflict resolution raises probing questions, questions which social studies students should continue to ask. This chapter has established the foundations upon which social studies professionals and administrators can devise or revise local goals related to knowledge, skills, values and participation. These themes may be applied to an individual social studies course or used to unify an entire district's social studies curriculum. Chapter 3 contains a discussion of how such issues should be integrated into a K-12 scope and sequence. References Association of American Geographers and National Council for Geographic Education. *Guidelines for Geographic Education*. Washington, DC: Association of American Geographers and National Council for Geographic Education, 1984. Beyer, Barry K. *Practical Strategies for the Teaching of Thinking*. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc, 1987. Bradley Commission on History in Schools. *Building a History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History in Schools*. Washington, DC: Educational Excellence Network, 1988. Center for Civic Education. *CIVITAS: A Framework for Civic Education*. Calabasas, CA: Center for Civic Education, 1991. Connecticut State Board of Education. *Connecticut Assessment of Educational Progress in Citizenship and Social Studies*. Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Board of Education, 1978. Connecticut State Board of Education. *Connecticut Assessment of Educational Progress, 1982-83. Social Studies*. Annual Report Series, Dec. 1983. See also, "Overview of the Assessment." Connecticut State Board of Education. *Connecticut's Common Core of Learning*. Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Board of Education, 1987. Connecticut State Board of Education. *Teaching About Controversial Issues*. Policy statement adopted on October 4, 1978. Joint Council on Economic Education. *Master Curriculum Guide in Economics: A Framework for Teaching the Basic Concepts*. New York: Joint Council on Economic Education, 1984. National Assessment of Educational Progress. *Social Studies Objectives, Second Assessment*. Washington, DC: National Assessment of Educational Progress, 1974. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). "Revision of the NCSS Social Studies Curriculum Guidelines." *Social Education*. 43 (April 1979): pp. 261-278. NCSS. "Essentials of Education Statement." *The Tool Kit*. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1980. NCSS. "Including the Study about Religions in the Social Studies Curriculum: A Position Statement and Guidelines." *Social Education*, May 1985, pp. 413-14. NCSS. "Position Statement on the Freedom to Teach and the Freedom to Learn." Washington, DC: NCSS, 1974. NCSS. "Position Statement on Global Education." *Social Education*, January 1982, pp. 36-38. NCSS Task Force on Scope and Sequence. "In Search of a Scope and Sequence for Social Studies." *Social Education*, 53 (October 1989): pp. 376-387. The Study Commission on Global Education. *The United States Prepares for its Future: Global Perspectives in Education*. New York: Global Perspectives in Education, Inc., 1987. **Resources** Hyman, Marsha and Slomianko, Joshua. *Thinking Skills Instruction: Concepts and Techniques*. Washington, DC: National Education Association, 1989. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). "Building Support for the Social Studies." *The Tool Kit*. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1988. NCSS. "Controversial Issues in the Social Studies: A Contemporary Perspective." *45th Yearbook of NCSS*. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1975. NCSS. "Developing Decision-Making Skills." *47th Yearbook of NCSS*. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1977. NCSS. "Social Studies for Early Childhood/Elementary School Children: Preparing for the 21st Century." *The Tool Kit*. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1988. Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. *A Guide to Curriculum Planning in Social Studies*. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1986. "Encounters over scope and sequence are the battlefields on which educational decisions are fought and won or lost." —Thomas L. Dynneson and Richard E. Gross FIVE ALTERNATIVE OPTIONS Designing a Scope and Sequence Global Education NCSS 1983 Task Force Report Building a History Curriculum Charting a Course MAKING THE DECISION Student Intellectual Maturity Student Interest Levels Balance Continuity Importance Community Resources Teacher Resources Time Allotment This chapter will discuss scope and sequence, or the range and order of social studies courses for a K-12 curriculum. Chapter 1 reviewed the earliest scope and sequence, one proposed in 1916 by the National Education Association. Many districts are likely to discover that their own secondary programs roughly resemble that earlier scope and sequence, with geography at Grade 7, United States history at Grades 8 and 11, civics at Grade 9, European history at Grade 10 and problems of democracy at Grade 12. Likewise, the general patterns of an "expanding horizons" set for primary, elementary and intermediate grades articulated a few decades later still are widely accepted today. This chapter will present five alternatives to the traditional scope and sequence so that the local district either can initiate or alter its K-12 program in light of its new curriculum evaluation, needs assessment and goals. FIVE ALTERNATIVE OPTIONS Virtually every school system in the country offers social studies. Whether by accident or design, the topics, skills and issues addressed in the K-12 social studies experience represent a range and order of subjects. When a district has allowed a program to evolve without a plan, its scope and sequence may make little sense. Scope and sequence frequently evolves from tradition - a K-6 textbook series, secondary school course textbooks and teacher expertise. The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) does not have a nationally defined or research-based scope and sequence, nor does Connecticut mandate one of its own. Some would call for a single structure in order to unify the range and order of social studies throughout the state or nation. Few question the advantages for doing so on grounds of simplicity and uniformity. Standardized assessment would be more effective with increased accountability. However, most professionals reject a single scope and sequence for a variety of obvious reasons, not the least of which is the very social nature of the field described in earlier chapters. Academic and classroom professionals are determined to come to more consensus. In December of 1986, NCSS devoted its entire issue of *Social Education* to viable alternatives for scope and sequence. The articles reflect the broad considerations involved in the debate about the optimum structure for teaching an intellectual field premised upon fostering democratic citizenship. This guide draws material from that publication and the NCSS 1983 Task Force Report with its own proposal for scope and sequence, in order to provide local school districts with five options - the best available thinking on the subject. The first alternative is the "1983 Task Force Report" and revisions recommended in 1988 by the NCSS Ad Hoc Committee on Scope and Sequence. "Designing a Scope and Sequence" and "Global Education" are models two and three. A fourth alternative, a history-centered approach, is offered in both the California Department of Education's *History - Social Science Framework* (1988) and the Bradley Commission's *Building a History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History in Schools* (1988). A scope and sequence design for the future - a fifth alternative - is suggested in the 1989 publication of the National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools, *Charting a Course: Social Studies for the 21st Century*. To repeat an adaptation of Shakespearean logic noted in the opening article in *Social Education* (Nov./Dec. 1986), "The problem, Dear Brutus, may not be in our scope and sequences, but in our failure to stake out clear and achievable goals for the school area called social studies." While local curriculum developers may find solace in the fact that academic professionals themselves disagree on goals, they will recognize the importance of locally devised goals and the necessity to adapt them to local student needs. The scope and sequence proposals have commonly shared goals. A local school district's social studies scope and sequence goals can be evaluated with the following criteria, using a scale from 1 (nonexistent) to 5 (very clear): - a clear commitment to democratic values; - a need for students to know, take pride in and be able to call upon their historical roots; - a need for students to know the structure and function of their governing and economic institutions, and to be able to compare them to others; - a need to engage in more active civic participation; - a call for learning that commits students to active learning - social interaction; and - a recognition of other cultures and the varying values systems that exist throughout the world. **Designing A Scope And Sequence** Proponents of the "Designing A Scope and Sequence" view state that, because education must be defined within the context of a particular society, education is responsible for maintaining cultural heritage. The field of social studies has the major integrative function of maintaining that heritage and improving the individual and society. This can only be accomplished effectively at the local level, where the majority of decisions about scope and sequence must be made. Under this proposal, the following major themes appear at each grade level, K-12: - cultural heritage - global perspective - politics/economics - tradition and change - social history - spatial relationships - social contracts - technology - peace/interdependence - citizenship The order for content in this model is less important than its currency and accuracy. The social studies curriculum is organized in the following pattern: - Primary Grades (K-2): My Orientation to the World - Intermediate Grades (3-5): Expanding My World Horizons - Middle School Grades (6-8): Viewing the World from Different Perspectives - Secondary Grades (9-12): Assuming Full Citizenship in a Changing World Above themes and model from "Designing A Scope and Sequence," Social Education, October 1989, pp. 388-398. Global Education Like the preceding alternative for a district's scope and sequence, suggestions for specific content by grade level in the global education curriculum are left to local planners. This curriculum enlarges the vision and meaning of citizenship beyond the local community, state and nation to the global community. It is based upon the reality that, because we live in an interdependent, multiboundary world, current and future problems no longer can be solved at a national level. And as citizens of one of the most dominant world powers, the nation's young people should be prepared to deal with pluralism, interdependence and change. The content for this design comes from history and the social sciences as well as the natural sciences, journalism and future studies. This curriculum plan is based upon four essential elements that are organized around five conceptual themes and four persistent problem themes. These areas are outlined as follows: **Elements** - the study of systems - the study of human values - the study of persistent issues and problems - the study of global history **Conceptual Themes** - interdependence - change - culture - scarcity - conflict **Persistent Problem Themes** - peace and security - national/international development - environmental problems - human rights The K-12 global education model is shown in Figure 1 on page 32. | Grade | Conceptual Theme | Persistent Problem Theme | |-------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------| | K | All conceptual themes through socialization and structural play | Environmental problems | | 1 | Interdependence and scarcity | Development | | 2 | Change and culture | Peace and security | | 3 | Conflict | Environmental problems | | 4 | Culture and interdependence | Human rights | | 5 | Interdependence, conflict and scarcity | Development | | 6 | Change, culture, conflict and interdependence | | | Grade | Content-Specific Study | |-------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | 7 | Global systems | | 8 | Human values | | 9 | Historical and global interdependence | | 10 | History of the United States and world | | 11 | Modern world | | 12 | Contemporary global problems and issues/community participation | Figure 1 Adapted from "Social Studies within a Global Education." *Social Education*, October 1989, pp. 399-403. NCSS 1983 Task Force Report The third alternative is based upon several assumptions. Critical thinking is the major outcome of social studies and, therefore, that essential skill will be central to each grade level. All subject matter will be considered within a global frame of reference. All teachers share the responsibility for extending and refining skills. The skills are to be taught and applied at all grade levels. And teachers will be actively sensitive to socialization as well as social criticism – the dual and often-contradictory thrust of social studies. These skills will ensure the necessary socialization of citizens while fostering the spark of social criticism which keeps freedom alive. This is the NCSS 1983 Task Force K-12 model: - Kindergarten: Awareness of self in a social setting - Grade 1: The individual in primary social groups: understanding school and family life - Grade 2: Meeting basic needs in nearby social groups: the community, the neighborhood - Grade 3: Sharing Earth-space with others: the community - Grade 4: Human life in varied environments: the region - Grade 5: People of the Americas: the United States and its close neighbors - Grade 6: People and cultures: the eastern hemisphere - Grade 7: A changing world of many nations: global view - Grade 8: Building a strong and free nation: United States - Grade 9: Systems that make a democratic society work: law, justice and economics - Grade 10: Origins of major cultures: a world history - Grade 11: The maturing of America: United States history - Grade 12: One-year course or courses required; selection(s) to be made from the following: 1. Issues and problems of modern society 2. Introduction to the social sciences 3. The arts in human society 4. International area studies 5. Social science electives Adapted from "In Search of a Scope and Sequence for Social Studies." *Social Education*, October 1989, pp. 380-382. Building A History Curriculum The movement toward a history-centered curriculum came in response to widespread concern over a perceived inadequacy – both in quality and quantity – of the history taught in American elementary and secondary classrooms. Both the *History–Social Studies Framework* (California, 1988) and *Building a History Curriculum* (Bradley Commission, 1988) provide history-centered curriculums. The Bradley Commission report offered three variations: - a traditional expanding horizon with history as the primary focus; - one connecting history, geography, biography, literature and the arts together with primary sources; and - the California *History – Social Science Framework* that, with the following grade-level breakdown, offers an infusion of historical, literacy and biographical materials. K – Learning and working now and long ago 1 – A child’s place in time and space 2 – People who make a difference 3 – Continuity and change: local and national history 4 – A changing state 5 – United States history and geography: making a new nation 6 – World history and geography: ancient civilizations 7 – World history and geography to 1789 8 – United States history and geography to 1914 9 - Social studies electives 10 - World history, culture and geography since 1789 11 - United States history and geography, 20th century 12 - American government: social studies elective ■ Adapted from *Building A History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History in Schools*. Bradley Commission, 1988, pp. 16-21. **Charting A Course** The National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools was born out of the concern over a lack of synthesis in social studies and a lack of coherence in history, geography and the social studies at all levels. For the first time in more than 50 years, all major organizations and representatives of the concerned public sought to develop a consensus for direction in the social studies for the 21st century. The proposed K-12 curriculum is based on developing a coexistence of increasing diversity and cherished tradition to cultivate participatory citizenship and encourage the growth of independent, knowledgeable young adults who will conduct their lives in accord with democratic principles and values. The following K-12 curriculum was proposed by the commission: **Grades K-3** - International perspective and multicultural experiences - Citizenship/decision making - Introduction of basic concepts drawn from social studies areas - Examination of environments near and far away - Development of the concept of community - Stories about and descriptions of different types of people - Geographic skills - Heroes, heroines and common people - Stimulation of children's imaginations to achieve a variety of human social experiences - Integration of reading, mathematics and social studies - Use of holidays to introduce ideas and customs **Grades 4-6** - One year each of United States history, world history and geography, taught in any order **Grades 7-8** - Two-year sequence of local community and a study of the nation **Grades 9-12** - World and American history and geography to 1750 - World and American history and geography, 1750-1900 - World and American history and geography since 1900 - Government/economics and other course options ■ Adapted from *Charting a Course: Social Studies for the 21st Century*. National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools, 1989. **MAKING THE DECISION** Before developing a new social studies scope and sequence, the curriculum development committee should examine the current one for strengths to be retained. Examination of commercial programs and scopes and sequences from other districts may be useful. The committee also should consider the importance of introducing a defined, coordinated program for all grades if such a program does not already exist. Several considerations should be included in the task of constructing the social studies scope and sequence ■. **Student Intellectual Maturity** The committee should recognize the essential fact that students vary in their abilities to work with abstract concepts. Jean Piaget maintained that students progress developmentally from concrete to abstract, with a concomitant need for hands-on experiences in the early grades and for the less intellectually mature students at all grade levels. Figure 2 (page 35) represents one mode of this progression. It represents experience modes used by students for symbolizing, observing and doing. Some modes are more concrete or abstract than others. These experience modes should be considered when developing student learning activities in the social studies content areas. Jerome Bruner (1966) offers a slightly altered view of this model. Bruner maintains that, "any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development." Students can understand abstract concepts at a very early age, although they may require concrete instructional techniques. A curriculum committee need not shy away from abstract content so long as instructional techniques and materials are available to help less mature students grasp the concepts. **Student Interest Levels** Most topics can be made interesting to most students most of the time. A curriculum committee may identify student interests at each grade level. One way would be to give an interest inventory to a selected student sample and consider its results in developing the scope and sequence. The local community's needs and attitudes also can provide clues to student interests. As students become involved in community activities such as sports, scouting and the world of work, certain topics are more likely to attract their interest. There also are psychological clues about what student interests might be. Erikson's stages of development (in Miller, 1976) have applicability for schooling, and these seem most pertinent: - initiative versus guilt: child tests autonomy and begins realizing he or she is a person who can act and who can wonder what he or she will be (ages 4-7); - industry versus inferiority: child tries to master some of the tools and techniques of the culture, developing feelings of competence if successful, or of inferiority if unsuccessful (ages 7-11); and - identity versus identity diffusion: adolescent develops sense of self-concept and of future and expects recognition from the immediate community, or the adolescent does not relate successfully to the environment (ages 12-18). Another model is designed primarily for elementary children. Hoffman and Ryan (in Miller, 1976) suggest four developmental stages to which a teacher might match appropriate learning. These stages are: • initial exploratory stage—primarily preschool children exploring the physical and social environment; • structured and dependent stage—preschool until about 10, dependent on adults and others to stimulate and structure what is done; • structured independent stage—from 10 until early teens, some independent choices but environment determined by adults; and • independent exploratory stage—adolescence (some elementary children reach it), chooses learning activities and develops alternatives. Developers of the social studies scope and sequence may wish to take into account the stages of development described by Erikson and by Hoffman and Ryan. **Balance** The committee must examine the content carefully for balance. The members must have, in Charles Keller's words, "the courage to omit." They might ask these questions: - Does the K-12 program expose students to a wide range of cultures, issues, problems and geographic regions? - Does the program include a broad range of social science and historical concepts? - Are state and local history and government included at appropriate points in the curriculum? - Does each grade level have assigned skills, values, experiences and social participation activities? - Is there unnecessary repetition in the scope and sequence? **Continuity** Curriculum developers should evaluate the scope and sequence to determine if it has a logical, integrated flow of knowledge, skills, values and participation. The committee need not debate endlessly whether a student needs to know latitude and longitude before studying life in Japan. The committee does, however, need to consider how each might be taught without knowledge of the other, and how teachers might build on a knowledge of one to teach the other. In short, a sequence is not inherently right or wrong. Planners must define a logical sequence that ensures continuity and uses previously learned knowledge and skills. **Importance** Here the developers risk attracting the ire of every interest group, as well as the pressure to adopt what is currently in vogue. One test that can be applied is to ask how and when the topic, skill, concept or issue under discussion will be used in the students' future social studies experiences. If the information is not to be used in relationship to something more general and to build toward something else in the K-12 sequence, it probably is not important. **Community Resources** Individual districts have unique resources which are of particular interest or importance to specific age groups. A local museum may have a staff that works especially well with young children. A local business may not permit tours until students are a certain age. In planning a social studies sequence, curriculum developers should place topics and activities at the levels that will allow the most advantageous use of local resources. **Teacher Resources** The curriculum committee should consider staff strengths and weaknesses and should resolve the following questions: - Is it worth altering a sequence drastically if teachers with known skills in certain topics will no longer be able to teach those topics? - Should the grade level with the least-experienced staff be asked to make the greatest adjustment for the new social studies program? If either answer is "yes," the committee should plan what assistance and support will be necessary to ensure the best results. **Time Allotment** The Connecticut State Board of Education's *A Guide to Curriculum Development: Purposes, Practices and Procedures* (see most current edition) discusses time allotments for the various content areas in terms of the total school program. The amount of time allotted to any one subject area is governed by a number of factors: the philosophy and goals of the district, the separateness or interdisciplinary role of the content area, the instructional needs of the students, and the scope and sequence. Based on Connecticut's legal requirement that each student have at least 900 instructional hours per school year (180 days), or an average five-hour instructional day, the following time allotment is recommended for social studies: - Grades 1 - 3, 75 to 150 minutes per week; - Grades 4 - 6, 120 to 200 minutes per week; and - Grades 7 - 12, five periods per week. It must be remembered, however, that most primary teachers are teaching social studies throughout the day, for whenever they are dealing with social studies content in the reading lesson, with interpersonal relationships and with the students' adjustments to their peer groups, social studies learning should be taking place. The scope and sequence is determined after consideration of what is best in the current curriculum, what is desired in the new curriculum and what local resources and constraints exist. The scope and sequence also must reflect the needs of all social studies students with their diverse intellectual and physical capabilities. After an appropriate scope and sequence is established, instructional techniques then must be considered. References Bradley Commission on History in the Schools. *Building a History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History in Schools*. Washington, DC: Educational Excellence Network, 1988. Bruner, Jerome. *Toward a Theory of Instruction*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966. California Department of Education. *History – Social Science Framework*. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Education, 1988. Miller, John P. *Humanizing the Classroom: Models of Teaching in Affective Education*. New York: Praeger Publications, 1976. National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools. *Charting a Course: Social Studies for the 21st Century*. Washington, DC: National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools, November 1989. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). "In Search of Scope and Sequence for Social Studies." *Social Education*, 53 (October 1989): pp. 376-387. NCSS. Models on "Global Education" and "Designing a Scope and Sequence." *Social Education*, 53 (October 1989): pp. 388-403. NCSS. "Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on Scope and Sequence." *Social Education*, 53 (October 1989): pp. 375, 6. NCSS. "1983 Task Force Report on Scope and Sequence." *Social Education*, April 1984. Resources Connecticut State Board of Education. *A Guide to Curriculum Development: Purposes, Practices and Procedures*. Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Board of Education, (see current edition). Dynneson, Thomas L., and Gross, Richard E. "A Century of Encounter." *Social Education*, 50 (November/December 1986): pp. 486-488. Parlar, Walter C. *Renewing the Social Studies Curriculum*. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1991. "Information is no substitute for thinking and thinking is no substitute for information. The dilemma is that there is never enough time to teach all the information that could usefully be taught." — Edward DeBono VARIED LEARNING ACTIVITIES Learning Activities Mix SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES Reading Directed Discussion Group Interaction Cooperative Learning Writing Decision Making Questioning Conceptual Development Drill and Lecture Case Studies Simulations Role-Playing Charting and Clustering Affective Strategies Independent Study Technologies Evaluation Flexibility Objective Tests and Writing Short- and Long-Term Evaluation Assessment and Instruction Mainstreaming Since a teacher's most critical role is to properly instruct students, effectiveness depends upon successful communication. This chapter considers a wide variety of approaches to communicate the diverse social studies content. While a small number of teachers always will be eminently successful in the traditional lecture mode, the vast majority will not. Today's subject matter, delivery systems and student populations need diverse instructional approaches. **VARIED LEARNING ACTIVITIES** The teacher's pivotal role ranges from being the dispenser of information to the facilitator for the discovery of meaning. That role is influenced by a number of variables. Diversity of students by sex, age, race, religion, language, emotional stability and intellectual ability means that standard instructional techniques may no longer be effective. Students' learning styles differ. Some students are predominantly visual learners, while others are auditory learners. Some may be concrete sequential objective learners, and others random abstract intuitive learners. Not all will come from backgrounds which respect uniform patterns of authority. Old expectations may not apply. The following learning activities mix suggests how social studies can be enriched by offering variety. The activities reaffirm the advantages of presenting an idea in several ways. Weekly lesson plans, courses or units can effectively mix the learning styles of students. The learning activities mix is adapted from an unpublished work by James G. Lengel and is used with permission. **Learning Activities Mix** We have known for a long time that people learn in different ways. We all enjoy variety, and pupils in school often need several embodiments of an idea in order to make sense out of it. As weekly lessons, courses or units are planned, teachers should try to mix the learning styles in which students participate. Here are some ideas to get you thinking: **Visual mode** - symbols, pictures, cartoons, photographs, tables, charts, graphs, maps for interpretation, comparison, problem identification. **Original sources** - written, or spoken; contemporary or ancient; the more detailed and concrete the better. Edit if necessary, but don't predigest it. The more controversial, the better. Get all sides of an issue. **Audio mode** - tape recordings (actual or staged), speeches, plays, natural sounds; for analysis, transcription, identification of characters. **Project mode** - constructing, painting, making collages, drawings, models, dioramas, recreations, reproductions, antiques, artifacts. **Advocacy mode** - speeches, debates, role-playing, simulation, argument, mock trial; preparation, delivery, recording and analysis. **Writing mode** - research, journals, simulated letters, news articles, speeches, stream-of-consciousness, plays and short stories. **Reading mode** - secondary source (textbook), original sources, newspapers, letters, plays, advertisements, journals, records and lists. **Group-Work mode** - small group decision making or arguing, simulation, team advocacy, group projects. **Manipulative mode** - computer database analysis, simulation and video analysis. At least five of these modes should be used each week so that a variety of learning styles is encountered. For example: **Monday** - read background; visually examine maps of the area under study. **Tuesday** - listen to an audiotape of a speech on the issue, begin group preparation of a debate. **Wednesday** - read original accounts of the event; students write their own analysis of the situation. **Thursday** - prepare group debate arguments; research needed data from books, graphs and tables; introduce computer analysis of data. **Friday** - conduct debate; use dramatic photos to make a point; analyze debate points. *(Editor's Note: While descriptions would indicate a mix of activities appropriate for secondary school students, the variation of methods employed would be appropriate for all levels.)* Adapted from unpublished work by James G. Lengel. Used with permission. SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACHES Curriculum developers and teachers will find that the following instructional approaches are suitable for varying ranges of students and content. Reading Content-area teachers often assume erroneously that students comprehend reading assignments. One practical strategy to improve reading skills is the Framework to Guide Strategic Reading Behavior (see Appendix F). This thinking strategy prompts students to predict what the assignment will be, to absorb information as it is read; to reject or revise predictions, and to develop habits of testing predictions through reasoning. This practice helps students to set their own purposes for reading and to establish a dialogue with the author. The more thoroughly teachers prepare students for the assigned reading, the more likely students will comprehend the material. Previewing the headings, italicized words and summary statements helps to establish the purpose for reading. Silent reading followed by discussion is a form of rereading the content. Analysis of the author's arguments calls upon critical thinking skills. Extension activities provide students with opportunities to incorporate new ideas (see Appendix F). Directed Discussion Discussions permit the teacher to focus upon a designed intellectual task. The goal is to direct student thinking, to raise desired questions and to marshal specific information from students and resources. The degree of flexibility will depend upon the teacher. Questions such as those that follow often help teachers to structure the learning experiences toward convergent thinking. - What is the purpose for the discussion? - Is the topic worth thinking and talking about? - Is the atmosphere free and respectful of student ideas? - Do students have sufficient time to think about questions? - Are students seated in ways that encourage interaction? In contrast, open discussions permit students to express more freely their opinions about the topic. A discussion will raise questions students will want to ask, such as about the bias of sources, the roles of historical characters or why a topic makes no sense. Both teacher and student questions will channel the learning experience toward divergent thinking. Group Interaction Group interaction serves many purposes: sharing work among students, developing social skills of cooperation and problem solving, stimulating discussion of diverse points of view, developing student responsibility, and organizing and acting on plans of action. Group interaction takes various forms, quite different from directed discussions. These include peer writing and editing, publication, collaborative learning, group research and projects, committee work, panel discussions, presentations and reports, dramatizations, and buzz groups or round-table discussions. Interaction techniques may contribute to all four major social studies goals, not just social participation (others include knowing, thinking and valuing). And they take advantage of the wide diversity of students. All learners may profitably gain knowledge and develop respect for one another's abilities. Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning is a tightly structured form of group interaction. It creates an authority of peer group influence roughly comparable to democratic decision making. Teachers withdraw from center stage and listen to the language of learning. Students find meanings for themselves, not preordained teacher truths. The technique promotes social studies knowledge and participation while using skills and values. Learning becomes something people do and the groups become the center for learning. Student roles change as well. The technique cuts against student competition, intellectual hoarding, distrust of peers and passivity. It builds self-confidence and group interaction. Concrete tasks, such as asking groups of four to five to discuss a controversial question raised by the text and to come to a conclusion, can help keep discussions on target. The task must be well planned, with a wide range of opinion and no clear right or wrong answers. Boredom and frustration set in if the assigned task is too complex. Teachers might wish to explore why Reconstruction of the Confederacy failed, how teenagers should respond to particular teenage-related legislation, or why unemployment for black teenagers is disproportionately higher than for white teenagers. Writing For too long, social studies teachers have relegated writing only to testing what students have learned, rather than allowing writing to enhance the learning process. The writing process strengthens the learning process. It promotes thinking about content by encouraging students to write and revise thoughts on paper. Writing, like thinking, takes time. Meaning is rarely thought up and then written down. Rather, it evolves through revisions. It becomes focused and gains refinement. Peer editing through group interaction raises such issues as what the reader likes about the piece, what the reader hears the piece saying, and what the reader would like to know more about. Revising and editing strategies that involve students working together help to establish writing as a means to promote learning. Writing assignments are limited only by imagination. Content from geography, sociology, anthropology and history can be taught through writing. Social studies writing techniques, such as those that commit students to establishing a voice and an audience, promote decision making (see Appendix G, Writing in the Social Studies). Decision Making Decision-making techniques foster critical thinking. They arise from the inquiry approach: defining a problem, hypothesizing, testing, developing a conclusion and applying the conclusion to the data. The decisions may relate to intellectual, social, economic, political, historical or personal problems. Decision making engages all of the major social studies goals – knowing, thinking, valuing and participating. One model that can be applied to numerous social studies situations helps to teach students how to analyze before making a decision. Students compile a simple chart for each problem as shown in Figure 3 (Decision-Making Model). Another model (Figure 4), given in Thomas and Brubaker’s *Decisions in Teaching Elementary Social Studies* (1971), shows a variation of the inquiry approach. --- **Figure 3** | Problem | Options | Predicted Consequences | Choice | |---------|---------|------------------------|--------| | | 1. | a. | | | | 2. | b. | | | | 3. | c. | | | | 4. | d. | | **Figure 4** From *Decisions in Teaching Elementary Social Studies*, by Thomas and Brubaker, Wadsworth Publishing, 1971. K-12 students make decisions every day, some of them much more complex than would be asked in class. The challenge is to present situations in the classroom that are sufficiently meaningful so decision-making skills might be applied elsewhere. **Questioning** Socrates' emphasis upon questioning to seek truth and meaning sets the model for modern learning. In today's American classroom, as in the Athenian marketplace, learning is probed through a barrage of questions. Differences between classical Athens and today's American classroom need not hide the truth that probing unanswered questions is as basic to education as it was to the founding of the United States of America. The diversity of students in the classroom simply multiplies the diversity of questions that teachers must expect. Teachers need to ask questions at all cognitive levels and encourage students to do the same. Questions have been proven to fulfill a variety of functions, some of which Wesley and Wronski, in *Teaching Social Studies in the High School* (1964), identify as follows: - stimulate interest; - supply incentives; - emphasize important points; - develop varied types of thinking; - afford students with opportunities for interaction; - establish relationships; - organize content; - ensure adequate interpretations; - secure attention; - present problems rhetorically; - provide review and drill; - discover errors and misunderstandings; and - test the student. Wesley and Wronski also suggest that the many different types of questions fall into categories such as the following: - recall - qualified recall - comparison - contrast - evaluation - cause - effect - illustration - classification - generalization - definition - proof - description - characterization - relationship - summary - criticism - application - organization - alternative - analysis - synthesis **Conceptual Development** The teaching of concepts helps students relate a vast amount of information to key ideas. Without this linkage, the information is little better than trivia that confuses and distracts meaningful education. Concepts enable students to compare, contrast, synthesize and evaluate content. Teachers can help students to build concepts at the concrete or abstract levels, with methods suggested by Fraenkel in *Helping Students Think and Value* (1973). Fraenkel suggests that methods for use by all types of students can be developed by: - Listing question(s): What do you see? - Grouping question(s): What items go together? - Explaining question(s): When did you put them together? - Labeling question(s): What do you call this group? - Explaining question(s): Why did you give it that label? - Recombining question(s): Can some of these belong in more than one group? Fraenkel's teaching concepts would involve the following classroom instructional procedures. The teacher: - states the concept; - gives examples; - gives nonexamples; - asks for attributes; - asks for definition; - asks for identification; and - asks for an original example. Drill and Lecture Repetitive use of certain information or skills seems most appropriate for basic items necessary for all students. Possible examples might include basic political science terms, the names of the 50 states, the use of latitude and longitude or the development of cost-benefit tables. The teacher's challenge is to include necessary drill without boring the students. Repetitive exercises may be scattered throughout the year in order to ensure mastery, rather than bunching the exercises in a unit of work. Computers may be used for variety. The lecture method is appropriate when the teacher wishes to give students a great deal of factual information or present differing interpretations from those available in writing. This oral presentation technique also may be useful to outside speakers, as well as class members whose expertise can be shared. Case Studies The case study approach has been adapted successfully from law and business schools to the teaching of historic, economic, political, social and legal issues in social studies. Documentation of various sides of an issue is presented to students, guiding them to recognize the conflicting values, premises and interests involved. The discussion or role-playing that can develop serve to broaden understandings and clarify values. Case studies are useful in helping students to develop critical reading and thinking skills. For students who have special needs, case study materials can be taped, presented in visual clips, or demonstrated by using maps and charts. Simulations Simulations provide mechanisms for students to explore topics in formats that encourage thought, decision making and participation. They allow students to examine models of reality and to have the fun and excitement of participating in that reality. No simulation is worthwhile as a teaching tool, however, unless a careful debriefing takes place. As students examine what happened and what they learned in the activity, they clarify the experience. With contemporary curricular pressures, a committee must consider certain questions before planning to use a simulation. These questions might include the following: - How much time is involved for introduction? For play? For debriefing? - How many students can participate? - For what kinds of students is it suitable? - What background information is required? - What is the most appropriate classroom use? - Is the simulation sufficiently valuable to justify the time involved? - Is this the best way to achieve instructional goals? If the responses are sufficiently positive, the simulation should be considered for inclusion in the curriculum. Simulations often are useful with students having learning difficulties. Simulations require more verbal skill than reading, and they motivate students to participate and develop a sense of self-worth. In planning techniques for handling individual differences, therefore, simulations should receive serious consideration. Role-Playing Developing a need for empathy and understanding of remote or abstract events can be modeled effectively through simple role-plays. The main characters and issues can be illuminated by assigning roles (with or without role cards), and describing a brief scenario. The acting out of roles within the context of the situation dramatizes the context of the event. This can clarify the facts of an event or the purposes of a process, or it can demonstrate value conflicts. The best simulations often are structured role-plays. For example, law-related education makes extensive use of mock trials that provide participatory experiences for students while clarifying concepts. The mock United Nations sponsored by the World Affairs Center of Hartford is another example. These role-plays are more complex than those a teacher might devise but have the same learning potential. Charting and Clustering Thoughts may be organized visually into charts and clusters to permit individuals or groups to gather and categorize information. This is particularly helpful in the development of thinking skills. Specific tasks include data retrieval, comparisons, relationships and organization. Figure 5 (page 45) gives two examples of charts. A variation of charting is the clustering or webbing technique. This can be used to illustrate graphically accumulated knowledge, or as a brainstorming technique to stimulate associative thinking. Discussions may begin by the teacher visually clustering thoughts on the chalkboard. Students may cluster thoughts as a prewriting device in order to decide the direction to take in a piece of writing. Unlike outlining, which makes assumptions about sequential mental order, the clustering shown in Figure 6 permits great flexibility. Example of Clustering - physical fitness - Sparta - Greeks - Acropolis - Temples - Athens - Pericles - Socrates Affective Strategies Social studies materials are value laden because the goals of democratic citizenship presume the internalization of a set of values. Intellectual freedom and democratic tolerance discourage direct indoctrination (see page 11, Democratic Beliefs, part of the NCSS "Essentials of the Social Studies"). Therefore, open examination of and confrontation with value conflicts characterize the most widely accepted social studies materials. Values decision-making processes are available. A full explanation is found in "Values Education: Rationale, Strategies and Procedures," the 41st Yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies (1971). One model of the process includes the following components: - identifying and clarifying the values question; - assembling purported facts; - assessing the truth of purported facts; - clarifying the relevance of facts; - arriving at a tentative values decision; and - testing the values principle implied in the decision. Technologies Integrating technology into classroom instruction is one of the most important initiatives in education today. Teachers and students are exploring exciting new learning approaches that recent developments in technology have made possible. Using a variety of technologies—from computers to interactive video to telecommunications—teachers and students engage in dialogue, exploration and experimentation with students around the world. Learning takes on a realism and significance not easily achieved via traditional methods. A technology-integrated social studies curriculum is an enriched program of study that motivates and encourages excellence in students across all abilities, disciplines and grade levels. When technology is an integral part of the instructional program, it opens a wealth of learning opportunities in areas such as global education, cartography, multicultural education, culture and diversity, international relations, global issues, social and political change, and citizenship. Students can witness events as they happen or examine the historical record. They can tap into on-line sources for information from library media centers, television and media associations, political and social watch groups, research institutes and educational institutions. To encourage innovative uses of technology in social studies instruction, educational publishers are producing multidisciplinary units which integrate printed texts, newspapers, computer software, videotapes, CD and laser videodisc materials, and other information sources into comprehensive, in-depth and effective presentations for classroom use. A useful tool for developing a technology-integrated instructional program is Connecticut's Guide to Program Development in Learning Resources and Technology (1991). As teachers and students become more comfortable with technology, they will be better prepared to face the challenges and opportunities of the 21st century. Chapter 5 will describe in greater detail the advances in technology and learning resources available to teachers and students in the social studies. Independent Study This technique may take several forms, all of which give major responsibility to the learner for shaping how and what will be learned. Independent study includes projects, group work, research reports, community action and internships. Independent study usually extends over a period of days or weeks. Students receive guidance from teachers and/or consultants. Any independent study involves planning, setting purposes, gathering information and/or experience, reporting and assessing the results. A more structured method of independent study has been developed for dealing with talented and underachieving students. Under this plan, students first decide how long they will spend on a curriculum topic or unit, thus controlling the element of time. Students then determine what materials they will use for their study. The next step allows students to sequence the materials and topics in the curriculum. This may involve the substitution of new topics for those included in the existing curriculum. Finally, students evaluate their own performance. This process is not always completed, but it does allow the students to take control over some measure of their instruction. Evaluation Flexibility Evaluation of student learning, whether by standardized testing or a teacher's observation, also is an instructional technique. Too often students perceive evaluation as destructive. If that impression recurs, students usually have good justification. Teachers, students might say, only look for mistakes. Teachers may find fault for educationally valid reasons, but many are easy prey to the errors approach which they themselves were subjected to as students. Papers returned only with red ink that catalogs a litany of sins reinforce negative learning. Objective tests, not the answers, may fail as well. Those which only test short-term recall and are devoid of conceptual or thematic development may be justly criticized. Such tests are overused because they are easy to correct, easy to administer and save time. Evaluation also need not occur only at the end of a unit when a test is taken, a project is due, a research paper is handed in or an oral presentation is completed. Social studies teachers at the intermediate and secondary levels, where the curriculum demands increased accountability, are prone to overlook continual assessment. But evaluation should be an ongoing process in classes K-12. Registry of student progress may be drawn from individual student verbal responses, individual or group conferences, participation and contributions during group interaction, agreed-upon criteria for written entries in students' thinking logs, and prequizzes or pretests. The traditional social studies emphasis upon product at the expense of process should be reconsidered if thinking skills, democratic values and social participation indeed are accepted social studies goals. Other considerations also are important. Not all students' learning styles allow proper responses on objective or essay tests. Some have learning or language handicaps that require test modifications. This can be as simple as allowing a student to respond orally into a tape recorder or having test questions read to nonreaders. In the primary grades, oral reading of questions eliminates the reading variable. Modifications can be more complex, such as a set of alternatives from which students or teachers may choose. For example, students may be asked to demonstrate their mastery of an objective by taking a written test, completing an essay, producing a product, role-playing or by speaking out in a discussion. Flexibility in evaluation helps social studies students feel that they have some control and choice in assessment. An example of this flexibility from a high school course on China appears below. **Objective:** To identify the chief characteristics of culture in the rural and urban areas of China. **Evaluation:** 1. Pretend you are a magazine writer. Prepare an article titled: "Contrasting Lifestyles – the Rural and Urban Citizen." Or be the staff artist and prepare a series of sketches on the topic. 2. Make a chart on rural and urban life in China. Include comparisons of such aspects as food, housing, clothing, stores, education, transportation, communication, work, religion, culture and recreation. 3. Ask the following questions: What are the most significant aspects of culture in any society? How does rural life in China illustrate these attributes? How does urban life do so? Compare the two. 4. Work with a small group and prepare a mural which illustrates the key characteristics of life in the urban and rural areas of China. 5. Working with a small group, prepare a role-play that illustrates life in the rural and urban areas of China. This plan will allow students to choose from among assessment alternatives the one best suited to their interests. A teacher-prepared objective test could be another option. Student diversity also affects evaluation. Distinction needs to be made about the learning development from elementary through intermediate to high school. Assessment of primary students' achievement should be structured differently from that of older students. These students should have tests that are primarily pictorial or graphic in nature. Questions should be read or taped to eliminate any reading difficulty. Observational methods often are more appropriate than the typical paper-and-pencil tests. In assessing social studies, teachers and curriculum developers should be very careful not to make the instruments tests of reading skills. As children progress in language abilities, more formal tests can be given. Secondary school students can use both objective and essay testing and other forms of assessment. Curriculum developers should consider how teachers at all levels will assess students with limited academic abilities or with special needs. Options include visual tests, including pictures or other graphics, observation scales and checklists, and tape-recorded tests. Conceptual-level testing as well as performance-based testing should be done. Adjustments in the testing structure for students with special language needs will develop more accurate social studies achievement results. The key factor in developing an evaluation plan for these students should be how to determine what they know in social studies without allowing their skills or needs to handicap their performance in any way. Objective Tests and Writing Objective tests and essays originally were the major methods to gather information in order to assess social studies achievement. Objective tests still maintain a significant place in testing students. Traditional true or false, multiple choice, completion and matching tests are used to assess student comprehension of facts. Items should be constructed carefully in order to assess how well students are meeting a course's listed objectives. Objective tests are limited, however, and other forms of testing that are performance based or that develop portfolios should be considered (see Chapter 6). Tests constructed to demonstrate how well students are achieving objectives are called criterion-referenced measures. They provide excellent feedback for students, teachers, parents and administrators, if properly constructed. Objective testing also can be used in new ways, and since social studies instruction frequently is structured around concepts, test items can be constructed to determine the level of students' conceptual development. For example: - Given the name of a concept, the student can select examples of it. - Given the name of a concept, the student can select nonexamples of it. - Given an example of a concept, the student can select its name. - Given the name of an attribute of a concept, the student can select examples of that attribute. - Given an example of an attribute of a concept, the student can select the name of the attribute. - Given a concept, the student can select a relevant attribute. - Given a concept, the student can select an irrelevant attribute. - Given the definition of a concept, the student can select its name. - Given two concepts, the student can select the relationship between them. This schema, adapted from Klausmeier's *Conceptual Learning and Development: A Cognitive View* (1974), shows increasing complexity of conceptual development ending with the stage of making generalizations. The means to evaluate student learning through writing no longer are restricted to essay tests, although these traditionally have served as the standard writing format to evaluate learning. Student thinking on paper also may be tested by the options suggested in Figure 3 on page 42. The objectives for written testing will determine the best way to evaluate content, communication skills, conceptual development, values and attitudes, and decision-making skills. Resources are available to provide assistance in test item construction. Among them are the publications of the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), which include both objective and essay items for United States history, world history and critical thinking skills. Publishers often provide tests to be used in conjunction with their programs, and some national and state assessment items are available. Publications by the National Writing Project, Connecticut Writing Project and other regional writing programs also will provide assistance. Short- and Long-Term Evaluation Social studies evaluation occurs both in the short term and long term. In the short term, teacher-devised instruments are used most frequently. They can reflect accurately the current learning objectives. They may be supplemented by published tests when these closely match the program's stated objectives. In the long term, secondary students' achievement often is evaluated with formal examinations. These are either teacher prepared or publisher developed. In some cases, such as United States history or government, standardized tests are used. Students at both elementary and secondary levels frequently take achievement tests as part of a school's overall evaluation program. The use of standardized tests to examine student achievement and to evaluate program effectiveness needs to be considered carefully. In social studies, these tests usually explore areas such as map, globe and reference skills. They do not effectively test conceptual development or the content of local social studies programs. The wide variance in local curriculums makes this impossible. Using the social studies subtest of a standardized achievement test battery can waste district funds. Careful examination usually reveals little or no correlation between what is being tested and what is being taught. The resulting comparisons, therefore, do not determine how well students perform in terms of a national standard. There are other forms of long-term evaluation. The *Connecticut Assessment of Educational Progress* (CAEP) has, in the past, been used to assess the citizenship and social studies skills of a selected population at specific grade levels. Likewise, this measure can provide longitudinal data on social studies achievement. This is a criterion-referenced measure in which students are expected to achieve at certain levels for each objective. The objectives tested are designed specifically for Connecticut. Assessment and Instruction Student assessment increasingly is being viewed as a means to improve instruction. The problem with traditional standardized tests is that they often are removed from real-life situations. Authentic assessment is the new standard being introduced to link assessment with improvement in instruction and learning. Walter Parker (1991) provides the following "attributes of authentic benchmark assessments": - Tasks go to the heart of essential learnings, i.e., they ask for exhibitions of understandings and abilities that matter. - Tasks resemble interdisciplinary real-life challenges, not schoolish busywork that is artificially neat, fragmented and easy to grade. - Tasks are standard-setting; they point students toward higher, richer levels of knowing. - Tasks are worth striving toward and practicing for. - Tasks are known to students well in advance. - Tasks are few in number; hence, they are representative. - Tasks strike teachers as worth the trouble. - Tasks generally involve a higher-order challenge—a challenge for which students have to go beyond the routine use of previously learned information. - All tasks are attempted by all students. From *Renewing the Social Studies Curriculum* by Walter C. Parker, 1991. Used with permission of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. A different approach to assessment requires developing "thoughtful classrooms"—classrooms that allow in-depth study for students to develop complex understandings. To create these "thoughtful classrooms," Fred Newmann (1988) offers the following dimensions: - a few topics are examined in depth rather than many topics covered superficially; - lessons have substantial coherence and continuity; - students are given time to think—to prepare responses to questions; - the teacher asks challenging questions and structures challenging tasks; - the teacher is a model of thoughtfulness; and - students offer explanations and reasons for their conclusions. Adapted from "Can Depth Replace Coverage in the High School Curriculum," by Fred M. Newman, *Phi Delta Kappan*, 1988. In this era of accountability, assessment increasingly is being considered as the means to educational reform. Authentic assessment and "thoughtful classrooms" provide the approach that can verify and create an environment conducive to student learning. Mainstreaming All instructional approaches are affected by mainstreaming. Laws that require access to an education that is as nearly "normal" as possible have given rise to this concept. Mainstreaming helps to avoid detrimental effects to the self-concept of the child. It requires that all students have access to the wide range of educational materials and it can contribute a special view or outlook to a peer group. Mainstreaming has various implications for teaching social studies. The particular disability will determine the nature of support needed. Mobility disabilities may limit certain types of investigations, such as field trips, plus some simulations and role-playing. The use of concrete materials for students with motor dysfunctions may call for some creative adjustment. Visual and hearing impairments may require the taping or reading of materials. Interpretations of charts and photographs may be more difficult. Hearing aids and "phonic ears" may assist hearing-impaired students where sign language is not practiced. Students with learning disabilities often need one-to-one tutoring, as advised by the learning disability specialist. Task modification and alternative modes of instruction may help to relieve the pressure on a struggling student. A curriculum requires appropriate instructional approaches and programming for a wide range of K-12 students. Strategies that are selected will depend upon local student diversity plus the level of developmental learning. Instructional techniques also are influenced by the social studies content and student materials. Chapter 5 deals with the development and selection of these instructional materials. References Coombs, Jerrold R., and Meux, Milton. "Teaching Strategies for Value Analysis." *Values Education: Rationale, Strategies, and Procedures*. L.E. Metcalf, ed. Washington, DC: 41st Yearbook of the National Council for the Social Studies, 1971. Connecticut State Board of Education. *Connecticut Assessment of Educational Progress*. Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Board of Education, 1983. Connecticut State Board of Education. *A Guide to Program Development in Learning Resources and Technology*. Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Board of Education, 1991. Daigon, Arthur, and Ellis, Arthur K. *Teaching and Learning Elementary Social Studies*, 2nd edition. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, Inc., 1981. Fraenkel, Jack R. *Helping Students Think and Value: Strategies for Teaching the Social Studies*. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973. Klausmeier, Herbert J.; Ghatala, Elizabeth S.; and Frayer, Dorothy A. *Conceptual Learning and Development: A Cognitive View*. New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1974. Newmann, Fred M. "Can Depth Replace Coverage in the High School Curriculum?" *Phi Delta Kappan* 69, 5:346, 1988. Parker, Walter C. *Renewing the Social Studies Curriculum*. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1991. Thomas, R. Murray, and Brubaker, Dale L. *Decisions in Teaching Elementary Social Studies*. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1971. Wesley, Edgar, and Wronski, Stanley. *Teaching Social Studies in the High School*. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Co., 1964. Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. *A Guide to Curriculum Planning in Reading*. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1986. Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. *A Guide to Curriculum Planning in Social Studies*. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1986. Resources Aulls, Mark W. *Developmental and Remedial Reading in the Middle Grades*. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1978. Murray, Donald. *A Writer Teaches Writing*. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1985. National Council for the Social Studies. "Student Assessment in Social Studies," special section edited by Pat Nickell. *Social Education*, 56:2, February 1992. Raths, Louis; Harmin, Merrill; and Simon, Sidney. *Values in the Classroom*. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1966. Rico, Gabriele Lusser. *Writing the Natural Way*. Los Angeles, CA: J.P. Tarcher, Inc., 1983. Stauffer, Russell. *Directing Reading Maturity as a Cognitive Process*. New York: Harper & Row, 1970. Trimbor, John. "Collaborative Learning and Teaching Writing." *Perspectives on Research and Scholarship in Composition*. Ben W. McClelland and Timothy R. Donovan, eds. New York: Modern Language Association, 1985. "...the ten-pound clunker (textbook) with a cover like a coffee-table book has become nearly immortal, in an era of cheap paperbacks and electronic printing that can easily modify text and print short runs on demand." - Harriet Tyson-Bernstein and Arthur Woodward Examination and Evaluation Locally Designed Materials Criteria for Selection Survey and Decision TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES Computers Drill and Practice Tutorials Simulations Word Processing Databases Desktop Publishing Video Telecommunications Interactive Videodiscs Nonprint Materials Library Media Resources This chapter will provide teachers and curriculum planners with guidelines about the development of locally designed materials and the selection of commercially distributed print and nonprint materials. Here the issue is a rich diversity of instructional materials to enhance the varied teaching techniques discussed in Chapter 4. Examination and Evaluation Inaccuracies and stereotypes persist in humanities, social science and history materials. Bland textbooks remain as well, and they still conjure up anger and confusion from a diverse student population which justly criticizes them for irrelevance and insensitivity. These familiar problems provide one of the strongest reasons for developing an alternative approach to diversifying instructional materials. Published materials need to be evaluated for stereotypes, and care should be used to eliminate stereotypes in materials produced locally. While publishers have made obvious improvement in eliminating gender stereotypes, these clearly persist in some published educational materials and should be analyzed using accepted guidelines. A first step toward determining the degree of gender stereotyping is the use of guidelines based upon the following criteria adapted from Patton's *Improving the Use of Social Studies Textbooks* (1980): - portrayal of females in passive settings, while males are portrayed in vigorous activities; - use of masculine language to describe hypothetical persons; - female interests characterized as self, home and school, while male interests are characterized as the community and world; - disproportionate coverage of male roles and problems as compared to the roles and problems of females; - males portrayed as main characters or exemplary persons disproportionately to females as main characters or exemplary persons; - males shown more frequently in illustrations than females in similar settings; - females portrayed in nurturing occupations, while males are portrayed in high-status career roles; and - the female identity defined by using the male as a reference. If the preliminary analysis reveals evidence of gender stereotyping in one or more of these areas, a more extensive examination may be necessary. Disproportionate representations will suggest a number of factors, including a lack of written documentary evidence. *Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives* (Banks and Banks, 1989) and *A Guide to Developing Multicultural, Nonsexist Education Across the Curriculum* (Iowa Department of Education, 1989) are excellent resources for use in more extensive analyses. The pluralistic nature of our society is misrepresented by materials that perpetuate ethnic stereotypes. Many Americans are strengthened by their ethnic heritage; conversely, others experience discrimination because of their ethnic affiliations. The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) underscores ethnic diversity as a positive, integral ingredient in American society. The NCSS "Curriculum Guidelines for Multiethnic Education" provide guidance for designing, implementing and evaluating ethnic studies programs (see Chapter 7). A number of criteria can be used to detect the presence of ethnic stereotyping in social studies materials. The following guidelines, also adapted from Patton, are useful: - the pluralistic qualities of the nation are not characterized in print and visuals; - ethnic individuals or families are not accurately depicted in illustrations and photographs; - attempts are not made to avoid presenting stereotypes of ethnics in their historic and contemporary roles; - members of ethnic groups are only presented as prominent individuals; - only the negative aspects of an ethnic group's participation in American society are reflected in the materials; - the most significant aspects of an ethnic group's values and traditions are not portrayed; and - accurate, scholarly and current information is not presented on all ethnic groups. If the preliminary analysis reveals evidence of tokenism, omissions or lack of balance, a more extensive examination may be necessary. The curriculum committee must be wary, however, because not all of the questions will apply to every set of materials. Strained inclusion of ethnic groups is as unacceptable as their exclusion. Locally Designed Materials One obvious alternative to published materials that do not include females and members of diverse ethnic groups is for local districts to generate materials of their own. School systems increasingly are drawing upon the expertise of their own teachers to design precisely what is needed. Local corporate and nonprofit institutions often are willing to help underwrite meaningful educational change. School districts also should encourage relevant professional development at the state and local levels. Many districts also offer mini-grant programs. Teacher- or student-designed materials may be the most immediately productive learning devices, the most useful long-term educational materials and the most cost-effective. Social studies teaching can result in the production of educationally viable clay models, drawings, paintings and simulated artifacts. Tangible replicas from past history can be filmed, reproduced and used in subsequent years. Student-generated diaries, journals, reports and newspapers can be "published" and circulated among social studies students. Audio and/or videotapes can preserve oral history interviews for future classes, plus record dramatizations, demonstrations, exhibits, collections, outside speakers, museum tours and field trips for later use. Curriculum archives should be organized to hold the locally developed instructional materials. Substantial benefits can result from the development of materials at the local level. They include local pride among teachers and students -- an additional motivation to learn; the production of materials that match local goals; and teacher remuneration for active learning. Locally developed materials also should meet the goals outlined in Connecticut's Common Core of Learning (1987). **Criteria for Selection** Before examining any instructional materials, the curriculum committee should have before it the rationale and goals, the selected objectives and content, and the instructional techniques which are to be stressed. Because school systems literally buy into the system of commercially published textbooks, careful scrutiny of packaged educational materials remains one of the highest priorities for a curriculum committee. All elements of curriculum planning should be complete prior to initiating the selection of materials. Students are entitled to instructional materials of the highest caliber presented in the most timely and persuasive manner. Watered-down curriculum materials, whether written, audiovisual or in computer software, likely will bypass all students. Poor readability poses special problems, which imply that steps must be taken to ensure understanding. The obvious challenge is to search for materials which stress the concrete over the abstract, the tangible over the elusive, and the straightforward over the complex, without playing to the lowest common denominator. Sec. 10-18a of the Connecticut General Statutes requires that content of textbooks and other instructional materials "...accurately present the achievements and accomplishments of individuals and groups from all ethnic and racial backgrounds and of both sexes." **Survey and Decision** What sources provide reliable and current information about commercially published classroom materials? *Social Education*, the journal of the National Council for the Social Studies, frequently raises issues such as assessment of instructional materials. It is very important for the social studies curriculum committee to be aware of current trends in textbook publishing and of diverse points of view. Local curriculum decision makers must inform publishers of their needs so appropriate materials can be developed. Another very informative source is the *Social Studies Materials and Resources Data Book* published by the Social Science Education Consortium (SSEC) in Boulder, CO. This book annotates elementary and secondary curriculum materials as well as teacher resource materials. It lists title, author, publisher, publication date, grade level, materials, cost, overview, analysis, required or suggested time for coverage, and readability. These and other sources, such as the NCSS Tool Kit and works by William E. Patton, James Davis and Frances Haley, O. L. Davis, Jr., and James D. Carroll are listed in the Resources and References sections at the end of this chapter. Teachers and curriculum developers can obtain examination copies from publishers. A book's preface or introduction, teacher's guide, stated rationale and suggestions for collateral materials will either whet the appetite or prevent a further waste of time. Other considerations include the book's clarity, sense of authority, scholarly interpretation, significance, content, format, readability, elimination of stereotypes and ability to engage students. Unfortunately, students too often are considered inconsequential in the textbook-selection process. Feedback should be sought from this intended captive audience. Finally, there is an overriding financial consideration. As materials are being evaluated, committees need to perform cost-benefit analyses and seek materials that: - seem suitable to the maturity level of the students; - further the selected educational goals and objectives; - are the highest quality available for the money; and - do not sacrifice instructional quality in order to save money. TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES As described in Connecticut's Guide to Program Development in Learning Resources and Technology (1991), a technology-integrated curriculum in social studies is an enriched program of study that motivates and encourages excellence in students of all abilities and grade levels. When technology resources are used effectively in social studies instruction, students can access information in ways never possible before. Computers Computers have the potential to revolutionize instruction. They are powerful, versatile tools in the classroom. As independent, stand-alone units, computers can be used by students working in teams, pairs or as individuals, or by teachers as an "electronic chalkboard." Connected to a telephone line and modem, the computer becomes a valuable tool for conducting online research and data gathering, communicating with others over vast distances, teleconferencing and participating in interactive simulations in international forums. When classroom computers are networked to a central fileserver, students can access online encyclopedias (such as Grolier's or Compton's) housed on CDs in the library media center. Students also can participate in joint activities with other classes and take advantage of interactive software that is not available for stand-alone computer systems. A complete computer software collection includes computer-aided instruction (CAI) or drill and practice, tutorials, applications (keyboarding, word processing, spreadsheet, database, telecommunications, graphics and desktop publishing), simulations, and interactive activities that challenge students to apply problem-solving and critical-thinking skills. In addition, computers serve as the host vehicle for a variety of peripherals and attachments, including cameras and camcorders, CD players, videodisc players, printers, fax machines, televisions and VCRs. Computers can record and reproduce sound, voice and music. They can capture and display voice, video and data. They can run videos directly on the computer monitor or as part of a slide show presentation through the emerging technology of compressed video. But most importantly, computers can encourage students to engage in active, creative learning. This occurs when computers and other technologies are integrated into the curriculum and classroom instruction. Drill and Practice Computer-aided instruction (CAI) had, until recently, referred to drill and practice exercises in which concepts and skills were addressed through rote learning. Today's drill and practice software, however, has overcome some of the repetitiveness associated with earlier versions by incorporating more exploratory and problem-solving activities into the exercises. The Ripple and All Star Drill are examples of drill and practice software. Tutorials Like drill and practice programs, tutorials provide students with a variety of multilevel exercises and issues that they can explore on their own with the computer as a guide. Tutorials can encourage students to improve their map-reading skills or understanding of historical events through explanatory text and visual aids which accompany each activity. PC Globe and Research Paper Writer are examples of tutorial programs in the social studies. Simulations Simulations combine role-playing, debate, decision making, problem solving, critical thinking, "what if" experimentation, and discussion skills to address complex issues and events. Students interact with one another and with the challenging real-life dilemmas posed by the software and videos. Interactive software programs encourage students to use their best problem-solving and critical-thinking skills as they "travel" around the world or through history. Online interactive simulations, such as National Geographic Society's Kidsnet, and AT&T's Distance Learning projects (international classroom collaborations), afford students an opportunity work cooperatively on global studies and global issues with students around the world. Other examples include Decisions, Decisions, GTV: A Geographic Perspective on American History, and Where in the World is Carmen San Diego. Word Processing Computers are excellent tools for researching information, outlining, writing and integrating information from texts, tables, graphs and graphic images into a single document. Students can easily enter and manipulate textual information, edit grammar and syntax, and use a spelling checker and thesaurus that comes with most word processing programs. Word processing is an essential skill for students and teachers to acquire and master, and one that will be an asset to them in social studies research writing. Some examples of word processing programs are Bank Street Writer and Appleworks. Databases A powerful aspect of technology is its ability to store, retrieve, manipulate and analyze information contained in databases. Databases are collections of raw data and descriptive information listed by field names or identifiers which enable students to conduct research, sort information into usable units, and manipulate data as part of social studies inquiry. Small databases may be kept on disks, moderately large databases on hard disks and file servers, and massive databases (such as encyclopedias) are found on CD discs and mainframe computers. With a computer, modem and telephone line, students can access various online databases, such as Dow Jones, or conduct surveys via electronic mail systems or electronic bulletin boards. Databases are an integral part of social studies inquiry. Some examples of databases are Timeliner and PC Globe; databases available on CD discs are ABC News Interactive and Grolier's Encyclopedia. Desktop Publishing A technology-integrated social studies curriculum invites opportunities for students to engage in desktop publishing as they work to create social studies research reports. Desktop publishing calls upon a vast array of skills – reading, research, writing, graphics, art, layout, design, etc. – and encourages students to apply their knowledge and skills in producing materials that focus on real issues from the student’s perspective. PageMaker and Children's Writing are examples of desktop publishing programs. Video Television is an effective means of bringing the world into the social studies classroom. A broad array of social studies video programs is available to Connecticut school districts through broadcast by Connecticut Public Television and carried by all cable systems in the state. The schedule for each school year is found in the Instructional Television Schedule and Resource Guide, published by the Connecticut State Board of Education. A sample listing of social studies-related video programs is included in Appendix I, Instructional Television Resources. All programs included in the appendix have extended “record and use” rights that allow school districts to record programs at the time of broadcast. In certain cases an arranged copying service may be available for new programs being released. In addition, teacher’s guides are available to Connecticut users. Just as the video replaced the 16mm projector, the interactive discs and telecommunications technology that link computers with television eventually will create new instructional tools for student learning. Telecommunications When technology is an integral part of the instructional program, a wealth of learning opportunities can be opened up in a variety of social studies areas. Students can witness events as they happen or examine the contexts of the historical record. They can tap into online sources for information from library media centers, television and media associations, research institutes and educational institutions. Telecommunications in the classroom can be accomplished via voice, data or video contact through: - a computer, modem and telephone line (a speaker phone is an asset); - instructional television, which is part of a distance learning network; and - satellite teleconferences. Through telecommunications, students can participate in interactive simulations, teleconferences, joint research projects and impact studies with students at home and abroad through programs such as those listed on page 56. • Research Projects – National Geographic Society’s *Kidsnet*, research projects on various themes and topics; and • Instate Telecommunications – Connecticut State Department of Education’s *Knowledge Network* and *Instructional Television* programming. Interactive Videodiscs One of the most promising of the emerging technologies is the interactive or laser videodisc. Students learn by viewing, discussing, researching, role-playing and debating issues that are presented through the interplay of text, graphic images, charts and tables, and full motion videos. With a barcode reader, students and teachers can scan through the enormous masses of information stored on the videodiscs in a matter of seconds. Used in conjunction with texts, computers and other print materials (such as newspapers and periodicals), videodiscs bring the world into the classroom in a manner that is both captivating and realistic. Nonprint Materials Nonprint materials increasingly are important in social studies instruction, yet often they are selected with little prior appraisal of their usefulness. The social studies committee should select filmstrips, videotapes, records, films, laserdiscs, CDs, software, artifacts and other nonprint materials as carefully as they select textbooks and other printed materials. Nonprint materials need to be examined for gender and ethnic stereotyping and treatment of the exceptional students just as carefully as print materials. Evaluations of nonprint materials are available from many sources. Professional journals usually include comments from teachers about materials recently released. Media specialists can provide valuable information. Often, nonprint materials are previewed by committees before adoption. When materials are being examined, they should be judged by the same criteria that the committee has selected for print materials. They should: - be clear and easy for pupils to comprehend; - provide information best presented in a given format; - allow students with differing learning styles to use them readily; - justify cost; - provide unique learning opportunities; - show no evidence of bias; - be easy to use; and - involve the students more than a text can. Library Media Resources Most of a school’s resources to support teaching and learning are either housed or accessed through the library media center. No longer just a book room, the library media center has the technology, motivational and informational resources that offer students and teachers a variety of alternatives for accomplishing learning objectives. The library media center is the central access point for all resources located in the school. The library media specialist serves as a link to resources available outside the school. A carefully selected and organized collection will support goals for social studies education by providing print and nonprint materials that will give breadth and depth to classroom instruction. The collection will contain materials that represent diverse perspectives on issues; introduce students to books, videos and other materials by or about people around the world; and supply up-to-the-minute information on world events using online databases. Through interlibrary loan, additional materials can be located to support specific units or projects. The school library media specialist not only is a manager of the learning resources collections, but also a teacher trained in curriculum and instructional development who is available to: - give instruction and guidance to students in learning to locate and use information from a variety of sources and in a wide range of formats, integrating these skills into existing curriculum; - cooperate in designing units of instruction so as to include options for student learning and to acquire appropriate resources for students of all ability levels and learning styles to complete assignments; - build collections that will better respond to curriculum goals and objectives; - supply reviews and/or arrange for previews of materials being considered for purchase; - provide reading guidance to students to enhance curriculum emphasis, such as cultural pluralism and understanding of geographical concepts; - participate as a partner in curriculum design or revision, offering suggestions for supplementary materials, exploring new technologies for curricular applications and building collections that will support the curriculum; - train students or teachers in the use of new media formats and their accompanying technology; and - explain media services, such as video recording, interlibrary loan, production of instructional materials, computer fileserver and other telecommunications. In addition to the library media specialist, many schools now have access to additional learning resources and technology teachers who can offer services and instruction that will promote learning in the social studies. They may include computer teachers, distance learning coordinators or district-level staff. Often they are able to incorporate principles of social studies education into assignments and pursue cooperative acquisitions or site licenses that will result in better prices and more extensive use of the equipment and materials purchased. Social studies curriculum developers have the responsibility to oversee the appropriate development and selection of print and nonprint instructional materials. They should carefully match the materials with local goals, student needs, financial constraints, and the expertise and support from the teaching staff members. They will approve of basic and supplementary materials that can be used to adjust the curriculum for individual differences, and then be certain ample time is allowed for teachers to familiarize themselves with the material prior to use. References Connecticut State Department of Education. *Connecticut's Common Core of Learning*. Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Department of Education, 1987. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). "Curriculum Guidelines for Multiethnic Education." Washington, DC: NCSS, 1976. Patton, William E. *Improving the Use of Social Studies Textbooks*. Bulletin 63. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1980. Resources Banks, James A., and Banks, Cherry A. McGee. *Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives*. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1989. Budin, Howard; Kendall, Diane S.; and Lengel, James. *Using Computers in the Social Studies*. Computers in the Curriculum Series edited by Howard Budin and Diane S. Kendall. New York: Teacher's College Press, 1986. Carroll, James D. and others. *We the People: A Review of U.S. Government and Civics Textbooks*. Washington, DC: People for the American Way, 1987. Connecticut State Board of Education. *A Guide to Program Development in Learning Resources and Technology*. Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Department of Education, 1991. Connecticut State Department of Education. "Social Studies Survey of Connecticut Schools, 1984." Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Department of Education, 1986. Davis, James, and Haley, Frances. *Planning a Social Studies Program: Activities, Guidelines, and Resources*. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium (SSEC), 1983. Davis, O. L.; Ponder, Gerald; Burlbaw, Lynn M.; Garza-Lubeck, Maria; and Moss, Alfred. *Looking at History, A Review of Major U.S. History Textbooks*. Washington, DC: People for the American Way, 1986. Hass, John D. "A Social Studies Professional Library." *Social Education* (January 1987): pp. 60-72. Hodges, James O. "Resources for Teaching with Computers," *Social Education* (January 1987): pp. 54-59. Iowa Department of Education. *A Guide to Developing Multicultural, Nonsexist Education Across the Curriculum*. Des Moines, IA: Iowa Department of Education, 1989. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). *Building Support for the Social Studies: The Tool Kit*. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1988. NCSS. "Guidelines for Teaching Science-Related Social Issues." *Social Education* (April 1983): pp. 258-261. Social Science Education Consortium. *Social Studies Materials and Resources Data Book*. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium, 1990. CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION "For every complicated problem, there is a solution that is short, simple, and wrong." — H. L. Mencken IMPLEMENTATION Piloting Staff Orientation Special Materials and Support Services Staff Development EVALUATION Standards Assessment Ongoing Effort BEST COPY AVAILABLE 59 67 Curriculum developers who have followed this guide sequentially in order to develop a new curriculum will be prepared to implement and evaluate their program. Those who are revising and refining an existing curriculum may begin with one or more evaluation instruments before making a needs assessment. In either case, Chapter 6 will offer various means to assure a smooth transition for the new curriculum and methods to test its effectiveness. **IMPLEMENTATION** Implementation customarily involves piloting the curriculum on a limited basis to determine its effectiveness. Other elements include staff orientation, special materials, support services, staff development activities and the continuous review and revision process. Implementation of a program is constant. **Piloting** A limited use of the new social studies curriculum might be the first step in implementation. Teachers at one elementary school might use it for the first year, allowing the committee to examine the fully functioning program. If it is a large school, only one teacher at each grade level might be asked to try the new program. Likewise, new courses at the secondary level might be piloted with a single class. Piloting must be monitored carefully. Pilot teachers need the same level of services that full implementation requires. They must participate in program orientation, becoming aware not only of their own program, but also of how it fits into the K-12 sequence. They also must have appropriate materials, both student and professional. They must have the support of either committee members or a district curriculum specialist. They should receive the necessary training, including opportunities to observe how the materials are used in other districts. And they must participate in a careful evaluation of the pilot. The pilot testing of a new or revised curriculum often leads to some revisions prior to districtwide implementation. Several points should be considered before universal use of the new or revised curriculum. Implementation should be planned so that a teacher: - introduces no more than one new program each year; - is not asked to implement a program unless the required materials are available; - is not asked to teach a new program without some orientation and awareness of its place in the overall curriculum; - is not expected to teach from a new course outline unless someone can respond to questions; - can attend staff development sessions that present new techniques, difficult materials or background information; and - feels free to suggest program improvements. **Staff Orientation** Planning for staff orientation can be a significant factor in the program's success. If lines of communication have been maintained throughout the development process, teachers will be expecting change. Course outlines and materials should be available and orientation should occur well in advance of the new program's implementation. The scope of the orientation depends on curriculum difficulty, the amount of change and the quality of prior staff communication. In planning for orientation, curriculum developers should be certain that they have: - prepared outlines for each teacher at each grade level; - provided teacher's guides and other materials; - developed the K-12 sequence; - planned to highlight the changes and the reasons for them; - planned for a large-group introduction of the K-12 program, followed by a small-group examination at each grade level; - prepared materials that explain available support services, planned in-service training and expected teacher evaluation; and - planned an administrative orientation prior to the teacher orientation. **Special Materials and Support Services** Implementation may require special materials. If new instructional techniques are being introduced, a first step may be selecting and purchasing videotapes, software or other teaching materials. Books such as those providing background information in a field not previously taught, e.g., anthropology, or those providing training materials, may be added to the professional library. Films may be obtained for use as part of the administrative and teacher orientation. If computer instruction is being introduced, appropriate teaching materials may be necessary. The committee should evaluate the implementation plan and identify any resources required. Support services are essential for successful curriculum implementation. Small school districts often use curriculum committee members to respond to questions. They may be assisted by principals who have been alerted to possible problems. Larger school districts may have a curriculum consultant who is available for demonstrations, questions or other assistance. Support services also may come from sources outside the school, such as community members who serve as resources on specific topics, or regional educational service centers that loan materials or provide personnel (see Appendix C). Meetings of state, regional and national organizations often include sessions that are directly related to new curriculum topics. The committee should identify in the curriculum some of the possible support services. For information on additional resources, see Appendix D, Resources for Curriculum Planning. Staff Development The nature of staff development often spells the difference between success and failure. Extensive in-service programs may be necessary in order to plan for implementation. Program planners should consider: - teachers' experiences with similar curriculums; - teachers' backgrounds and knowledge; - familiarity with the instructional techniques; - commonality of the evaluation instruments; - available time; - available leadership; - information needed to make adjustments for students with special needs; - the degree to which participants and students will use the materials in the same ways; and - the necessity for staff development after the first implementation year, e.g., for new teachers and teachers transferred to new grade levels. The following staff development models (A, B and C) are examples of how the committee might structure what is planned. Model A – Minimum Scheduling: Four sessions, two to three hours each; before implementation, at first quarter's end, at first semester's end, at first year's end. Program: First session - K-12 scope and sequence - program components - unit structure illustrating content, techniques, materials - lesson structure illustrating objectives, techniques, parts - evaluation, short and long term - summary and questions Program: Follow-through sessions - single-topic discussion - mutual success and failure discussion - evaluation, including suggestions for change - summary and suggestions for future sessions Model B – Moderate Scheduling: Six sessions, two to three hours each; three before implementation and one each at first quarter's end, at first semester's end and at first year's end. Program: Introductory sessions - K-12 scope and sequence - program components - unit structure - instructional techniques, e.g., technologies - evaluation techniques, e.g., interviewing - lesson structure - demonstrations of techniques by participants - summary and questions Program: Follow-through sessions - upcoming units - evaluation methods review - single-topic discussion - mutual success and failure discussion - evaluation, including suggestions for change - ways of using local resources - summary and suggestions for future sessions Model C - In-Depth Scheduling: A minimum of 10 two-hour sessions; two before implementation, plus follow-through sessions at each semester's end. Program: Course - Session 1: scope and sequence, program components, unit structure, a look at unit one - Session 2: introduction to instructional techniques, lesson format, questions - Session 3: conceptual development and micro-teaching - Session 4: generalizing and micro-teaching - Session 5: decision making, inquiry and micro-teaching - Session 6: valuing, including micro-teaching - Session 7: skills development, including micro-teaching - Session 8: role-playing and simulation - Session 9: matching student needs and activities - Session 10: evaluating student progress Program: Follow-through sessions - shared concerns - specific-topic discussion - program adaptation for students with special needs - ways of using local resources - evaluation and revision EVALUATION Like implementation, evaluation is an ongoing process; an adequate means to evaluate the curriculum is essential in order to create opportunities for improvement. One critical aspect is the feedback that evaluation provides curriculum developers. Student achievement data that are consistently low may mean that curriculum revision is in order. Criterion-referenced measures, if used, can pinpoint precise areas of need. Standardized test information can pinpoint problems, particularly in the basic skills. Curriculum developers, however, must seek specific information that goes beyond these measures. There are many ways to gather data. Needs assessments, informal discussions, tabulation of achievement results, specific materials-evaluation instruments and carefully developed effectiveness measures of pilot testing all are possibilities. The curriculum committee should build into the program a monitoring system for feedback on its successes and failures. Standards Assessment All social studies programs should be evaluated according to standards and to the curriculum as it is actually practiced. The social studies standards assessment that follows (pages 63 and 64) was developed by the advisory committee for this guide and will assist curriculum developers in working toward this goal. Directions for the standards assessment follow: 1. Rank each of the following standards (questions) for extent of treatment in the existing social studies curriculum. The scale ranges from 1 (minimal or no treatment) to 5 (extensive treatment). 2. Write a brief supporting statement that provides evidence of the treatment rating. 3. Summarize and discuss – as a social studies staff or curriculum committee – the treatment findings; resolve disagreements. 4. Use points of agreement to set priorities for social studies curriculum areas that need to be addressed. Social Studies Standards Assessment (a) To what extent does the social studies program reflect skills and competencies, attributes and attitudes, and understandings and applications identified in Connecticut’s Common Core of Learning? (b) To what extent does the social studies program include instruction in citizenship, economics, geography, government and history in a planned, ongoing and systematic manner? (c) To what extent does the school ensure that all students are knowledgeable in United States history, including instruction in United States government at all levels, and in the duties, responsibilities and rights of citizenship? (d) To what extent do the social studies program and materials include a multicultural perspective that reflects accurately our nation’s pluralistic society? (e) To what extent do the social studies program and materials offer perspectives from a non-Western point of view? (f) To what extent do the program and materials encourage the discussion of controversial issues, with a balanced representation of opposing points of view? (g) To what extent do the social studies program and materials relate directly to the age, maturity and concerns of students? (h) Are planned, ongoing and systematic professional development activities available to teachers? Social Studies Standards Assessment (continued) (i) To what extent does the social studies program offer a wide variety of teaching strategies that involve students in active learning? (j) To what extent do strategies of instruction and learning activities rely on a broad range of learning resources in addition to the textbook? (k) To what extent does the social studies program have access to and utilize computers and other technologies for instructional purposes? (l) To what extent is student assessment used to improve the social studies program? (m) To what extent is there K-12 coordination of and articulation within the social studies program? (n) To what extent does the social studies program provide for students to engage in community service activities and participate in civic affairs of school and community? (o) To what extent does the social studies program accommodate students in need of special or supplemental instruction and, at the same time, achieve the goal of democratic participation through heterogeneous grouping practices? (p) To what extent does the program implement new perspectives in the social studies? As evaluation data are collected from many sources, the persons charged with curriculum responsibility should translate these data and recommend curriculum revision or redesign. The social studies curriculum should be responsive to feedback and should change as the need for change is demonstrated through assessment results. Ongoing Effort For a social studies program to be effective, it must receive continuous attention and maintenance. The greatest challenge to the discipline is the integration of human knowledge and experience into a form that can be effectively managed and included in the K-12 student experience. The motto must not be what might be added, but what is most important and what might be left out. The social studies field is too important to be relegated to the position of the "curriculum dump," the place for important agendas that seemingly cannot be placed in other areas of the curriculum. The purpose of this guide is to assist curriculum decision makers and practitioners in addressing important social studies issues necessary for implementing a planned, ongoing and systematic curriculum. At this stage the curriculum revision process must begin where it began in Chapter 1. Revision includes the developmental tasks identified on page 4. Chapter 7 will provide an example that a social studies curriculum committee can use to take an emerging issue or perspective and apply the concepts outlined in Chapters 1-6 to accomplish program revision. Resources Connecticut State Department of Education. *Connecticut's Common Core of Learning*. Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Department of Education, 1987. Parker, Walter C. *Renewing the Social Studies Curriculum*. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1991. CITIZENSHIP Definition GOALS AND THEMES NCSS Multiethnic Guidelines Connecticut's Common Core of Learning A Conceptual Curriculum Model CONTENT: CURRICULUM APPROACHES Contributions Approach Additive Approach Transformation Approach Decision-Making and Social Participation Approach Mixing and Blending the Approaches Interdisciplinary Alternatives Ethnic Group Alternatives INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION Connecticut Curriculum Recommendations This final chapter develops an essential premise: the meaning of citizenship as it relates to cultural diversity, values and responses. It examines the meaning of multicultural education, considers its goals and themes, presents examples of various content alternatives, raises issues bearing upon instructional techniques, offers criteria for selection of student materials, and concludes with considerations on implementation and evaluation. This model has applications that can be modified for use in other curricular areas. CITIZENSHIP Understanding the critical role of citizenship in education is fundamental to the preservation of a democratic society in the United States. In a 1963 presentation to teachers, James Baldwin expressed alarm as he observed the views displayed by American society. "The purpose of education," Baldwin said, "is to create in a person the ability to look at the world for himself, to make his own decisions . . . But no society is really anxious to have that kind of person around. What societies really . . . want is a citizenry which will simply obey the rules of the society. If a society succeeds in this, that society is about to perish." This observation is as appropriate for today as it was nearly 30 years ago, when the United States was grappling with fundamental issues related to diversity and equality. Social studies was defined in Chapter 1 as "the integration of knowledge and human experience for the purpose of citizenship education." Furthermore, citizenship was said to foster the protection of individual rights and responsibilities as well as cultural diversity, values and responses. The concept of democracy protecting both individualism and collective cultural values runs to the heart of America's evolutionary process. From the arrival of forerunners of Native Americans to the most recent flow of immigrants upon our shores, we are members of a pluralistic society, all guaranteed certain rights and liberties legally constituted in a document written more than 200 years ago. If multicultural values and responses are a distinct characteristic of our American tradition, they deserve special attention and should become integrated into our educational system. These values and responses link the democratic ideal of parity with Thomas Jefferson's advice to "inform the people's discretion through instruction." Definition Multicultural education is an idea, a reform movement and a process, according to one of this nation's leading authorities on the subject, James A. Banks. It is the idea that all learners should be provided with equal access to education regardless of culture, age, gender, social class, religion, race or exceptionality. It is intimately connected to helping all students succeed and, therefore, must not be viewed as a passing fad. As a reform movement, multicultural education encompasses the total school environment and consists of a number of major identifiable variables and factors (see Figure 7, on page 69, The School as a Social System). As a process, multicultural education is ongoing in order to eliminate setbacks to liberty and justice for all. A major goal of multicultural education is to help students develop the knowledge, attitudes and skills needed to function within their own microcultures, other microcultures, the U.S. macroculture, and within the global community. To achieve this goal, educators must distinguish between the local and international dimensions of multicultural education. Focusing on the cultural experiences of people as they exist outside the United States should not be a substitute for addressing ethnic and cultural issues present within the boundaries of the United States. While international aspects of multicultural education are important and can shed light on the backgrounds of people living within the United States, they often can lead to assumptions about ethnic and cultural groups that are not true. Too often this becomes a means to escape the realities of multicultural issues for schools dominated by majority populations contiguous to neighboring school districts that may have large minority populations. Helping students learn about diversity in their surrounding environments is a cost-effective way to begin exploration of multicultural diversity in the global community. Figure 8 on page 70 can assist the curriculum designer in developing appropriate programs and practices and in distinguishing between the various levels of implementing pluralism in American schools. The School as a Social System - School Staff: attitudes, perceptions, beliefs and actions - School Policy and Politics - School Culture and Hidden Curriculum - Learning Styles of the School - Languages and Dialects of the School - Community Participation and Input - Assessment and Testing Procedures - Counseling Program - Instructional Materials - Formalized Curriculum and Course of Study - Teaching Styles and Strategies Figure 7 From *Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives*, James A. Banks and Cherry A. McGee Banks, editors. Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1989. Used with permission. The term *multicultural*, like others such as *multiracial* and *multiethnic*, help to describe this nation’s history of pluralism. Voluntary immigrants, primarily from European countries, continually enriched America’s cultural diversity throughout the 19th century. At the turn of the century, the inscription upon the newly erected Statue of Liberty summed up the past outreach to newcomers: “Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free.” Yet, pluralism had its limits. Xenophobia swept the country as free access to American shores ended. Even before the inscription was placed on the Statue of Liberty, restrictions from certain countries already had begun and, by the end of World War I, nativists successfully erected immigration quotas. The Immigration Act of 1917 was designed to halt the immigration of Southeastern, Central and Eastern European groups. The Immigration Act of 1924 drastically limited the number of immigrants that could enter the United States from all European nations, except those in Northern and Western Europe. White Anglo-Saxon Protestants, whose sociological traditions and values in earlier times had been a prerequisite for social acceptability, now were being threatened by competing lifestyles and the sheer number of immigrants. Cultural assimilation became less successful. Within the nation, African Americans (forced immigrants) and Native Americans (forced migrants), basically remained outsiders. The assimilationist idea of the “melting pot,” in which ethnicity and race are not important identities, deeply influenced American society. Yet, despite the persistence of this belief, ethnic differences continue to exist for several reasons, including discriminatory practices that prevent inclusion, the desire by some groups to retain ethnic values, and continuing immigration to the United States. Cultural pluralism more closely describes the reality of our diversity today. Rather than a model for cultural assimilation as suggested by the “melting pot” metaphor, many see American society resembling a "salad bowl," in which each cultural group contributes its uniqueness to the total society while maintaining its own traditions. Cultural pluralists not only accept cultural diversity, they value its preservation. Multiethnic theorists caution against the extremes of cultural pluralism, however, when group rights and separate ethnic values prevent a larger cultural unity. In such cases, they reject both extremes – assimilation and cultural pluralism – and prefer a middle ground. This third position is multiethnic ideology, which describes an open society in which both minorities and majorities have equal opportunities to function and participate. The ideas embodied in multiculturalism have contributed to one of the most persistent social themes in United States history. Since the 1970s, cultural awareness has been on the rise, inspired by the civil rights movement and the struggle for equality for members of minority groups and majority group members such as Polish Americans, Italian Americans and Swedish Americans seeking a greater knowledge of their past. Alex Haley's *Roots* has added even greater credibility to the nation's growing quest for individual as well as cultural roots. Haley's cynosure validates the search by every American, not just his brethren of African descent. The current idea, reform movement and process for multicultural education rests upon the bedrock of interactive cultural pluralism or multiethnic ideology. Other definitions also are important. For example, multiethnic education depends upon the meaning of *ethnic group*, as it does upon a number of other concepts. *Ethnic group* usually is defined as an involuntary collective of people which shares feelings of common identity, unity and interdependence. Membership serves useful functions, such as providing a network of preferred friendships and institutions, a means to perpetrate cultural patterns, and a way to identify others. An additional factor is identity on the grounds of race, such as African Americans, Asian Americans and Latino Americans. The study of the dynamics of ethnic group relationships helps to explain some of the successes and failures in the Americans' upwardly mobile quest for political and economic power. **GOALS AND THEMES** Multicultural education is a goal on both the national and local levels. It is a goal of the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), which seeks to have impact both on curriculum materials and the school environment. The "Curriculum Guidelines for Multiethnic Education," published in 1976 by NCSS, follow: **NCSS Multiethnic Guidelines** - Ethnic pluralism should permeate the total school environment. - School policies and procedures should foster positive multiethnic interactions and understanding among students, teachers and the support staff. - The curriculum should reflect the ethnic learning styles of the students with the school community. - The multiethnic curriculum should provide students with continuous opportunities to develop a better sense of self. - The curriculum should help students to understand the totality of the experiences of American ethnic groups. - The multiethnic curriculum should help students understand that there is always a conflict between ideals and realities in human societies. - The multiethnic curriculum should promote values, attitudes and behaviors which support ethnic pluralism. - The multiethnic curriculum should help students develop their decision-making abilities, social participation skills and a sense of political efficacy as necessary bases for effective citizenship in an ethnically pluralistic nation. - The multiethnic curriculum should help students develop the skills necessary for effective interpersonal and interethnic group interactions. - The multiethnic curriculum should be comprehensive in scope and sequence, should present holistic views of ethnic groups and should be an integral part of the total school curriculum. - The multiethnic curriculum should include the continuous study of the cultures, historical experiences, social realities and existential conditions of ethnic groups, including a variety of racial compositions. - Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches should be used in designing and implementing the multiethnic curriculum. The curriculum should use comparative approaches in the study of ethnic groups and ethnicity. The curriculum should help students to view and interpret events, situations and conflict from diverse ethnic perspectives and points of view. The curriculum should conceptualize and describe the development of the United States as a multidirectional society. The curriculum should make maximum use of local community resources. From "Curriculum Guidelines for Multiethnic Education," NCSS, 1976. Used with permission. As a corollary to multiethnic education, NCSS also emphasizes global education (see page 14). Connecticut's Common Core of Learning Connecticut's Common Core of Learning points out that "a positive self-image and self-esteem are crucial to learning." Education for pluralistic values depends upon positive attributes and attitudes, namely the idea that effective learning is enhanced by a student's positive self-concept, motivation and persistence, intellectual curiosity, interpersonal relations, a sense of community, plus moral and ethical values. Content goals in the Common Core relating to history and the social sciences emphasize student understanding of "the roles played by various racial, ethnic and religious groups in developing the nation's pluralistic society." Goals and themes applicable to multicultural education appear within this guide. Chapter 2 suggests that curriculums focusing on pluralism will draw from a knowledge base about this country, thinking skills to create and interpret meaning, and first-hand participation. The sections in Chapter 2 about valuing and major themes also are useful for multicultural education. These themes include cultural pluralism, continuity and change, community, culture, equal opportunity, freedom and justice, human rights, interdependence, and world peace. The key goal for multicultural education, according to James Banks, is to promote student problem solving and to develop decision-making skills. Banks' model for multicultural education involves scientific, higher-level and interdisciplinary knowledge, from which the student identifies his or her values, determines the conflict, identifies the value alternatives, and freely chooses the alternatives. The student also freely accepts the possible consequences of the action. A Conceptual Curriculum Model Banks' conceptual multiethnic curriculum model is interdisciplinary. Thus, it draws knowledge from a combination of traditional content areas. For example, the key concept of culture can be enriched by comparing different ethnic groups in social studies, examining samples from literature in language arts, and gaining different perspectives through the study of music, drama, art and science. Banks' curriculum model begins with lower-level empirical statements about limited phenomena -- or facts -- such as, "In 1981, 55,600 Vietnamese immigrants came to the United States." Facts must be subject to proof and not normative or value statements. Concepts follow, i.e., words or phrases which categorize or classify a large number of factual observations such as assimilation, acculturation, discrimination and power. Immigration, another example, will be supported by a number of facts, such as the number of Vietnamese immigrants admitted in 1981 (above). Key concepts appropriate for multicultural instruction in social studies areas follow. History - immigration - migration - continuity and change Geography - location - place - movement - human/environmental interactions - regions Anthropology - diversity - acculturation - assimilation - culture - language Psychology - self-concept - perception - individual difference - attitudes Sociology - ethnic group - discrimination - prejudice - values - family Lower-Level Generalizations: Puerto Rican voluntary migration to the United States often has reflected economic trends. American Indians were forcibly removed from their lands within the United States as white settlers moved west. During the early history of the United States, African Americans were forcibly brought as slaves to support labor needs. In the late 1800s, Chinese Americans voluntarily immigrated to the United States seeking better economic opportunity. Goals and themes also may be written in terms of student outcomes. These goals are designed to examine the underlying theory that cultural differences do not imply cultural deficiencies. Some goals might include: - understanding self and others acting within a cultural context; - recognizing cultural diversity within the United States and the world; - understanding how group membership contributes to value, attitude and behavioral determination; - understanding the interrelationship of discrimination, bias, prejudice and stereotyping; and - demonstrating and employing skills for effective social interaction among different racial, cultural, ethnic, religious, gender and exceptionality factors. CONTENT: CURRICULUM APPROACHES Multicultural education is a perspective, not a discipline. It is inappropriate, therefore, to look at multicultural education in terms of a scope and sequence traditionally presented from a discipline point of view. For this reason, understanding the various curriculum approaches and interdisciplinary alternatives is fundamental in viewing multicultural education as a reform movement that can have a significant impact on the curriculum of a school. Banks identifies several approaches to integrating ethnic content into the curriculum that has evolved since the 1960s. The following information on the various approaches is adapted with permission from *Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives* (1989), Allyn and Bacon, by James A. Banks and Cherry A. McGee-Banks. Contributions Approach The *contributions approach* to integration is among those used most frequently and often is used extensively during the first phase of an ethnic revival movement. This approach is characterized by the addition of ethnic heroes or heroines into the curriculum. The mainstream curriculum would remain unchanged in terms of its basic structure, goals and salient characteristics. The famous people and holidays approach is a variant of the contributions approach. In this approach, ethnic content is limited primarily to special days, weeks and months related to ethnic events and celebrations. Three Kings Day, Hanukkah, Martin Luther King's Birthday, Puerto Rican Discovery Day and Black History Month are examples of ethnic observances that are celebrated in the schools. During these celebrations, teachers involve students in lessons, experiences and pageants related to the ethnic holiday or observance. When this approach is used, the class studies little or nothing about the ethnic groups before or after the special event. The contributions approach is the easiest way for teachers to integrate the core curriculum with ethnic content. However, it has several serious limitations. Students do not attain a global view of the role of ethnic and cultural groups in U.S. society. Rather, they see ethnic issues and events primarily as an addition to the curriculum and, consequently, as an appendage to the main story of the development of the nation. The teaching of ethnic issues with the use of famous people, holidays and contributions also tends to gloss over important concepts and issues related to the victimization and oppression of ethnic groups and their struggles against racism and for power. Issues such as racism, poverty and oppression tend to be evaded in the contributions approach to curriculum integration. The focus, rather, tends to be on success and validation of the Horatio Alger myth that every American who is willing to work hard can go from rags to riches and pull himself or herself up by the bootstraps. The contributions approach often results in the trivialization of ethnic cultures, the study of their obscure and exotic characteristics, and the reinforcement of stereotypes and misconceptions. With this focus, students are not helped to understand these cultures as complete and dynamic wholes. Additive Approach Another important approach to the integration of ethnic content is the addition of content, concepts, themes and perspectives to the curriculum without changing its basic structure, purposes and characteristics. The additive approach often is accomplished by the addition of a book, unit or course to the curriculum without changing it substantially. The additive approach allows teachers to insert ethnic content without restructuring the curriculum, a process that would take substantial time, effort, training and rethinking as to purposes, nature and goals. The additive approach can be the first phase in a more radical curriculum reform effort designed to restructure the total curriculum and integrate it with ethnic content, perspectives and frames of reference. This approach, however, shares several disadvantages with the contributions approach. The most important shortcoming is that it usually results in the viewing of ethnic content from the perspectives of mainstream historians, writers, artists and scientists, because it does not involve a restructuring of the curriculum. The events, concepts, issues and problems are selected for study through the use of mainstream centric and Eurocentric criteria and perspectives. When teaching a unit such as "The Westward Movement" in a fifth grade class, the teacher may integrate the unit by adding content about the Lakota (Sioux) Indians. However, the unit remains mainstream centric and focused because of its perspective and point of view. "The Westward Movement" unit is both mainstream centric and Eurocentric because of its focus on the movement of European Americans from the eastern to the western part of the United States. The Lakota Indians were already in the West and, consequently, were not moving west. The unit might be called, "The Invasion from the East," from the point of view of the Lakota. An objective title for the unit might be, "Two Cultures Meet in the Americas." The additive approach also fails to help students to view society from diverse cultural and ethnic perspectives and to understand the ways in which the histories and cultures of the nation's diverse ethnic, racial, cultural and religious groups are inextricably bound. Transformation Approach The transformation approach differs fundamentally from the contributions and additive approaches. Transformation changes the basic assumptions of the curriculum and enables students to view concepts, issues, themes and problems from several ethnic perspectives and points of view. The key curriculum issue involved in the transformation approach is not the addition of a long list of ethnic groups, heroes or heroines, and contributions, but rather the infusion of perspectives, frames of reference, and content from various groups that will extend student understandings of the nature, development and complexity of U.S. society. When students are studying the revolution in the British colonies, the perspectives of the Anglo revolutionaries, Anglo loyalists, Afro-Americans, Native Americans and the British all are essential in order to attain a thorough understanding of this significant event in U.S. history. When studying U.S. history, language, music, arts, science and mathematics, the emphasis should not be on the ways in which various ethnic and cultural groups have contributed to mainstream U.S. society and culture. The emphasis, rather, should be on how the common U.S. culture and society emerged from a complex synthesis and interaction of the diverse cultural elements that originated within the various cultural, racial, ethnic and religious groups that make up American society. One of the ironies of conquest is that those who are conquered often have a deep influence on the cultures of the conquerors. Appendix H illustrates one way to apply several curriculum approaches to a unit on migration. For instruction to move beyond the contributions approach, teachers must be armed with knowledge. Taking courses that focus on content knowledge of specific ethnic groups is an essential first step. Adapted from *Multicultural Education Issues and Perspectives*, by James A. and Cherry A. McGee Banks. Allyn and Bacon, 1989. Adapted and used with permission. **Levels of Integration of Ethnic Content** Level 1, *contributions approach* – focuses on famous people, holidays and discrete cultural elements. Level 2, *additive approach* – content, concepts, themes and perspectives are added to the curriculum without changing its structure. Level 3, *transformation approach* – the structure of the curriculum is changed to enable students to view concepts, issues, events and themes from the perspective of diverse ethnic and cultural groups. Level 4, *decision-making and social participation approach* – students make decisions on important social issues and engage in participatory activities to help solve them. Adapted from “Approaches to Multicultural Curriculum Reform,” James A. Banks. *Multicultural Leader*, 1990. Used with permission. **Mixing and Blending the Approaches** The four approaches to integrating ethnic content into the curriculum often are mixed and blended in actual teaching situations. The *contributions approach* also can be used as a vehicle to move toward other more intellectually challenging approaches, such as the *transformation* and the *decision-making and social participation* approaches. It is not realistic to expect a teacher to move directly from a highly mainstream centric curriculum to one that focuses on decision making and social participation. Rather, the move from the first to higher levels of ethnic content integration into the curriculum is likely to be gradual and cumulative as shown in right column from Banks, 1990. **Interdisciplinary Alternatives** The choice of content for multicultural education encompasses the breadth of our national experience. Multicultural education is a perspective necessary to reform the social studies and, in fact, all disciplines. Students will gain a global understanding of a concept such as culture only by viewing ethnic cultures from the perspectives of a variety of disciplines. The strategy to “dump” responsibility for multicultural education on a single discipline such as the social studies clearly is inappropriate if students are to understand the full dimensions of culture. Curriculum planners need to take strong action to encompass the total school environment. The following list of disciplines and key or focus questions adapted from Banks (1987) will serve to illustrate how various disciplines can contribute to student understanding of culture. **Social Studies.** In what ways are the cultures of ethnic groups such as Afro-Americans, Jewish Americans, and Mexican Americans similar and different? Why? **Reading and Literature.** How do the fiction and other literary works by American ethnic authors reveal characteristics and components of their cultures? **Music.** What does the music of an ethnic group reveal about its values, symbols and culture? **Drama.** What do plays written by ethnic authors reveal about their cultures? **Physical Education.** How do ethnic groups express their cultures, values, aspirations and frustrations in their dances and creative movements? **Art.** What does the art of an ethnic group reveal about its lifestyles, perceptions, values, history and culture? **Language Arts.** How does the language of an ethnic group express and reflect its values and culture? What can we learn about an ethnic group by studying its symbols and communication styles, both verbal and nonverbal? **Home Economics.** What do ethnic foods reveal about an ethnic group’s values and culture? What can we learn about an ethnic culture by studying its foods? **Science.** How do the physical characteristics of an ethnic group influence its interactions with other groups, intragroup relationships and its total culture? **Mathematics.** What is the relationship between the number system used within a society and its culture? What do the symbol systems within a culture reveal about it? Historically, what contributions have different ethnic groups made to our number system? **Language.** How does language contribute to maintaining the culture of the ethnic group? **Health.** How do the cultural values of an ethnic group influence decisions on health? Adapted from *Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies*, by James A. Banks. Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1987. Used with permission. ### Ethnic Group Alternatives Another curriculum alternative considers the full range of ethnic groups within the United States. Making decisions on which groups should be included in the curriculum ultimately will be made by the teachers involved, using both social and value knowledge, that is, both cognitive and affective knowledge. Thus, value judgments are inseparable from content. For the same reason, the study of a cultural group in isolation for chronological purposes, with interaction along the continuum, risks tokenism and an unrealistic social compartmentalization. Suggestions that follow indicate possible content-related topics for the study of ethnic groups or groupings according to the conceptual model described earlier. **African Americans** - Slave Trade - Colonization Movement - Civil War and Reconstruction - World War I - Black Organizations - Civil Rights Movement **American Indians** - Origins of American Indians - Diversity of Indian Cultures - Treaties and Indian Removal - Federal Indian Policy - Fishing Rights and Land Claims **Chinese Americans** - Immigration East to West - Immigration Restriction - Chinatowns **Cuban Americans** - The Cuban Revolution - Immigration to the U.S. - Adaptation to American Life European Ethnic Groups - The Spanish in the Americas - English Colonization - Early European Immigration - Anglo-Saxon Cultural Dominance - Southern and Eastern European Immigrants - Ethnic Revival - Assimilation Filipino Americans - Immigration East to West Indochinese Americans - Peoples and Cultures of Indochina - The Vietnamese Evacuation - Refugee Camps - Cultural Adjustment in the U.S. Japanese Americans - Immigration East to West - Internment Jewish Americans - Historical Roots - German-Jewish Immigration - Rise of Anti-Semitism - The New Immigration - The Holocaust - Zionism Mexican Americans - The Spanish Conquest - Mexican-American War - Migration North from Mexico - Chicano Movement Puerto Ricans - Ethnic Heritage: Taino Indian, African and Spanish - United States Rule - Commonwealth of Puerto Rico - Migration to U.S. Mainland - Mainland Puerto Rican Community - The Status Question ■ INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES In a curriculum area based upon value-laden interdisciplinary content, and in which the object is for students to develop decision-making skills, the teaching environment will need to be receptive. Students will question, investigate and decide upon statistical social data as well as their own personal feelings and reactions. Ground rules will need to allow the teacher to be an involved observer, cultural mediator and change agent. Chapter 4 covered a host of appropriate instructional skills. Questioning, group interaction, cooperative learning, case studies and role-playing are just a few. Decision-making skills, however, should be reflective, meaning that students not only evaluate the evidence based upon given data, but are prepared to resolve personal problems and then act upon the solutions. The resulting scientific inquiry model closely approximates that appropriated for the "new" social studies in the 1960s. A brief illustration in James Banks' *Multiethnic Education* (1988) adapts reflective decision making to a sample teaching unit. The question in this unit is whether or not racial integration should be a goal in a pluralistic democratic nation or, rephrased, "What action should we take regarding integration?" An infinite number of hypotheses may be proposed. One example is, "If minorities are required to meet qualifications similar to whites, then most institutions will remain predominately white." Key concepts will need to be defined, such as discrimination, assimilation, powerlessness and separatism. The concepts, supporting facts and different levels of generalization should be drawn from several disciplines. The examination will show students the highly volatile nature of the evidence. Teachers may choose to present readings from opposite positions and then ask students to analyze the evidence. Teaching strategy not only calls for social inquiry from existing external data, but requires an inquiry into a teacher's own values and attitudes regarding multicultural interaction. Banks suggests several alternatives. Members of small groups may defend or reject one position encountered during their study – forced busing, interracial marriage, reverse discrimination or interracial dating – and then discuss those opinions in the larger group. Students then would be asked to identify alternative courses of action and list possible consequences. The alternatives may include further study projects, classroom activities, schoolwide projects, or community and townwide activities. At this point, if not earlier, participating learners have an ownership in the proposed solutions and consequences. Moreover, when reassessment of these social hypotheses and solutions occur, students will be engaged in one of the ultimate social studies goals, that of developing thinking skills. A logical starting point for young children to experience multicultural activities is to connect all activities to individual students and their families. Using culture as a conceptual theme, these activities then should be extended to place children and families within the broader context of their communities. All multicultural activities should be concrete and centered on the daily lives of children and their families, and may include languages used by children and their families, values, how families feed themselves, the work that family members do in and out of the home and the various compositions of different families. Such activities, while helping children to understand and appreciate their own cultures, also will help them to understand that everyone has a culture and that there are similarities and differences within ethnic groups, as well as among different ethnic groups of various cultures. For younger children, multicultural activities should permeate the daily classroom experiences, connecting such learning and activity centers and curriculum areas as language arts, mathematics, science, art and others. For example, photographs may be used to make books about individual children, their families and communities. This may lay the foundation for reading about children and families beyond the immediate environment. Children may deal with various types of measurement when preparing food or dealing with distances as they develop maps of their communities. Various artifacts used by different ethnic groups may be placed in the dramatic play area, e.g., cooking utensils, everyday or ceremonial clothing, and other artifacts. Multicultural education frequently involves strategies for prejudice reduction, and teachers may want to seek further in-service training on related theories, research and strategies. Another problem for administrators and teachers is that mainstream thinking suggests all ethnic newcomers must conform to the universal values of the common culture and be committed to its ideology, as opposed to helping students to function effectively within the common culture as well as their own and other ethnic cultures. Teachers must view society from diverse ethnic perspectives rather than just that of the common culture. INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS In a society where diversity abounds, locating suitable curriculum materials can be a challenge. Further complicating the challenge is the fact that many materials may not be readily obtained from major education publishers. A combination of materials drawn from major publishers and the skill of the teacher in using student and community resources is the best solution. Many of the best resources are found through professional and ethnic organizations that either publish materials or develop bibliographies. One of the best publications that lists and reviews current ethnic literature is *The Bulletin*, published quarterly by the Council on Interracial Books for Children. The Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith and the Japanese American Curriculum Project also are known for their multicultural resources appropriate for use in the nation's schools. In May of each year *Social Education*, the official journal of the National Council for the Social Studies, publishes a supplement on children's books. Teachers also are urged to read reviews in magazines and newspapers and to browse in bookstores that specialize in children's books. James A. Banks, in *Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies, Fifth Edition* (1990), offers a comprehensive listing of appropriate student and teacher books for ethnic groups. Finally, the school or district media specialist is an invaluable resource for locating appropriate multicultural materials. Guidelines for selection also can be useful (see Chapter 5). In addition, Banks (1987) offers the following general guidelines for selecting ethnic studies materials: - Books and other materials should accurately portray the perspectives, attitudes and feelings of ethnic groups. - Fictional works should have strong ethnic characters. - Books should describe settings and experiences with which all students can identify and yet accurately reflect ethnic cultures and lifestyles. - The protagonists in books with ethnic themes should have ethnic characteristics but should face conflicts and problems that are universal to all cultures and groups. - The illustrations in books should be accurate, ethnically sensitive and technically well done. - Ethnic materials should not contain racist concepts, clichés, phrases or words. - Factual materials should be historically accurate. - Multiethnic resources and basal textbooks should discuss major events and documents related to ethnic history. Adapted from *Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies*, by James A. Banks. Allyn and Bacon, 1987. Used with permission. Curriculum developers are responsible for selecting materials based upon local goals, student needs, financial constraints, and the expertise and support of the teaching staff. Preparing to select materials with a multicultural perspective may require additional expertise in order to ensure the use of resources that accurately portray our diverse society. **CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION** Curriculum committees should not undertake lightly the implementation of multicultural education. By the very nature of the social studies, multicultural content and attitudes exist throughout the curriculum, whether introduced by inference, by way of teacher interest, or intentionally within a given course. Past experience shows that ethnic studies frequently come as an addition to the curriculum separate from the mainstream, such as in the study of unique customs and/or in the celebration of cultural holidays. Old assumptions have to be questioned when they are viewed as a process for curriculum reform. Is current teaching of Western societies presented from the mainstream perspective, i.e., a Eurocentric perspective? Is no other frame of reference considered, and are no non-Western courses added? If so, what are the implications of these traditional approaches? The traditional Western course selection, plus additions such as African, Asian and/or black studies is another common practice. The risk in this methodology is that the additions are perceived from the same Eurocentric perspective: African or Asian cultures being measured by Western standards. A third model, the multithnic approach, deals differently with course content. Courses employ relatively similar concepts, themes, issues and events. When studied together, they are evaluated on a conceptual rather than an ethnocentric basis. Banks suggests a fourth model, which he calls "the ultimate goal in curriculum reform." That is the ethnornational model, in which students view concepts from the perspective of various groups with different nations. Implementation and evaluation are at opposite ends of the curriculum development process. But actually, they come together, because implementation should trigger the evaluation process. If a school is to respond seriously to the multicultural curriculum needs of students and society, it must constantly examine characteristics that create a multicultural school. **Connecticut Curriculum Recommendations** The six findings published in 1990 by Connecticut's Governor's Commission on Quality and Integrated Education are important to consider. The second finding—“A quality education requires an integrated student body and faculty and a curriculum that reflects the heritage of many cultures” — contained the following recommendations: - Educational goals and the school environment must welcome and accommodate integrated education; - The curriculum should impart an expectation that all students will become successful learners; - The curriculum, both written and informal, should be multicultural, reflecting the heritage of many cultures; - Instructional materials and library collections too must mirror the heritage of many cultures; - In appraising the education of all our children, we must use appropriate assessments; - Schools should supplement a multicultural environment with complementary assembly programs, field trips, etc.; and - The school leadership must remain open and responsive to constructive proposals from staff, parents and their organizations. In the final analysis, as reflected in the curriculum recommendations above, implementation of multicultural education needs parent and community involvement. Parents and community leaders validate educational reform, spread ideas, and provide the essential underpinning for continued success. Education is not the teacher’s job alone; parental support for multicultural school reform increases the likelihood for success. References Baldwin, James. "A Talk to Teachers." *The Price of the Ticket*. New York: St. Martin's/Marek, 1985. Banks, James A., and Banks, Cherry A. McGee, editors. *Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives*. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1989. Banks, James A. *Multiethnic Education: Theory and Practice, Second Edition*. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1988. Banks, James A. *Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies, Fifth Edition*. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990. Banks, James A. "Approaches to Multicultural Curriculum Reform." *Multicultural Leader*, 1990 1(2): 1-3. Connecticut's Governor's Commission on Quality and Integrated Education. *Crossing the Bridge to Equality and Excellence: A Vision of Quality and Integrated Education for Connecticut*. Hartford, CT: 1990. Connecticut State Department of Education. *Connecticut's Common Core of Learning*. Hartford, CT: Connecticut State Department of Education, 1987. National Council for the Social Studies. "Curriculum Guidelines for Multiethnic Education," Washington, DC: NCSS, 1976. Resources Banks, James A. "The Battle Over the Canon: Cultural Diversity and Curriculum Reform." *Allyn and Bacon's Educator's Forum, Volume 1*. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Fall 1989. Bennett, Christine I. *Comprehensive Multicultural Education, Second Edition*. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990. Iowa Department of Education. *A Guide to Developing Multicultural, Nonsexist Education Across the Curriculum*. Des Moines, IA: Iowa Department of Education, 1989. Seefeldt, Carol. *Social Studies for the Preschool-Primary Child, Second Edition*. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill, 1984. Tiedt, Pamela L., and Tiedt, Iris M. *Multicultural Teaching: A Handbook of Activities, Information and Resources, Third Edition*. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990. APPENDIX A LEGISLATION This series of guides to curriculum development, published by the State of Connecticut Board of Education, is consistent with the provisions of Sections 10-4 and 10-16b of the Connecticut General Statutes. Section 10-4. Duties of Board. (a) . . . shall prepare such courses of study and publish such curriculum guides . . . as it determines are necessary to assist school districts to carry out the duties prescribed by law . . . Section 10-16b. Prescribed courses of study. (a) In the public schools the program of instruction offered shall include at least the following subject matter, as taught by legally qualified teachers: the arts; career education; consumer education; health and safety, including, but not limited to, human growth and development, nutrition, first aid, disease prevention, community and consumer health, physical, mental and emotional health, including youth suicide prevention, substance abuse prevention and safety and accident prevention; language arts, including reading, writing, grammar, speaking and spelling; mathematics; physical education; science; social studies, including, but not limited to, citizenship, economics, geography, government and history; and in addition, on at least the secondary level, one or more foreign languages and vocational education. . . . (c) Each local and regional board of education shall on September 1, 1982, and annually thereafter at such time and in such manner as the commissioner of education shall request, attest to the State Board of Education that such local or regional board of education offers at least the program of instruction required pursuant to this section, and that such program of instruction is planned, ongoing and systematic. (d) The State Board of Education shall make available curriculum materials and such other materials as may assist local and regional boards of education in developing instructional programs pursuant to this section. Instruction related to United States history, government and duties and responsibilities of citizenship shall be provided consistent with the provisions of Section 10-18 of the Connecticut General Statutes. Section 10-18. Courses in United States history, government and duties and responsibilities of citizenship. (a) All high, preparatory secondary and elementary schools, public or private, whose property is exempt from taxation, shall provide a program of United States history, including instruction in United States government at the local, state and national levels, and in the duties, responsibilities, and rights of United States citizenship. No student shall be graduated from any such school who has not been found to be familiar with said subjects. (b) The State Board of Education shall, upon request by a board of education, make samples of materials available for use in the schools required to teach the courses provided for in this section, with supplementary materials for such use. Textbooks and other general instructional materials used by local or regional boards of education must be consistent with the provisions of Section 10-18a of the Connecticut General Statutes. Section 10-18a. Content of textbooks and other general instructional materials. Except where a legitimate educational purpose will otherwise be served, each local or regional board of education shall, in selecting textbooks and other general instructional materials select those which accurately present the achievements and accomplishments of individuals and groups from all ethnic and racial backgrounds and of both sexes. Nothing herein shall preclude the use of instructional material and teaching which emphasizes the traditional family structure. Students graduating from high school must complete three years of social studies instruction consistent with the provisions of Section 10-221a. of the Connecticut General Statutes. Section 10-221a. High school graduation requirements. Report required of State Board of Education. (a) Commencing with classes graduating in 1988, and for each graduating class thereafter, no local or regional board of education shall permit any student to graduate from high school or grant a diploma to any student who has not satisfactorily completed a minimum of twenty credits... not fewer than three in social studies.... Determination of eligible credits shall be at the discretion of the local or regional board of education, provided the primary focus of the curriculum of eligible credits corresponds directly to the subject matter of the specified course requirements. These requirements shall apply to any student requiring special education pursuant to Section 10-76a, except when the planning and placement team for such student determines the requirement not to be appropriate. For purposes of this section, a credit shall consist of not less than the equivalent of a forty-minute class period for each school day of a school year except for a credit or part of a credit toward high school graduation earned at an institution accredited by the Department of Higher Education or regionally accredited. Only courses taken in grades nine through twelve, inclusive, shall satisfy this graduation requirement, except that a local or regional board of education may grant a student credit (1) toward meeting a specified course requirement upon the successful completion in grade seven or eight of any course, the primary focus of which corresponds directly to the subject matter of a specified course requirement in grades nine to twelve, inclusive; or (2) toward meeting the high school graduation requirement upon the successful completion of coursework at an institution accredited by the Department of Higher Education or regionally accredited. One three-credit semester course, or its equivalent, at such an institution shall equal one-half credit for purposes of this section. Notwithstanding the grant of such credit, each such student shall complete at least twenty credits in grades nine to twelve, inclusive, successfully. The State Board of Education shall assist local and regional boards of education in meeting the requirements of this section. APPENDIX B STATEWIDE EDUCATIONAL GOALS FOR STUDENTS - 1991-1995 Goal One: Motivation to Learn Students must be motivated to learn and to respond to the high expectations of their parents, teachers and school administrators and to their own inherent need to grow and develop. Connecticut public school students will: - develop self-understanding and a positive self-concept; - understand and strive to fulfill their own personal aspirations; - develop positive feelings of self-worth which contribute to self-reliance, responsible behavior, personal growth, health and safety; - demonstrate strong motivation and persistence to learn; and - exhibit an inquisitive attitude, open-mindedness and curiosity. - acquire the knowledge of science and technology, mathematics, history, social sciences, the creative and performing arts, literature and languages; - acquire the knowledge necessary to use computers and other technologies for learning and problem solving; - acquire an understanding and appreciation of the values and the intellectual and artistic achievements of their culture and other cultures; and - take full advantage of opportunities to explore, develop and express their own uniqueness and creativity. Goal Two: Mastery of the Basic Skills Proficiency in the basic skills is essential for acquiring knowledge and for success in our society. Connecticut public school students will: - learn to communicate effectively in speech and writing; - listen, view and read with understanding; - acquire knowledge of and ability in mathematics; - demonstrate skills necessary to locate and effectively use a variety of sources of information, including print materials, media, computers and other technology; - demonstrate decision-making, reasoning and problem-solving skills alone and in groups; and - demonstrate good study skills and skills necessary for lifelong learning. Goal Three: Acquisition of Knowledge Acquiring knowledge leads to fuller realization of individual potential and contributes to responsible citizenship. Connecticut public school students will: - demonstrate an ability to make informed career choices; - understand the responsibilities of family membership and parenthood; - demonstrate the ability to undertake the responsibilities of citizenship in their communities, in the state, in the nation and the world; - understand human growth and development, the functions of the body, human sexuality and the lifelong value of physical fitness; - understand and apply the basic elements of proper nutrition, avoidance of substance abuse, prevention and treatment of illness and management of stress; - understand and develop personal goals and aspirations; and - upon completion of a secondary-level program, demonstrate the skills, knowledge and competence required for success in meaningful employment, and be qualified to enter postsecondary education. Goal Five: Understanding Society's Values As responsible citizens, students will enrich their family, community and culture and create equal opportunity for all persons to participate in and derive the benefits of their society. Connecticut public school students will: - respect and appreciate diversity; - understand the inherent strengths in a pluralistic society; - recognize the necessity for moral and ethical conduct in society; - understand and respond to the vital need for order under law; - acquire the knowledge to live in harmony with the environment, and actively practice conservation of natural resources; - respect the humanity they share with other people and live and work in harmony with others; - acquire and apply an understanding and appreciation of the values and achievements of their own culture and other cultures; and - show understanding of international issues which affect life on our planet and demonstrate skills needed to participate in a global society. From *Challenge For Excellence: Connecticut’s Comprehensive Plan for Elementary, Secondary, Vocational, Career and Adult Education: A Policy Plan 1991-1995*. Connecticut State Board of Education, April 1990. Appendix C ORGANIZATIONAL RESOURCES FOR SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION This section contains the names and addresses of selected national and state organizations and agencies that can provide information and assistance to curriculum developers and teachers of social studies. Also included is a list of selected periodicals that provide information about new developments in the social studies field. A list of regional educational service centers in Connecticut also is included. For Connecticut resource information on historical museums, libraries and depositories, research/service organizations and other teacher resource services, see *Connecticut History and Culture: An Historical Overview and Resource Guide for Teachers*, Connecticut Historical Commission, 59 Prospect St., Hartford, CT 06106. Categories and subdivisions in this appendix are as follows: State and National Organizations and Professional Associations - Social Studies General - Social Studies Content Areas - Social Studies Topics National and State Periodicals Regional Educational Service Centers Social Studies Content Areas **Anthropology** American Anthropological Association 1703 New Hampshire Ave., NW Washington, DC 20009 **Economics** Connecticut Joint Council on Economic Education University of Connecticut One Bishop Circle Box U-55 Storrs, CT 06268 Joint Council on Economic Education 2 Park Ave. New York, NY 10016 Junior Achievement, Inc. 55 Halfway House Road Windsor Locks, CT 06096 **Geography** Association of American Geographers 1710 16th St., NW Washington, DC 20009 Connecticut Geographic Alliance University of Connecticut, U-148 Department of Geography 354 Mansfield Road Storrs, CT 06268 National Council for Geographic Education Indiana University of Pennsylvania Indiana, PA 15705 National Geographic Society 17th and M Streets NW Washington, DC 20036 Government, Citizenship and Political Science American Civil Liberties Union 132 West 43rd St. New York, NY 10036 Center for Civic Education 5115 Douglas Fir Ave. Calabasas, CA 91302 Close Up Foundation 44 Canal Plaza Alexandria, VA 22314 Connecticut Consortium for Law-Related Education Office of the Attorney General 110 Sherman St. Hartford, CT 06105 Council for the Advancement of Citizenship One Dupont Circle Washington, DC 20036 Office of the Secretary of the State 210 Capitol Ave. Hartford, CT 06106 League of Women Voters of the United States 1730 M St., NW Washington, DC 20036 League of Women Voters of Connecticut Suite 113 1890 Dixwell Ave. Hamden, CT 06514 Special Committee on Youth Education for Citizenship American Bar Association 1155 East 60th St. Chicago, IL 60637 History The American Historical Association 400 A St., SE Washington, DC 20003 Bradley Commission on History in Schools 26915 Westwood Road, Suite A-2 Westlake, OH 44145 Mershon Center Ohio State University 199 West 10th Ave. Columbus, OH 43201 Association for the Study of Connecticut History Center for Connecticut Studies Eastern Connecticut State University Willimantic, CT 06226 Center for Connecticut Studies Eastern Connecticut State University Willimantic, CT 06226 Center for Oral History University of Connecticut U-103 Storrs, CT 06268 Connecticut Historical Commission 59 South Prospect St. Hartford, CT 06106 The Connecticut Historical Society 1 Elizabeth St. Hartford, CT 06105 Institute of Local History Manchester Community College Manchester, CT 06040 Organization of American Historians 112 N. Bryan St. Bloomington, IN 47401 Humanities Connecticut Humanities Council 41 Lawn Ave. Wesleyan Station Middletown, CT 06457 National Endowment for the Humanities 1100 Pennsylvania Ave., NW Washington, DC 20506 Psychology American Psychological Association 1200 17th St., NW Washington, DC 20036 Sociology American Sociological Association 1722 N St., NW Washington, DC 20036 Social Studies Topics International Studies African-American Institute 866 United Nations Plaza New York, NY 10017 The Asia Society 725 Park Ave, New York, NY 10021 Center for Teaching International Relations University of Denver Denver, CO 80208 Yale Center for International and Area Studies Outreach Programs Yale University Box 13 A 85 Trumbull St. New Haven, CT 06520 Educators for Social Responsibility 23 Garden St. Cambridge, MA 02138 Foreign Policy Association 1800 M St., NW, Suite 295 Washington, DC 20036 Global Perspectives in Education, Inc. 45 John St. Suite 1200 New York, NY 10038 Institute of World Affairs 375 Twin Lakes Road Salisbury, CT 06068 The I.N. Thut World Education Center University of Connecticut School of Education Box U-32 Storrs, CT 06268 Middle East Institute 1761 N St., NW Washington, DC 20036 Organization of American States 19th and Constitution Avenues Washington, DC 20006 Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education (SPICE) 200 Lou Henry Hoover Bldg. Stanford University Stanford, CA 94305 U.S. Committee for UNICEF 331 East 38th St. New York, NY 10016 World Affairs Center, Inc. 250 Constitution Plaza Hartford, CT 06105 The World Bank 1818 H St., NW, J2203 Washington, DC 20433 Instructional Technology and Media Agency for Instructional Technology P.O. Box A Bloomington, IN 47402 American Newspaper Publishers Association Foundation The Newspaper Center Box 17407 Dulles Airport Washington, DC 20041 Prime Time School Television 212 W. Superior Chicago, IL 60610 Teacher's Guide to Television 699 Madison Ave. New York, NY 10021 Multicultural Studies Institute for American Indian Studies P.O. Box 1260 Washington, CT 06793 Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith 823 United Nations Plaza New York, NY 10017 | Organization | Publication | Publisher | Address | |----------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------| | Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith | Journal of Economic Education | Heldref Publications | | 419 Whalley Ave. | | 400 Albemarle St., NW | | New Haven, CT 06520 | | Washington, DC 20016 | | Connecticut Afro-American Historical Society | Journal of Geography | National Council for Geographic Education | | 444 Orchard St. | | Indiana University of Pennsylvania | | New Haven, CT 06511 | | Indiana, PA 15705 | | Council on Interracial Books for Children, Inc. | Phi Delta Kappan | Eighth and Union | | 1841 Broadway | | P.O. Box 789 | | New York, NY 10023 | | Bloomington, IN 47402 | | Japanese American Curriculum Project, Inc. | Social Studies and the Young Learner | National Council for the Social Studies | | 414 E. Third Avenue | | 3501 Newark St., NW | | San Mateo, CA 94401 | | Washington, DC 20016 | | NAACP | Social Education | National Council for the Social Studies | | 144 W. 125th St. | | 3501 Newark St., NW | | New York, NY 10027 | | Washington, DC 20016 | | National Conference on Christians and Jews | The Social Studies | Heldref Publications | | 71 Fifth Ave. | | 400 Albemarle St., NW | | New York, NY 10003 | | Washington, DC 20016 | | Population Education | Social Studies Update | Connecticut State Department of Education | | Population Reference Bureau | | Division of Curriculum and Professional | | 777 14th St., NW, Suite 800 | | Development | | Washington, DC 20005 | | Bureau of Curriculum and Instruction | | United States Department of Commerce | | P.O. Box 2219 | | Bureau of the Census | | Hartford, CT 06145 | | Washington, DC 20233 | | | **National and State Periodicals** | Publication | Publisher | Address | |--------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------| | Educational Leadership | Teaching Political Science | SAGE Publications | | Association for Supervision and Curriculum | P.O. Box 776 | Beverly Hills, CA 90210 | | Development | | | | 225 North Washington St. | | | | Alexandria, VA 22314 | | | | The History Teacher | Teaching Sociology | SAGE Publications | | Society for History Education | P.O. Box 776 | Beverly Hills, CA 90210 | | Department of History | | | | California State University | | | | 6101 E. 7th St. | | | | Long Beach, CA 90840 | | | | Intercultural Books for Children Bulletin | Yankee Post | P.O. Box 9122 | | 1841 Broadway | | Bolton, CT 06043 | | New York, NY 10023 | | | Regional Educational Service Centers Area Cooperative Educational Services (ACES) 205 Skiff St. Hamden, CT 06511-1095 Capitol Region Education Council (CREC) 599 Matianuck Ave. Windsor, CT 06095-3598 Cooperative Educational Services (CES) 785 Unquowa Road Fairfield, CT 06430-5001 Eastern Connecticut Regional Educational Service Center (EASTCONN) 376 Hartford Turnpike North Windham 06256-1612 Project LEARN P.O. Box 220 East Lyme, CT 06333-0220 Regional Educational Services Concepts Through Unified Effort (RESCUE) P.O. Box 909 355 Goshen Road Litchfield 06759-0909 and 301 Main St. Danbury, CT 06810-5856 Appendix D Resources For Curriculum Planning It is essential for the curriculum committee to have adequate resources with which to examine alternatives and make decisions about revising a social studies program. The following selected resources are provided to assist schools in identifying key resources for subject areas and topics related to the field of social studies. Resource categories include planning, instruction and both the topic and content areas of the social studies curriculum. Curriculum Content Areas Economics Gilliard, June, chair. *Economics: What and When (Scope and Sequence Guidelines, K-12).* New York: Joint Council on Economic Education (JCEE), 1988. Saunders, Phillip, editor. *A Framework for Teaching the Basic Concepts.* New York: JCEE, 1984. Schug, Mark C. *Economics for Kids: Ideas for Teaching in the Elementary Grades.* Washington, DC: National Education Association, 1986. Symmes, S. Stowell, editor. *Economic Education: Links to the Social Studies.* Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies, Bulletin 65, 1981. Geography Backler, Alan. *Trends/Issues Paper No. 1: Teaching Geography in American History.* Bloomington, IN: Social Studies Development Center, ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education, 1988. Geographic Education National Implementation Project. *K-6 Geography: Themes, Key Ideas and Learning Opportunities.* Skokie, IL: Rand McNally and Company, 1987. Joint Committee on Geographic Education. *Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools.* Washington, DC: National Council for Geographic Education and Association of American Geographers, 1984. Ludwig, Gail S., et. al. *Directions in Geography.* Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 1991. Natoli, Salvatore J., editor. *Strengthening Geography in the Social Studies.* Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies, Bulletin 81, 1988. Government, Citizenship and Political Science Connecticut State Department of Education. *Teacher's Resource Manual on Voter Education.* Hartford, CT, 1988. Hepburn, Mary A. *Democratic Education in Schools and Classrooms.* Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), Bulletin 70, 1983. Jarolimek, John, and Parker, Walter, editors. *Citizenship and the Critical Role of the Social Studies.* Washington, DC: NCSS, Bulletin 72, 1984. Keller, Clair W., and Schillings, Denny L., editors. *Teaching About the Constitution.* Washington, DC: NCSS, Bulletin 80, 1987. NCSS Board of Directors. "Position Statement: Democratization of Schools." Washington, DC, 1979. Also available in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. NCSS Citizenship Committee. "Position Statement: Essential Characteristics of a Citizenship Education Program." Washington, DC, 1984. Also available in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. Quigley, Charles N., and Bahmueller, Charles F. *CIVITAS: A Framework for Civic Education.* Calabasas, CA: Center for Civic Education, 1991. History Bradley Commission on History in the Schools. *Building a History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History in the Schools.* Washington, DC: Educational Excellence Network, 1988. Cheney, Lynne V., chair. *American Memory: A Report on the Humanities in the Nation's Public Schools.* Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Humanities, 1987. Downey, Matthew T., editor. *Teaching American History: New Directions*. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), Bulletin 67, 1982. Downey, Matthew T., editor. *History in the Schools*. Washington, DC: NCSS, Bulletin 74, 1985. Remy, Richard C., and Woyach, Robert B. "Strengthening World Studies: The Challenge of Conceptualization." *Social Education* 52 (November/December 1988): 484-488. **Humanities** Cheney, Lynne V., chair. *American Memory: A Report on the Humanities in the Nation's Public Schools*. Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Humanities, 1987. Collier, Christopher. "Literature of Connecticut History," *The Connecticut Scholar*. Middletown, CT: Connecticut Humanities Council (CHC), Number 6, 1983. Levy, Tedd, and Olson, Betty. *The Noblest of Thoughts: Literature and American History*. Middletown, CT: CHC, 1987. **Curriculum Topics** **Future Studies** Haas, John D. *Future Studies in the K-12 Curriculum*. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium (SSEC), 1988. Haas, John D. *Teaching About the Future: Tools, Topics and Issues*. Boulder, CO: SSEC, 1987. **Human Rights** Branson, Margaret Stimmann, and Torney-Purta, Judith, editors. *International Human Rights, Society and the Schools*. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies, 1982. Connecticut State Department of Education. *Resource Guide—Human Rights: The Struggle for Freedom, Dignity and Equality*. Hartford, CT, 1987. Shiman, David. *Teaching About Human Rights: Issues of Justice in a Global Age*. Denver, CO: Center for Teaching International Relations, 1988. **International Studies** Fersh, Seymour. *Asia: Teaching About/Learning From*. New York: Teachers College Press, 1978. Goldhawk, Sara, and Kramb, Vera, editors. *The New Global Yellow Pages*. New York: Global Perspectives in Education, Inc. (GPE), 1989. Gorham, Amy, editor. *The Global Resource Book*. New York: GPE, 1986. Kniep, Willard, editor. *New Steps in Global Education: A Handbook for Curriculum Development*. New York: GPE, 1987. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) International Activities Committee. "Position Statement: Global Education." Washington, DC, 1981. Also available in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. **Multicultural Studies** Banks, James A., and Banks, Cherry A. McGee, editors. *Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives*. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1989. Banks, James A. *Multiethnic Education: Theory and Practice*. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1988. Banks, James A. *Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies, Fifth Edition*. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990. Bennett, Christine I. *Comprehensive Multicultural Education, 2nd ed.* Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990. Connecticut State Department of Education. *Teacher's Resource Manual on Martin Luther King, Jr*. Hartford, CT, 1988. Natoli, Salvatore J., editor. "Special Section: Reducing Prejudice." *Social Education* 52 (April/May 1988): 264-291. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). "Position Statement: Curriculum Guidelines for Multiethnic Education." Washington, DC, NCSS, 1976. Tiedt, Pamela L., and Tiedt, Iris M. *Multicultural Teaching: A Handbook of Activities, Information and Resources, 3rd ed.* Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990. Science, Technology and Society Hickman, Faith M.; Patrick, John J.; and Bybee, Roger W. *Science/Technology/Society: A Framework for Curriculum Reform in Secondary School Science and Social Studies*. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium (SSEC), 1987. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) Science and Society Committee. "Position Statement and Guidelines: Teaching Science-Related Social Issues." Washington, DC, 1982. Also available in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. Singleton, Laurel R. *Science/Technology/Society: Training Manual*. Boulder, CO: SSEC, 1988. State and Local History Roth, David M., editor. *Connecticut History: An Historical Overview and Resource Guide for Teachers*. Hartford, CT: The Connecticut Historical Commission and The Center for Connecticut Studies, Eastern Connecticut State University, 1985. Schug, Mark C., and Beery, R., editors. *Community Study: Applications and Opportunities*. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies, Bulletin 73, 1984. Stave, Bruce M., and Sutherland, John F. *Talking About Connecticut: Oral History in the Nutmeg State*. Center for Oral History, University of Connecticut and Institute for Local History, Manchester Community College, 1985. Religion Collie, William E., and Smith, Lee H., editors. "Teaching About Religion: Vistas Unlimited." *Social Education* 45 (January 1961): 15-34. Hayes, Charles C. *A Teacher's Guide: Religious Freedom in America*. Silver Spring, MD: Americans United Research Foundation, 1986. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) Religion in the Schools Committee. "Position Statement and Guidelines: Study About Religions in the Social Studies Curriculum." Washington, DC, 1984. Also available in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. Instruction Use of Technologies Budin, Howard, and Kendall, Diane S., editors. "Special Section: Computers in Social Studies." *Social Education* 51 (January 1987): 32-59. Budin, Howard; Kendall, Diane S.; and Lengal, James G. *Using Computers in the Social Studies*. New York: Teachers College Press, 1986. Laughlin, Margaret A.; Hartoonian, H. Michael; and Sanders, Norris M., editors. *From Information to Decision Making: New Challenges for Effective Citizenship*. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), Bulletin 83, 1989. NCSS Ad Hoc Committee on Computer Courseware Evaluation Guidelines. "Position Statement and Guidelines: Social Studies Microcomputer Courseware Evaluation." Washington, DC, 1983. Also available in *Building Support for the Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. Walters, Patty, editor. *Social Studies Curriculum Software Reference Guide, K-12*. Cupertino, CA: Apple Computer, Inc., 1987. Instructional Materials Davis, O.L., Jr., et al. *Looking at History: A Review of Major U.S. History Textbooks*. Washington, DC: People for the American Way, 1986. Carroll, James, chair. *We the People: A Review of U.S. Government and Civics Textbooks*. Washington, DC: People for the American Way, 1987. Paton, William E., editor. *Improving the Use of Social Studies Textbooks*. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies, Bulletin 63, 1980. Sewall, Gilbert. *American History Textbooks: An Assessment of Quality*. Washington, DC: Educational Excellence Network, 1987. Social Science Education Consortium, Inc. *Data Book of Social Studies Materials and Resources*. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium, Inc., 1990. Tyson-Bernstein, Harriet, and Woodward, Arthur, guest editors. "Special Section: Coming to Grips with the Great Textbook Machine." *Social Education* 50 (January 1986): 39-70. **Social Studies Teaching** Rogers, Vincent.; Roberts, Arthur D.; and Weinland, Thomas P., editors. *Teaching Social Studies: Portraits From the Classroom*. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), Bulletin 82, 1988. Rosenzweig, Linda W., editor. *Developmental Perspectives on the Social Studies*. Washington, DC: NCSS, Bulletin 66, 1982. **Social Studies Skills** Beyer, Barry K., guest editor. "Critical Thinking Revisited." *Social Education* 49 (April 1985): 268-308. Kurzman, Dana, editor. *Developing Decision-Making Skills*. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies, 47th Yearbook, 1977. Jarolimek, John, et al. "In Search of a Scope and Sequence for Social Studies," Report of the National Council for the Social Studies Task Force in Scope and Sequence, November 1, 1983. *Social Education* 48 (April 1984): 249-273. **Planning** **Basic Resources for Curriculum Planning** Bragaw, Donald H., and Wronski, Stanley P., editors. *Social Studies and Social Sciences: A Fifty-Year Perspective*. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), Bulletin 78, 1986. Connecticut State Board of Education. *Connecticut's Common Core of Learning*. Hartford, CT, 1987. Connecticut State Department of Education. "Social Studies Curriculum Survey, 1984." Hartford, CT, 1986. Davis, James E., editor. *Planning a Social Studies Program: Activities, Guidelines and Resources*. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium, Inc., 1983. Muessig, Raymond H., editor. *Social Studies Curriculum Improvement*. Washington, DC: NCSS, Bulletin 55, 1978. NCSS. *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1988. NCSS. "The Essentials of the Social Studies." Washington, DC, 1980. Also available in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. NCSS. "Revision of the NCSS Social Studies Curriculum Guidelines." Washington, DC. Available in *Social Education*, April 1978, 261-273, and in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. Roselle, Daniel, revised by Laurel R. Singleton. "A Parent's Guide to the Social Studies." *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1988. **Scope and Sequence** Bragaw, Donald H., et al. "Scope and Sequence: Alternatives for Social Studies." *Social Education* 50 (November/December) 1986: 484-542. Curriculum Task Force of the National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools and the National Social Science Disciplinary Associations. *Charting a Course: Social Studies Curriculum for the 21st Century*. Washington, DC: National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools, 1989. Jarolimek, John, et al. "In Search of a Scope and Sequence for Social Studies," Report of the National Council for the Social Studies Task Force in Scope and Sequence, November 1, 1983. *Social Education* 48 (April 1984): 249-273. **Curriculum Guides** California State Board of Education. *History-Social Science Framework for California Public Schools*. Sacramento, CA: California State Department of Education, 1988. Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. *A Guide to Curriculum Planning in Social Studies*. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1986. Early Childhood/Elementary Atwood, Virginia A., editor. *Elementary School Social Studies: Research as a Guide to Practice*. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), Bulletin 79, 1986. Connecticut State Board of Education. *A Guide to Program Development for Kindergarten, Parts I and II*. Hartford, CT, 1988. NCSS Task Force on Early Childhood/Elementary Social Studies. "Position Statement: Social Studies for Early Childhood and Elementary School Children Preparing for the 21st Century." *Social Education* 53 (January 1989): 14-23. NCSS Elementary/Early Childhood Education Committee. "Position Statement: Social Studies for Young Children." Washington, DC, 1984. Also available in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. Seefeldt, Carol. *Social Studies for the Preschool-Primary Child*. Columbus, OH: Charles F. Merrill Publishing Co., 1984. Student Evaluation and Assessment Connecticut State Department of Education. *Connecticut Assessment of Educational Progress, 1982-83, Social Studies, "Overview of the Assessment."* Hartford, CT, 1984. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) Board of Directors. "Position Statement and Guidelines: Graduation Competency Testing in the Social Studies." Washington, DC, 1978. Also available in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. Nickell, Pat, editor. "Student Assessment in Social Studies." *Social Education* 56 (February 1992): 89-111. Parker, Walter C. *Renewing the Social Studies Curriculum*. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1991. Social Studies Teachers and Teaching Connecticut State Board of Education. "Policy Statement: Academic Freedom and Public Education," adopted September 9, 1981. Connecticut State Board of Education. "Policy Statement: Controversial Issues," adopted October 4, 1978. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) Academic Freedom Committee. "Position Statement and Guidelines: Academic Freedom," 1967. Also available in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS. Washington, DC, 1988. NCSS. "Position Statement and Guidelines: Academic Freedom and the Social Studies Teacher." Washington, DC, 1969. Also available in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. NCSS. "Position Statement: The Freedom to Teach and the Freedom to Learn." Washington, DC, 1974. Also available in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. NCSS Professional Ethics Committee. "Position Statement: A Code of Ethics for the Social Studies Profession." Washington, DC, 1980. Also available in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. NCSS Task Force for Revision of the Teacher Education Standards. "Position Statement and Guidelines: Standards for the Preparation of Social Studies Teachers." Washington, DC, 1987. Also available in *Building Support for Social Studies: The Tool Kit*, NCSS, 1988. APPENDIX E TEACHING ABOUT CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES The following policy statement, "Controversial Issues," was adopted by the Connecticut State Board of Education on October 4, 1978. Learning to deal with controversial issues is one of the basic competencies all students should acquire. Controversial issues are those problems, subjects or questions about which there are significant differences of opinion based for the most part on the differences in the values people bring to the appraisal of the facts of the issue. Controversy is inherent in the democratic way of life. The study and discussion of controversial issues is essential to the education for citizenship in a free society. Students can become informed individuals only through the process of examining evidence, facts and differing viewpoints, by exercising freedom of thought and moral choice, and by making responsible decisions. The perpetuation of the fundamental principles of our society requires the guarantee that there be opportunity for students to read, to gather information, to speak and to hear alternative viewpoints, and to reach honest judgments according to their individual ability. In order for students to learn these competencies, teachers must be free to help students to identify and evaluate relevant information, to learn the techniques of critical analysis, and to make independent judgments. They must reinforce the student's right to present and support their conclusions before persons who have opposing points of view. Teachers should also endeavor to develop a flexibility of viewpoint in students so that they are able to recognize the need for continuous and objective re-examination of issues in the light of changing conditions in society and as new and significant evidence becomes available to support a change in point of view. Further, teachers should direct the attention of learners, at the appropriate levels of maturity, to significant issues and promote a lively exchange of ideas about them. Although teachers have the right to express their own viewpoints and opinions, they do not have the right to indoctrinate students with their personal views. It is recommended that all Connecticut boards of education develop and disseminate a written policy which supports the concept of teaching about controversial issues and resists pressures and charges by special interest groups seeking to impose only one side of an issue upon the schools. The following policy statement, "Academic Freedom and Public Education," was adopted by the Connecticut State Board of Education on September 9, 1981. Academic freedom is the freedom to teach and to learn. In defending the freedom to teach and to learn, we affirm the democratic process itself. American public education is the source of much that is essential to our democratic heritage. No other single institution has so significantly sustained our national diversity, nor helped voice our shared hopes for an open and tolerant society. Academic freedom is among the strengths of American public education. Attempts to deny the freedom to teach and to learn are, therefore, incompatible with the goals of excellence and equity in the life of our public schools. With freedom comes responsibility. With rights come obligations. Accordingly, academic freedom in our public schools is subject to certain limitations. Therefore, the State Board of Education affirms that: Academic freedom in our public schools is properly defined within the context of law and the constraints of mutual respect among individuals. Public schools represent a public trust. They exist to prepare our children to become partners in a society of self-governing citizens. Therefore, access to ideas and opportunities to consider the broad range of questions and experiences which constitute the proper preparation for a life of responsible citizenship must not be defined by the interests of any single viewpoint. Teachers, school administrators, librarians, and school media specialists must be free to select instructional and research materials appropriate to the maturity level of their students. This freedom is itself subject to the reasonable restrictions mandated by law to school officials and administrators. At the same time, local school officials must demonstrate substantial or legitimate public interest in order to justify censorship or other proposed restrictions upon teaching and learning. Similarly, local boards of education cannot establish criteria for the selection of library books based solely on the personal, social or political beliefs of school board members. While students must be free to voice their opinions in the context of a free inquiry after truth and respect for their fellow students and school personnel, student expression which threatens to interfere substantially with the school's function is not warranted by academic freedom. Students must be mindful that their rights are neither absolute nor unlimited. Part of responsible citizenship is coming to accept the consequences of the freedoms to which one is entitled by law and tradition. Similarly, parents have the right to affect their own children's education, but this right must be balanced against the right other parents' children have to a suitable range of educational experiences. Throughout, the tenets of academic freedom seek to encourage a spirit of reasoned community participation in the life and practices of our public schools. Since teaching and learning are among the missions of our public schools, the State Board of Education affirms the distinction between teaching and indoctrination. Schools should teach students how to think, not what to think. To study an idea is not necessarily to endorse an idea. Public school classrooms are forums for inquiry, not arenas for the promulgation of particular viewpoints. While communities have the right to exercise supervision over their own public school practices and programs, their participation in the educational life of their schools should respect the constitutional and intellectual rights guaranteed school personnel and students by American law and tradition. Accordingly, the State Board of Education, in order to encourage improved educational practices, recommends that local school boards adopt policies and procedures to receive, review, and take action upon requests that question public school practices and programs. Community members should be encouraged, and made aware of their right, to voice their opinions about school practices and programs in an appropriate administrative form. The State Board of Education further recommends that local school boards take steps to encourage informed community participation in the shared work of sustaining and improving our public schools. Finally, the State Board of Education affirms that community members and school personnel should acknowledge together that the purpose of public education is the pursuit of knowledge and the preparation of our children for responsible citizenship in a society that respects differences and shared freedom. Appendix F Framework To Guide Strategic Reading Behavior The following is adapted from the Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction’s *A Guide to Curriculum Planning in Social Studies* (1986), pp. 206–208, and is used with permission. **Analyze: Preparing for Reading** Before giving a reading assignment, examine the reading selection or text to determine the features that would help student comprehension and identify unfamiliar vocabulary and concepts that might involve difficulties for the student. Next, assess the students’ experiential backgrounds to decide whether or not they have the necessary concepts and vocabulary knowledge to achieve a satisfactory level of meaning from the text. If this background is insufficient, it will be necessary to decide how best to help students acquire it before they read the selection. Vocabulary instruction research indicates that a focus on concepts and meanings in familiar contexts is more profitable than a rote learning of new words in isolation. Thus, one should teach unfamiliar vocabulary essential to understanding text material in rich contextual settings that are relevant and interesting. Vocabulary instruction should occur both before and during reading. The following are some specific suggestions for preparing students for reading. Assess and expand the students’ background knowledge and experiences as related to the text or assignment by: - directing questions in order to find what students know or believe they know; - noting misconceptions and offering information to provide adequate background for comprehension; and - arousing interest and giving students an awareness of the relevancy of text material to their daily lives. Introduce necessary vocabulary and fundamental concepts by: - brainstorming with students about the general meaning of new words; - guiding students to more specific meaning of new words in the assigned text; - analyzing the structure of the new words to aid in their recognition (roots, prefixes, suffixes); and - developing a semantic map that links vocabulary to larger concepts. **Plan: Setting a Purpose** The more thoroughly teachers prepare students to identify the organization of the text, the more likely students are to achieve comprehension. Before reading a selection, students should preview it, examine its organization (such as headings, italicized words and summary statements), and develop predictions concerning content. Through this procedure students identify a purpose for their reading. The teacher should focus students’ attention on important concepts contained in the text. For example, a history teacher who wants students to understand the events leading to World War II should point out that a list of such factors may be derived from the reading. If geography or exact chronology is desired, that too should be made clear so that students have some sense as to the aspects of text material on which they should focus. Some specific ways to help students set a purpose for their reading follow: - Have students note the basic structure of the text, including introductions, headings and conclusions or summaries. - Discuss titles and subtitles in the assigned material. - Direct attention to any graphic aids, maps, pictures or charts. - Point out any study aids such as summary or discussion questions. - Have students note new vocabulary which is highlighted (italics, bold print, marginal notes). - Have students generate several questions of their own as guides during their silent reading. Monitor: Guided Silent Reading Once reading purposes are clearly in mind, students should read the assigned material silently at their individual pace. Two ways of promoting effective silent reading include having students create guides (questions, outline, chart) to refer to while reading and guiding students to create structured overviews of text material, focusing on identifying main ideas and key facts. Discuss: Rereading Following purposeful silent reading, students should be guided in the discussion of the reading content by providing them with an opportunity to talk about the content in relation to their purposes for reading it. They should discuss whether the information acquired was sufficient to answer their questions and fulfill expectations. Where relevant, they should describe how and why purposes for reading changed as they completed the assignment. Reflect: Critical Thinking During discussion, students should be asked questions that require them to go beyond the specific details and to think critically about the overall concepts and larger messages in the text. Teachers should have them verify their reasons by rereading sections to support interpretations or to identify inconsistencies in the writer's reasoning. Rereading passages can be done either orally or silently, but always should have a definite purpose. Suggestions for specific activities involving discussion, reading and reflections follow. - Discuss answers to prereading purpose questions; confirm and verify answers. - Interpret information from reading by drawing conclusions, making inferences, generalizing, and identifying interrelationships. - Evaluate information by making judgments, determining writer's intent, comparing with other texts, and considering the overall significance of the information. - Reflect upon information by applying to real life (local and current) situations. - Identify topics from reading for further research, analysis, discussion and, perhaps, writing. Apply: Extension Activities Extension activities serve to help students expand upon information gained from the reading. Such activities provide students with opportunities to incorporate new ideas and information into their background understanding. Some suggestions for extending ideas derived from critical reading include: - Create structured overviews of the central concepts. - Locating and reading additional information on one aspect of the material or topic. - Relating material through activities such as those listed below: 1. writing a sentence using a key term from the text; 2. writing a framed paragraph; 3. summarizing or discussing the main ideas in exposition or narration (a brief story, an imaginary dialogue, a dream); 4. writing a newspaper editorial or article using the information; and 5. developing a semantic map that links vocabulary to larger concepts. Adapted from *A Guide to Curriculum Planning in Social Studies*, Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1986. Used with permission. APPENDIX G WRITING IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES The following is adapted from the Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction's *A Guide to Curriculum Planning in Social Studies* (1986), pp. 204 and 205, and is used with permission. Why should content-area teachers encourage students to write? - Writing promotes learning of the subject matter by requiring active attempts at making meaning, requiring planning and reviewing, connecting prior knowledge with new information, making students' thought processes visible and accessible, and helping students to develop higher-order thinking skills. - Students who write about a concept are less likely to find the concept confusing. - Students who see that writing can be useful in a wide variety of contexts will be motivated to become better writers. - The more students write, the more relaxed and positive their attitudes toward writing will be. Students with positive attitudes toward writing are more likely to write well. How can content-area teachers improve methods of assigning and evaluating writing? - Think of writing as a tool to aid learning and as a means of communication, as well as a means of evaluation. - Assign frequent short assignments rather than a single long one. Repeated practice is important in learning to write. - Be clear in expressing the purpose of a writing assignment. Written assignment sheets specific to each assignment provide guidance through the writing process and answer many students' questions. - When planning major writing assignments, provide ample time and opportunity for students to brainstorm, explore ideas and develop their ideas through several drafts. - Assign some writing that will not be evaluated. Idea logs, notebooks, summaries and brief writings to clarify concepts will serve a more useful purpose if they are viewed as means, not ends. - Provide feedback as students produce drafts, giving them opportunities to apply teacher suggestions, rather than saving all feedback for the final evaluation of a paper. - Provide opportunities for students to talk about their writing topic. Use mini-conferences and small student groups to provide feedback during a student's writing process. Oral comments are faster and often more effective than written ones. - Pay attention to strengths as well as weaknesses. Success breeds success. - Share successful student writing with the class by reading aloud, mounting papers on bulletin boards and using an overhead projector. - Focus on one or two concerns at a time. Work first with ideas and organization, then with mechanical correctness. Do not expect students to address everything at once. What are some types of writing assignments that enhance the learning of content? **Student logs, journals and idea books.** Informal in nature, these notebooks provide frequent opportunities for writing. Students may use these books to define terms, clarify concepts, formulate questions, summarize or evaluate course content or to focus on ideas for class discussion. Journal writing might be done for five minutes at the beginning of a class period to summarize the previous night's assignment, in the middle of a discussion to interpret or expand upon material being presented, or at the end of a class to summarize the day's lesson or to prepare for the next day's assignment. **A dictionary of new terms.** Each student writes and revises definitions for new terms and keeps them as a cumulative list. Formulating meanings for terms specific to the subject area aids in comprehension; keeping the list provides an aid to review. **Field notebooks and field journals.** These assignments provide opportunities to describe how people in a subject area use and organize language and help students to develop greater skills of observation. Articles for school and local newspapers. Writing for newspapers allows students to think about the needs of a larger audience—other than the teacher—and helps them to clarify their ideas of the course's topics and activities. Such articles also provide recognition for students. Letters to the editor and position papers. Writing about issues relates course content to real-world concerns and gives students a chance to practice persuasion skills. Position papers encourage students to work with knowledge and their own ideas to probe for answers to questions and draw conclusions that can be the basis for stimulating interaction. Story problems. Students learn to incorporate formulas from mathematics lessons in writing their own problems. These can be collected from small groups or classes and used for study or review. Interviewing. Students develop an awareness of audience and call upon a variety of thinking and writing skills in preparing questions, gathering information and editing answers. Interviews can be either an individual or a small-group activity. Writing directions for students unfamiliar with a process. This activity requires that students understand the process and are able to sequence the steps to explain the process. Addressing an audience other than the teacher emphasizes the importance of being clear, inclusive and well-organized. Speech writing and group presentations. Motivation is high when writing is aimed at an audience. Group presentations spark the focus on shared ideas and peer editing, which improves writing quality. Peer critiques or self-critiques of activities or processes. Written critiques can help students review their performance in order to identify strengths and weaknesses and plan for improved performance. These activities teach valuable self-monitoring strategies. What kinds of writing activities should be emphasized with students at various levels? | Grades K-3 | Grades 4-6 | Grades 7-9 | Grades 10-12 | |-----------------------------|----------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------| | Informal discussions | Journals | Journals | Journals | | Show-and-tell | Dictation | Panel discussions | Panel discussions | | Pantomime | Writing from memory | (with written preparation) | Oral presentations | | Dictating or writing | Writing about pictures | Informal oral presentations (with written | Interviews | | experiences, captions, or | Letters | preparation) | Letters | | observations | Written show-and-tell | Short scripts | Research | | Reportage | Writing experiences, directions, | Script enactments | Profiles | | Calendar | captions, or observations | Letters | Reflections | | Letters | | Records of observation | Generalization and theory | | | | Basics of using research sources | Position papers | | | | Position papers | | Adapted from *A Guide To Curriculum Planning in Social Studies*, Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1986. Used with permission. Chapter 7 presented the goals, themes and curriculum approaches to citizenship and multicultural education. Appendix H is designed to provide a framework within which a multicultural curriculum might be developed. Numerous classroom activities will be recommended for consideration by districts, schools and individual teachers. Some major concepts of a multicultural curriculum might include the following: - ethnicity - migration - acculturation - enclaves - family - prejudice/discrimination - power A list of generalizations under the migration concept includes, but is not limited to, the following: - Migration-stimulating conditions, socioeconomic conditions affecting migration, and factors in choosing a destination vary considerably from group to group. - Historically, new discoveries and technologies have led to changes in settlement patterns and the use of land. - People migrate for a variety of reasons, and economics is only one among many. - Migrations are selective. In both internal and external migrations, late adolescents and young adults usually are preponderant. - Ideas, societies and individuals change as they come in contact with ideas and achievements of other societies. - The movement of one group of people often is accompanied by the displacement of another. - International migration seems to be more and more influenced by political factors, and less a matter of individual choice. The following activities represent selected recommendations for a unit on migration. **Activity 1, Roots.** As an introduction to the migration unit, the students construct a large wall map showing the locations from which their ancestors came to this country. They also show the approximate dates when their ancestors immigrated. American Indian children may show migration within the United States or North America. This mapping activity is followed by a reading assignment based on "immigrant letters" describing the "new world" and encouraging others to come to the United States. **Activity 2, Migration.** This activity is based on a reading assignment in which the concept of migration is summarized. It provides a short overview of migration to the United States and will help students to clarify their hypotheses developed during the first activity. **Activity 3, What Would You Do?** In this small-group activity, students are asked to explain how they would respond if they were faced with a variety of situations, e.g., famine, overcrowding, discrimination, etc. The situations are provided on a series of evidence cards and illustrate migration-stimulating conditions. **Activity 4, The Immigrants.** Using case studies of immigrants from a variety of backgrounds as sources of data, students consider why immigrants left their homelands and why they settled where they did. They then check many of the hypotheses formulated earlier in the unit. A second part of the activity illustrates ways in which immigration to the United States was encouraged. **Activity 5, A Brief History of Immigration.** An overview of immigration to the United States is the basis for the first part of this activity. The students read a story about the history of immigration and construct time lines of United States immigration. They include on their time lines major world events that have influenced migration. A worksheet helps students to speculate on the extent to which each of these events influenced migration to the United States. **Activity 6, How Did They Get Here?** In this activity students participate in a simulation illustrating many of the characteristics of slave trade. As a part of the debriefing of this activity, each student reads a brief written account of slave trade. Then, working in small groups, students compare the immigration of other groups – Chinese, Irish, Norwegian, German, Jewish – to the slave trade. They consider how these immigrations are similar and different. **Activity 7, Researching an Immigrant Group.** To expand their understanding of immigration to the United States and to apply some of the concepts and generalizations from earlier parts of the unit, students engage in a research project in which they focus on a group other than those treated in the previous activity. To help them find information, the students use books describing the experiences of various ethnic groups. Their findings are presented in maps, charts, drawings, photographs or a short narrative. **Activity 8, What Types of People Migrate?** This photo exercise focuses on the way in which migration tends to be selective in terms of age and sex. The students analyze photographs of immigrants and formulate hypotheses about the age, sex and marital status of immigrants. These hypotheses then are checked against resource data. **Activity 9, Interviewing a Migrant.** To get a more personal view of the process of migration/immigration, each student conducts a personal interview with someone who immigrated to the United States or migrated to the local community from elsewhere in this country. Class time is used to design appropriate interview questions and to practice interviewing skills. The results of the interviews are reproduced in writing and/or on tape. A summary discussion compares the findings of the different students. **Activity 10, Reactions to Emigration.** Through a brief true-false test, students learn about the restrictions placed on emigration by various countries from which people came to the United States. Some of these restrictions were meant to protect the migrants, others were meant to discourage large-scale emigration, and still others were meant to prevent certain kinds of people from emigrating. A brief follow-up discussion helps students to clarify the reasons behind these restrictions. **Activity 11, The Indochinese Immigration.** Throughout most of its history, the United States has welcomed political refugees. In recent decades refugees have come to the United States from eastern Europe, Cuba, and most recently Indochina. Students discuss factors leading to the rapid movement of so many people from one country to another. They also consider the extent to which the United States is "obligated" to the Southeast Asians who have come here. Working in small groups, students then compare other statistics—either the Cubans of the early 1960s, or the Hungarians of the late 1950s. **Activity 12, Where Would You Go?** In this slide activity students are asked to consider whether or not they would like to move to each of 10 locations throughout the world. They then consider reasons for feeling as they do. In addition, they speculate about the problems they would face in adjusting to a new home. The summary discussion helps them to relate this exercise to the experiences of immigrants to the United States in the past. **Activity 13, Migration within the United States.** In this activity each student reads one of several different case studies of migration within the United States. A work sheet and discussion then help them to compare these different cases. One of the case studies illustrates that the movement of one group of people often is accompanied by the displacement of another. Students are encouraged to consider the value implications of such displacements. They also compare the experiences of internal migrants with immigrants. The story of the experience of ethnic group migrants moving from rural to urban areas helps illustrate some problems of adjustment in internal migrations. **Activity 14: The Stages of Migration.** Students are provided with several photographs of people during phases of the migration process. Working in small groups, the students sequence these photos and then prepare a short narrative describing the process from beginning to end. **Activity 15, Setting Immigration Policy.** This activity gets students involved in an immigration issue in the United States. Students research a government policy or analyze an immigration case. Then students act on their findings using democratic procedures for citizen involvement. The following lesson on the concept of migration is based upon Activity 3 on page 103. **Lesson Title: What Would You Do?** **Objectives:** At the conclusion of this activity, students will be better able to list and discuss factors influencing migration and make and justify a decision based on limited information. **Materials:** Four sets of eight evidence cards and migration-stimulating conditions response sheets. Evidence card text can be photocopied from pages 105 and 106 and pasted on index cards. **Estimated teaching time:** One class period. **Guidelines:** Divide the class into several small groups of no more than five students. Then give each group a set of cards, either labeled Conditions in Country B, C or D. Added to each of these sets (B, C or D) are four cards describing conditions in the United States during the mid-19th century. These cards (describing U.S. conditions) are the same for each set. Cards labeled B, C or D represent possible conditions in another country at the same time. Have each group mix the eight cards they have been given and then draw five of those cards at random. On the response sheet each group then classifies the cards as showing conditions favoring migration or discouraging migration. The groups then should decide what they would do—migrate or stay—under those conditions. After they have indicated their decision, group members should provide reasons for their decision. Response sheets then are collected and posted. Teachers may want to follow the same procedure two more times. In the second experience, one of the groups that desires to move to the United States is told it can't go. Then, after the round is complete, the teacher explains that some countries have been excluded from entering the United States. A third round could be used to introduce restriction by job skill, etc. The following questions then are discussed. - What conditions were most favorable to migration? - Did conditions in the United States or in the country of origin have a greater influence on migration? - Did some country – B, C or D – have conditions which made it more likely for people to emigrate? If so, what were they? - How does this help to explain why large numbers of immigrants came to the United States from some countries, while very few came from other countries? - If you wanted to go to the United States but were not allowed to, how did you feel? - What solutions did the group provide to deal with the dilemma? The following are to be used to build sets of evidence cards for use in this lesson (Activity 3). **Conditions in the United States** Three of your uncles have moved to America. They have sent you letters telling about their lives in the New World. If you ever move to the United States, you may stay with one of them until you find a job and a place to live. **Conditions in the United States** There is plenty of open land in the United States. The government will give you the land for free if you live on it for a certain length of time. Most of this land is very good for farming. **Conditions in the United States** Last year gold was found in part of the United States. You have heard people say that the streets of the towns are paved with gold. It sounds like it is easy for anyone to get rich in America. **Conditions in the United States** A Civil War has begun in the United States. The Northern states are fighting the Southern states. Many people are being killed and much land and property is being destroyed. **Conditions in Country B** You are getting old. All of your children are grown. They all are married. You have lived in this country all of your life. Although you don't own your own land, the landowner you work for is a kind man. He treats you fairly. **Conditions in Country B** Lately, the economy of your country has been facing difficulties. Many factories have had to close down. You and most of your friends are out of work. All of your savings have been used up. You do not know how you will feed your family from now on. **Conditions in Country B** A new government has taken over in your country. It has increased everyone's freedom. New schools are being built. Working conditions are being improved. And people are allowed to practice any religion they choose. **Conditions in Country B** Few people in your country are well-off. Most of the people work on farms for large landowners. They must pay high rents and they must work very hard. The landowners are very rich. But most people who work for them are very poor. **Conditions in Country C** In the last few years, conditions have been very good for farming. You have grown bumper crops every year. You now own a small farm and have just finished building a small house. **Conditions in Country C** Some people from America have come to your town. They work for mining companies. These people say their companies are looking for people to work for them. They even will help pay for transportation to America. Conditions in Country C A couple of months ago some rebels started a revolution in your country. The government is bitterly fighting back. You do not like the government, but you are not sure what the rebels will do if they win. You are especially afraid of being forced to fight in the war. Conditions in Country C The rulers of the country you live in treat people of your religion very poorly. Your rights are limited. Laws force you to pay high taxes, live in certain places and serve in the army. Conditions in Country D Many new industries have started in your country. These new industries have created many new jobs. People say these industries will grow fast in the next few years. Conditions in Country D The church in your country has imposed very strict rules for the people. Since the government controls the church, everyone must follow the same religious rules. Conditions in Country D Last year you inherited a large farm from your grandfather. In the past your grandfather did very well on this farm. He raised good crops and also some livestock. Conditions in Country D For two years in a row crops in your country have failed. Your family has been hungry for weeks. You are not sure that you can live through another bad year. Guiding Principles for Developing a Multicultural Curriculum The following should be considered when making decisions about curriculum change, selection of curriculum materials and development of school policies and procedures: - The multicultural curriculum should be inclusive, not exclusive, of ethnic groups living in the United States. - A multicultural curriculum should include experiences and perspectives of groups living within the boundaries of the school community as well as groups living outside the community. - The multicultural curriculum should help students to view and interpret events, situations and conflict from diverse ethnic perspectives and points of view. - The multicultural curriculum should help students to understand the totality of the experiences of ethnic groups living in the United States. - The multicultural curriculum should explore diversity within ethnic groups as well as diversity between different ethnic groups. - The multicultural curriculum should focus on comparative and participatory approaches encouraging student involvement and action. - The multicultural curriculum should be intimately tied to major disciplines taught in the school and reflect current trends and perspectives in those disciplines. - School policies and procedures should foster positive multicultural interactions and understandings among students, teachers, support staff members and administrators. - Students should have personal contact with students of different cultural backgrounds on a long-term basis in order to be prepared for responsible citizenship in an increasingly multicultural world. The Instructional Television Service is one way the Connecticut State Department of Education provides equitable access to a wide range of quality materials designed to support instruction in Connecticut schools. The *Instructional Television Schedule and Resource Guide*, published annually by the department, lists programs that are broadcast daily to Connecticut schools, provides information on recording rights and offers suggestions for using the programs of the curriculum. Each year department staff members, in cooperation with representatives of school districts across the state, review current instructional television programs and preview new programs that have not previously been offered in Connecticut. The social studies programs provided by the Connecticut State Department of Education that are described below are examples of series broadcast by Connecticut Public Television and carried by all cable systems in the state as part of the Instructional Television Service. The current edition of the schedule and resource guide should be checked for program availability and changes. **History** *America Past* – sixteen 15-minute programs for high school students bring to the classroom dramatic stories in American history. The programs cover the period from Colonial times to the beginning of the Civil War. *Castle* – four 15-minute programs for students in Grades 5-10 combine animation and live-action documentary sequences to tell the story of a 13th century Welsh castle. *Cathedral* – four 15-minute programs for students in Grades 5-10 bring viewers back in time to 1214, telling 13th century tales of life and death, faith and despair, prosperity and intrigue. *Connecticut Heritage* – ten 30-minute programs for secondary students explore early Connecticut history. *The Middle Ages* – five 20-minute programs for middle grade students examine the Middle Ages by looking at daily life and events in England. *People of the First Light* – seven 30-minute programs for secondary school students examine Native American peoples in southern New England. The series shows how history and tribal traditions of contemporary Indian children and adults are integrated into their daily activities. *Timely Places* – 12 programs for secondary school students explore various topics and events of American history in the eastern part of the United States. **Current Issues and Events** *Assignment: The World* – this weekly 15-minute program for middle grade students uses the electronic feed of Vis News from around the world. **International Studies** *Across Cultures* – thirteen 15-minute programs appropriate for middle grade students help young people see three different cultures through the eyes of the people who are part of the cultures, and to understand the concepts of interdependence and global culture. The three cultural groups presented are the urban people of Osaka, Japan; the Island Tarahumara people of Caborschic, Mexico; and the Baoule village people of the Ivory Coast. **Economics** *Common Cents* – ten 15-minute programs for primary grade students show how people are economically interdependent. A variety of resources and techniques, including puppets, actors and actresses, animation, music and film, are used to introduce and reinforce basic economic concepts. *Econ and Me* – five 15-minute programs for primary students, one for each of five economic concepts covered: scarcity, opportunity cost, consumption, production and interdependence. *Give and Take* – twelve 15-minute programs for high school students dramatize problem-solving situations that show students how basic economic concepts relate to their daily lives. *Trade-offs* – fifteen 20-minute programs for middle grade students, designed for students to make economic decisions that involve both costs and benefits to themselves and society. *Understanding Taxes* – nine 15-minute programs for high school students examine the American tax system and the economics of taxation. Government and Citizenship *Equal Justice Under Law* – six 30-minute programs for high school students examine landmark Supreme Court decisions that tested our young Constitution and the Bill of Rights. *This Honorable Court* – four 30-minute programs for secondary students offer a behind-the-scenes look at the Supreme Court by examining the process and debate in deciding a case. *Making Government Work* – twelve 30-minute programs for high school students dramatize the government process. Interviews with government officials help to prepare students for participation in a democratic society. *The U.S. Constitution* – six 30-minute programs for secondary students examine the Constitution in a documentary format, identifying a constitutional theme and citing pertinent sections of the Constitution. Dramatic episodes follow, showing young people involved in a related contemporary situation. Geography *Finding Our Way* – sixteen 15-minute programs for middle grade students introduce map and globe skills. *Geography Skills* – twelve 10-minute programs for Grades 7-9 use computer animation to introduce physical geography. *Geography in U.S. History* – ten 20-minute programs for high school students use geographic and historical themes to introduce geographic perspectives to historical topics. *Global Geography* – ten 15-minute programs (Spanish version also available) for middle grade students introduce the five themes of geography by using geographic problems to look at regions of the world. *World Geography Series* – twelve 20-minute programs for Grades 6-9 examine physical, political and social geography of various regions and countries of the world. The following statement of ethical principles adopted by the National Council for the Social Studies in 1980 continues to be the standard for all social studies professionals. The statement is used with permission. **Principle 1:** It is the ethical responsibility of social studies professionals to set forth, maintain, model and safeguard standards of instructional competence suited to the achievement of the broad goals of the social studies. **Principle 2:** It is the ethical responsibility of social studies professionals to provide to every student, insofar as possible, the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to function as an effective citizen. **Principle 3:** It is the ethical responsibility of social studies professionals to foster the understanding and exercise of the rights guaranteed to all citizens under the Constitution of the United States and of the responsibilities implicit in those rights. **Principle 4:** It is the ethical responsibility of social studies professionals to cultivate and maintain an instructional environment in which the free contest of ideas is prized. **Principle 5:** It is the ethical responsibility of social studies professionals to adhere to the highest standards of scholarship in the development, production, distribution or use of social studies materials. **Principle 6:** It is the ethical responsibility of social studies professionals to concern themselves with the conditions of the school and community with which they are associated. Connecticut State Department of Education Division of Curriculum and Professional Development Betty J. Sternberg, Director Bureau of Curriculum and Instruction George A. Coleman, Chief Daniel W. Gregg Consultant in Social Studies Editor Donald G. Goranson, Jr. Production Janet I. Montague Publications Office Marsha J. Howland Director of Publications It is the policy of the Connecticut State Board of Education that no person shall be excluded from participation in, denied the benefits of, or otherwise discriminated against under any program, including employment, because of race, color, religion, sex, age, national origin, ancestry, marital status, mental retardation, mental or physical disability, including, but not limited to blindness. $ VOTE VOTE 116
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Pacific Horticulture January/February/March 2006 Volume 67, Number 1 Slow It, Spread It, Sink It . . . and Think It: The Alchemy of Watershed Restoration KATHARINE COOK with BROCK DOLMAN Turning stormwater challenges into benefits” is the heart of Brock Dolman’s message, his gospel for a Gaian future and an ecoliterate culture for human beings. Brock Dolman directs the Watershed Advocacy Training Education and Research Institute, (WATER) at the Occidental Arts and Ecology Center (OAEC), a Northern California site of extensive organic gardens and its own brand of permaculture educational programs since the early 1970s, when it was known as the Farallones Institute. As recent witnesses to the unbearable scale of destruction of both life and property along the lower Mississippi River, and in light of the unpredictable effects of global warming, we have become aware of the importance of understanding how water flows in nature and of becoming more water-literate and collectively capable of preventing stormwater damage before it occurs. I enrolled in a workshop entitled “Erosion Control and Water Management” at OAEC because Brock’s talk and slide presentation at the Bioneers 2004 conference inspired me deeply and moved me to action. As a garden designer and horticulturist working in residential settings, I saw this as the next step in my professional training—understanding stormwater flow on a property, or in a neighborhood, independent of the municipal water supply, and independent of the typical engineered solution. (I received my garden education when water came through rubber hoses, overhead sprinklers, and watering cans.) I wanted to understand what gardening in our winter-wet, summer-dry climate would be like without municipal water in summer, particularly knowing that the water agencies would love us to use less of it. I needed to know my responsibilities, as a designer, toward water and watershed health. At the conference, Brock’s slides flashed the vocabulary of water literacy before me: the flow of water on slopes, the function of a stream meander and its “sinuosity,” the topography of a watershed (from the sky’s point of view). These natural systems comprised the human experience of water before industrially driven engineering introduced pipes, culverts, and dams. The images were riveting, the language rich, replete with sexy slogans and easily called up mnemonics, delivered in a dynamic, engaging, conversational style. This, in itself, felt like a watershed event in public education. We were talking together about water, land, plants, people, and wildlife in ways our ancestors may have understood. Brock was bringing the pre-industrial landscape of water back to life. From the classroom presentation at OAEC, we walked outdoors to an unremarkable patch of gravelly clay parking lot, a sort of unpaved dirt road. Brock challenged us with questions: Where would stormwater come from? Where would it go unchecked? Where should it go to prevent erosion and recharge groundwater? Brock introduced the concept of “low impact, practical, small-scale, surface-water management techniques for roads, parking lots, and homes.” By envisioning a series of small ridges (berms) and declivities (swales) placed at cross angles to the oncoming rush of water, we could see how stormwater could be diverted and directed off-road to recharge the subsoil and make it available to the vegetable garden and fruit trees below. The frequency of interception was critical for the success of this erosion prevention strategy. **Slow It, Spread It, Sink It** The new “Slow Water Movement” mantra advises us to minimize topsoil loss and avoid siltation of the watershed, while optimizing the retention of water on site by encouraging it to sink in where it lands. To illustrate this, Brock led us along another dirt road to view a steep slope of dismal, second-growth woodland, seriously eroded with gullies channeling down it in deep cuts. As a result of long-term fire suppression, Douglas firs (*Pseudotsuga menziesii*) had begun to overtake the coast live oak (*Quercus agrifolia*), madrones (*Arbutus menziesii*), and bay laurels (*Umbellularia californica*). Here, Brock implemented a seven-point “Conservation Hydrology” program to encourage a healthier woodland: - Restore hardwood and mixed evergreen forest - Reduce fuel load and enhance fire resiliency - Promote soil retention - Recharge groundwater and improve surface water quality - Recover biological and botanical diversity - Create site accessibility - Manifest beauty On this particular site, they began by selectively limbing or felling the Douglas firs. The cut saplings and branches are gathered (reducing fuel load) and stuffed tightly into the raw gullies at intervals in their fall so as to trap the water and sediment running off the dirt road. At each layered branch-and-sapling trap, the slowed water sinks into the soil, recharging the slope’s groundwater; water becomes available again to plants and wildlife on the slope. No sediment reaches the coho salmon-bearing stream below to silt up the aquatic creatures’ living space or travel routes. The fuel for a future destructive fire is transformed into earth and water, by design—and by human hands. As I observed these practices being put in place, I felt a deep sense of relief, feeling that somebody knew what to do to heal this wounded place. I could see the basis for the return, not only of the forest, but also its lovely understory—its graceful evergreen shrubs, groundcovers, bulbs, and ferns. An ugly eroded slope would be revitalized through the repetition of these simple water-management techniques. On a much larger scale, California’s Department of Fish and Game will spend $500,000 in Dutch Bill Watershed, a tributary to the Russian River, for storm-proofing its private roads to prevent siltation, for the sake of endangered salmonids. Those guiding the project recognize that erosion prevention is less costly than dealing with unchecked siltation downstream. **Retain It, Don’t Drain It** Moving farther up the slope toward the crest of this inner coastal ridge, the woodland opened onto a sunny hillside meadow—a delightfully elegant sweep alive with nodding heads of purple needlegrass (*Nassella pulchra*), California oatgrass (*Danthonia californica*), blue wild rye (*Elymus glaucus*), and wildflowers—crowned on top by a wide pond of clear water quietly reflecting the blue sky. The meadow had been wrested from a patch of invasive Scotch and French broom by severing the top growth of each broom at the soil line during the height of the dry season and then torching any new sprouts that appeared the following spring. This technique reduces soil disturbance and subsequent seed germination (weed seeds germinate best in open disturbed soils). The large pond (six acre-feet) catches rainfall and provides all the irrigation for more than three acres of certified organic vegetable and fruit gardens below; its waters are tangibly healthy and clean, with no visible sign of imbalance. Without this pond, there would be no gardens on the current scale, and no food for the center’s residents. Catching, storing and slowly releasing winter rainwater provides the only source of summer water for this Western Sonoma County farm. Built in 1978 for $10,000, the pond has proven the wisdom of the investment. **Basins of Relations** With the hardwood forest restoration under way, the native grass and wildflower meadow complete, and the pond catching and holding rainwater for the garden, we see the manifold fruits of watershed restoration. The key is its water held close to the land in the soils of its slopes. Brock emphasized that up to ninety percent of the water in a watershed is in its terrestrial basin, held like a sponge in the slopes, soils, perched aquifers, and vegetation of the uplands. In the OAEC example, the water has been seized at the headwaters (the catchment pond on the ridgetop), by the lush meadow grasses and wildflowers in the open uplands, and in the long slope of soil and water restoration, supported by the mixed evergreen forest that extends to the stream below. The value of this restoration—economically, visually, ecologically, and in human terms—is priceless. The cost is the labor invested by the landholders, Sowing Circle LLC, an intentional community, who have been able to accomplish this resurrection on degraded, logged-out slopes in careful, measured steps over the past ten years. **Raingardens** Elsewhere similar efforts are taking place, both individually and collectively, to bring watershed restoration benefits to local communities. Throughout the Northwest and in parts of California, raingardens are appearing in designed landscapes at all scales of development. In Seattle’s “Street Edge Alternatives,” winter rains are captured in gently graded bioswales that have been planted with flowering perennials along the street’s margin; the straight street has been given a sinuous curve to slow down traffic. In Portland, Ole Ersson captures rainwater from his roof, and keeps his family of four in drinking water year-round. In the Glencoe Raingarden in Portland, petroleum-polluted parking lot water is biofiltered with sedges and allowed to recharge the ground-water. At Cabrillo College in Aptos, California, the landscape around the buildings and parking lots of the new Horticulture Department includes a retention pond to collect storm-water; there, it is bioA portion of the rainwater garden, which collects rainwater from the roof of the Portland, Oregon, Convention Center; the water is slowed down and allowed to percolate into the ground, rather than being shunted into the city’s sewer system. A parking lot at the EcoTrust Building in Portland, Oregon, where petroleum-polluted rainwater drains into adjacent sunken beds planted with native trees and shrubs; there, it is filtered and allowed to replenish the groundwater. filtered with wetland plants, recharging the groundwater, making a habitat for frogs and song sparrows, and enhancing the beauty of the complex. Among the earliest examples of watershed restoration is the Village Homes subdivision in Davis, California, where substantial corridors between rows of houses were developed as a series of long green bioswales featuring informal sweeps of native and other plants that benefit from the collected water; the water table has risen fifteen feet since the project’s inception in the early 1970s. At the Jean Vollum Natural Capital Center Ecotrust Building in Portland, a green living roof has been planted atop the building, and the parking lot is designed to intercept and biofilter all polluted stormwater. In all of these examples, stormwater catchment and interception strategies have resulted in attractive contributions to local landscapes, local watersheds, and local communities with exponentially accruing long-term benefits, as long as they are properly maintained and monitored. **Don’t Use It, Don’t Need It** The best way to conserve water is to find ways to use less of it in the landscape. In a watershed supporting a built environment, every property owner can help maintain the health of the watershed by intercepting runoff and recharging groundwater. In a residential neighborhood, converting even one front lawn composed of grasses from summer-wet climates into one adapted to summer drought will have a positive effect on the whole watershed; leaving them un-mowed to flower and fruit will feed insects and wildlife. On farms and ranches, water catchment in ponds and cisterns are attractive alternatives to municipal water. Brock teaches that “water drives design” and that the challenge of creating ponds that do not attract mosquitoes is a design one. Mosquitoes cannot lay eggs on water in which the surface tension is broken, by a fountain for instance. One solution in a large pond is recirculating the water through “flowforms” to an adjunct smaller biofiltration pond. An asset of this arrangement is that, by favoring the newt, frog, dragonfly, and other beneficial insect populations, their helpful predation will tend to keep your plant material healthy and your garden free of mosquitoes. Other strategies for the built environment include pervious concrete and grass-pavers (for use in driveways), and green rooftops planted to grasses and other plants with substantial insulating effects in all seasons. As I left class to stroll through the OAEC gardens alone, I was touched by the presence of some flowers favored by my first horticulture teacher, Alan Chadwick, whose disciple pioneered the north garden at the center. There were his pink and red Shirley poppies (*Papaver rhoeas*), cobalt spires of anchusa (*Anchusa azurea*) and warm rainbow tints of Russell lupines (*Lupinus* Russell hybrids). I gave him thanks for what I sometimes refer to as the first “real” things I learned in life, among them the craft of spading and forking a double-dug raised bed, which, because of its mounded shape, lifelike texture, and aeration, could hold water in the soil like a sponge. For some reason, he always told us to make our gardens on slopes. I now think it was because of the dynamic equilibrium that exists between the soils and the water they hold on the slopes. **For Further Reading** To understand how best to address the biggest source of sedimentation on the California coast and in the Northwest, namely runoff from dirt roads—logging, ranch, rural, residential—consult *the Handbook for Forest and Ranch Roads* by Danny Hagans and Bill Weaver, available from the Mendocino Resource Conservation District along with a companion video. In *Water for Every Farm, Yeomans’ Keyline Plan*, PA Yeomans describes the keyline concept and use of the A-frame strategy for locating contour levels for bioswales, so that water can be collected and managed with optimum elegance and efficiency. For the full story of the Village Homes project in Davis, California, read *Natural Drainage—Corbett and Corbett: Designing Sustainable Communities, Learning from Village Homes*.
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Since you may receive partial credit for many of the problems, it is important to show ALL work in the spaces provided in this book. When you see the words Show All Work, be sure to - show all the steps needed to solve the problem - make your handwriting clear and easy to read - write the answer on the answer line 1 Look at the lines below. Do the lines appear to be parallel, perpendicular, or oblique? Answer ____________________________ On the lines below, explain how you determined your answer. ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ 2 Look at the equation below. \[ y = x + 5 \] Complete the table below using the given values of \( x \) in the equation. | \( x \) | \( y \) | |--------|--------| | 5 | | | 6 | | | 7 | | | 8 | | | 9 | | On the lines below, explain how the values of \( y \) will change if the equation is changed to \( y = x + 8 \). 3 It takes Sashi 40 minutes to arrive home from school if she rides the school bus. If her mother picks her up, it takes only 15 minutes. At what time will Sashi arrive home if she rides a bus that leaves the school at 2:45 p.m.? Answer _______________ p.m. How much time can Sashi save in 5 days if her mother picks her up? Show All Work Answer _______________________ 4 A librarian is organizing six journals by their copyright date. The copyright date for each journal is shown below. 1918 1901 1915 1907 1933 1925 Plot the point for each of these numbers on the number line below. Write the number below each point. Go On 5 Jenny painted her bedroom wall. A diagram of the wall is shown below. It took Jenny 30 minutes to complete section A of the wall. About how long will it take, in minutes, for her to finish section B? Answer ___________ minutes On the lines below, explain how you found your answer. 6 Look at the place-value blocks below. What number is represented by the place-value blocks? Answer ______________________ Look at the place-value blocks below. If these blocks are added to the first group of place-value blocks, what new number will be represented? Answer ______________________ 2 Chris wants to cover a bathroom floor that is 7 feet long and 5 feet wide. The tiles Chris is using are 1-foot squares and come in boxes of 12 tiles for $34.80. How much will it cost for Chris to tile the bathroom floor? Area of rectangle = \( lw \) = length \( \times \) width Show All Work Answer $ ___________ Use your ruler and protractor to solve this problem. Bob and Tom followed the directions below to draw a figure. - Draw line segment AB that is $1\frac{1}{2}$ inches long. - From point B, draw line segment BC that is $1\frac{1}{2}$ inches long and forms a $70^\circ$ angle with line segment AB. - From point C, draw line segment CD that is $1\frac{1}{2}$ inches long and forms a $110^\circ$ angle with line segment BC. - From point D, draw line segment DA that is $1\frac{1}{2}$ inches long and forms a $70^\circ$ angle with line segment CD. The figures Bob and Tom drew are shown below.
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ATHLETIC PHYSICAL PACKET Parent/Athlete complete and sign pages 1, 2 and all mandatory signoffs at the end of the packet Physician will complete pages 3,4 **PREPARTICIPATION PHYSICAL EVALUATION HISTORY FORM** *(Note: This form is to be filled out by the patient and parent prior to seeing the physician. The physician should keep a copy of this form in the chart.)* Date of Exam ____________________________________________ Date of birth _______________________ Name _______________________________________________________________________________________ Sex _______ Age _______ Grade _______ School _________________ Sport(s) ___________________________ Medicines and Allergies: Please list all of the prescription and over-the-counter medicines and supplements (herbal and nutritional) that you are currently taking. ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ Do you have any allergies? Yes No If yes, please identify specific allergy below. - Medicines - Pollens - Food - Stinging Insects Explain “Yes” answers below. Circle questions you don’t know the answers to. | GENERAL QUESTIONS | Yes | No | |-------------------|-----|----| | 1. Has a doctor ever denied or restricted your participation in sports for any reason? | | | | 2. Do you have any ongoing medical conditions? If so, please identify below: - Asthma - Anemia - Diabetes - Infections - Other: ___________________________ | | | | 3. Have you ever spent the night in the hospital? | | | | 4. Have you ever had surgery? | | | | HEART HEALTH QUESTIONS ABOUT YOU | Yes | No | |----------------------------------|-----|----| | 5. Have you ever passed out or nearly passed out DURING or AFTER exercise? | | | | 6. Have you ever had discomfort, pain, tightness, or pressure in your chest during exercise? | | | | 7. Does your heart ever race or skip beats (irregular beats) during exercise? | | | | 8. Has a doctor ever told you that you have any heart problems? If so, check all that apply: - High blood pressure - A heart murmur - High cholesterol - A heart infection - Kawasaki disease - Other: ___________________________ | | | | 9. Has a doctor ever ordered a test for your heart? (For example, ECG/EKG, echocardiogram) | | | | 10. Do you get lightheaded or feel more short of breath than expected during exercise? | | | | 11. Have you ever had an unexplained seizure? | | | | 12. Do you get more tired or short of breath more quickly than your friends during physical activity? | | | | HEART HEALTH QUESTIONS ABOUT YOUR FAMILY | Yes | No | |------------------------------------------|-----|----| | 13. Has any family member or relative died of heart problems or had an unexpected or unexplained sudden death before age 50 (including drowning, unwitnessed car accident, or unexpected infant death syndrome)? | | | | 14. Does anyone in your family have hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, Marfan syndrome, arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, long QT syndrome, short QT syndrome, Brugada syndrome, or catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia? | | | | 15. Does anyone in your family have a heart problem, pacemaker, or implanted defibrillator? | | | | 16. Has anyone in your family had unexplained fainting, unexplained seizures, or near drowning? | | | | BONE AND JOINT QUESTIONS | Yes | No | |--------------------------|-----|----| | 17. Have you ever had an injury to a bone, muscle, ligament, or tendon that caused you to miss a practice or a game? | | | | 18. Have you ever had any broken or fractured bones or dislocated joints? | | | | 19. Have you ever had an injury that required x-rays, MRI, CT scan, injections, therapy, a brace, a cast, or a crutch? | | | | 20. Have you ever had a stress fracture? | | | | 21. Have you ever been told that you have or you have had an x-ray for neck instability or atlantoaxial instability? (Down syndrome or dwarfism) | | | | 22. Do you regularly use a brace, orthotics, or other assistive device? | | | | 23. Do you have a bone, muscle, or joint injury that bothers you? | | | | 24. Do any of your joints become painful, swollen, feel warm, or look red? | | | | 25. Do you have any history of juvenile arthritis or connective tissue disease? | | | I hereby state that, to the best of my knowledge, my answers to the above questions are complete and correct. __________________________________________ ____________________________________________ Signature of athlete Signature of parent/guardian Date MEDICAL QUESTIONS | MEDICAL QUESTIONS | Yes | No | |-------------------|-----|----| | 26. Do you cough, wheeze, or have difficulty breathing during or after exercise? | | | | 27. Have you ever used an inhaler or taken asthma medicine? | | | | 28. Is there anyone in your family who has asthma? | | | | 29. Were you born without or are you missing a kidney, an eye, a testicle (male), your spleen, or any other organ? | | | | 30. Do you have groin pain or a painful bulge or hernia in the groin area? | | | | 31. Have you had infectious mononucleosis (mono) within the last month? | | | | 32. Do you have any rashes, pressure sores, or other skin problems? | | | | 33. Have you had a herpes or MRSA skin infection? | | | | 34. Have you ever had a head injury or concussion? | | | | 35. Have you ever had a hit or blow to the head that caused confusion, prolonged loss of memory, or memory problems? | | | | 36. Do you have a history of seizure disorder? | | | | 37. Do you have headaches with exercise? | | | | 38. Have you ever had numbness, tingling, or weakness in your arms or legs after being hit or falling? | | | | 39. Have you ever been unable to move your arms or legs after being hit or falling? | | | | 40. Have you ever become ill while exercising in the heat? | | | | 41. Do you get frequent muscle cramps when exercising? | | | | 42. Do you or someone in your family have sickle cell trait or disease? | | | | 43. Have you had any problems with your eyes or vision? | | | | 44. Have you had any eye injuries? | | | | 45. Do you wear glasses or contact lenses? | | | | 46. Do you wear protective eyewear, such as goggles or a face shield? | | | | 47. Do you worry about your weight? | | | | 48. Are you trying to or has anyone recommended that you gain or lose weight? | | | | 49. Are you on a special diet or do you avoid certain types of foods? | | | | 50. Have you ever had an eating disorder? | | | | 51. Do you have any concerns that you would like to discuss with a doctor? | | | FEMALES ONLY | FEMALE ONLY | | | |-------------|-----|----| | 52. Have you ever had a menstrual period? | | | | 53. How old were you when you had your first menstrual period? | | | | 54. How many periods have you had in the last 12 months? | | | Explain “yes” answers here ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________ ©2010 American Academy of Family Physicians, American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Sports Medicine, American Medical Society for Sports Medicine, American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine, and American Osteopathic Academy of Sports Medicine. Permission is granted to reprint for noncommercial, educational purposes with acknowledgment. HEEDS03 New Jersey Department of Education 2014; Pursuant to P.L.2013, c.71 **PREPARTICIPATION PHYSICAL EVALUATION PHYSICAL EXAMINATION FORM** Name ___________________________________________ Date of birth _______________________ **PHYSICIAN REMINDERS** 1. Consider asking the following questions on more sensitive issues - Do you feel stressed out or under a lot of pressure? - Do you ever feel sad, hopeless, depressed, or anxious? - Do you feel safe at your home or residence? - Have you ever been a smoker, chewed tobacco, snuffed, or dip? - During the past 30 days, did you use chewing tobacco, snuff, or dip? - Do you drink alcohol or use any other drugs? - Have you taken anabolic steroids or any other performance supplement? - Have you ever taken any supplements to help you gain or lose weight or improve your performance? - Do you wear a seat belt, use a helmet, and use condoms? 2. Consider reviewing questions on cardiovascular symptoms (questions 5–14). | EXAMINATION | NORMAL | ABNORMAL FINDINGS | |-------------|--------|-------------------| | Height | | | | Weight | | | | BP | / | ( / ) | | Pulse | | Vision R 20'/ L 20'/ Corrected □ Y □ N | | Appearance | | | | • Marfan stigmata (kyphoscoliosis, high-arched palate, pectus excavatum, arachnodactyly, arm span > height, hyperlaxity, myopia, MVP, aortic insufficiency) | | | Eyes/ears/nose/throat | | | | • Pupils equal | | | | • Hearing | | | | Lymph nodes | | | | Heart* | | | | • Murmurs (suscitation standing, supine, +/- Valsalva) | | | • Location of point of maximal impulse (PMI) | | | Pulse | | | | • Simultaneous femoral and radial pulses | | | Lungs | | | | Abdomen | | | | Genitourinary (males only)* | | | | Skin | | | | • HSV lesions suggestive of MRSA, tinea corporis | | | Neurologic † | | | | MUSCULOSKELETAL | | | | Neck | | | | Back | | | | Shoulder/arm | | | | Elbow/forearm | | | | Wrist/hand/fingers | | | | Hip/thigh | | | | Knee | | | | Leg/ankle | | | | Foot/toes | | | | Functional | | | | • Duck walk, single leg hop | | *Consider ECG, echocardiogram, and referral to cardiology for abnormal cardiac history or exam. †Consider GU exam if in private setting. Having third party present is recommended. ‡Consider cognitive evaluation or baseline neuropsychiatric testing if a history of significant concussion. ☐ Cleared for all sports without restriction ☐ Cleared for all sports without restriction with recommendations for further evaluation or treatment for ________________________________________________________________ ☐ Not cleared ☐ Pending further evaluation ☐ For any sports ☐ For certain sports ________________________________________________________________ Reason ________________________________________________________________ Recommendations ________________________________________________________________ I have examined the above-named student and completed the preparticipation physical evaluation. The athlete does not present apparent clinical contraindications to practice and participate in the sport(s) as outlined above. A copy of the physical exam is on record in my office and can be made available to the school at the request of the parents. If conditions arise after the athlete has been cleared for participation, a physician may rescind the clearance until the problem is resolved and the potential consequences are completely explained to the athlete (and parents/guardians). Name of physician, advanced practice nurse (APN), physician assistant (PA) (print/type) __________________________________________ Date ________________ Address ________________________________________________________________ Phone ______________________ Signature of physician, APN, PA __________________________________________ ©2010 American Academy of Family Physicians, American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Sports Medicine, American Medical Society for Sports Medicine, American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine, and American Osteopathic Academy of Sports Medicine. Permission is granted to reprint for noncommercial, educational purposes with acknowledgment. HES(60) New Jersey Department of Education 2014; Pursuant to P.L.2013, c.71 NJSIAA PARENT/GUARDIAN CONCUSSION POLICY ACKNOWLEDGMENT FORM In order to help protect the student athletes of New Jersey, the NJSIAA has mandated that all athletes, parents/guardians and coaches follow the NJSIAA Concussion Policy. A concussion is a brain injury and all brain injuries are serious. They may be caused by a bump, blow, or jolt to the head, or by a blow to another part of the body with the force transmitted to the head. They can range from mild to severe and can disrupt the way the brain normally works. Even though most concussions are mild, **all concussions are potentially serious and may result in complications including prolonged brain damage and death if not recognized and managed properly**. In other words, even a “ding” or a bump on the head can be serious. You can’t see a concussion and most sports concussions occur without loss of consciousness. Signs and symptoms of concussion may show up right after the injury or can take hours or days to fully appear. If your child/player reports any symptoms of concussion, or if you notice the symptoms or signs of concussion yourself, seek medical attention right away. **Symptoms may include one or more of the following:** 1. Headache. 2. Nausea/vomiting. 3. Balance problems or dizziness. 4. Double vision or changes in vision. 5. Sensitivity to light or sound/noise. 6. Feeling of sluggishness or fogginess. 7. Difficulty with concentration, short-term memory, and/or confusion. 8. Irritability or agitation. 9. Depression or anxiety. 10. Sleep disturbance. **Signs observed by teammates, parents and coaches include:** 1. Appears dazed, stunned, or disoriented. 2. Forgets plays or demonstrates short-term memory difficulties (e.g. is unsure of the game, score, or opponent) 3. Exhibits difficulties with balance or coordination. 4. Answers questions slowly or inaccurately. 5. Loses consciousness. 6. Demonstrates behavior or personality changes. 7. Is unable to recall events prior to or after the hit. What can happen if my child/player keeps on playing with a concussion or returns too soon? Athletes with the signs and symptoms of concussion should be removed from play immediately. Continuing to play with the signs and symptoms of a concussion leaves the young athlete especially vulnerable to greater injury. There is an increased risk of significant damage from a concussion for a period of time after that concussion occurs, particularly if the athlete suffers another concussion before completely recovering from the first one. This can lead to prolonged recovery, or even to severe brain swelling (second impact syndrome) with devastating and even fatal consequences. It is well known that adolescent or teenage athletes will often under report symptoms of injuries. And concussions are no different. As a result, education of administrators, coaches, parents and students is the key for student-athlete’s safety. If you think your child/player has suffered a concussion Any athlete even suspected of suffering a concussion should be removed from the game or practice immediately. No athlete may return to activity after an apparent head injury or concussion, regardless of how mild it seems or how quickly symptoms clear. Close observation of the athlete should continue for several hours. An athlete who is suspected of sustaining a concussion or head injury in a practice or game shall be removed from competition at that time and may not return to play until the athlete is evaluated by a medical doctor or doctor of Osteopathy, trained in the evaluation and management of concussion and received written clearance to return to play from that health care provider. You should also inform you child’s Coach, Athletic Trainer (ATC), and/or Athletic Director, if you think that your child/player may have a concussion. And when it doubt, the athlete sits out. For current and up-to-date information on concussions you can go to: http://www.cdc.gov/ConcussionInYouthSports/ www.nfhslearn.com _________________________________________ _________________________________ ________ Signature of Student-Athlete Print Student-Athlete’s Name Date _________________________________________ _________________________________ ________ Signature of Parent/Guardian Print Parent/Guardian’s Name Date Please keep this form on file at the school. Do not return to the NJSIAA. Thank you. NJSIAA STEROID TESTING POLICY CONSENT TO RANDOM TESTING In Executive Order 72, issued December 20, 2005, Governor Richard Codey directed the New Jersey Department of Education to work in conjunction with the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA) to develop and implement a program of random testing for steroids, of teams and individuals qualifying for championship games. Beginning in the Fall, 2006 sports season, any student-athlete who possesses, distributes, ingests or otherwise uses any of the banned substances on the attached page, without written prescription by a fully-licensed physician, as recognized by the American Medical Association, to treat a medical condition, violates the NJSIAA's sportsmanship rule, and is subject to NJSIAA penalties, including ineligibility from competition. The NJSIAA will test certain randomly selected individuals and teams that qualify for a state championship tournament or state championship competition for banned substances. The results of all tests shall be considered confidential and shall only be disclosed to the student, his or her parents and his or her school. No student may participate in NJSIAA competition unless the student and the student's parent/guardian consent to random testing. By signing below, we consent to random testing in accordance with the NJSIAA steroid testing policy. We understand that, if the student or the student's team qualifies for a state championship tournament or state championship competition, the student may be subject to testing for banned substances. _________________________________ _____________________________ _______ Signature of Student-Athlete Print Student-Athlete’s Name Date _________________________________ _____________________________ _______ Signature of Parent/Guardian Print Parent/Guardian’s Name Date May 1, 2009 SUDDEN CARDIAC DEATH IN YOUNG ATHLETES Sudden death in young athletes between the ages of 10 and 19 is very rare. What, if anything, can be done to prevent this kind of tragedy? What is sudden cardiac death in the young athlete? Sudden cardiac death is the result of an unexpected failure of proper heart function, usually (about 60% of the time) during or immediately after exercise without trauma. Since the heart stops pumping blood to the body, the athlete quickly collapses, loses consciousness, and ultimately dies unless normal heart rhythm is restored using an automated external defibrillator (AED). How common is sudden death in young athletes? Sudden cardiac death in young athletes is very rare. About 100 such deaths are reported in the United States per year. The chance of sudden death occurring to any individual high school athlete is about one in 200,000 per year. Sudden cardiac death is more common: in males than in females; in football and basketball than in other sports; and in African-Americans than in other races and ethnic groups. What are the most common causes? Research suggests that the main cause is a loss of proper heart rhythm, causing the heart to quiver instead of pumping blood to the brain and body. This is called ventricular fibrillation (ven-TRICK-you-lar fib-roo-LAY-shun). The problem is usually caused by one of several cardiovascular abnormalities and electrical diseases of the heart that go unnoticed in healthy-appearing athletes. The most common cause of sudden death in an athlete is hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (hi-per-TRO-fic CAR-dee-oh-my-OP-a-thee) also called HCM. HCM is a disease of the heart, with abnormal thickening of the heart muscle, which can cause serious heart rhythm problems and blockages to blood flow. This genetic disease runs in families and usually develops gradually over many years. The second most likely cause is congenital (con-JEN-it-ial) (i.e., present from birth) abnormalities of the coronary arteries. This means that these blood vessels are connected to the main blood vessel of the heart in an abnormal way. This differs from blockages that may occur when people get older (commonly called “coronary artery disease,” which may lead to a heart attack). Other diseases of the heart that can lead to sudden death in young people include: - Myocarditis (my-oh-car-DIE-tis), an acute inflammation of the heart muscle (usually due to a virus); - Dilated cardiomyopathy, an enlargement of the heart for unknown reasons; - Long QT syndrome and other electrical abnormalities of the heart which cause abnormal fast heart rhythms that can also run in families. - Marfan syndrome, an inherited disorder that affects heart valves, walls of major arteries, eyes and the skeleton. It is generally seen in unusually tall athletes, especially if being tall is not common in other family members. - Palpitations - awareness of the heart beating unusually (skipping, irregular or extra beats) during athletics or during cool down periods after athletic participation; - Fatigue or tiring more quickly than peers; or - Being unable to keep up with friends due to shortness of breath. The required physical exam includes measurement of blood pressure and a careful listening examination of the heart, especially for murmurs and rhythm abnormalities. If there are no warning signs reported on the health history and no abnormalities discovered on exam, no further evaluation or testing is recommended. What are the current recommendations for screening young athletes? New Jersey requires all school athletes to be examined by their primary care physician (“medical home”) or school physician at least once per year. The New Jersey Department of Education requires use of the specific Annual Athletic Pre-Participation Physical Examination Form. This process begins with the parents and student-athletes answering questions about symptoms during exercise (such as chest pain, dizziness, fainting, palpitations or shortness of breath); and questions about family health history. The primary healthcare provider needs to know if any family member died suddenly during physical activity or during a seizure. They also need to know if anyone in the family under the age of 50 had an unexplained sudden death such as drowning or car accidents. This information must be provided annually for each exam because it is so essential to identify those at risk for sudden cardiac death. This is why screening evaluations and a review of the family health history need to be performed on a yearly basis by the athlete’s primary healthcare provider. With proper screening and evaluation, most cases can be identified and prevented. When should a student athlete see a heart specialist? If the primary healthcare provider or school physician has concerns, a referral to a child heart specialist, pediatric cardiologist, is recommended. This specialist will perform a more thorough evaluation, including an electrocardiogram (ECG), which is a graph of the electrical activity of the heart. An echocardiogram, which is an ultrasound test to allow for direct visualization of the heart structure, will likely also be done. The specialist may also order a treadmill exercise test and a monitor to enable a longer recording of the heart rhythm. None of the testing is invasive or uncomfortable. Can sudden cardiac death be prevented just through proper screening? A proper evaluation should find most, but not all, conditions that would cause sudden death in the athlete. This is because some diseases are difficult to uncover and may only develop later in life. Others can develop following a normal screening evaluation, such as an infection of the heart muscle from a virus. Why have an AED on site during sporting events? The only effective treatment for ventricular fibrillation is immediate use of an automated external defibrillator (AED). An AED can restore the heart back into a normal rhythm. An AED is also life-saving for ventricular fibrillation caused by a blow to the chest over the heart (commotio cordis). Effective September 1, 2014, the New Jersey Department of Education requires that all public and nonpublic schools grades K through 12 shall: - Have an AED available at every sports event (three minutes total time to reach and return with the AED); - Have adequate personnel who are trained in AED use present at practices and games; - Have coaches and athletic trainers trained in basic life support techniques (CPR); and - Call 911 immediately while someone is retrieving the AED. I/We acknowledge that we received and reviewed the Sudden Cardiac Death in Young Athletes pamphlet. Student Signature: ________________________________ Parent or Guardian Signature: ________________________________ Date: ________________________________ School athletics can serve an integral role in students’ development. In addition to providing healthy forms of exercise, school athletics foster friendships and camaraderie, promote sportsmanship and fair play, and instill the value of competition. Unfortunately, sports activities may also lead to injury and, in rare cases, result in pain that is severe or long-lasting enough to require a prescription opioid painkiller.\(^1\) It is important to understand that overdoses from opioids are on the rise and are killing Americans of all ages and backgrounds. Families and communities across the country are coping with the health, emotional and economic effects of this epidemic.\(^2\) This educational fact sheet, created by the New Jersey Department of Education as required by state law (N.J.S.A. 18A:40-41.10), provides information concerning the use and misuse of opioid drugs in the event that a health care provider prescribes a student-athlete or cheerleader an opioid for a sports-related injury. Student-athletes and cheerleaders participating in an interscholastic sports program (and their parent or guardian, if the student is under age 18) must provide their school district written acknowledgment of their receipt of this fact sheet. **How Do Athletes Obtain Opioids?** In some cases, student-athletes are prescribed these medications. According to research, about a third of young people studied obtained pills from their own previous prescriptions (i.e., an unfinished prescription used outside of a physician’s supervision), and 83 percent of adolescents had unsupervised access to their prescription medications.\(^3\) It is important for parents to understand the possible hazard of having unsecured prescription medications in their households. Parents should also understand the importance of proper storage and disposal of medications, even if they believe their child would not engage in non-medical use or diversion of prescription medications. **What Are Signs of Opioid Use?** According to the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence, 12 percent of male athletes and 8 percent of female athletes had used prescription opioids in the 12-month period studied.\(^3\) In the early stages of abuse, the athlete may exhibit unprovoked nausea and/or vomiting. However, as he or she develops a tolerance to the drug, those signs will diminish. Constipation is not uncommon, but may not be reported. One of the most significant indications of a possible opioid addiction is an athlete’s decrease in academic or athletic performance, or a lack of interest in his or her sport. If these warning signs are noticed, best practices call for the student to be referred to the appropriate professional for screening,\(^4\) such as provided through an evidence-based practice to identify problematic use, abuse and dependence on illicit drugs (e.g., Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment (SBIRT)) offered through the New Jersey Department of Health. **What Are Some Ways Opioid Use and Misuse Can Be Prevented?** According to the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA) Sports Medical Advisory Committee chair, John P. Kripsak, D.O., “Studies indicate that about 80 percent of heroin users started out by abusing narcotic painkillers.” The Sports Medical Advisory Committee, which includes representatives of NJSIAA member schools as well as experts in the field of healthcare and medicine, recommends the following: - The pain from most sports-related injuries can be managed with non-narcotic medications such as acetaminophen, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medicines like ibuprofen, naproxen or aspirin. Read the label carefully and always take the recommended dose, or follow your doctor’s instructions. More is not necessarily better when taking an over-the-counter (OTC) pain medication, and it can lead to dangerous side effects.\(^5\) - Ice therapy can be utilized appropriately as an anesthetic. - Always discuss with your physician exactly what is being prescribed for pain and request to avoid narcotics. - Tramadol, a non-opioid analgesic in the serotonin uptake inhibitor category, is a good choice should the previously listed options be insufficient to relieve pain. - In extreme cases, such as severe trauma or post-surgical pain, opioid pain medication should not be prescribed for more than five days at a time; - Parents or guardians should always control the dispensing of pain medications and keep them in a safe, non-accessible location; and - Unused medications should be disposed of immediately upon cessation of use. Ask your pharmacist about drop-off locations or home disposal kits like Deterra or Medsaway. According to NJSIAA Sports Medical Advisory Committee chair, John P. Kripsak, D.O., “Studies indicate that about 80 percent of heroin users started out by abusing narcotic painkillers.” Even With Proper Training and Prevention, Sports Injuries May Occur There are two kinds of sports injuries. Acute injuries happen suddenly, such as a sprained ankle or strained back. Chronic injuries may happen after someone plays a sport or exercises over a long period of time, even when applying overuse-preventative techniques.\(^5\) Athletes should be encouraged to speak up about injuries, coaches should be supported in injury-prevention decisions, and parents and young athletes are encouraged to become better educated about sports safety.\(^6\) What Are Some Ways to Reduce the Risk of Injury? Half of all sports medicine injuries in children and teens are from overuse. An overuse injury is damage to a bone, muscle, ligament, or tendon caused by repetitive stress without allowing time for the body to heal. Children and teens are at increased risk for overuse injuries because growing bones are less resilient to stress. Also, young athletes may not know that certain symptoms are signs of overuse. The best way to deal with sports injuries is to keep them from happening in the first place. Here are some recommendations to consider: **PREPARE** Obtain the preparticipation physical evaluation prior to participation on a school-sponsored interscholastic or intramural athletic team or squad. **CONDITIONING** Maintain a good fitness level during the season and offseason. Also important are proper warm-up and cooldown exercises. **PLAY SMART** Try a variety of sports and consider specializing in one sport before late adolescence to help avoid overuse injuries. **ADEQUATE HYDRATION** Keep the body hydrated to help the heart more easily pump blood to muscles, which helps muscles work efficiently. **TRAINING** Increase weekly training time, mileage or repetitions no more than 10 percent per week. For example, if running 10 miles one week, increase to 11 miles the following week. Athletes should also cross-train and perform sport-specific drills in different ways, such as running in a swimming pool instead of only running on the road. **REST UP** Take at least one day off per week from organized activity to recover physically and mentally. Athletes should take a combined three months off per year from a specific sport (may be divided throughout the year in one-month increments). Athletes may remain physically active during rest periods through alternative low-stress activities such as stretching, yoga or walking. **PROPER EQUIPMENT** Wear appropriate and properly fitted protective equipment such as pads (neck, shoulder, elbow, chest, knee, and shin), helmets, mouthpieces, face guards, protective cups, and eyewear. Do not assume that protective gear will prevent all injuries while performing more dangerous or risky activities. Resources for Parents and Students on Preventing Substance Misuse and Abuse The following list provides some examples of resources: - **National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence – NJ** promotes addiction treatment and recovery. - **New Jersey Department of Human Services, Division of Mental Health and Addiction Services** has a mission to decrease the abuse of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs by supporting the development of a comprehensive network of prevention, intervention and treatment services in New Jersey. - **New Jersey Prevention Network** includes a parent’s quiz on the effects of opioids. - **Operation Prevention Parent Toolkit** is designed to help parents learn more about the opioid epidemic, recognize warning signs, and open lines of communication with their children and those in the community. - **Parent to Parent NJ** is a grassroots coalition for families and children struggling with alcohol and drug addiction. - **Partnership for a Drug Free New Jersey** is New Jersey’s anti-drug alliance created to localize and strengthen drug-prevention media efforts to prevent unlawful drug use, especially among our young people. - **ReachNJ** provides information to parents and families, including addiction and treatment stories. - **The Science of Addiction: The Stories of Teens** shares common misconceptions about opioids through the voices of teens. - **Youth IMPACTING NJ** is made up of youth representatives from coalitions across the state of New Jersey who have been impacting their communities and peers by spreading the word about the dangers of underage drinking, marijuana use, and other substance misuse. References 1. Massachusetts Technical Assistance Partnership for Prevention 2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 3. New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA) Sports Medical Advisory Committee (SMAC) 4. Athletic Management, David Cullian, athletic trainer, Ewing High School, NJSIAA SMAC 5. National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases 6. USA TODAY 7. American Academy of Pediatrics An online version of this fact sheet developed in January 2018 is available on the New Jersey Department of Education’s [Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drug Use](#) webpage. Use and Misuse of Opioid Drugs Fact Sheet Student-Athlete and Parent/Guardian Sign-Off In accordance with N.J.S.A. 18A:40-41.10, public school districts, approved private schools for students with disabilities, and nonpublic schools participating in an interscholastic sports program must distribute this Opioid Use and Misuse Educational Fact Sheet to all student-athletes and cheerleaders. In addition, schools and districts must obtain a signed acknowledgement of receipt of the fact sheet from each student-athlete and cheerleader, and for students under age 18, the parent or guardian must also sign. This sign-off sheet is due to the appropriate school personnel as determined by your district prior to the first official practice session of the spring 2018 athletic season (March 2, 2018, as determined by the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association) and annually thereafter prior to the student-athlete’s or cheerleader’s first official practice of the school year. Name of School: Hasbrouck Heights High School Name of School District (if applicable): Hasbrouck Heights I/We acknowledge that we received and reviewed the Educational Fact Sheet on the Use and Misuse of Opioid Drugs. Student Name (Please Print): Student Signature: Parent/Guardian Signature (also needed if student is under age 18): Date: ¹Does not include athletic clubs or intramural events. Student Random Drug and Alcohol Consent Test Form I understand fully that my performance as a participant and the reputation of my school are dependent, in part, on my conduct as an individual. I hereby agree to accept and abide by the standards, rules, and regulations set forth by the Hasbrouck Heights Board of Education and the sponsors for the activity in which I participate. I authorize the Hasbrouck Heights Board of Education to conduct an Alcohol and Drug test if my name is drawn from the random pool. Pursuant to the Student Random Alcohol and Drug Testing Policy, I agree to the following: 1. Hasbrouck Heights Board of Education to release specimens to the testing laboratory(ies). 2. Test Laboratory (ies) to release test results to principal or his/her designee. 3. Principal or his/her designee to release test results to Hasbrouck Heights Board of Education Student Assistance Counselor. 4. Student Assistance Counselor will release information to parent/guardian. 5. Participation in the program designated by the policy. I understand that I may also be randomly drug tested anytime throughout the duration of the timeframe that the activity is conducted. I also understand that if I participate in multiple activities, my name will be placed in the pool for each activity. I also understand that if I participate in athletics, I am subject to random testing as stated in NJSIAA regulations. Student Name (Please Print): Student Signature: ________________________________ Date: _______________________ Parent/Guardian Name (Please Print): ________________________________ Parent/Guardian Signature: ________________________________ Date: _______________________ I plan to participate in the following sport(s): Fall Winter Spring Approved: August 31, 2006
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1.0 INTRODUCTION Residential streets are meant to be shared by pedestrians, cyclists and motorists alike. On local and collector residential streets, users should be able to co-exist in harmony and do so in a relatively safe manner. In neighbourhoods that have this dynamic, the streets feel safe and are a pleasure to walk, cycle and drive over. These are the streets and neighbourhoods that we want to create for all residents to enjoy. Unfortunately, both real and perceived problems exist that may be related to traffic volumes, speeds, geometry and general operations. These issues result in local streets that are not perceived as being pleasant or safe for children, pedestrians, cyclists or motorists. It is in the best interest of municipalities to address traffic and pedestrian safety issues in a consistent manner. Many municipalities throughout Canada and North America are putting “Traffic Calming” policies in place to deal with neighbourhood traffic and speeding concerns in a consistent and appropriate manner. 1.1 TRAFFIC CALMING - DEFINED Traffic calming, as defined by the Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) Subcommittee on Traffic Calming, 1997 is: “The combination of mainly physical measures that reduce the negative effects of motor vehicle use, alter driver behaviour and improve conditions for non-motorized street users.” According to the Canadian Guide to Neighbourhood Traffic Calming, prepared by the Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) and the Transportation Association of Canada (TAC), December 1998: “The purpose of traffic calming is to restore streets to their intended function.” The primary purpose of traffic calming under this policy is to educate the public and motorists and alter motorist behaviour to reduce high traffic speeds within residential neighbourhoods and thus improving safety and conditions for pedestrians and area residents. 1.2 TRAFFIC CALMING TERMS AND BASIC ACRONYMS “Street Classifications” – Streets within a municipality are often classified to describe their role and functionality in the road network system. Four road classifications used by the Town of Carbonear are minor streets, local streets, collector streets and arterial streets. “Minor Streets” – An existing street designed primarily to provide access to adjacent properties that have a reservation of 10 m or less where, for practical purposes, a wider street reservation cannot be provided, as determined by resolution of Council. “Local Streets” – A street designed primarily to provide access to adjacent properties and which is not designated as a collector or arterial street that have a reservation of 12 m to 15 m. These are all streets that have not been designated as a minor street, collector street or arterial street. Speed on these streets is 40 km/h. “Collector Streets” – A street that collects traffic from local streets and connect to Arterial Streets. The speed limit on these streets is 50 km/hr. Access to individual properties and the movement of traffic are given equal priority. Right-of-way widths are typically larger than local street rights-of-ways. Collector streets will not be eligible for vertical traffic calming measures. The following are collector streets within the Town of Carbonear: London Road, Valley Road, Highroad South, Highroad North, Bond Street, Water Street West to Bond. These have a reservation of 20 m. “Arterial Streets” – A street designed to be the main traffic arteries of an area to move traffic within a road network system and typically not eligible for traffic calming measures. Right-of-way widths are typically larger than local street rights-of-ways. Powell Drive is an arterial street in the Town of Carbonear. The reservation is between 25 and 30 m. The speed limit is 50 km/hr. “Provincial Highway” – The Town has a provincial highway within the Town boundaries. The civic name is Columbus Drive. This highway is under the jurisdiction of the Province of Newfoundland and Labrador. “ADT” – Average daily traffic recorded on a roadway over a 24-hour period. “AADT” – Average annual daily traffic on a roadway over a 24-hour period-based data collected over a year. “VPD” – Vehicles per day. “85th Percentile Speed” – The speed separating the fastest 15% of vehicles from the slowest 85%. This speed is typically used by traffic professionals for a variety of reasons including to gauge the magnitude of a speeding problem. “Pedestrian Facilities” – Typically include sidewalks and off-road trails. “Pedestrian Generators” – Facilities that typically attract pedestrians; examples include parks, schools, and community centres. “Vulnerable Road Users” – Vulnerable road users can be defined as any non-motorist that use the roadway, such as pedestrians and cyclists. “Through Traffic” – Traffic that neither originates from nor is destined to a specific neighbourhood. This would include traffic that uses a neighbourhood street for convenience only. “TAC” – Transportation Association of Canada. “Vertical Traffic Calming Measures” – Provide an obstruction that vehicles are able to travel over. “Horizontal Traffic Calming Measures” - Tries to prevent vehicles from traveling in a straight line at excessive speeds by using measures such as raised islands and curb extensions. 1.3 TRAFFIC CALMING PURPOSE AND GOALS The overall purpose of this policy is to provide a comprehensive process that addresses local neighbourhood traffic issues in the Town of Carbonear. The policy is to assist with having streets function as intended through applicable traffic calming measures, and hence, preserve and enhance the quality of town streets. The specific goals of this traffic calming policy are to develop an integrated set of policies, objectives and procedures that will combine to form a set of overall working guidelines that will: - Educate residents about traffic calming so they can understand the rationale behind the Town’s decision-making process and provide the town with an effective, fair and consistent tool in evaluating speeding and/or traffic volumes and providing measures to keep streets relatively safe by addressing issues identified. - Provide a standard format for dealing in a consistent manner with complaints regarding speeding and traffic safety concerns. - Reduce the workload and duplication of effort for town staff while responding to resident traffic concerns. - Educate people on how to create a safe and a pleasant roadway environment for residents, motorists, cyclists and pedestrians. - Encourage public involvement in the traffic calming activities. - Educate residents on pedestrian and cyclist safety. This policy will also provide the guideline, procedure and criteria for the initiation, investigation and implementation of traffic calming measures within existing residential neighbourhoods. The policy will ensure safety concerns related to speeding and excessive volume are handled in a fair, transparent and efficient manner. Guidelines included in this policy will be applied mainly to local streets within residential neighbourhoods. The policy generally does not apply to arterial and collector streets nor does it apply to anticipated future problems. This policy only applies to identify operational issues within existing residential areas. The main highway entering the town is a provincial highway and not under the jurisdiction of the Town and will not be covered by this policy. While similar traffic related issues may exist on arterial and collector streets, the primary function of these streets is to move traffic efficiently. Therefore, traffic calming measure(s) that may be appropriate for use on local streets would not be suitable for use on the highway, arterial and collector streets. There may be consideration given to some forms of horizontal deflections for collector streets, if deemed necessary. 1.4 WHAT IS NOT TRAFFIC CALMING? Over the past 30 years there has been a significant amount of knowledge gained through the implementation of successful projects to determine what traffic calming measures work and which traffic calming measures are not effective. The all way stops, reduced speed zones, children at play signs, posted speed signs, rumble strips and speed bumps are all devices commonly mistaken for being traffic calming tools. None of these devices works to calm traffic for the reasons listed below: Unwarranted All Way Stop - Creates higher traffic speeds between stop signs. Studies have determined the speed is only reduced for 100 m on either side of the intersection. - Results in poor compliance with stop signs due to driver frustration, as low as 1% in some studies in some jurisdictions. - Results in more frequent rear-end collisions caused by low percentage of motorists who actually do come to a complete stop. - Requires frequent police enforcement as motorists do not stop, a drain on manpower resource. - Potential risk to pedestrians especially children and seniors crossing an intersection, since not all motorists approaching an intersection will stop. - Motorists get in the habit of stopping at unwarranted all-way stop locations, then assume at a 2 way stop cross traffic is going to stop and pull out in front of an opposing vehicle which results in a collision. In light of the above, all-way stops should not be used as a tool to calm traffic. There are established criteria for all-way stop control based upon the numbers of pedestrians and vehicles sharing an intersection, the collision history and visibility. When these criteria are followed, risks are minimized and new safety concerns are not created. There have been numerous studies completed in North America which have validated all of the above findings. Reduced Speed Zone - People travel at a speed they feel comfortable based on the environment though which they are driving regardless of the posted speed limit. - Compliance with an artificially reduced speed is only achieved with consistent and visible police enforcement, a resource which is not always available. - Collisions, when they occur, can be more significant due to the differences in speed between vehicles. Pedestrians may perceive the roadway to be safer due to the reduced speed limit. This false sense of security may lead pedestrians that are crossing the roadway to not be as cautious as they would be otherwise. ‘Children at Play’ Sign - Many signs in residential areas, which are installed to ‘warn’ people of normal conditions, fail to improve safety. - Warning signs can be effective tools if used sparingly and only to warn motorists of uncommon hazards that are not apparent to motorists. - ‘Children at Play’ signs can give parents a false sense of security since motorists often disregard these signs. - Children playing in the streets, while common place, is dangerous and prohibited in the Highway Traffic Act. - Since children live on nearly every residential block, ‘Children at Play’ signs would need to be placed on every roadway. - Residential blocks with no signs might imply that no children live there, so it is acceptable to exceed the posted speed limit. Speed Limit Sign - The posted speed limits for roadways are typically established based upon recognized engineering criteria related to the roadway design. - Posted speed limits, which do not match the characteristics of the roadway frustrate motorists and tend to foster aggressive driving habits. There are several examples where speed concerns exist primarily as a result of assigned speed limits that neither reflects the design speed nor the operating conditions of the roadway. Large discrepancies between posted speed limits and operating speeds can create a false sense of security for all road users, including pedestrians and places an additional enforcement burden on the Police. - Reducing posted speed limits, without changing the characteristics of the roadway to encourage reduced speeds has been shown to have a minimal impact on vehicle operating speeds. - Posted speed limits should be implemented in a consistent manner so that the speed limits maintain a level of credibility and compliance when the posted speed limit is applied properly. Reduced speed limits seem to provide the greatest result in situations when they are self-enforcing. - Additional signage and/or adjusting the posted speed limit of a roadway are not considered to be traffic calming measures. Rumble Strip A Rumble Strip is a raised pavement section that can be closely spaced along a roadway at regular intervals. Rumble strips are a road safety feature used to caution inattentive motorists. of potential danger. As the motorist travels over the rumble strips, the vehicle experiences both noise and vibration to alert the motorist. They are typically installed along freeways and higher speed roadways to alert motorists that may begin to veer from the travel lane to the shoulder. Their purpose is to reduce the number of vehicles that depart the roadway; this is a common example of rumble strips used to enhance safety. Rumble strips can also be installed across the travel lane itself when unusual conditions exist ahead. Rumble Strips can be installed along the travel lanes of a higher speed roadway that contains an isolated all-way stop controlled intersection. A motorist may grow accustomed to traveling at a certain speed and otherwise may not expect to stop; the purpose of the rumble strip is to alert the driver. This is a common example of rumble strips to alert motorists of a condition that is unusual to a specific roadway. Rumble strips should not be used as traffic calming measures. These measures become less effective over time as the motorists grow accustomed to them. Rumble strips also increase noise levels for nearby residents and commonly require additional maintenance. **Speed Bumps** These measures should not be confused with speed humps. Speed bumps are vertical obstructions often found in privately-owned parking lots (shopping centers, schools, condominium complexes, parks, etc). Speed bumps typically measure between 75 mm and 100 mm in height and 3 m in length, and are often designed for a designated speed that is much lower than a typical posted speed limit along a public roadway. Traffic calming measures should be designed and implemented with the purpose that vehicles will be able to comfortably travel at the posted speed limit. In contrast, speed bumps require vehicles to travel much slower to attain a comfortable travel speed. The necessary braking and slow speeds can create a safety hazard, possibly causing rear-end collisions. In summary, speed bumps should not be installed on public roads and are not considered to be a traffic calming measure. ### 1.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC CALMING Traffic calming if used properly will address identified operational traffic issues. However, it will also introduce some disadvantages to a residential neighbourhood that will impact area residents after the project is complete. Listed below are some of the advantages and disadvantages created or caused by traffic calming measures: **Advantages** - Reduced vehicle speeds - Reduced number of cut through vehicles; therefore, reduced traffic volumes - Improve neighbourhood safety especially for pedestrians - Reduced conflicts between roadway users Increase compliance with regulatory signs Disadvantages - Potential increase in emergency vehicle response time - Could make it more difficult to get into and out of your neighbourhood every day - May result in expensive solutions (time and resources) - May shift or divert traffic onto neighbouring roadways - Increase maintenance time and costs - Add visually unattractive warning signs to a residential area - May splinter neighbourhood with strong ‘for and against’ traffic calming opinions 2.0 TRAFFIC CALMING METHODOLOGY The following Methodology will be used to manage traffic calming issues throughout the Town of Carbonear. The process has been organized into 10 basic steps which are as follows: - Step 1 – Initial request for traffic calming - Step 2 – Initial screening process - Step 3 – Ranking requests, once the request passes Step 2 - Step 4 – Prioritized candidate list produced for council approval and funding allocation - Step 5 – Initial residential support – survey – 60% support – champion e-mail listing - Step 6 – Plan development - Initial concepts by staff/consultant - Tool box of available options - Presentation to residents of street being considered for traffic calming measures - Input from street residents – plan development - Step 7 – Resident support - Staff to finalize concept plans and descriptions - Distribute to neighbourhood - 60% support - Step 8 – Final council approval - Staff to revise estimated costs - Provide council with final concept plans - Step 9 – Design, tendering and construction - Preliminary design - Detailed design - Tendering - Construction Step 10 – Staff follow up - Staff to verify that the traffic calming measures effectively addressed the issues that prompted the original request. 2.1 STEP 1 – INITIAL REQUEST FOR TRAFFIC CALMING The traffic calming process is most often initiated by a resident or group of residents representing a neighbourhood and the concerns are most often related to the speed of and/or the traffic volumes on a particular street(s) in a neighbourhood. To begin the traffic calming process, the resident(s) concern(s) must be made in writing using the Town’s “Traffic Calming Request Form” and sent to the appropriate Town staff for follow up. The “Traffic Calming Request Form” should be made available on the Town’s webpage, or in hard copy at the appropriate Town facility. An example can be found in Appendix A. 2.2 STEP 2 – INITIAL SCREENING PROCESS The initial screening process that will be undertaken by the Town of Carbonear staff who will consider the classification of the street(s) under consideration, grade, collision history, average daily traffic volume and the defined threshold limits in the 85th percentile speed. The specific considerations include: - **Grade** – If the grade of the roadway being considered exceeds 8%, then traffic calming should not be considered any further. This approach would be consistent with many other jurisdictions and stems back to the fact that implementing traffic calming measures on roadways with steep grades could result in safety related issues especially under inclement weather conditions. - **Collision History** – The collision history of the roadway within the past 3 years specifically involving vulnerable road users such as cyclists and pedestrians which could have potentially been avoided with the implementation of traffic calming measures. This would be cause to advance the street through the initial screening process regardless of the volume and speed criteria. For local streets, this threshold should be set at 3 collisions over a 3-year timeframe. For collectors, this threshold should be set at 6 collisions over a 3-year timeframe. - **Volumes on Local Roadways** – The thresholds used in other jurisdictions for the minimum volumes upon which traffic calming could be considered for local residential streets varies somewhat but typically falls between 500 and 900 vpd. The Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) Trip Generation Manual states that a typical local residential household generates an average of 10 two-way trips per day, therefore it’s recommended that the initial threshold be set at 600 vpd for roadways classified as local residential streets. This threshold can always be adjusted once the Town of Carbonear determines the threshold that is adequate for the Town. • **Volumes on Collector Streets** – The thresholds used in other jurisdictions to determine whether or not collector status roadways are considered for traffic calming tends to range from 1,500 vpd to 3,000 vpd. For collectors within the Town of Carbonear, the threshold will be set at 3,000 vpd. These thresholds can always be adjusted once the Town of Carbonear determines the thresholds that are adequate for the Town. • **Speed on Local Residential Streets** – On local roadways, traffic calming could typically be considered if the 85th percentile speed exceeds the posted speed limit. The speed limit on local streets within the Town is 40 km/h, unless posted otherwise. Therefore, 5 km/hr over the posted speed limit on the roadway should be used as the threshold for the 85th percentile for local roads. • **Speed on Collector Streets** – On collector streets, travelled speeds are generally expected to be slightly higher than they would be on local residential streets. It follows then that the trigger for the consideration for traffic calming should be a slightly higher threshold. It is suggested that this criterion be set at 10 km/hr over the posted speed limit as the threshold for the 85th percentile speed on collector streets. **Table 1 – Initial Screening Criteria for Traffic Calming Requests** | Criteria | Thresholds | Notes | |----------------|-----------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | | Local Streets | Collector Streets | Arterial Roadways | | | Grade | < 8% | | | Traffic Calming is not permitted on roadways with grades exceeding 8%. | | Collision History | 3 | 6 | n/a | Collision History involving Vulnerable Road Users should be greater than or equal to the values shown over a 3-year period. | | Volume | 600 vpd | 3,000 vpd | n/a | Average Daily Volume should exceed minimum threshold volumes noted. | | Speed | 5 km/hr over posted speed | 10 km/hr over posted speed | n/a | 85th percentile speeds should exceed values for each classification of roadway. | Requests for traffic calming on roadways that are classified as Arterial Roadways within the Town’s street classification system will not be considered under the Town’s traffic calming policy. Traffic calming measures are not appropriate for use on this classification of roadway. It should be recognized that Powell Drive is an arterial and traffic calming will not be considered. Highroad North and Bond Street, Highroad South, London Road and Valley Road and Water Street West to Bond are classified as Collector Streets. If traffic calming requests are received for these roadways, any potential treatments resulting from the evaluations must include an appropriate traffic calming design solution which considers the function of these roads within the Town’s network. Traffic calming requests for local streets and for collector streets must meet both the volume and speed criteria in Table 1. Requests that meet or exceed the collision threshold criteria shall be considered as having met the minimum initial screening criteria and override the volume and speed criteria. Figure 1 illustrates a flow chart that can be used for screening the initial traffic calming requests. Figure 1 – Initial Screening Flow Chart for Traffic Calming Requests 2.4 STEP 3 – RANKING REQUESTS The Town of Carbonear, like all municipalities throughout the Northeast Avalon, has limits on the financial resources that it has available to provide services to residents that live in the community. Traffic calming will be one of many programs that Council will have to carefully consider in allocating Capital funding. If Council decides to fund traffic calming initiatives, the Capital amounts are likely to be limited and it is therefore important to rank all requests that pass the initial screening process to ensure the more serious cases receive funding priority. Local and Collector status streets will be ranked differently to reflect the intended functionality of the roadway. The following criteria should be considered in ranking the requests: - Collision History - Traffic Volumes (ADT) - $85^{th}$ Percentile Speed - Presence of Pedestrian Generators - Pedestrian Facilities - Non-Local Traffic - Primary Emergency Route The weighting of points assigned to the above-noted criteria varies somewhat between local streets and collector streets. An attempt has been made to assign points to the criteria that are considered to be more critical to each classification of roadway, such that more severe concerns receive higher rankings. For example, the presence of pedestrian facilities, while important for both local and collector streets, would be more concerning for collector status roadways where traffic volumes and speeds are likely to be higher and the risk to pedestrian safety would be greater. The points allocated to the various criteria for local streets are noted in Table 2 below. The points allocated to the criteria for collector status roadways are noted in Table 3. ### Table 2 – Ranking Criteria and Points Allocations for Local Streets | Criteria | Method of Allocation of Points | Maximum Points | |-----------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------| | Collision History | **2 points** for every collision in the previous three years in the study area involving a vulnerable road user | 10 | | Traffic Volumes (ADT) | **1 point** for every 50 vehicles above the 600 min to a max of 20 points | 20 | | 85th Percentile Speed | **2 points** for every km/hr the 85th percentile speed exceeds the posted speed limit plus 6km/hr to a max of 30 points | 30 | | Presence of Pedestrian Generators | **5 points** allocated to the presence of a pedestrian generator to a maximum of 15 points | 15 | | Pedestrian Facilities | **15 points** allocated to streets with no pedestrian facilities present | 15 | | Non-Local Traffic | **5 points** allocated for every 10% above 30% non-local traffic present to a maximum of 15 points (max points reached at 50% non-local traffic) | 10 | | Primary Emergency Route | -5 points if the roadway under consideration is a primary emergency response route | 0 | Total: 100 ### Table 3 – Ranking Criteria and Points Allocation for Collector Streets | Criteria | Method of Allocation of Points | Maximum Points | |-----------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------| | Collision History | **2 points** for every collision in the previous three years in the study area involving a vulnerable road user | 10 | | Traffic Volumes (ADT) | **1 point** for every 100 vehicles above the 3,000 vpd limit to a max of 20 points | 20 | | 85th Percentile Speed | **2 points** for every km/hr the 85th percentile speed exceeds the posted speed limit plus 7.5km/hr threshold to a max of 20 points | 20 | | Presence of Pedestrian Generators | **5 points** allocated to the presence of a pedestrian generator to a maximum of 15 points | 15 | | Pedestrian Facilities | **25 points** allocated to streets with no pedestrian facilities present on either side of the roadway; **15 points** if a pedestrian facility is present on one side of the street | 25 | | Non-Local Traffic | **2 points** allocated for every 10% above 30% non-local traffic present to a maximum of 10 points (max at 80% non-Local Traffic) | 10 | 2.4.1 Collection of Data The data required for an accurate assessment of the intersection, roadway or area involved in the traffic calming request requires the following information: - Collision data - Average daily traffic - 85th percentile speed - Non-local traffic Collision data for all roadway links and intersections falling within the municipal boundary of the Town of Carbonear should be available by request from the Carbonear Volunteer Fire Department. Average Daily Traffic (ADT) volumes are normally collected over a 24-hour period using the town’s driver feedback sign. For the purpose of this policy an estimate of non-local traffic will be determined by using the following method: Applying the following formula: - Non-local Traffic Percentage = ((ADT - (10 x number of households on the street))/ADT) * 100 2.5 STEP 4 – PRIORITIZED CANDIDATE LIST PRODUCED FOR COUNCIL APPROVAL AND FUNDING ALLOCATION As traffic calming requests are received and evaluated by staff, the results should be recorded in an overall database. Records of the screening process and point allocation for the ranking, should be recorded and date stamped for each individual street request. As requests are received and evaluated by staff, they should be included in the overall priority list for traffic calming. This list will provide Council and staff with an up-to-date priority listing of projects that require attention. Projects can be removed from the listing as they are addressed by staff with the funding made available by Council. 2.6 STEP 5 – INITIAL RESIDENTIAL SUPPORT In order for any traffic calming project to be successful, the community must support the process and be committed to the solutions that are put in place to resolve the problems that are being experienced. History has shown that where this support is not in place, the traffic calming measures that are put in place, often have to be removed because of opposition from area residents. The Town of Carbonear needs to ensure that the initial resident support for traffic calming is sufficient enough to avoid any possibility of having to revisit a street to remove measures that have been put in place. The initial level of resident support should be a minimum of 60%. When a street receives a funding commitment from Council under Step 4, Town staff should advise affected residents of the request for traffic calming. This can be done via a survey and requesting feedback and their position as to whether or not they would support traffic calming measures on their street. This would also be an opportunity to solicit the names of residents who would like to participate in a focus group session that assist in formulating the traffic calming solution for the street. For traffic calming requests that do not receive the required threshold level of support of 60%, the process ends and any subsequent requests street should not be considered again under the policy for a minimum of two years. 2.7 STEP 6 – PLAN/DESIGN DEVELOPMENT The development of the traffic calming plan will be a combined effort consisting of input from the Town staff and/or their consultant with feedback and suggestions from the residents themselves. At this stage in the traffic calming process, the Town should facilitate a group discussion on the plan development with residents of the street affected. Town staff will prepare initial concepts of options to kick start and facilitate the group discussion. It would also be appropriate for the Town to present on traffic calming and the toolbox of traffic calming measures that are available to deal with specific problems. At the conclusion of the meeting, staff will have enough information to prepare conceptual drawings of the traffic calming plan proposed for the street. Costs estimates can also be prepared at this stage. Depending on the estimated costs, the plan may have to be altered or scaled back to meet funding targets. 2.7.1 TRAFFIC CALMING MEASURES The following provides a description of the different traffic calming measures that are commonly applied, either alone or in conjunction with each other, to formulate a traffic calming plan. These vary in applications from controlling speed, reducing volumes and providing protection for pedestrians and cyclists. The measures are separated into four categories: Vertical Deflections, Horizontal Deflections, Obstructions and Signage. 22.214.171.124 Vertical Deflections: *Raised Crosswalk* **Description:** Raised crosswalks are very similar to speed humps, speed cushions and speed tables, however raised crosswalks create a more visible crossing for pedestrians. The raised crossing is brought to the same height as the adjacent sidewalk, so the curb is flush at each end. This, however, blocks the path of surface water run-off uphill of the raised crosswalk therefore, additional drainage will need to be considered for roadways with curb and curb & gutter. **Approximate Cost:** $5,000 to $20,000 **Control:** Reduce speed and volumes and increase pedestrian visibility Rumble Strips Description: Rumble strips consist of a pattern of raised markings or grooves applied to the pavement surface to alert motorists of a change in roadway conditions ahead. The rumble strips transmit a sound and a vibration throughout the vehicle, which encourages the motorists to reduce their speed. However, due to the noise from vehicles going over the rumble strips, this will introduce additional noise into the adjacent neighbourhood. Approximate Cost: $500 to $2,000 Control: Reduce speed Speed Humps, Speed Cushions & Speed Tables Speed Humps Description: A speed hump is a continuous raised pavement section which requires motorists to drive over the speed hump at a reduced speed. These typically are not used on a roadway that has a high volume of buses or is a primary route for emergency vehicles. Approximate Cost: $2,000 per speed hump Control: Reduce speed and volumes Speed Cushions Description: Speed cushions are multiple raised pavement sections in a line which requires motorists to drive over at a reduced speed. However, these pavement sections have a space in between to allow for the axles of buses and emergency vehicles to pass over without reducing speed or passing over the speed cushion. Approximate Cost: $300/linear meter Control: Reduce speed and volumes Speed Tables Description: A speed table is a continuous raised pavement section which requires motorists to drive at a reduced speed. Speed tables are very similar to raised crosswalks; however, they have a space allotted on each side to allow for surface water run-off. These can also be used as a crosswalk for pedestrians, however there is a change in elevation from curb to speed table. Approximate Cost: $750/linear meter Control: Reduce speed and volumes Textured Crosswalk Description: Textured crosswalks are put into place to accentuate the location of a pedestrian crosswalk to motorists and reduce the speed along the roadway. Since textured crosswalks rely on both the physical and visual means to identify their location, added colour to the crosswalk can increase the effectiveness of this traffic calming measure. Approximate Cost: $100/m² Control: Reduce speed and increase pedestrian visibility 126.96.36.199 Horizontal Deflections: Chicanes Description: Chicanes are a series of curb extensions on alternating sides of the roadway which narrow the roadway and requires vehicles to reduce speed and negotiate from one side of the roadway to the other to travel through the chicane. Typically, three or more curb extensions are used. Approximate Cost: $5,000 to $15,000 per chicane Control: Reduce speed and volumes Curb Extensions Description: Curb extensions are a horizontal intrusion of the curb into the roadway, which results in a narrower section of roadway. Curb extensions are used for shortening the crossing distance for pedestrians and improves the motorists’ visibility of the pedestrians. Curb extensions also reduce speeds by narrowing the roadway. Approximate Cost: $10,000 to $20,000 Control: Reduce speed and increase pedestrian visibility On-Street Parking Description: By introducing on-street parallel parking on one or both sides of the road, this reduces the number of driving lanes on the roadway and in turn reduces the number of vehicles and speed on the roadway. Approximate Cost: $200 to $500 Control: Reduce speed and volumes Traffic Calming Circles Description: A traffic calming circle is a raised island in the centre of the intersection, which requires motorists to travel counter-clockwise around the center island. Traffic calming circles allow traffic to flow freely through an indirect path at an intersection and this cause motorists to slow down and yield before entering the intersection. Motorists enter the intersection by first turning right and then must turn left around the center island and then finally right to exit the intersection. A traffic calming circle is not a roundabout. A roundabout is larger and has raised median islands on all approaches, in some cases with two or more lanes. Approximate Cost: $4,000 to $15,000 Control: Reduce speed 188.8.131.52 Obstruction: Directional or Full Street Closures Description: A physical device located in the roadway which obstructs and prohibits one direction of travel (directional closure) or prohibits access entirely (full closure). Closures eliminated short-cutting or through traffic on the roadway. Bicyclists and pedestrians are still permitted to enter at these enclosures. Approximate Cost: $3,000 to $35,000 Control: Reduce speed and volumes Right-in/Right-out Island Description: Right-in/right-out islands are raised triangular island on an intersection approach that prevents left-turning movements from the major roadway and the minor roadway. This reduces the pass-through traffic and traffic volumes on the roadway. Approximate Cost: $7,000 to $15,000 Control: Reduce volumes 184.108.40.206 Signage: Maximum Speed Sign Description: The maximum speed sign indicates to motorists that the maximum legal vehicle speed permitted on the roadway. Other signage such as, School Area sign or Playground sign can accompany the Maximum Speed signage, which is typically placed on the right-side of the roadway. Approximate Cost: $200 per sign Control: Reduce speed Radar Speed/Feedback Sign Description: Radar speed signs, commonly known as Feedback signs, are to inform motorists of their speed and encourage them to reduce their speed to the posted speed limit. Approximate Cost: $2,000 to $3,000 Control: Reduce speed Through Traffic Prohibited Sign Description: The Through Traffic Prohibited sign is to prohibit traffic that is short-cutting through the residential neighbourhoods. These signs are sometimes accompanied by an additional tab sign indicating days and hours that the prohibition is in effect. Approximate Cost: $200 per sign Control: Reduce volumes Speed Bumps Ahead Sign Description: The Speed Bumps Ahead sign is to alert the motorists that they are approaching speed bumps, humps, cushions or tables on the roadway. This informs the motorist to reduce their speed and potentially will defer them from using this route as a short-cutting roadway. As shown above, this sign would be placed on the right side of the road in advance of the speed hump, cushion or table. Approximate Cost: $200 per sign Control: Reduce Speed and volumes 2.8 STEP 7 – RESIDENT SUPPORT Once the traffic calming plan development, Step 6, has been completed, the Town of Carbonear will finalize the concept plans with descriptions of the traffic calming measures and the cost estimates associated with each concept. The finalized concept plan and descriptions will then be communicated to the surrounding neighbourhood residents that would primarily be affected by the new traffic calming measure. The concept package can be sent via e-mail or mail and placed on the Town of Carbonear website, asking for feedback about the proposed traffic calming measure. The Town of Carbonear would request for the feedback, and other comments, to be returned within two to three weeks for a final tally. The neighbourhood support should be greater than 60%, the same as in Step 5. If the 60% is not met, the traffic calming measure proposed for this location will not be considered again under the policy for a minimum of two years. 2.9 STEP 8 – FINAL COUNCIL APPROVAL Once the 60% threshold has been met for the proposed traffic calming measure that was sent to the affected neighbourhood residents, the Town of Carbonear staff will revise the cost estimates and prepare a package to recommend to Council. After Council approves the recommended proposed traffic calming measure, the design, tendering and construction phases commence. 2.10 STEP 9 – DESIGN, TENDERING & CONSTRUCTION Once Council has approved the proposed traffic calming method, the Town staff and/or consultant will proceed to develop a preliminary design, detailed design, call for tender and then construction of the traffic calming device(s). Below, in Table 4, shows a summary table of the traffic calming measures with the approximate cost, location and spacing of the devices and the control of the traffic calming device. | Measure | Description | Costs | Location & Spacing | Control | |-------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------|--------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------| | **Vertical Deflection** | | | | | | Raised Crosswalks | Raised crosswalks are very similar to speed humps, speed cushions and speed tables, however raised crosswalks create a more visible crossing for pedestrians. The raised crossing is brought to the same height as the adjacent sidewalk, so the curb is flush at each end. | $5,000 to $20,000 | Marked crosswalks & midblock crossings | Reduce Speed/Volume & Increase Pedestrians Visibility | | Rumble Strips | Rumble strips consist of a pattern of raised markings or grooves applied to the pavement surface to alert motorists of a change in roadway conditions ahead. The rumble strips transmit a sound and a vibration throughout the vehicle, which encourages the motorists to reduce their speed. | $500 to $2,000 | 50 km/hr - locate 65m in advance | Reduce Speed | | Speed Humps | A speed hump is a continuous raised pavement section which requires motorists to drive over the speed hump at a reduced speed. These typically are not used on a roadway that has a high volume of buses or is a primary route for emergency vehicles. | $2,000/hump | 30 km/hr - every 60m | Reduce Speed/Volume | | Speed Cushions | Speed cushions are multiple raised pavement sections in a line which requires motorists to drive over the speed cushion at a reduced speed. However, these pavement sections have a space in between to allow for the axles of buses and emergency vehicles to pass over without reducing speed or passing over the speed cushion. | $300/linear meter | 30 km/hr - every 60m | Reduce Speed/Volume | | Speed Tables | A speed table is a continuous raised pavement section which requires motorists to drive over the speed hump at a reduced speed. Speed tables are very similar to raised crosswalks; however, they have a space allotted on each side to allow for surface water run-off. These can also be used as a crosswalk for pedestrians, however there is a change in elevation from curb to speed table. | $750/linear meter | 30 km/hr - every 60m | Reduce Speed/Volume | | Textured Crosswalk | Textured crosswalks are put into place to further identify the location of a pedestrian crosswalk to motorists and reduce the speed along the roadway. Since textured crosswalks rely on both the physical and visual means to identify their location, added color to the crosswalk can increase the effectiveness of the traffic calming measure. | $100/m² | At any crosswalk | Reduce Speed & Increase Pedestrians Visibility | | **Horizontal** | | | | | | Chicane | Chicanes are a series of curb extensions on alternating sides of the roadway which narrow the roadway and requires vehicles to reduce speed and negotiate from one side of the roadway to the other to travel through the chicane. | $5,000 to $15,000 per chicane | Mid-block locations, > 20m away from an intersection | Reduce Speed/Volume | | Curb Extension | Curb extensions are a horizontal intrusion of the curb into the roadway, which results in a narrower section of roadway. Curb extensions are used for shortening the crossing distance for pedestrians and improves the motorists’ visibility of the pedestrians. | $10,000 to $20,000 | At intersections and mid-block crossings | Reduce Speed & Increase Pedestrians Visibility | | On-Street Parking | By introducing on-street parking on one or both sides of the road, reduces the number of driving lanes on the roadway and in turn reduces the number of vehicles on the roadway. | $200 to $500 | Not effective on rural cross sections | Reduce Speed/Volume | | Traffic Calming Circle | A traffic calming circle is a raised island in the centre of the intersection, which requires motorists to travel counter-clockwise around the center island. Traffic calming circles allow traffic to flow freely through an indirect path at an intersection and this cause motorists to slow down and yield before entering the intersection. | $4,000 to $15,000 | Consecutive intersections | Reduce Speed | | **Obstruction** | | | | | | Directional or Full | A physical device located in the roadway which obstructs and prohibits one direction of travel (directional closure) or prohibits access entirely (full closure). | $3,000 to $5,000 | Local streets | Reduce Speed/Volume | | Closure | Closures eliminated short-cutting or through traffic on the roadway. | | | | | Right In/Right Out | Right-In/Right-Out Islands are raised triangular island on an intersection approach that prevents left-turning movements from the major roadway and the minor roadway. This reduces the pass-through traffic and traffic volumes on the roadway. | $7,000 to $15,000 | Local and residential collector streets | Reduce Speed/Volume | 2.11 STEP 10 – FOLLOW-UP After the traffic calming plan has been completed, Town Staff should document any comments or concerns about the new traffic calming measure from the local residents. After 6 months, the Town should review the initial traffic calming request and verify that the new traffic calming plan is addressing the issues that was brought forward. If the issues are not being resolved, potentially another traffic calming measure may be required to work in conjunction with the new traffic calming plan. Town Staff should document any changes to previous traffic calming concepts in the Master Database to improve future traffic calming improvements to local and collector streets throughout the Town of Carbonear. 3.0 OTHER RELATED ITEMS 3.1 MEASURING SPEEDS AND TRAFFIC VOLUMES FOR DATA COLLECTION There are multiple ways to record traffic speeds and volumes on a roadway. The Town of Carbonear will use its driver feedback sign. 3.2 EMERGENCY VEHICLE ROUTES Due to the fact that most collector roadways throughout the Town of Carbonear are an emergency vehicle route, traffic calming measures that can be put in place on those specific roadways are limited. Below is a list of traffic calming measures that may impact emergency vehicle routes: | No impact: | Minor impact: | Major impact: | |-----------------------------|--------------------------------------|-----------------------------| | Rumble Strips | Raised Crosswalk | Full Closure | | Speed Cushions | Speed Humps | | | Textured Crosswalks | Speed Tables | | | Chicane (Two-way) | Chicane (One-way) | | | Directional Closure | Curb Extension | | | All Signage | On-Street Parking | | | | Traffic Circle | | | | Right-In/Right-Out | | 3.3 DESIGN OF NEW SUBDIVISION WITH TRAFFIC CALMING MEASURES Throughout the Town of Carbonear, there are subdivisions and extensions of existing developments being constructed. Traffic calming measures can be incorporated into the design of the new subdivisions, which encourages a traffic-calmed neighbourhood. Due to some of the traffic calming measures having a specific right-of-way required, such as traffic circles, this can easily be incorporated into the new developments at the early design stages. For other traffic calming measures, such as raised crosswalks and chicanes, storm water management is important due to the traffic calming measure extending across the entire cross width of the roadway. This prevents surface water run-off from getting to the catch basin and can result in flooding uphill of the traffic calming measure. If the raised crosswalks and chicanes were incorporated into the design of the subdivisions, this problem could be averted and included in the storm water management design. Overall, introducing traffic calming measures into the design stage of new developments, will improve the aesthetics of the subdivision, reduce the speeds and through traffic volumes and provide a safer and friendlier environment for children and other users. This will be considered in the design stage and not part of this policy. 3.4 SOURCES OF INFORMATION & REFERENCES Information used in this Traffic Calming Policy was referenced from the following documents: - Town of Torbay Traffic Calming Policy - City of London Traffic Calming Policy These policies also considered other policies in their development. APPENDIX A Traffic Calming Request Form Traffic Calming Request Form Please complete the following form and return to the Town of Carbonear. Traffic Calming is a combination of physical measures, that when implemented, reduce the negative effects of the use of motor vehicles on residential streets, alter motorists' behaviour and improve conditions for both pedestrians and cyclists. Applicant Name: ________________________________ Applicant Address: ________________________________ Date: _________________________________________ Please select one of the following areas that relate to the nature of your concern: ☐ Residential Area ☐ School/ Day Care Zone ☐ Recreational Area Please select any of the following traffic concerns: ☐ High Speeds in Neighbourhood ☐ Collision Concerns ☐ Aggressive Driving Behaviour ☐ Pedestrian Safety Specific location of concern (intersection, road name, civic number): Further details about traffic concerns: Suggested Traffic Calming Solution: Signing below indicates your understanding that the Town of Carbonear and Council will review and assess the concerns noted above to the best of their ability, if the criteria and required public support are met, as per the *Town of Carbonear Traffic Calming Policy*. Applicant Signature: ________________________________ Contact Number: ________________________________ E-mail Address: _______________________________________ Would you like to participate in the Focus Group discussion? □ Yes □ No
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Program Saturday 20 September, 9am to 4pm - Cryptogam workshop, Mugga Mugga, Symonston David Eldridge. This will be both a special and informative workshop. See advertisement on page 2. Sat 11 October, 2pm - 'Woden' property, Tuggeranong We visited this property in winter last year and thought it looked like a great place to visit in a good season. Drive south on the Monaro Highway from Fyshwick till you see a sign saying 'traffic lights 450m' - turn right across the median strip and the north-bound lane of the highway onto the ramp straight ahead - we'll meet there. (If you get to Hume, you've gone too far!) Sunday 19 October, 10am to 1 pm - Picarree Hill Flora Survey. FOG is organising a flora survey as its contribution to the Picarree Hill Conservation Project. If you have plant identification skills or wish to learn them contact Margaret before 19 October. We need to know if you can participate to ensure the survey's success and for catering purposes. A background item to this activity was included on page 3 of the July-August Newsletter. Saturday 8 November, 2pm - Royalla A FOG member has a great patch of grassy woodland, including some interesting orchids, in this new development. We'll meet at the Royalla Estate turnoff. 26, 27 and 28 November - Third Native Grasses Conference, Cooma See news item, page 2 and brochure enclosed. Saturday 29 November - Packers Swamp (Tantwangalo NP) Contact Margaret for details. 13 to 14 December - SubAlpine grassland/wetland weekend Kylie Durant will show us Micalong and Tarcutta Swamps and McPhersons and Tomneys Plains. Talk to Margaret about accommodation or just join us for one day. 7 to 8 January - Tasmania Midlands Grasslands Tour - FOG is finally organising a two day trip to see Tasmanian grasslands with Louise Giffedder as our guide. For more information talk to Margaret. And also... 8 to 10 December - Ecological Society of Australia (ECA) Annual Conference. The ECA Annual Conference will be held at the University of New England, Armidale and will include symposia, an open forum of contributed papers and poster session, postgraduate course, social events and post-conference excursions. Conference information can be accessed at the web site, or telephone 02 6773 2539 and e-mail: email@example.com. In this issue - News roundup - Sedges of the Sydney-Blue Mountain region - Willow problem along the Yass River - Blowing our own trumpet: Part 1 - New grassland nature reserves - Grey Guinea Flower - Stipa Conference brochure The habitat for this orchid will be destroyed at South Bruce - story page 4. Photo by John Robertson FOG wins ACT Bushcare Award Groundcover On 21 August FOG was awarded the ACT Landcare award for Bushcare Nature Conservation which is awarded to a community organisation, a group or a person for excellence and innovation in implementing nature conservation activities on land outside formal parks and reserves. Part 1 of an extract from FOG’s application is included on page 9. However, the story gets better. Rosemary Blemings was the 2003 winner of the Individual Landcare Award. Rosemary has featured prominently in recent FOG newsletters following her winning the ACT Volunteer of the Year Award for Conservation, as FOG’s nomination. FOG members featured in other awards such as Anne Ions for Community Award presented to Cooleman Ridge, Mt Taylor and Farrer Ridge Parkcare groups, and Jenny Horsfield for the Southern Catchment Group. Both Anne and Jenny have contributed to past FOG newsletters. Another winner in the Education Program was Lanyon High School where Michael Bedingfield has been assisting with native grass collection and plant identification. At the Awards the themes of grassy ecosystems and restoration were prominent. Congratulations all. Stipa and FOG Conference In the issue we are including the brochure for The Third Native Grasses Conference: Sustainability and Beyond, 26 to 28 November, 2003, Cooma. As those of you who have been to previous Stipa Conferences will know, these conferences are excellent value, and, on this occasion FOG is co-sponsoring the conference, so it is important that FOG members pull out their cheque books and support this effort. A browse through the program shows a lot of activities to choose from. The bus tour will show the delights of Monaro grasslands, and speakers on the bus will bring out how conservation and production can work hand in hand. The program is tightly packed with a host of good presenters and they will bring you the state of the art thinking on the Wentworth Group, regional landscape management, on-farm conservation in productive systems, knowing your plants, enhancing functionality, sustaining bio- Water ecology in grassy ecosystems On 9 August some 28 people turned up to North Amaroo to learn about water ecology in grassy ecosystems. Ross Wissing, a recent arrival in Canberra and a FOG member, took us to a spot on the western arm of Ginninderra Creek where he started to illustrate now well scientifically-established Water Watch measurements. This started with everyone taking part in a habitat survey which rates bank and verge vegetation, in-stream cover, bank erosion and stability, and riffles, pools and bends. Next Ross took us through a series of chemical tests for Ph, conductivity, turbidity, temperature, dissolved oxygen and phosphorus. Finally, we sampled for water macro invertebrates. The results showed that the stream habitat rating was fair, the chemical results were good probably because we were in the top of a catchment, and the macro invertebrates were fair showing that better indicator species had gone. While this provided a thorough understanding of the methods and their evaluation, and there were many questions, it meant that many had to leave before we undertook the walk along the creek to look at the water in the broader grassy landscape. During the walk along the creek, Ross pointed out how to evaluate the stream health and various water structures in the landscape. There was a lot of discussion about how one might attempt to restore the stream’s health and bring back a healthier water landscape. Again, Ross fielded many questions. He also took us to a holding pond on the site and said that while this achieved certain outcomes it was an example of what not to do. The holding pond had rather steep sides and its poor design would fail to create habitat or to provide the best defence against run-off of poor quality water. The site is an area of open space in North Amaroo and is currently being grazed by cattle to see how cattle grazeing can be used as a sustainable management tool. Unfortunately, the cattle have free access to the creek and they and some active children are doing a lot of damage, including erosion. The site was also chosen for this activity as this is the site that the Southern Tablelands Ecosystems Park (STEP) is discussing with the Government to establish STEP. The intention would be to use one part of the site to establish a regional botanic garden with an emphasis on the fauna and flora of the Southern Tablelands, and to restore and enhance the rest of the site to illustrate the region's ecosystems. The site is particularly attractive, containing elements of wetlands, grasslands, grassy woodlands, dry forest, and several rocky outcrops. It is important to keep and enhance the landscape features and particularly create habitat for frogs, reptiles, and birds. Ross Wissing started his career as a grassland ecologist and has since moved into water ecology. He now works for Environment Australia where he is responsible for coordinating the Water Watch Program which has 60,000 Water Watchers across Australia. Thanks Ross, for an informative workshop and laying the basis for plans to restore the waterscapes of the site. Journey through Sikkim Alan Ford On Saturday May 28 Roger Farrow took us on a marvellous journey through Sikkim that he and Christine had completed. They missed the odd spectacular view of Kachenjunga (and got close to one of Everest) but more than made up for it with others of Pandin, to say nothing of the plant life. Rhododendrons galore, whole hillsides of the plants, Daphne, and as for the roadside orchids, as common as dust and in flower to boot. They went from a blizzard one day, through the deciduous forests to the sub-tropical forests in a few days. We missed the real grasslands, which were higher up, because they had to turn back in the face of an approaching blizzard. One lasting slide stands like a colossus, the red cedar, a beautiful tree in any country and probably closely related to ours. Roger didn't spare us from photos of erosion and over grazing. We certainly gained the impression that while Sikkim is not under too much pressure, surrounding areas certainly are, despite the best efforts of the Indian government to protect certain places through the establishment and management of the National Park. Sikkim grasslands in spring - an unattained goal Margaret Ning By the time Roger had finished showing us his Sikkim slides on a Saturday afternoon in late June, I was starting to feel damp myself, having watched the intrepid trekkers go up hill and down dale in generally misty and dank conditions for a period of 17 days. Roger told us that it was generally possible to assume that on some mornings at least, trekking would take place in clear weather, but by mid afternoon, the mist and clouds would inevitably close in. Sikkim, nestled between the kingdoms of Bhutan and Nepal and now a state of India, was the scene of Roger Farrow's and Christine Kendrick's Himalayan adventure in April this year. Their aim had been to see Sikkim's flora in spring, even though they knew the prevailing spring conditions would always include very changeable weather. Sikkim's grasslands were only one of the vegetation communities that Roger and Christine had come to see. Roger introduced us to these communities in a diagram showing their progression as they went up in altitude: first the lowland sub-tropical rain forest up to 2000 metres; temperate deciduous and evergreen forest from 2000 to 3000m; coniferous and rhododendron forests from about 3 to 4000m which also contain secondary grassland in cleared forest; and finally rhododendron shrubland and alpine meadows above 4000m. At all levels the trees were festooned with mosses due to the abundant fog and moisture. The presentation was in two parts: first a trek along the Singalila ridge separating India and Sikkim from Nepal where on just one day they got the promised views of Kanchenjunga and Everest. Then after a toy train ride in Darjeeling they drove into Sikkim for a trek to Samithi Lake at the base of Kachenjunga. The fir forests of the Singalila ridge have been excessively cleared for grazing by yaks. These areas suffered from erosion, as well as what appeared to be excessive grazing. Efforts were being made to enclose the grasslands from the yaks and replant trees. Roger's most colourful slides included rhododendrons, magnolias, daphne, orchids, and many kinds of trees including red cedar. He also showed us Primulas and Iris in the grasslands although he said the main display would be later in summer. On the second trek, after four days of walking, Roger and Christine finally reached their camp in a glaciated valley above the tree line. The next morning they woke to find the whole region covered in about 10 cm of fresh snow which had fallen overnight with blizzard conditions developing in the distance. They reached Samithi Lake. where they were supposed to camp and ascend the Guich-La pass (5000m) for views of Kanchenjunga (8600m). Unfortunately, the blizzard closed in forcing their party to descend and return. Ironically on their return drive to Darjeeling they had perfect views of the mountains. Once again, Mugga Mugga was a cosy, comfortable winter venue, complete with fire and (FOG-provided) refreshments. Thanks Roger and Christine for a most enjoyable winter's afternoon! **Lowland Woodland Strategy** *Geoff Robertson* In the last issue of the newsletter I wrote an article on the ACT draft lowland woodland strategy. On 31 July, FOG made a submission on the strategy, commending the authors for breaking new ground and for the high quality of research. In the time running up to the submission, many FOG members and others had discussed the draft strategy, played a major role in the drafting of the Conservation Council's submission and made individual submissions. Some particular aspects, which the FOG submission mentioned, were the inclusion of all woodlands and secondary grasslands within the strategy, the more extensive mapping of woodlands and natural temperate grasslands and the clarity and transparency of the methodology. The submission said that definitions of woodlands adopted allowed the user to choose alternative definitions best suited to his or her needs. The maps generally are very powerful tools. FOG commended the key objectives, goals and priority tasks set out in the draft strategy, and stressed the need to include ACT sites in the already established grassy ecosystems conservation management network. FOG also welcomed the statements in the draft strategy on restoration, and the community consultation process that accompanied the preparation of the draft strategy and contributed to the outcome. FOG believes that much of what it has been advocating is recognised in the draft strategy. However, one strong concern that many people expressed was that the draft strategy, while providing a better overall framework, possibly has not advanced our thinking and actions on how best to recover the related woodland fauna and flora species. This is clearly something to which greater attention is required. FOG's submission made a number of particular suggestions to strengthen the strategy. Particularly important, as advocated by the Conservation Council, FOG's submission stressed the need to establish a register of woodland remnants and specify the management arrangements for each remnant parcel. Since the release of the draft strategy, the FOG submission noted that we have been pleased with the Government's decision to reserve Gooroor and Callum Brae (although we note that certain boundary issues are still to be resolved) and related decisions on strengthening resources and management. However, equally, we were disappointed by its decision that quality woodland areas at East O'Malley, Forde and Bonner will be developed. **McLeod Report** *Geoff Robertson* The long-awaited *Inquiry into the operational response to the January 2003 bushfires in the ACT*, prepared by Rod McLeod, was released on 1 August. So many decisions have been suspended awaiting the outcome of this report, because Canberra residents and policy makers need to know the facts before fire recovery and so many other plans can be put in place. But now that the cornerstone report is out we might expect many other reports and decisions to follow quickly. As most readers will know, on Saturday 18 January, bushfires which had been to the west and south-west of Canberra for more than a week, reached the city causing widespread damage to rural properties, parks and forests, houses and urban infrastructure, estimated at approximately $300m. Tragically, four people died and 500 houses were lost. Canberra's perception about nature has changed forever and in my view this may be a very positive thing. On the whole the McLeod report appears to have been sensible and cautious in its findings, not overstating the facts. Generally, the Canberra community has likewise been sensible throughout the process, despite having to deal with real angst and mourning. In summarising its findings, the report states "that the fires, started by lightning strikes, MIGHT [my emphasis] have been contained had they been attacked more aggressively in the 24 or so hours after they broke out... Once the fires gained a hold they proved extremely difficult to contain or suppress. Indeed, the fires on 18 January were accurately described as 'unstoppable'." (page iii). A central issue is that of fuel reduction and the report says much about the pros and cons (pages 84-87) and stresses the need to have "an understanding of and the sensitivity to the potential for damage to natural ecosystems" (page vi). On page 90 it states "this Inquiry did not reach a conclusion about the level of fuel-reduction burning that should be pursued in the ACT in future. The Inquiry is, however, of the view that, as a long-term strategy, something more substantial than the present program is warranted in those areas that were unaffected by the 2003 fires... The Inquiry is confident that more fuel-reduction burning would have helped the authorities contain the fires that resulted from the lightning strikes on 8 January 2003. It is less confident, however, that extensive fuel-reduction burning would have had a significant impact on fire behaviour on 17 and 18 January." A key problem that remains is knowing what the impact of fire on biodiversity is. Obviously, fire is essential for biodiversity, but too much or too little, too hot or too cool, too frequent or insufficiently frequent, can have adverse effects. In addition, different types of fire will have different effects on particular communities and species. The report implicitly points out how inadequate our knowledge of fire and biodiversity is. I am concerned that future fire management may not sufficiently address biodiversity issues. As a precaution, in my view, there needs to be patch-burning experiments focussed on the impacts of fire on particular communities and species. Some of the current post-fire monitoring may assist. The report recommends that public land managers should be given primary responsibility for initial response to fires breaking out on the land they manage and should be given additional people and equipment resources to achieve better fire management (pages vi and vii). Dedicated access is also important. On the whole, this seems sensible, provided that the land managers are focused on optimising biodiversity and fire management outcomes. One issue that now seems obvious is the relationship between land use and fire. Natural grasslands and woodlands, and for that matter certain types of farming and land use, are less problematic when it comes to fire risk. Fire spotting over long distances "is more likely to occur where trees are closely packed, as in dense forest or in plantations" (pages 225-6). Perhaps this is just another reason for us to be regenerating our woodlands and grasslands! The report is almost essential reading for anyone who wishes to understand what will influence Government and community thinking in future. It is important that groups such as ours have a clear understanding of the report's findings and our response to those findings, especially as they relate to biodiversity management and planning. The report's brief history of the Canberra fires and the day by day description of the 2003 fire should also assist our understanding of fire. Mt Stranger Alan Ford FOG paid a visit to this Canberra Urban Parks and Places managed land in Tuggeranong on the sunny afternoon of Saturday 26 July. This site, which is not far from the Murrumbidgee, faces south and is probably a secondary grassland. I actually discovered it while doing a walk in the area with one of the local walking groups. In spring it is a Blue Devil (*Eryngium rostratum*) grassland, but it is surrounded by fields of African Love Grass (*Eragrostis curvula*) and its long term future must be in doubt. Michael Bedingfield has recorded around 120 native species on the site, including Austral Toad Flax (*Thesium australe*). The site had been burnt in the January 2003 bushfire and we couldn't find the plant on this occasion. However, after we had looked west to the snow on the mountains we looked around to find a number of plants in flower; a Blue Devil, Curved Rice-flower (*Pimelea curviflora*), one Common Woodruff (*Asperula conferta*), Yellow Buttons (*Chrysoccephalum apiculatum*) and one Scaly Buttons (*Lepthorhynchos squamatus*). An amazing little remnant well worth a visit in spring!!! However, its long-term management is a real problem. The tendency to solve that problem by putting cattle on it for a short time is the current practice, but whether that will simply help the Love Grass is but one of a list of management issues. Politics not science is driving decisions James Nason (Land 24 July) reports that Australia's most senior environmental scientist, John Williams, CSIRO Land and Water Division, and member of the Wentworth Group, is alarmed at the lack of scientific evidence underpinning government decisions on environmental decisions such as salinity. John Williams stated that political pressure on West Australian farmers to drain paddocks as a short-term response to salinity was a prime example of poor science at work. Draining paddocks changed the biogeochemistry of soil to an oxidised environment which resulted in highly acidic soils in the longer term. Nor was planting trees a short-term silver-bullet solution. Long-term restoration of landscapes require gradual introduction of grass and shrub species to create the appropriate micro-climate for each new species to prosper. Skipping any of those stages to move directly back into woodlands was not a responsible strategy. Solving issues such as salinity would only occur when governments and community worked with the best information possible. One problem in using science to deal with sensitive vegetation and water management issues was that ultimately there was a point where existing knowledge could not provide the answers. John Williams will be opening speaker at the Stipa/FOG Native Grasses Conference. Kosciuszko to bounce back The Canberra Times reports 3 June that NPWS scientist, Dr Ken Green, reports that early indications are there was unlikely to be any real loss in biodiversity in Kosciuszko. "In other words, all the species we recorded in the park 12 months ago, from flies and grasshoppers to mammals, birds and reptiles appear to be present and some are clearly breeding. Certainly many perished in the fires and numbers have decreased but the breadth of species diversity appears to be much the same as it was before the fires." The article reports that fifteen scientists recently undertook to replicate last year's "biodiversity blitz", which was "an intense methodological 48-hour survey of the park's biodiversity". Among the finds was a new population of Mountain Pygmy Possum. Wildfires in the ACT 2003 Alan Ford Environment ACT recently released Technical Report 17, *Wildfires in the ACT* presenting the results of flora and fauna surveys conducted in the first few months following the fires. The 2003 fires resulted in the near complete removal of ground vegetation over about seventy per cent of the ACT. The highest fire intensities were sufficient to remove or scorch tree canopies and large shrubs over about one-third of the ACT (83,452 hectares). The Report notes that, generally, the flora is showing regeneration in all but the most severely burnt areas. In the latter, much of the canopy cover may not be replaced until the seedlings mature. The type and degree of response showed marked differences between species; from those with almost completely restored canopy such as Kurrajong, to those showing only the very first signs of shoots, such as Snow Gum. Habitats for most mammals, reptiles, frogs and birds were considerably altered by the severity and extent of the fires. The initial impact of the fires caused an apparent marked reduction in population sizes of most fauna species in these areas. Recovery, if it occurs, is obviously going to take some time. Bruce retirement complex Geoff Robertson I visited the site for the proposed retirement village complex in South Bruce (ACT) on a lovely Sunday morning (20 July) and spoke to Erica Lejins (President) and John Robertson (Committee member) of the South Bruce Residents Group. The site was largely previously occupied by a disability hostel. However part of the proposed site is an area of natural remnant forest, described by Environment ACT as Open Forest – Stringybark, Scribbly Gum and Red Spotted Gum over shrub and native grasses. This remnant was previously managed as part of Canberra Nature Park, but because it is in the Canberra Plan as land to be developed, it has now become part of the development proposal. The Bruce Retirement Complex, which has been in the news, is being developed, according to the Group, by Calvary Hospital and Bovis Lendlease. Various proposals have been put forward to provide a combination of nursing home beds and (Independent Living Units (ILUs). The latter are essentially home beds/ILUs). That has since varied in various drafts (96/70, 96/84, 64/80). The Group supports the complex and would like something like a ratio of 96/50. The larger the number of ILUs, given current design thinking, the more encroachment there would be on the remnant. The remnant serves two important functions. It has high flora diversity and serves as part of a corridor linking Bruce Ridge to Gossen Hill. As the corridor is not particularly wide, any encroachment will diminish it. Local birdwatching residents and COG members, have compiled an impressive bird list for an area just adjacent to the corridor. It includes three raptors, four robins, White-headed Pigeon and many other uncommon birds. Sitting in John’s place, I was delighted by a flock of Double Barred Finches, which are regular visitors to his garden. The residents have been doing their homework and have identified 88 indigenous plants in the remnants and photographed many. Amongst the many orchids were Pink Finger (Caladenia carnea), varying in colour from pink to white, Donkey and Tiger Orchids (Diuris maculata and D. sulphurea), Wax-lip Orchid (Glossodia major), Common Onion Orchid (Microtis unifolia), and Spotted and Slen-der Sun Orchids (Thelymitra ixioides and T. pauciflora). Other flora treasures are a different form of Clustered Ever-lasting (Chrysocephalum apiculatum), Billy Buttons (Craspedia variabilis), Pale Sundew (Drosera peltata), Pale and Button Everlasting (Helichrysum rutilolepis and H. scorpioides), Grass Triggerplant (Stylidium graminifolium), Fringe-lily (Thysanotus patersonii), Twining Fringe-lily (T. tuberosus), Austral Sunray (Triptilodiscus pygmeaus), Early Nancy (Wurmbea dioica), Ploughshare Wattle (Acacia gunnii), and Mountain Grevillea (Grevillea alpina). I asked myself why such a rich diversity in so small an area? The answer I think is that this is a grassy forest and there are signs, from the presence of scattered Yellow Box and Red Gums, that it previously joined a Yellow Box Red Gum Woodland. Part of the area where the rich diversity occurs may be a small secondary grassland. Possibly being an ecotone, it may in fact have a higher diversity than an equivalent area of the adjoining Canberra Nature Park. For more information contact Erica 6251 6525. After we left the remnant, Erica and John showed me around Gossen Hill. Since it was my first visit, and I was in the company of people who knew the area well, it was a treat, but that is another story. I would highly recommend the area to FOG members. Introduction Over the weekend of 10-11 May, I attended a sedge and rush recognition workshop at Agnes Banks on the outskirts of Sydney. The other approximately twenty participants were Bushcare people from the Sydney Region and the presenter was someone I had wanted to meet for a long time, Van Klaphake. Van is a self taught expert on sedges and rushes who is acknowledged in Les Robinson's Field Guide to the Native Plants of Sydney for his help with sedges and rushes, grasses, Eucalyptus and ferns. He and I have had a few phone conversations over the last few years but I had never met him. I was hopeful that the course material wouldn't be too alien to me (it being of the Sydney Blue Mountains Region) and that I would finally get the opportunity to make some inroads into sedge and rush ID. No longer would "I'm going to make a big effort on sedges next year" be my catchcry. Day One Van introduced the subject matter. Ninety to ninety-five percent of sedge and rush species grow in wet areas and as a group they are of no economic interest (ie as crops or for grazing). He explained how important they were, given that they are closely associated with water quality, keeping water courses stable, including erosion prevention. Van's tools for the workshop included two large wall charts with some basic botanical terms and drawings to enable us to keep pace with his teachings, and two tables full of freshly cut specimens for us to identify over the two days. It is much easier to get an idea of what 'distichous' means when an example is sketched before you, and it is easy to illustrate a botanical point if an example of it is before your eyes! Van introduced us to his key. Essentially he combines his own line drawings with a textual key and he stresses that it's best not to get too bogged down with the text but to refer to the pictures very quickly to verify choices. He also advised us to use the key and drawings to eliminate species. We quickly progressed to Van's carefully gathered specimens and became more closely acquainted with his key. The key initially uses distinguishing features such as whether plants have a number of leaf sheaths down the stem, whether stem sheaths are open or closed, and whether the fruit is a soft capsule or a harder nut. Once families have been distinguished, different features came into play. Sometimes tribes or groups needed to be distinguished. Distinguishing features may include: - Juncus - presence or otherwise of leaves, whether stems are flat, terete or hollow, with or without septa, continuous pith, stem thickness - Restionaceae - different male and female inflorescences, stems branched or unbranched, stems flattened or terete - Cyperaceae - the shape of the spikelet Stopping sometimes to examine something more closely, for example, if one can split the fruit it's sufficiently soft to be a Juncus, as opposed to Scirpeae where the fruit looks similar but would be too hard to compress, we proceeded through the specimens at a reasonable pace. There was always an appropriate specimen on hand to illustrate a particular aspect of Van's key. Day Two The day began with a bit of an overview to put things in context. Some (sometimes Sydney-based) generalisations included - Juncus and Restionaceae are found on clay soils, disturbed sandstone with high nutrients - Scirpeae (including the genera Schoenus, Baumea, Lepidosperma and Gahnia) is found on undisturbed sandstone - Juncus is really a green very small-flowered lily with six tepals, which can be used to distinguish it from Cyperaceae for example, which has a variable number of overlapping glumes, more like a grass - Restionaceae is basically a southern hemisphere family, a poor soil-type group often growing in swampy areas, and the open bracts on their stems distinguish it from all other sedges with the exception of Caustis (though the latter has closed bracts so it is easy to separate). Also on the second day, Van invited us to show him any sedge or rush specimens that we had brought along for him to identify. This was the best opportunity for me to discuss sedges from my own patch and I was pleased to be able to add a new name to our species list for Nimmitabel, viz *Lepidosperma gunnii*. Some other useful information imparted on Day 2 included the steps to follow when collecting good quality plant specimens. - Use a plastic bag with a little moisture in it (an atomiser and a ziplock are ideal, or blow in the bag before sealing) - Try to dry specimens quickly for the best chance of a 'green' collection as there is a naturally occurring chemical in plants which is only activated when the plant is picked, and ceases to function when the plant is dry. This chemical (phenene?) destroys the colour. So, put specimens into a plant press immediately, between cardboard tied up with a slightly stretchy cord, and use sunshine in summer and a fire in winter to accelerate the drying process - Get a 'typical' specimen - and you may like to scan or colour photocopy your specimen to preserve its original appearance - Record the locality, the date, the person who found it, the type of community (eg whether it's a disturbed/undisturbed site, soil type, a wet or dry area, name of any other plants you are sure about that are growing with it etc) - Bend the specimen with A4 size in mind, or newspaper size, spread them nicely, use 3M clear tape or a craft glue which Van says dries clear and lasts for years - Store in 4-ring A4 folders Tips/cautionary advice/unnecessary complications!!!!! Old Juncaceae start to look like Cyperaceae Hybridisation occurs Pith samples, stem diameters and stem hardness should be taken from the middle of the stem How to determine whether a Juncus has leaves or not? Some Juncus have stems which look like leaves to the uninitiated, but which are really flower stems which have not as yet developed a flowerhead - these stems have a sheath only at their base, whereas proper Juncus leaves will split off a Juncus stem. Conclusion So, my thanks go to Van for taking me out of my comfort zone and introducing me to some flora outside my normal ‘patches’. His wry sense of humour helped to establish a very comfortable atmosphere at the workshop and he often used it to illustrate aspects of his long close association with sedges. Van has a casual laidback style which participants obviously responded well to. Because Van’s key was designed to cover the sedges and rushes of Sydney and the Blue Mountains, I don’t know whether it will be very helpful at Nimmitabel, or even in the Canberra Region, but I am keen to find out. I shall just have to be extremely mindful that some, or even much, of the information presented at the workshop was obviously only applicable to the sedges and rushes of the Sydney Region, but, that aside, I had a most enjoyable time and learnt ample new information to make my trip to Sydney worthwhile. In addition to his sedge and rush key, Van has also written one for the grasses of the Sydney and Blue Mountains Region. He is also happy to identify sedge and rush specimens for a small fee of $4. If anyone would like his contact details, please give me a call. Willow Problem along the Yass River John Betts, Yass Area Network of Landcare Groups There is no doubt a well-grown weeping willow is a graceful tree and when reflected in a pool of water is a very aesthetically pleasing sight. The leaves of the willow tree are a nourishing fodder for livestock in times of drought and their roots tend to hold the banks of the streams together, preventing erosion. Farmers began settlement of the Yass River Valley in the 1840s and in the villages of Gundaroo and Yass were established servicing the relatively large properties in the valley where many sheep and cattle were run. During this time, weeping and basket willows were planted along the waterways. The system remained stable as major run off during rain events caused the rivers to flood, clearing out debris within the river, keeping the channel clear and free flowing. However, about twenty years ago, a major change started to take place in the land use in the catchment of the Yass River. People who worked in developing Canberra were looking for a rural environment in which to build their homes surrounded by a few hectares of space. The upper catchment of the Yass River, particularly around Geary’s Gap, Wamboyne, and Gundaroo and Murrumbateman was rezoned by local councils into small acreage blocks. Everyone is entitled to a reliable water supply for stock and domestic use, and for irrigated field crops. This factor has led to a massive rise in farm dams in the upper catchment. For example, eight thousand dams have gone in during the past ten years. These dams have acted as flood mitigation on flash floods within the river and tributaries, and this factor has led to major water problems in the Yass River. Because of the lack of flood events in the river, the millions of willows that were already there began to choke the river by growing across the bed of the river, as a natural result of the branches falling off the parent tree and striking in the shallow bed of the river. This situation has become steadily worse over recent years, until large stretches of the river are now blocked. Sadly, this has caused other problems as well. An expert of willow trees, Kurt Cremer, who recently inspected the river, has done considerable work into the effects on running streams caused by willows. He has estimated that one kilometre of river lined by willows each side, will transpire 6,300,000 litres of water out of the river during the ninety days of summer. It is estimated that the Yass River has forty-five kilometres of river between Yass and Gundaroo, plus side tributaries that are heavily infested. Another new problem caused by willows in the river is that the excessive leaf fall in autumn caused the water quality to deteriorate taking the oxygen out of the water with damaging effects to the aquatic life in the river. Yet another effect on water quality in the river caused by the lack of good flows is the fact that what flows that are in the river are coming from ground water (springs) that are carrying high salt loads that have originated from the rock sediment in the surrounding countryside. All these effects have resulted in very serious water quality problems in the Yass River and for the town of Yass whose supply comes from the weir upstream of Yass. What can be done about it? Here are some suggestions: - A public awareness campaign for all those living within the catchment of the problems. - The elimination of other varieties of "rogue" male willows, eg Black Willow, that cross with the female weeping willow to provide seedling hybrids that spread very readily and self sow in the sand bars and adjacent areas in the higher reaches of the river. - The poisoning and removal of the majority of the willows along and in the river, and planting of replacement vegetation such as river oaks, bottlebrush, and red gums to encourage biodiversity. - Non-wasteful use of water within the catchment. - General good practices in the catchment. - Approach government at various levels for funding and in-kind assistance for repairing the river and water flows. - Commence programs throughout landcare with the assistance of government agencies to work together in attacking and rectifying the problems. It is obvious that the clearing-up of the river and enhancing water quality and river flows and generally improving the biodiversity of the river will take time and large sums of money and a great deal of human endeavour. However, I am confident it can be done and moves are already afoot to make a start in achieving our goals, and with community support we shall achieve together. Top: Yass River downstream from Yass. Up to six months in most years the river is dry, due to willow infestation, over water use in Yass and environs, and the myriad of dams in the upper catchment of the river. Bottom: Yass River at "Cowridge" (John Betts' property) Black Range Road, Yass (below Yass), December 2001. Blowing our own trumpet: Part 1 On 21 August FOG was awarded the ACT Bushcare Conservation Award "for excellence and innovation in implementing nature conservation activities on land outside formal parks and reserves". The following is the first part of an extract from the nomination using the criteria against which the awards are judged. Continues next issue. An overall plan, including goals and an action timetable FOG was founded in late 1994 to focus on the recovery of natural temperate grasslands of the Southern Tablelands of NSW and ACT, a threatened ecological community. Subsequently, it expanded its focus to encompass all grassy ecosystems, particularly Yellow Box Red Gum Grassy Woodlands, another threatened community. It has continued to evolve to include all ecosystems that intergrade with grassy ecosystems across south-east Australia. It has a set of goals and a framework within which it considers its actions. It published a vision statement, Strategic planning for Canberra nature conservation, in its July-August 2002 Newsletter. That has become a focus for lobbying, public education and conservation endeavours for the Southern Tablelands. FOG's newsletter is published six times yearly and provides details of its varied program, research and education, visits to remnants, networking and other activities. We have run several major workshops and are participating with Stipa Native Grasses Association in its next conference in Cooma which should attract around 200 people. The FOG committee meets monthly. Over the years it has run workshops for the committee on strategic planning which have assisted in determining its vision, setting objectives, and to planning its activities, both lobbying and public education. Each year it determines its policies and its varied program to reach as many members as possible. FOG has attempted through its research and activities to push out the envelope on grassy ecosystem recovery and to integrate work on threatened species and communities with other environmental, economic and social objectives. Partnerships and networking with other groups is another goal which is actively pursued to spread information and skills relating to the conservation of grassy ecosystems. Currently most members of FOG are also members of other community groups or agencies. For example, FOG pursues close links with the Conservation Council for the South East Region and Canberra, and the Australian Native Plants Society (ANPS) Canberra Region. FOG has arranged visits to other regions where there are grassy ecosystems, both to create networks there and to exchange learning and experience. FOG is a frequent visitor to all parts of the Southern Tablelands and the Alps. In NSW it has visited the western slopes, the central western slopes, the north and south coast, the Hay Plain, and New England. Similarly it has visited areas around Clare in SA and the Alps and the western district of Victoria. Following the *Strategic planning for Canberra nature conservation* statement, it obtained assistance from Environment ACT, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service and ANPS to conduct a workshop on how to move the initiative forward. That has since led to the creation of the Southern Tablelands Ecosystems Park that has a threefold purpose. This includes creating a regional botanic garden focusing on the ecosystems of the Southern Tablelands, the creation of an education program, and the creation of an ecosystem recovery centre to draw together the knowledge and skills to facilitate the identification, protection, conservation management, and restoration of the region’s natural ecosystems. **New Grassland Nature Reserves** *Reprinted from Austral Bugle Vol.1 no. 2* In March 2003, the NSW Government announced the gazettement of two native grassland remnants as nature reserves. Now officially named Kuma Nature Reserve and Turallo Nature Reserve, these areas located within the Southern Tablelands contain excellent examples of grassy ecosystems. Kuma Nature Reserve, previously part of the privately owned property known as *Rockview*, is located south-east of Cooma on the Nimmitabel road. It contains a good example of the Natural Temperate Grasslands typical of the basalt plains of the Monaro region. The Poa Tussock community on the site is in excellent condition, with good structural qualities that contribute to the diverse reptile fauna found there. Nine reptile species have been recorded on this site, including three threatened species; the endangered Grassland Earless Dragon (*Tympanocryptis pinguicollis*), the vulnerable Striped Legless Lizard (*Delma impar*) and the Little Whip Snake (*Suta flagellum*), also vulnerable. This is quite significant, as none of these threatened reptiles are known from any other reserve in NSW. Regionally restricted or uncommon plants recorded at Kuma NR include the Silky Swainson-pea (*Swainsona sericea*), the Notched Swainson-pea (*S. monticola*) and the Hoary Sunray (*Leucochrysum albicans*). Although the site has limited scope for recreation, access for education and research purposes will be encouraged. Community involvement in the management of the reserve has already been engaged. A steering committee has been established and a Plan of Management is in process. Turallo Nature Reserve is located on the Hoskintown Road, south of Burgendore. This site has a very high floristic diversity. The grassland is punctuated by huge old Candlebarks (*Eucalyptus rubida*) that provide hollows for nesting birds. In spring the purple Chocolate Lilies (*Dichopogon fimbriatus*) fill the air with a chocolate aroma. Golden Moth Orchids (*Diuris chrysoglossa*) vie with Creamy Candles (*Stackhousia monogyna*), Chamomile Burr-daisies (*Calotis anthemoideas*) and Early Nancies (*Wurmbea dioica*). In summer the pretty pink Australian Bindweed (*Convolvulus erubescens*) and the spiky Blue Devil (*Eryngium rostratum*) feature, but the true colour of summer is yellow with Scaly Buttons (*Leptorhynchos squamatus*), Lemon Beautyheads (*Calocephalus citreus*) and Common Everlasting (*Chrysocephalum apiculatum*) dominating the show. As autumn turns to winter the colour is russet brown, edged with pink, as the Kangaroo Grass (*Themeda australis*) takes on its winter hue. A third exciting acquisition for the National Parks Estate is an area of land known as ‘Mountain Top’ in the Tantawangalo forest. This 162ha inholding in the South East Forest National Park was purchased by its last owners, Bob and June Wilkinson, as a strategic location for forest campaign activity during the South East Forest Campaign. Since then the property has been managed for its natural values. The land contains a Basalt Cap Grassland in the upper catchment of Solomons Creek, a major tributary of Tantawangalo Creek. The Basalt Cap Grassland found here is one of few remaining relatively undisturbed in this area. This Poa Tussock dominated, intermittently boggy grassland is a blaze of colour when the Trigger-plants (*Stylidium graminifolium*) flower. This grassland is the type locality for a previously undescribed orchid species that was first discovered by Rainer Rehwinkel on his initial site visit. This species has since been described and named by CSIRO orchid specialist David Jones, as *Prasophyllum wilkinsoniorum* in honour of Bob and June Wilkinson. These grassland reserves and their managers at NPWS have been registered on the Southern Tablelands Grassy Ecosystems CMN. Does Money grow on trees ... or shrubs? Michael Bedingfield The peak flowering time for the Grey Guinea Flower is October - November, though it can flower at other times, producing bright yellow circles of 5 petals, up to 30 mm across, reminding the earlier generations of the golden guinea of that era. The petals have wavy edges with the tips having two rounded lobes. The foliage is a greyish green and explains the remainder of the plant's common name. This small shrub grows to 30 cm tall and is quite common in the Canberra hills, occurring in grassy woodlands and open forests of the district. It is widespread throughout southern NSW and Victoria, being somewhat resilient to disturbance, and can persist in areas cleared of trees for pasture. The scientific name for the plant is *Hibbertia obtusifolia*. The genus name "Hibbertia" is after George Hibbert (d. 1838), a merchant from London who was a patron of botany. He owned a private botanic garden in Chelsea and imported Australian plants. "Obtusifolia" comes from the shape of the leaves, which are blunt-pointed. Locally the *Hibbertia* genus is also represented by the less common *H. riparia* (Hairy Guinea Flower), which is a smaller plant, with smaller flowers and narrow, hairy leaves and which prefers damper areas. Present as well is *H. calycina* (Lesser Guinea Flower), which is a larger plant, growing to 40 cm, with narrow, non-furry leaves, and flowers less than 20 mm across. The framed drawing shows the top end of a branch of the Grey Guinea Flower at half size. A flower, flower bud and leaves are shown separately at normal size. The Grey Guinea Flower - an expression of nature's wealth with splashes of gold in our woodlands each spring. Friends of Grasslands Newsletter Do you want to subscribe to the newsletter? It comes out six times a year, and you can obtain it by joining FOG. You do not need to be an active member - some who join often have many commitments and only wish to receive the newsletter. However, if you own or lease a property, are a member of a landcare or parkcare group, or actively interested in grassland and woodland conservation or revegetation, we hope we have something to offer you. We may assist by visiting sites and identifying native species and harmful weeds. We can suggest conservation and revegetation goals as well as management options, help document the site, and sometimes support applications for assistance, etc. Of course you may wish to increase your own understanding of grasslands and woodlands, plant identification skills, etc. and so take a more active interest in our activities. Most activities are free and we also try to arrange transport (or car pool) to activities. If you are already a member, why not encourage friends to join, or make a gift of membership to someone else? We will also send a complimentary newsletter to anyone who wants to know more about us. How to join Friends of Grasslands Send us details of your name, address, telephone, fax, and email, etc. You might also indicate your interests in grassland issues. Membership is $20 for an individual or family; $5 for students, unemployed or pensioners; and $50 for corporations or organisations - the latter can request two newsletters be sent. Please make cheques payable to Friends of Grasslands Inc. If you would like any further information about membership please contact Kim Pullen or Margaret Ning, or if you would like to discuss FOG issues contact Geoff Robertson. Contact details are given in the box above. We look forward to hearing from you.
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Why Are There Contaminants in Drinking Water? As water travels over the land or through the ground, it dissolves naturally occurring minerals, radioactive material, and can pick up substances resulting from the presence of animal or human activity. Drinking water originates from surface water (rivers, lakes, streams, ponds or reservoirs) and groundwater (springs and wells). Bottled waters are generally from springs, wells, and public water systems. DeKalb County gets all of its water from a surface water source, the Chattahoochee River. The Food and Drug Administration regulations establish limits for contaminants in bottled water. While some contaminants are beneficial, the EPA and the EPD under the authority of the Safe Drinking Water Act set regulations that limit the amount of certain contaminants in water supplied by public water systems to ensure safe drinking water. In addition, 250 water samples are taken each month and tested throughout the DeKalb County distribution system. More information about contaminants and potential health effects can be obtained by calling the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline at 1-800-426-4791. Lead Notice Elevated levels of lead in drinking water can cause serious health problems, especially for pregnant women and young children. Lead in drinking water is primarily from materials and components associated with water service lines and building plumbing. The Department of Watershed Management is responsible for providing high quality drinking water, but cannot control the variety of materials used in building plumbing components. When your water has been sitting for several hours, you can minimize the potential for lead exposure by flushing your tap for at least 30 seconds to 2 minutes before using the water for drinking or cooking. If you are concerned about lead in your water, you may wish to have your water tested. Information on lead in drinking water, testing methods, and steps you can take to minimize exposure is available from the Safe Drinking Water Hotline at 1-800-426-4791 or at http://epa.gov/safewater/lead. DeKalb County Assures Customers of Water Quality EPD Lead Tests in Compliance The Department of Watershed Management (DWM) provides its customers with high quality, safe drinking water that surpasses the United States Department of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the State of Georgia Environmental Protection Division (EPD) requirements. Every three years the EPD runs the analysis of the county’s water in a certified laboratory to assure an extra level of protection and compliance by its independent analysis. In 2015, the Georgia EPD Lab ran 50 water samples county wide and DeKalb County was found to meet or exceed the Federal compliance lead levels. The recent water quality crisis in the country underscores DWM’s commitment to protect families served in DeKalb County. To obtain a copy of this report, please visit our website: www.dekalbwatershed.com Para obtener una copia de este reporte en Español, por favor visite: www.dekalbwatershed.com Join us for DeKalb County Board of Commissioners Meetings • Regular meetings @ 9 a.m., broadcast live on Comcast Channel 23 or live-streamed at www.dekalbcountyga.gov/dctv. Watch the Board of Commissioners Regular Meeting Re-Broadcast • Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday 9 a.m. & 7 p.m. IMPORTANT PHONE NUMBERS Billing/Water Cutoff (8:30 a.m. – 5 p.m.) 404 - 378 - 4475 Emergency Repair – 24 hours 770 - 270 - 6243 FOG Questions/Information 404 - 687 - 7150 Drinking Water Questions/Information 770 - 391 - 6047 LIKE US ON FACEBOOK: https://www.facebook.com/DeKalb-Watershed-611484352307733/ PWSID #GA0890001 DeKalb County Department of Watershed Management provides its customers with high quality, safe drinking water that surpasses the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the State of Georgia Environmental Protection Division (EPD) requirements. DeKalb County has consistently produced superior quality drinking water. This 2016 Drinking Water Quality Report, along with the Consumer Confidence Report (CCR), provides a detailed account of all the monitoring data gathered from water quality testing during 2015. We are proud to provide the enclosed information. For questions about this report and the quality of DeKalb County drinking water, please call Jody Shoemaker (Senior Chemist, Scott Candler Water Treatment Plant) at 770-391-6047 or visit our website at www.dekalbwatershed.com. Public participation in decisions that may affect the quality of drinking water is encouraged and welcomed. The public is invited to attend DeKalb County’s Board of Commissioners meetings (the schedule is listed on the back of this report). For more information about DeKalb County, please visit the County’s website at www.dekalbcountyga.gov. The Purpose of this Report The U.S. Congress revised the Safe Drinking Act in 1996, requiring public water systems to send annual CCRs to all of their customers. The DeKalb County Department of Watershed Management supports this effort and is pleased to present this report. The report is in compliance with the EPA’s National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. Information on these regulations is available on the EPA’s drinking water website at www.epa.gov/safewater, or from the Safe Drinking Water Hotline at 1-800-426-4791. Understanding the Terms in this Table **AL - Action Level:** The concentration of a contaminant which, if exceeded, triggers treatment or other requirements that a water system must follow. **BDL - Below Detection Limit:** The value of a result is below the smallest amount of a substance that a method can reliably distinguish from zero. **MCL - Maximum Contaminant Level:** The highest level of a contaminant that is allowed in drinking water below which there is no known or expected risk to health. MCLs are set as close to the MCLGs as feasible using effective treatment. **MCLG - Maximum Contaminant Level Goal:** The level of a contaminant in drinking water below which there is no known or expected risk to health. MCLGs allow for a margin of safety. **MRDL - Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level:** The highest level of residual disinfectant (such as chlorine) allowed in drinking water. Addition of a disinfectant is necessary for control of microbiological contaminants. **MRDLG - Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level Goal:** The level of a drinking water disinfectant below which there is no known or expected risk to health. MRDLGs do not reflect the benefits of the use of disinfectants to control microbial contaminants. **NTU - Nephelometric Turbidity Units:** Measurement of turbidity. **ppm - Parts per million:** One part per million is equivalent to one minute in two years or one penny in 10 thousand dollars. **ppb - Parts per billion:** One part per billion is equivalent to one minute in 2,000 years or one penny in 10 million dollars. **P/A - Presence/Abundance:** Presence/absence of total coliform; abundance is measured as less than 1 colony forming unit per 100 milliliters of drinking water. **TT - Treatment Technique:** A required process intended to reduce the level of a contaminant in drinking water. **Other N/A – not applicable; < - less than; ≥ - greater than or equal to.** ### Regulated Chemicals Tested and Detected | Chemical | Units | Result* | Range of Detections | Highest Level Allowed (MCL) | Ideal Goals (MCLG) | Violation | |-------------------|-------|---------|---------------------|-----------------------------|--------------------|-----------| | Fluoride | ppm | 0.8 | 0.1 to 1.7 | 4.0 | 4.0 | NO | | Nitrate (as Nitrogen) | ppm | 0.7 | 0.6 to 0.99 | 10 | 10 | NO | | Chlorine, Free | ppm | 1.59 | 1.100 to 1.98 | WDL = 4 | MRDL = 4 | NO | | Chlorine Total | ppm | 1.89 | 1.572 to 2.23 | WDL = 4 | MRDL = 4 | NO | | Total Trihalomethanes (THMs) | ppb | 31 | 12 to 55 | 80 | N/A | NO | | Total Haloacetic Acids (HAAs) | ppb | 8 | 4 to 19 | 60 | N/A | NO | ### 2015 Copper and Lead Test Results from Consumer’s Tap | Chemical | Units | 90th Percentile | Number of Sites Exceeding AL | Range of Detections | Highest Level Allowed (MCL) | Ideal Goals (MCLG) | Violation | |----------|-------|-----------------|------------------------------|---------------------|-----------------------------|--------------------|-----------| | Copper | ppm | 0.0 | 0 | 0 to 0.037 | AL = 1.3 | AL = 1.3 | NO | | Lead | ppb | 4.2 | 0 | 0 to 21 | AL = 15 | AL = 15 | NO | ### Other Regulated Parameters and Micro-organisms | Parameter | Units | Result* | Range of Detections | Highest Level Allowed (MCL) | Ideal Goals (MCLG) | Violation | |----------------------------|-------|---------|---------------------|-----------------------------|--------------------|-----------| | Turbidity (NTU) | NTU | 0.18 | N/A | TT = 1 NTU | N/A | NO | | | | 100.00% | N/A | TT = percentage of readings > 1 NTU | N/A | NO | | Total Organic carbon (TOC) | RR | 1.15<sup>a</sup> | 1.00 to 1.33 | TT = TOC removal ratio (RR) ≥1<sup>b</sup> | N/A | NO | | Total Coliforms | P/A | 0.45% per month | BDL to 1.5% | Not more than 5% per month | Zero | NO | --- This report includes data collected between Jan. 1 and Dec. 31, 2015 by DeKalb County Watershed Management. *a*Value represents the annual average unless otherwise noted. *b*Value represents the highest level detected. *c*TT requires a removal ratio (RR) of 1.0 or higher, calculated as follows: (running annual average) / (running annual average). --- ### What May Be Present In Drinking Water Before It’s Treated Microbial contaminants: includes viruses and bacteria; may come from sewage treatment plants, septic systems, agricultural livestock operations, and wildlife. Inorganic contaminants: includes salts and metals, naturally occurring or from urban stormwater runoff, industrial or domestic wastewater discharges, oil/gas production, mining, or farming. Pesticides and herbicides: may come from agriculture, urban stormwater run-off, and residential use. Organic chemicals: includes synthetic and volatile chemicals (by-products of industrial processes and petroleum production, and also from gas stations, urban stormwater run-off, and septic systems). Radioactive contaminants: naturally occurring or a result of oil/gas production and mining activities. Protozoa: cryptosporidium, which has never been detected in the DeKalb County drinking water system. The county is diligently working to ensure that this protozoan never enters the drinking water system. Ingestion of this protozoan may cause symptoms that include diarrhea, nausea, and/or stomach cramps. DeKalb County regularly monitors your drinking water for cryptosporidium. --- ### Testing the Quality of Drinking Water Tap water is tested for various water quality parameters to ensure that the water is safe for people to drink. These parameters are selected by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Georgia Environmental Protection Division (EPD). Testing for these water parameters is required by law. DeKalb County drinking water is tested as often as hourly, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week at the water treatment plant and five days a week throughout the water distribution system. DeKalb County tests its water in full compliance with requirements set by the EPA and the EPD. Tests are performed by, or under, the direct supervision of State-certified operators and laboratory analysts.
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MARIA GIANFERRARI and her rescue dog Maple play race and chase in Massachusetts rain or shine. She’s also the author of these pawsome dog “tails”: the Penny & Jelly books, Hello Goodbye Dog, and Operation Rescue Dog. Can you tell that Maria loves dogs? Writing Being a Dog helped Maria feel joy again after losing her rescue dog Becca. You can learn more about Maria at her website, www.mariagianferrari.com. PETE OSWALD is the #1 New York Times bestselling illustrator of The Cool Bean, The Good Egg, and The Bad Seed, written by Jory John. The bestselling duo also created That’s What Dinosaurs Do together. Pete is the cocreator of Mirgo the flamingo and works on numerous highly successful animated franchises as a character designer, concept artist, and production designer. He lives in Los Angeles with his wife and three sons. Visit Pete online at www.peteoswald.com. Jacket art © 2022 by Pete Oswald Being a DOG: A Tail of Mindfulness Words by MARIA GIANFERRARI Pictures by PETE OSWALD #1 New York Times Bestselling Illustrator Let’s BE like a dog. Wag your body. Shake, shake, shake! Breathe in Sniff, sniff, sniff! Bark and growl and yowl and sing! AwOOOO!!! Play every day. Then curl up and let everything go. Move along with the story, discover the present moment, and simply be—just like a dog—in this inventive tale from beloved author Maria Gianferrari and #1 New York Times bestselling illustrator Pete Oswald! Being a DOG A Tail of Mindfulness Words by MARIA GIANFERRARI Pictures by PETE OSWALD HARPER An Imprint of HarperCollinsPublishers To our beloved family dogs present: Maple, Luna & Barkley And past: Becca, Elvis, Bumper, Mac, Willow, Honey, Chance, Allie, Marble, Brandi & Dylan —M.G. Inspired by Radar —P.O. Being a Dog: A Tail of Mindfulness Text copyright © 2022 by Maria Gianferrari Illustrations copyright © 2022 by Pete Oswald All rights reserved. Manufactured in Italy. No part of this book may be reproduced or translated in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information address HarperCollins Children’s Books, a division of HarperCollins Publishers, 195 Broadway, New York, NY 10007. www.harpercollinschildrens.com ISBN 978-0-06-306794-2 The artist used cutout paper and scanned watercolor textures to create the digital illustrations for this book. Typography by Jeanné Higley 21 22 13 24 25 RTD 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Can you be like a dog? Being like a dog is BE-ing. Right now. Not before Zzzz or after. Just now. Stretch while you rise. Wag your body. Munch your food. Greet the day Lap your drink. and everyone you love. Can you sniff like a dog? Breathe deep. Sniff, sniff, sniffing . . . everything. Let's play like a dog! Invite your friends, then romp, and chase. race, Tag and tug. Play every day. Rain or shine. Like a dog, feel what you’re feeling: Bark if you’re worried. Growl if you’re angry. Yowl if you’re sad. Sing if you’re happy. And if you’re really happy, wag your whole body again and again! Be curious. Feel the emotion, then let it go and BE. Let the wind ruffle your fur. Nap in the sun or the shade. Wade and watch in the water. Hide and leap from the leaves! Tunnel and shovel in the sand. Whirl and roll and swirl in the snow. Take a taste. (But not if it’s yellow!) Let's sleep like a dog: Notice the night. Circle before you sleep. Feel the fatigue. Drop and dream. Let's be like a dog right now. TAKE A MINDFUL NATURE WALK WITH A FRIEND! Find some green space, whether it’s a city park or country woods. SNIFF like a DOG Breathe in deeply and close your eyes. Do you smell . . . HEAR like a DOG Close your eyes. Listen. Do you hear . . . SPRING cherry blossoms? pollen? (cah-chool) earthy rain? croaking frogs? the cracking of baseballs on bats? drumming woodpeckers? A dog’s sense of smell is so keen that they can detect one grain of sugar in 1,000 grains of salt! Humans have around 6 million receptors for detecting smell, while dogs have over 300 million! SUMMER fresh-cut grass? barbeque? cotton candy? swishing jump ropes? buzzing mosquitoes? booming thunder and fireworks? Dogs are better at hearing higher frequency sounds, like the squeak of a mouse, while the human ear hears lower frequency sounds better. FALL cinnamon? musky leaves? spicy apple cider? the whisper of fallen leaves? acorns plopping? honking geese? WINTER fresh snow? chimney smoke? evergreen trees? the scritch-scratch of ice skates? snow crunching underfoot? sloshing slush? SEE like a DOG Look around: up, down, over, and under. Do you see . . . FEEL like a DOG What do the things you touch feel like? Notice all the different textures. Do you feel . . . TASTE like a DOG Yum! Do you taste . . . SPRING daffodils? robins’ eggs? bumblebees? sticky mud? bumpy toads? velvety pussy willows? strawberries and cream? fiddleheads? lemonade? Dogs can’t see the same colors that we do. They mostly see yellows and blues. SUMMER dandelions? monarch butterflies? bluebirds? soft sand? rough rocks? smooth shells? ice cream? s’mores? watermelon? Dogs’ fur feels fluffy and soft. Their tongues are smooth and wet. Their ears are like velour. Ouch! Don’t forget that whoosh of a wagging tail! FALL colorful leaves? school buses? bright blue skies? silky milkweed seeds? bristly pinecones? brittle leaves? caramel apples? pumpkin pie? cider donuts? Dogs only have about 1,700 taste buds. Humans have 9,000! WINTER icicles? snowmen? feathery frost? itchy wool? cozy fleece? snowballs? hot chocolate with whipped cream? candy canes? holiday cookies? MINDFUL BREATHING EXERCISE We like to feel happy, but it’s hard to feel sad and scared. When we’re feeling this way, it helps to first notice that feeling and greet it like it’s a friend: “Hello, sadness. How are you doing today?” or “Greetings, fear. I see you’re here again.” Feel the emotion—hold it like a kite, and then let it fly away. One thing that can help when we’re feeling sad and scared is breathing deeply. 🐾 Sit still. 🐾 Close your eyes. 🐾 Imagine that your lungs are like a big balloon that you’re filling with air. 🐾 Slowly count to five as you breathe in: one, two, three, four five. In your mind, see the balloon fill up with air. 🐾 Hold it for a moment. See the full balloon. Then slowly breathe out, counting backward, five, four, three, two, one, as you see the balloon get smaller and smaller. Repeat this three times and several times a day. Deep breathing gets more oxygen to your brain and will help you feel calmer.
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Long Path Protection Plan New York-New Jersey Trail Conference plan to protect the Long Path, extending 400+ miles between New York City and the Adirondack Park. Land Trust Alliance Together, conserving the places you love The Long Path is maintained by volunteers of the New York-New Jersey Trail Conference in conjunction with multiple park partners and maintaining clubs in New York and New Jersey. The Long Path Protection Plan was supported with funding from the New York State Conservation Partnership Program (NYSCPP) and New York’s Environmental Protection Fund. The NYSCPP is administered by the Land Trust Alliance, in coordination with the state Department of Environmental Conservation. The New York-New Jersey Trail Conference has partnered with parks to create, protect, and promote a network of over 2,100 miles of public trails in the New York-New Jersey metropolitan region. The Trail Conference organizes volunteer service projects that keep these trails open, safe, and enjoyable for the public. We publish maps and books that guide public use of these trails. The Trail Conference is a nonprofit organization with a membership of 10,000 individuals and 100 clubs that have a combined membership of over 100,000 active, outdoor-loving people. The Land Trust Alliance is a national nonprofit conservation organization that works to save the places people need and love by strengthening land conservation across America. The Alliance represents more than 1,000 member land trusts and their 4.6 million supporters nationwide. As the voice of the land trust community, the Land Trust Alliance is the national leader in policy, standards and education. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) was created in 1970 to combine all state programs designed to protect and enhance the environment into a single agency. DEC’s mission is to conserve, improve, and protect New York’s natural resources and environment and to prevent, abate and control water, land and air pollution, in order to enhance the health, safety and welfare of the people of the state and their overall economic and social well-being. # TABLE OF CONTENTS Overview Map ................................................................. 4 The Long Path ................................................................. 5 How to Use this Plan ....................................................... 8 ## Southern Section Southern Section Map ................................................. 9 Rockland County ......................................................... 10 Orange County .......................................................... 27 Sullivan County .......................................................... 56 ## Catskills Section Catskills Section Map ................................................... 64 Ulster County .............................................................. 65 Greene County ............................................................ 78 ## Northern Section Northern Section Map ............................................... 96 Schoharie County ....................................................... 97 Albany County .......................................................... 133 Schenectady County .................................................. 155 Saratoga and Fulton Counties ..................................... 175 Acknowledgements ....................................................... 179 Long Path The Long Path The Long Path (LP) is a trail that extends nearly 360 miles as a completed trail from near the 175th Street Subway Station in New York City to John Boyd Thacher State Park near Albany, New York, the current official terminus. The trail continues northward with blazed roadwalks and some off-road sections to the Mohawk River, and then a mostly unblazed roadwalk to reach Northville in the Adirondack Park for a total Long Path length of more than 425 miles; there are ongoing efforts to move more of these sections off the roads. The aqua-blazed Long Path traverses many scenic and historic regions of varied geologic setting on the west side of the Hudson River, including the Palisades, Harriman State Park, the Shawangunk Ridge, the Catskills, and the Helderberg Escarpment. The New York-New Jersey Trail Conference has been championing the Long Path for decades, with more aggressive protection work beginning in the late-1990s and early-2000s. Efforts have largely been piecemeal, with progress made slowly but surely to close or narrow gaps in protected lands. Assembling a 400+-mile-long trail corridor is a labor-intensive, multi-decade campaign that largely does not fit the missions of most other land conservation organizations, so the experiences and many small achievements has led to the Trail Conference acquiring institutional knowledge of how to create minimalist linear corridors where necessary and state forest-sized corridors where possible. The Trail Conference has learned that providing a vision and a plan for trail corridor protection can be an extremely useful resource. This Long Path Protection Plan (LPPP), with detailed maps and descriptive priority parcel protection narratives, will serve as a roadmap for partnerships and engagements. The Trail Conference already works with many great partners at all levels of involvement, but this LPPP will advance shared missions and open space goals and ultimately help expedite the goal of creating a protected Long Path corridor from New York City to the Adirondacks. The following testimonial from Kylie Yang, Long Path End-to-Ender #190 and former Trail Conference NY Program Coordinator, encapsulates the importance of protecting the Long Path: *The Long Path is a truly unique and beautiful trail. After joining the Trail Conference in 2020, I decided to section hike the Long Path over a few months. While I had experience with long-distance hiking on the Appalachian Trail, I was shocked at the swiftly changing scenery the Long Path provided. Winding through Palisades Interstate Park, over cliffs in Minnewaska, with sweeping views throughout the Catskills and views of Albany from John Boyd Thatcher State Park, I cannot think of another trail that encompasses so many diverse parks in so few miles. Walking through small communities I would’ve otherwise not seen, and being greeted by livestock on road walks was a truly unique experience. The trail was often remote, but it was always marked and maintained well. While I regularly went several days without seeing other hikers, I was grateful for the rugged, beautiful, and often solitary experience that many other long-distance trails cannot provide. The Long Path is a true gem, and deserves protection to ensure it lasts for generations of hikers to come!* History of the Long Path: In 1931, Vincent J. Schaefer of the Mohawk Valley Hiking Club put forth an idea for “New York’s Long Path.” Unlike other trails, the Long Path was to be a path without any clearing or marking, where one would just wander using a compass and maps to reach pre-determined destinations, which he labeled as points. This trailless path had a predetermined starting point of “Towers of the George Washington Bridge” and an ending point of “Whiteface Mountain.” With the help of W. W. Cady, he took this one step further to scout the complete route. On March 27, 1934, Raymond Torrey began to print a section of the Long Path every Tuesday in his article “The Long Brown Path.” This was done every Tuesday through August 26, 1935. There were soon some efforts to create a marked trail, including by Alexander Jessup who marked the trail into the Catskills by 1943, but the timing of World War II led to the idea soon fading away. In 1960, Robert Jessen and Michael Warren revived the idea as a cleared, marked and maintained path. By this time both housing developments and private property postings prevented a hiker from wandering wherever they wanted. Without a planned route or permission from private landowners, an off-road bush whacking route would have been difficult to achieve. Through the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s the Trail Conference worked to refine the path and protect it through advocacy efforts. In the 1990s, the Trail Conference began to get more aggressive with moving the Long Path off roads while also extending the Long Path north into Schoharie and Albany counties. The Trail Conference also began to purchase properties to protect the Long Path. By the turn of the century, the Trail Conference was aggressively working to protect the Long Path north of the Catskill Park. Here the Trail Conference’s 30-year effort has permanently protected 14.3 miles of the Long Path with the protection of more than 1,000 acres, which was instrumental in the creation of Mount Hayden State Forest. By 2000, the Trail Conference also began to aggressively preserve the Shawangunk Ridge Trail (SRT) from High Point State Park in New Jersey to Sam’s Point Preserve, now part of Minnewaska State Park Preserve. This mammoth effort required assistance from numerous partner organizations and buy in from New York State. Over the last 30 years, Trail Conference efforts have helped protect more than 4,000 acres along the southern Shawangunk Ridge to help create a protected corridor for the Long Path and Shawangunk Ridge Trail. In 2012, the Long Path route through Orange County was significantly moved to align it with the Shawangunk Ridge Trail for nearly 36 miles, from the Town of Greenville in Orange County northward to Sam’s Point. **Land Protection Steps:** The strategy used by the Trail Conference in planning and pursuing protected corridors has largely consisted of the following steps: 1. **Identify corridor priority parcels** - These are parcels that protect critical areas, parcels that connect to other protected lands, parcels that provide a protected land buffer, or parcels that could provide additional trail opportunities. These parcels are largely identified through a combination of on-the-ground assessment, GIS mapping, and county/municipal tax maps. 2. **Identify which parcels may be feasible to protect** - The Trail Conference and its partners may attempt to identify which parcels may actually be feasible for protecting with some form of protection, starting with landowner agreements and progressing to trail or conservation easements and outright acquisition. This process can involve establishing relationships and lines of communication with landowners, negotiating potential costs of the land, and working with park partners to understand whether potential acquired lands would ultimately be transferred. 3. **Work to complete the protection** - Once a parcel is considered feasible for protection, the Trail Conference and its partners work to line up everything needed to complete the protection. For an acquisition, this process can involve working with the landowner to finalize a purchase price and other terms, obtaining funds needed to acquire the parcel, and conducting surveys and performing legal reviews and title searches. These steps eventually lead to a closing date, when the land is transferred to the Trail Conference or other land trust partner and becomes protected! 4. **If land is acquired, transfer the acquisition to New York State or another partner** - The Trail Conference is not a land trust, so we prefer to not hold on to protected land and instead transfer it to either New York State or a land trust partner. The timeframe for when a transfer occurs depends on several variables, including the parcel’s significance and priority in comparison with potential acquisitions statewide, as well as the amount of funding New York State or other land trust partners has available to purchase these lands. The situations surrounding any particular parcel vary greatly, such that the timeframe between the first step and last step can involve only 1-2 years of work, or require 10-20 years of persistence! Conservation Corridor Protection: The Long Path Protection Plan aims to link conservation and recreation goals by preserving land adjacent to the Long Path to contribute to interconnected conservation corridors that support habitat connectivity and combat landscape degradation. The strategic protections outlined in the Long Path Protection Plan aim to create a fully protected corridor that would benefit recreational and environmental resources from New York City to the Adirondack Park. The protection of ecological corridors is a strategy that land managers, planners, and interest groups utilize to reduce habitat fragmentation and degradation. Anthropogenic disturbances such as urbanization and development disrupt wildlife interactions and movement, resulting in a decline of biodiversity in developed areas. Clearing of native vegetation creates patches or islands of habitats, isolating plants and animals and interrupting ecological processes like migration, dispersal, pollination, and mating. Ecological or conservation corridors link vegetated areas and water bodies, enabling habitat connectivity that allows plants and animals to migrate and disperse in the face of changing seasons, degraded ecosystems, and changing climate. Wildlife moves daily and seasonally to reach food, water, shelter, and breeding sites and are more frequently relying on corridors to locate their needs. A study in Tensas River Basin, Louisiana found that bears moved more regularly through wooded patches connected by corridors than wooded areas fragmented by agricultural land, indicating corridors supported the idea that habitat connectivity is necessary to sustain black bear population (USDA 1999). Additionally, Aziz & Rasidi (2014) found that greater species richness is likely in wider corridors with more forest. In addition to habitat connectivity to wildlife, corridors play a substantial role in improving watershed conditions by reducing the impact of agricultural runoff into riparian zones, decreasing erosion and flooding, and improving water and air quality (USDA 1999; Lynch 2019). Investment in corridor protection adjacent to recreational trail systems offers an opportunity to promote ecological conservation that is compatible with human activity. There is a growing body of research that indicates physical and psychological human health benefit from the presence of biodiversity and natural landscapes (Russell et al. 2013; Seymour 2016; Frumkin et al. 2017). Therefore, by integrating regional trail networks with ecological corridors, the Long Path will serve as a multipurpose corridor that protects functioning ecosystems and promotes human health. References: Aziz, H. A., & Rasidi, M. H. (2014). *The role of green corridors for wildlife conservation in urban landscape: A literature review*. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 18, No. 1, p. 012093). IOP Publishing. Frumkin, H., Bratman, G. N., Breslow, S. J., Cochran, B., Kahn Jr, P. H., Lawler, J. J., ... & Wood, S. A. (2017). *Nature contact and human health: A research agenda*. Environmental health perspectives, 125(7), 075001. Hector, T. S., Allen, W., Carr, M., Zwick, P. D., Huntley, E., Smith, D. J., ... & Hilsenbeck, R. (2008). *Land corridors in the southeast: connectivity to protect biodiversity and ecosystem services*. J Conserv Plan, 4, 90-122. Lynch, A. J. (2019). Creating effective urban greenways and stepping-stones: Four critical gaps in habitat connectivity planning research. *Journal of Planning Literature, 34*(2), 131-155. Rinaldo, A., Gatto, M., & Rodriguez-Iturbe, I. (2018). *River networks as ecological corridors: A coherent ecohydrological perspective*. Advances in Water Resources, 112, 27–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2017.10.005 Russell R, Guerry AD, Balvanera P, Gould RK, Basurto X, Chan KMA, et al. (2013). Humans and nature: how knowing and experiencing nature affect well-being. *Annu Rev Environ Resour* 38:473–502 Seymour V. (2016). *The human-nature relationship and its impact on health: A critical review*. Front Public Health 4:260 USDA. (1999). *Conservation Corridor Planning at the Landscape Level. Chapter 4: Corridor Benefits*. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C33&as_vis=1&q=Corridor+Benefits+USDA&btnG= How to Use this Plan This Long Path Protection Plan examines individual Project Areas that are largely focused on unprotected property between already-protected lands. These Project Areas are organized by county, starting in Rockland County at the New York/New Jersey state border and proceeding northward toward Adirondack Park. The initial section in New Jersey is not included here because once the Long Path crosses the George Washington Bridge, it is routed entirely through protected Palisades Interstate Park land in New Jersey with one small exception that occurs as the Long Path crisscrosses the border at Rockland County. The counties are grouped into the following sections, with an overview section map proceeding each section in the Plan: - **Southern Section:** Rockland, Orange, Sullivan - **Catskills Section:** Ulster, Greene - **Northern Section:** Schoharie, Albany, Schenectady, Saratoga, Fulton The first eight counties are structured in the following way: - **Overview and History** of the Long Path in that county - **County Map** showing the route of the Long Path and specific project area locations - **Project Area Descriptions and Action Items** - **Project Area Parcel Lists** of protection priority parcels within the desired corridor - **Project Area Maps** showing protected lands and preferred Long Path routes The northernmost counties of Saratoga and Fulton are represented by descriptions of potential routes and rough maps of these routes, but they do not yet include specific Project Areas. The section for Orange County also includes information and project areas for the related Shawangunk Ridge Trail. While this Long Path Protection Plan is designed to show all the priority areas along the trail, each section and county can also be looked at individually. The hope is that this plan will assist interested Long Path stakeholders in engaging in actions to preserve and protect the Long Path in any given Project Area or County. Each Project Area Map includes a legend showing the manager level of protected lands (i.e., state, county, municipal, land trust). Note that orange-shaded Corridor Priority Parcels are parcels for which some form of protection should be secured, so that could include direct acquisition as well as other easements or agreements that could provide protection for the corridor. | County | Number of Project Areas | Number of Priority Parcels | |--------------|-------------------------|----------------------------| | Rockland | 6 | 31 | | Orange | 9 | 96 | | Sullivan | 2 | 9 | | Ulster | 4 | 18 | | Greene | 6 | 33 | | Schoharie | 13 | 79 | | Albany | 7 | 46 | | Schenectady | 6 | 64 | | Saratoga | Work is underway to further develop a potential protected corridor through these two counties. | | Fulton | | | | **TOTAL** | **54** | **376** | Long Path Southern Section Protection Overview: There are 6 Project Areas within Rockland County. Protecting a corridor in each of these areas would completely protect the Long Path in Rockland County, which runs 35.5 miles through the county. - After leaving Bergen County, New Jersey, the Long Path continues within the Palisades Interstate Park, as it has been for the last 12 miles since leaving the George Washington Bridge. - The Long Path then enters Project Area 1 onto land owned by Columbia University, briefly dips down into New Jersey, and then quickly returns to New York State. It continues through Columbia University land and extends to US Route 9W before following that road a short distance to Tallman Mountain State Park. - Recently, the Bergson family donated 4.2 acres to the New York-New Jersey Trail Conference. With this donation in place, the trail will be moved off a dangerous section of Route 9W and through this parcel, which connects directly with Tallman Mountain State Park. - The Long Path then passes through the Piermont area, where it remains unprotected across a few different properties in Project Area 2. The trail then passes through multiple state, county and town parks all the way to Nyack, where it crosses the New York State Thruway (NY Route 87). - Beyond the Thruway, the Long Path traverses protected lands and unprotected lands alike through Project Area 3 and Project Area 4, before reaching the protection of Hook Mountain State Park. - Past Hook Mountain State Park, the Long Path traverses through its last unprotected area within Rockland County in Project Area 5. After reaching High Tor State Park, the Long Path is fully protected all the way to the Orange County line within Harriman State Park, with Project Area 6 highlighting one property that barely encroaches on the Long Path corridor. History: The Trail Conference became involved with the Long Path after Robert Jessen proposed it in 1960 as a marked and maintained hiking trail. This was a big difference from Vince Schaefer’s 1931 concept, a path without an actual trail. Volunteers from the Trail Conference began building the trail in the 1960s, starting from the George Washington Bridge and heading north. By 1970 the basic trail construction through Rockland County was complete. During the 1970s the route was refined and on occasion relocations were performed. In 1973 the Long Path became part of Rockland County’s Open Space and Recreation Program. The state, county and local municipalities have all helped to protect this project which was started by the Trail Conference. In 1989 Rockland County put the Long Path on their official map. This helped to significantly elevate the status of the Long Path, as this action advises the Trail Conference both when a project first comes to a planning board and if a proposed project is located within 500 feet of the Long Path. Through the years, this has been beneficial to the Long Path as property owners have donated trail easements and, on rare occasion, actual property. While there is still work left to protect the Long Path through Rockland County, it is largely agreed that the effort to protect the Long Path in Rockland County is a model that should be adopted by other counties along the Long Path corridor. There are no long road walks within the county, and a high percentage of the trail has been permanently protected. Project Areas #1-6 Legend: - Protected land - Corridor priority parcel - Long Path - Other trail - Project Area Outline Project Area #1 Palisades Interstate Park to Tallman Mountain State Park Project Area Description: - Within this project area, the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory owns parcels on both sides of the New York-New Jersey border. Columbia University has provided written documentation that they support the Long Path and agree that the link across their land is important. They are reluctant to encumber their deed with an easement. - This project area includes a proposed route for the Long Path through the recent Bergson donation and acquisition. The Long Path Committee is currently putting together a plan to implement this relocation, as of late November 2021. Action Needed: - Build the new section of trail on the Bergson acquisition. Priority Parcels: | Parcels: 202-151-2, 202-151-3, 202-151-4 | Landowner: COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY | Municipality: ALPINE | |------------------------------------------|-------------------------------|---------------------| | Acres: 1.11, 2.25, 6.29 | Description: Three vacant and wooded parcels contiguous with the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory grounds just over the state border. The Long Path passes through one parcel. | | Parcels: 80.10-1-3, 80.10-1-2, 80.06-1-13 | Landowner: COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY | Municipality: ORANGETOWN | |------------------------------------------|-------------------------------|-------------------------| | Acres: 20.00, 136.28, 6.50 | Description: Parcels east of Route 9W that include the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. Combined, these parcels are roughly 60% developed and 40% wooded. The Long Path passes through the wooded portions. | | Parcel: 80.10-1-1 | Landowner: COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY | Municipality: ORANGETOWN | |-------------------|-------------------------------|-------------------------| | Acres: 11.5 | Description: Vacant wooded parcel west of Route 9W that is also part of the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and adjacent to Palisades Interstate Parkland. | Palisades Interstate Park to Tallman Mountain SP Rockland County Project Area #1 Legend: - State land - County land - Land trust land - Municipal land - Owned by NYNJTC - Transferred by NYNJTC - Assisted by NYNJTC - Corridor priority parcel - Threatened parcel - Maintained trail - Proposed trail - Parking area - Viewpoint - Long Path - Shawangunk Ridge Trail Scale: 0 0.05 0.1 0.2 Miles Project Area #2 Tallman Mountain State Park to Clausland Mountain Park Project Area Description: - The Long Path currently leaves Tallman Mountain State Park and follows local roads for nearly 0.75 mile to the intersection of Route 9W and Castle Road. Although a private road, Castle Road has a deeded right of way for the Long Path, with the exception of the last parcel. - The landowner of the last parcel has actually built a trail for the Long Path across their land. The trail then passes through Rockland Cemetery to reach Clausland Mountain County Park. Action Needed: - The road walk between Tallman Mountain State Park and Route 9W could be eliminated by crossing the Griff Construction and South Orangetown School District parcels in conjunction with the popular Old Erie Path Rail Trail. - A permanent right of way for the Long Path is needed through the Ouroussoff parcel. - A wooded ravine runs through the developed area of the Rockland Cemetery, and this would be a more desirable route for the Long Path. A trail easement is needed through the cemetery. Priority Parcels: Tallman Mountain State Park to Route 9W & Castle Road | Parcels: | Landowner: | Municipality: | |----------|------------|---------------| | 75.62-1-39, 75.62-1-22 | GRIFF CONSTRUCTION | PIERMONT | | Acres: | Description: | |--------|--------------| | 0.50, 4.50 | Two connected wooded parcels. The smaller parcel has road frontage. The larger parcel is between two old rail beds, including the Old Erie Path Rail Trail. | | Parcel: | Landowner: | Municipality: | |---------|------------|---------------| | 75.70-1-1 | SOUTH ORANGETOWN SCHOOL DISTRICT | PIERMONT | | Acres: | Description: | |--------|--------------| | 39.30 | The main office of the South Orangetown School District. The northern portion includes a large undeveloped and wooded area. The Old Erie Path Rail Trail, Route 9W, and local roads are connected with this parcel. | Route 9W & Castle Road to Clausland Mountain Park | Parcel: | Landowner: | Municipality: | |---------|------------|---------------| | 75.53-1-1 | OUROUSSOFF | ORANGETOWN | | Acres: | Description: | |--------|--------------| | 4.79 | Includes a home is accessed from Tweed Boulevard, but the backside of the parcel along Castle Road is wooded and includes the route of the Long Path. | | Parcel: | Landowner: | Municipality: | |---------|------------|---------------| | 74.12-1-14 | ROCKLAND CEMETERY ATT: EILEEN KUNKEL | ORANGETOWN | | Acres: | Description: | |--------|--------------| | 157.40 | A cemetery with a substantial amount of woodlands, which include some steep slopes. The parcel directly connects with Clausland Mountain County Park and Nike Overlook Park. | Tallman Mountain SP to Clausland Mountain Park Rockland County Project Area #2 Legend: - State land - County land - Land trust land - Municipal land - Owned by NYNJTC - Transferred by NYNJTC - Assisted by NYNJTC - Corridor priority parcel - Threatened parcel - Maintained trail - Proposed trail - Parking area - Viewpoint - Long Path - Shawangunk Ridge Trail Scale: 0 0.05 0.1 0.2 Miles Project Area #3 Blauvelt State Park to Mountainview Nature Park Project Area Description: - This project area is divided into two areas by the New York State Thruway. The Long Path crosses the Thruway on the Mountainview Avenue overpass. - South of the Thruway, the Long Path leaves Blauvelt State Park and enters Rockland County-managed Sean Hunter Ryan Memorial Park. The south end of this park is narrow, so the trail runs along private land. The Long Path leaves the park and follows local roads for 0.75 mile to reach Mountainview Avenue and cross the Thruway. - Once across the Thruway, the Long Path continues on the sidewalk for 0.1 mile before turning into the woods. The trail soon reaches the Rockland County-managed Mountainview Nature Park. This portion of the park is long and skinny as it passes between two condo complexes. The trail leaves the county park and passes through the corner of the Oak Hill Cemetery, then follows an access road uphill to a village water tower. Action Needed: - South of the Thruway, preserve the two former Nyack College parcels on the ridge to protect the trail corridor. - Beyond Sean Hunter Ryan Memorial Park, the trail follows sidewalks through a developed area. It is a short stretch and the best option for reaching the Thruway crossing. - North of the Thruway, additional land needs to be added to the Mountainview Nature Park to protect and enhance the trail corridor. The undeveloped land between Mountainview Avenue and the Warren Hills Condo Complex is extremely important for the Long Path corridor. The northwest corner of the Oak Hill Cemetery contains steep slopes, and it would be beneficial to preserve those. Priority Parcels: | Parcels: | Landowner: | Municipality: | |----------------|-----------------------------------|------------------------| | 65.12-1-2, | YESHIVATH YIZNITZ DKHAL TORATH CHAIM INC. | ORANGETOWN, CLARKSTOWN | | 65.12-2-23 | | | | Acres: | Description: | |----------------|-----------------------------------| | 5.60, 0.38 | Part of the former Nyack College complex, these parcels extend steeply to the top of the cliff near where the Long Path is located. This portion of the complex is completely undeveloped and extends to the top of the Palisades cliff. | | Parcel: | Landowner: | Municipality: | |----------------|-----------------------------------|------------------------| | 59.20-1-13 | WARREN HILLS ASSOC - PW FUNDING INC. | CLARKSTOWN | | Acres: | Description: | |----------------|-----------------------------------| | 3.00 | Vacant wooded parcel that contains the access road for the Warren Hills Condo Complex to the east. | | Parcel: | Landowner: | Municipality: | |----------------|-----------------------------------|------------------------| | 59.84-1-44 | OAK HILL CEMETERY | ORANGETOWN | | Acres: | Description: | |----------------|-----------------------------------| | 36.80 | An active cemetery. The village has an access road on the cemetery property which leads to a water tower. | Blauvelt SP to Mountainview Nature Park Rockland County Project Area #3 State land County land Land trust land Municipal land Owned by NYNJTC Transferred by NYNJTC Assisted by NYNJTC Corridor priority parcel Threatened parcel Maintained trail Proposed trail Long Path Shawangunk Ridge Trail Parking area Viewpoint 0 0.05 0.1 0.2 Miles Project Area #4 Mountainview Nature Park to Hook Mountain State Park Project Area Description: - This area has various open space parcels located throughout it. The first is located at the eastern border of Mountainview Condominiums. Although narrow, there is permanent protection for the Long Path and the area directly around this parcel at the east end of the condo complex. - Leaving the protection of the Mountainview easement, the Long Path crosses the western boundary of Nyack High School land before reaching the Christian Herald Road Open Space parcel. The trail then follows Christian Herald Road and Route 9W to Hook Mountain State Park. - North of the Christian Herald Road Open Space is the West Hook Mountain Open Space parcel. Both are owned by the Town of Clarkstown and were preserved for the Long Path. A planned relocation of the Long Path is shown in the project area map through West Hook Mountain Open Space. - Once Christian Herald Road is reached, the Long Path could follow a sidewalk to Old Stone Road to reach the West Hook Mountain Open Space. A significant obstacle to this route is the crossing of Route 9W to Hook Mountain State Park, as this area includes steep cliffs. Action Needed: - The permanently protected trail corridor in this area should be extended across the western boundary of the Nyack High School. The forested slope through this area is on average over 500 feet wide, and preservation here would increase the width of the entire trail corridor from Mountainview Nature Park to the Christian Herald Road Open Space and would securely protect the trail. - Currently, users can access West Hook Mountain by walking Old Stone Road. Preservation of the Camp Ramah and Blinn parcels would move the trail off of the road. - The eastern exit of West Hook Mountain is currently a problem for the Long Path. One solution would be to build a bridge from the cliff to the east shoulder of Route 9W. A site has been identified and construction of a bridge at this location is possible. - Another option is to preserve the Weinberger parcel at the north corner of the West Hook Mountain Open Space. The parcel is suitable for a trail route from the mountaintop, down to Route 9W. Priority Parcels: Mountainview Nature Park to Christian Herald Road Open Space | Parcels: | Landowner: | Municipality: | |---------|------------|--------------| | 59.16-2-3, 59.16-1+1 | YESHIVATH YIZNITZ DKHAL TORATH CHAIM INC. | UPPER NYACK, CLARKSTOWN | | Acres: | Description: | |--------|--------------| | 21.45, 14.43 | Some development along the highway, but otherwise a steep wooded slope of the Palisades. Located in two different communities. | | Parcels: | Landowner: | Municipality: | |---------|------------|--------------| | 59.16-1+4, 59.16-1+5 | MOUNTAINVIEW CONDOMINIUM | CLARKSTOWN | | Acres: | Description: | |--------|--------------| | 2.88, 54.9 | Condo complex on the Palisades Escarpment approved in 1972, includes dedicated 6-foot-wide walking easement for the Long Path. | | Parcel: | Landowner: | Municipality: | |---------|------------|--------------| | 59.16-1-3 | UNION FREE SCHOOL DISTRICT #4 | CLARKSTOWN | | Acres: | Description: | |--------|--------------| | 33.70 | Site of Nyack High School. The complex is located on the eastern flat portion, with wooded steep slopes to the west where the Long Path is located. | ### West Hook Mountain Open Space Southern Access | Parcel: 59.12-1-11 | Landowner: JEWISH THEOL SEMINARY | Municipality: CLARKSTOWN | |-------------------|----------------------------------|--------------------------| | Acres: 35.69 | **Description:** Day camp known as Camp Ramah. The entire camp operation is located on the eastern portion, with wooded steep slopes to the west. | | Parcel: 59.12-1-12.1 | Landowner: OLIVE M BLINN REVOCABLE TRUST | Municipality: CLARKSTOWN | |----------------------|------------------------------------------|--------------------------| | Acres: 27.18 | **Description:** Mostly vacant mountain top parcel, with one residence in the southeast portion. Access roads traverse this parcel to various residences and the West Hook Mountain Open Space. | ### West Hook Mountain Open Space Northern Access | Parcel: 59.8-1-22 | Landowner: WEINBERGER | Municipality: CLARKSTOWN | |-------------------|-----------------------|--------------------------| | Acres: 7.70 | **Description:** Wooded parcel with steep rocky slopes that could be suitable for a trail. It is adjacent to the northeast corner of the West Hook Mountain Open Space. | Mountainview Nature Park to Hook Mountain SP Rockland County Project Area #4 State land County land Land trust land Municipal land Owned by NYNJTC Transferred by NYNJTC Assisted by NYNJTC Corridor priority parcel Threatened parcel Maintained trail Proposed trail Long Path Shawangunk Ridge Trail Parking area Viewpoint 0 0.1 0.2 0.4 Miles Project Area #5 Hook Mountain State Park to High Tor State Park Project Area Description: - Leaving Hook Mountain State Park, the Long Path first follows abandoned Landmark Road. Although the road was abandoned, it was preserved as a permanent right of way for the Long Path. The abandoned road is next to the active Tilcon Quarry operation. The trail continues around the quarry on local roads. The Long Path then climbs High Tor Mountain, passing through land owned by Tilcon to reach High Tor State Park. - The roads around the quarry are public roads. Even if they were abandoned, the roads would remain public right of ways for the Long Path. Action Needed: - The most critical need is to preserve the existing Long Path route through Tilcon-owned parcel 35.09-1-5 between County Route 90 and High Tor State Park. - Long term action is needed for this entire project area. This quarry area should be preserved once it reaches its useful life as a quarry, as Tilcon owns all of the land between Hook Mountain State Park and High Tor State Park. - Prior to the quarry’s end-of-life, a different route through Tilcon-owned land could improve both the Long Path and Tilcon’s operation. Priority Parcels: | Parcel: 35.15-1-1 | Landowner: TILCON MINERALS INC. | Municipality: CLARKSTOWN | |-------------------|---------------------------------|--------------------------| | Acres: 4.3 | Description: Includes an office building, located along abandoned Landmark Drive. | | Parcel: 35.10-1-1 | Landowner: TILCON MINERALS INC. | Municipality: HAVERSTRAW | |-------------------|---------------------------------|--------------------------| | Acres: 68.9 | Description: Contains the eastern portion of the existing quarry excavation and the remaining ridge along Route 9W, which faces the Hudson River. | | Parcel: 35.10-2-2 | Landowner: TILCON MINERALS INC. | Municipality: CLARKSTOWN | |-------------------|---------------------------------|--------------------------| | Acres: 106.8 | Description: Contains the western portion of the existing quarry excavation. | | Parcel: 35.10-2-1 | Landowner: TILCON MINERALS INC. | Municipality: CLARKSTOWN | |-------------------|---------------------------------|--------------------------| | Acres: 21.3 | Description: Contains the Maintenance building and yard for Tilcon’s operation west of the quarry. | | Parcel: 35.09-1-5 | Landowner: TILCON MINERALS INC. | Municipality: CLARKSTOWN | |-------------------|---------------------------------|--------------------------| | Acres: 57.00 | Description: Vacant wooded parcel that is part of High Tor Mountain. The Long Path crosses the western boundary. | | Parcel: 35.06-1-1 | Landowner: TILCON MINERALS INC. | Municipality: HAVERSTRAW | |-------------------|---------------------------------|--------------------------| | Acres: 65.9 | Description: Part of High Tor Mountain, it faces south and east and is visible from the Hudson River. | Hook Mountain SP to High Tor SP Rockland County Project Area #5 Legend: - State land - County land - Land trust land - Municipal land - Owned by NYNJTC - Transferred by NYNJTC - Assisted by NYNJTC - Corridor priority parcel - Threatened parcel - Maintained trail - Proposed trail - Long Path - Shawangunk Ridge Trail - Parking area - Viewpoint Scale: 0 - 0.2 Miles Project Area #6 Gurnee Park to Cheesecote Mountain Park Project Area Description: - With the exception of a short road walk to get under the Palisades Parkway, this project area has a protected trail corridor. One parcel south of Gurnee Park is extremely close to the trail corridor and should be preserved. - The Long Path continues along the Palisades Parkway through Palisades Interstate Parkland before reaching Cheesecote Mountain Town Park. Action Needed: - Preserve the northern portion of the lone private parcel in the trail corridor. Priority Parcels: | Parcel: 33.07-1-12 | Landowner: STUARTS OUTDOOR LIVING INC | Municipality: RAMAPO | |-------------------|--------------------------------------|---------------------| | Acres: 5.4 | **Description:** Mostly wooded parcel with a residence along NY Route 45. The Long Path passes through the most northern portion. | Gurnee Park to Cheesecote Mountain Park Rockland County Project Area #6 State land County land Land trust land Municipal land Owned by NYNJTC Transferred by NYNJTC Assisted by NYNJTC Corridor priority parcel Threatened parcel Maintained trail Proposed trail Long Path Shawangunk Ridge Trail Parking area Viewpoint Acknowledgements The creation of a greenway corridor, perhaps above all else, requires dedicated people working together for a common conservation cause. Over the past several decades, land protection progress along the Long Path has been the result of Trail Conference volunteers and staff working closely with land trust partners, New York State park partners, local community members, and landowners themselves. The photos to the right show just a few of the people who have played instrumental roles in creating protected corridors for the Long Path, especially along the Shawangunk Ridge. This Long Path Protection Plan has come together thanks to several dedicated individuals. The following two volunteers deserve special recognition for their contributions: **Andy Garrison**, for his long-time dedication to the Long Path both on the physical trail and behind-the-scenes. His step-by-step knowledge of the entire Long Path and ability to plot out potential corridors has been instrumental to preparing each of the project areas in this plan and the overall vision for protecting the Long Path. **Nick Boyle**, for working closely with Andy to develop the structure of this plan, and also helping to organize and edit the descriptions and parcel info for each of the counties and project areas. Thanks also to contributed photos from **Steve Aaron, Daniel Chazin, Jakob Franke, Alex McClain**, and other volunteers, and text about the importance of conserving corridors from **Cory Tiger**. Our land protection efforts and the development of this Plan would also not have been possible without large amounts of funding support. - The Long Path Protection Plan was supported with funding from the **New York State Conservation Partnership Program (NYSCPP)** and New York’s Environmental Protection Fund. The NYSCPP is administered by the **Land Trust Alliance**, in coordination with the **New York State Department of Environmental Conservation**. - Additional funding for this Plan came from the **Trail Conference’s donor-supported Land Acquisition and Stewardship Fund (LASF)**. We hope this Long Path Protection Plan will also inspire more people to join this cause to protect the important lands throughout our region. Happy Trails! Jeremy Appar Cartographer New York-New Jersey Trail Conference
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THE RIVER The East Fork of the South Fork of the Salmon River flows 12 miles from the heart of Idaho’s backcountry mountains to the valley floor near the Village of Yellow Pine. The river is a diverse ecosystem that provides habitat for chinook, steelhead and bull trout. Unfortunately, the river has been impacted by more than a century of mining. Today, the river pours into an abandoned mine pit, salmon are blocked from their native spawning grounds and the water quality and habitat are degraded by sediment. The issues facing the river are not going away and Midas Gold has a plan to fix these problems. The East Fork of the South Fork of the Salmon River flows into the abandoned Yellow Pine pit and the high walls of the pit act as a barrier for fish trying to reach native spawning grounds. As a result, salmon have not been able to reach their spawning grounds for 80 years. A few miles upstream from the Yellow Pine pit, hundreds of tons of sediment erode into the East Fork of the South Fork of the Salmon River every year. This sediment comes from the area near Blowout Creek where an earthen dam failed in the 1960s. During spring runoff, the river can look like chocolate milk as sediment washes downstream. Elevated sediment levels can clog fish gills, make it hard for them to see their food and reduce their ability to fight diseases. Excessive sediment also chokes off the oxygen supply to the gravel beds, reducing productivity of the salmon spawning habitat. The Yellow Pine pit, two miles downstream, currently acts as a sediment trap and eventually catches about 70% of the sediment coming from Blowout Creek. However, the Yellow Pine pit is filling up with sediment and, in the not too distant future, it will no longer be able to capture significant amounts of sediment, which will then head downstream. In addition, tens of millions of tons of tailings and waste rock, left behind from mining activities during the World War II era, lie abandoned near the river. These tailings pose a risk to the East Fork of the South Fork of the Salmon River by potentially leaching arsenic and other metals into the river. Metals in the water can be harmful for insects, fish and wildlife. In fact, a recent U.S. Geological Survey study indicated concern over the arsenic and antimony in the area’s water. Today, private investment remains the most viable option to fix Stibnite’s historical mining problems. **THE THREAT** The problems facing the East Fork of the South Fork of the Salmon River are not new. Unless action is taken, fish will remain blocked from spawning grounds and fish habitat and water quality will remain degraded. The biggest threat facing the river is inaction. **WHAT CAN BE DONE** Midas Gold Idaho has a plan to fix the problems left behind by historical mining operations. Midas Gold’s proposed Stibnite Gold Project was purposefully designed to use mining as a tool for restoration. If granted permits to mine the area for gold and the critical mineral antimony, Midas Gold will have the funds necessary to finally restore this area that is so in need of repair. The company plans to restore and enhance almost 13 miles of the East Fork of the South Fork of the Salmon River and its tributaries. Stream restoration will include reconnecting salmon to their native spawning grounds during the project’s early phases. At first, fish will be reconnected to their original watershed through a temporary 0.8-mile passage tunnel. Using proven conservation methods, the fifteen-foot passage is designed with smart lighting to mimic night and day and a flow pattern that gives fish resting pools. Midas Gold will then rebuild the natural channel of the East Fork of the South Fork of the Salmon River once it backfills the Yellow Pine pit in year seven of operations – permanently allowing salmon to swim upstream to their native spawning grounds. At minimum, the Stibnite Gold Project will open an additional 3.4 miles of fish habitat that is currently being blocked by the Yellow Pine pit and fish could potentially access up to 25 miles of new habitat. To keep hundreds of tons of sediment out of the river, Midas Gold will install a rock drain at the site of the failed dam at Blowout Creek, then rebuild the stream channel. This will prevent excessive sediment from entering the river. It also allows the water table to rise to historical levels so native wetlands in the Blowout Creek meadow are restored. In the very first years of operations, Midas Gold also proposes to reprocess millions of tons of historic tailings from former mining operations and store the remaining material in an engineered and state-of-the-art lined facility to keep metals out of the watershed. Although some groups seem opposed to the Stibnite Gold Project, without it, there is no immediate solution to the ongoing legacy mining impacts. No one has come forward with a different solution nor the funding necessary for the river’s rehabilitation. If we do nothing, water quality and fish habitat will only continue to suffer with each passing day. Some groups claim more mining will only make the problems worse. However, today, there are strict federal standards that require storage of development rock and tailings in engineered facilities to ensure water quality is not negatively impacted. Those regulations did not exist during the heyday of the Stibnite Mining District. Today, mining companies cannot simply walk away from projects and leave the environment in disrepair. Permitting a mine happens with much more scrutiny, which stops bad projects and allows good ones to move forward. Before any new mining project can begin, operators must set aside all the money needed for restoration. This ensures that, even if the unexpected happens, the funds are secured so restoration can move forward. Midas Gold must meet these standards before it can build the Stibnite Gold Project. Historical mining caused many of the river’s problems, but now today’s mining is the solution. Midas Gold has this opportunity to clean up the legacies of the past with private money. The company’s plan was designed from the outset with restoration in mind, and Midas Gold will operate in an entirely new regulatory environment from past operators. **TAKE ACTION** Doing nothing will not fix the problems. Fish habitat and water quality remain at risk if the East Fork of the South Fork of the Salmon River is not restored. Midas Gold wants to make the private investment necessary to rehabilitate this important section of the Salmon River now, not ignore it. Currently, the Stibnite Gold Project is going through a rigorous federal, state and local permitting process. The company must pass many difficult requirements before they can mine and restore the area. During this critical time, it is imperative river advocates and Idahoans let the U.S. Forest Service know they support Midas Gold’s plan to restore the river. The U.S. Forest Service will have a comment period on the company’s plans in late 2018. Join us by asking the U.S. Forest Service to approve Midas Gold’s plans to restore the East Fork of the South Fork of the Salmon River. To stay informed about the comment period, you can join the Support Stibnite Coalition by visiting www.supportstibnite.com or visit: www.fs.usda.gov/goto/payette/StibniteGold **HELP THE EAST FORK OF THE SOUTH FORK OF THE SALMON RIVER TODAY** 1. Support the first viable plan in decades to bring the resources and expertise necessary to restore the river. Sign up with the U.S. Forest Service to know when it’s time to share your comments. Visit [www.fs.usda.gov/goto/payette/StibniteGold](http://www.fs.usda.gov/goto/payette/StibniteGold) 2. Join the hundreds of Idahoans who support repairing the environment and restoring an industry here at home. Visit [www.supportstibnite.com](http://www.supportstibnite.com) to sign up today. **FOR MORE INFORMATION:** [WWW.SUPPORTSTIBNITE.COM](http://WWW.SUPPORTSTIBNITE.COM) Mckinsey Lyon, Midas Gold Idaho, firstname.lastname@example.org
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Voices from the Reform Movement Allyn Jackson American Mathematical Society Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarship.claremont.edu/hmnj Part of the Educational Administration and Supervision Commons, Mathematics Commons, and the Science and Mathematics Education Commons Recommended Citation Jackson, Allyn (1995) "Voices from the Reform Movement," Humanistic Mathematics Network Journal: Iss. 12, Article 3. Available at: http://scholarship.claremont.edu/hmnj/vol1/iss12/3 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at Claremont at Scholarship @ Claremont. It has been accepted for inclusion in Humanistic Mathematics Network Journal by an authorized administrator of Scholarship @ Claremont. For more information, please contact firstname.lastname@example.org. The Exxon Education Foundation is celebrating its 40th anniversary in 1995. The Foundation has been privileged to assist the work of many educators in those 40 years, including the recipients of almost 400 grants for work devoted to improving mathematics instruction. Those awards comprise our Mathematics Education Program which was established in 1987 because we believed in the importance of mathematics for all students, its necessity for serious work in other disciplines and its critical role in business. To express our high regard for the mathematicians, mathematics educators, and teachers who are the growing source of energy for the movement toward improving mathematics instruction, we asked Allyn Jackson to listen to Voices from the Reform Movement and tell us what she learned. These “Voices” are engaged in a vital “conversation” about teaching and learning mathematics. The *Humanistic Mathematics Network Journal* is an important element of this conversation. We are pleased to have been able to assist with the Journal’s creation and with its growth, and we are grateful for the efforts of its editor, Professor Alvin White, its many contributing authors, and for its readers who sustain and extend this “conversation.” This article first appeared in the program for the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics’ 75th anniversary meeting, held in Boston in April 1995. It has been the Foundation’s privilege to assist with each of the projects you will find in Ms. Jackson’s story. We hope you will find your “voice” here and continue your contributions to these conversations. Edward F Abnert, President Exxon Education Foundation Irving, Texas August 1995 A Vision for Reform "We at the NCTM had a unique opportunity to do things ourselves. When we didn't get funding to do the Standards, we said, 'Okay, we're going to invest our own money and do this,' which was good because we weren't in anybody's pocket. But the fact that, once we got started, we were able to garner the support of groups like the Exxon Education Foundation really made it a wonderful opportunity to make an impact on the thousands and thousands of teachers out there. I think we were pretty gutsy." Shirley M. Frye, Educational Consultant and President of the NCTM 1988-1990 The Exxon Education Foundation is "taking a very courageous kind of position," says Kathleen Martin, professor of mathematics education at Texas Christian University. "They have a long-term view which does not demand immediacy. So many people want an immediate bang for their buck, and you can't get that in a complex setting [like education]. The Foundation seems to respect that." This country is accustomed to hearing about how lousy American kids are at mathematics. Opinions may differ on the standardized tests that reinforce this message, but few believe that the mathematics education kids get today prepares them well for tomorrow's world. With technology allowing business and industry to bring more quantitative mathematical approaches to bear on what they do, employers are finding that the young people they hire don't have the necessary skills. The mathematical sciences are reaching into every field of human endeavor, and kids are easily locked out of opportunities because of deficient mathematical preparation. Consensus has grown that math class should prepare students to tackle a wide variety of mathematical tasks, not just page after page of arithmetic drill. In 1989, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics published *Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics*, which provided an ambitious vision for change. At the time, talk of national standards was seen as a threat to the autonomy of local school districts. In addition to the political risk, NCTM also took a financial risk, sinking over $1 million of its own money into producing the *Standards*. "If it had been a colossal failure, it would have had serious ramifications for the NCTM as an organization," says Glenda Lappan, a professor of mathematics at Michigan State University, who worked on the *Standards* project. As it turned out, the *Standards* have been a tremendous success. Not only have the Standards revolutionized thinking about mathematics teaching and learning, they have also paved the way for educational standards in other areas such as science, social studies and the humanities. The Standards have gained international attention as well – even in Japan, where mathematics test scores leave the U.S. in the dust, interest in the Standards is high. “When we were initially involved in this, I thought there was a real possibility that this would be a document that would be produced, put on a shelf and occasionally looked at by a school curriculum developer,” Lappan remarks. “And it has in fact been a document around which there has been a worldwide conversation.” Two years after the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards appeared, the NCTM issued a second set, Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics. A third set, on assessment, appeared in 1995. EEF has supported these efforts by providing funding for dissemination as well as for other projects, such as an examination of the impact of the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards. The basic thrust of the Standards is to put the student at the center of learning, with the teacher acting more as a coach than as an authority figure who has all the right answers. The idea is to make mathematics a living, breathing subject that students can talk about, play with and use. Don’t sentence kids to solitary confinement with a page of arithmetic drill, say the Standards; give them problems that mean something to them, get them talking to each other and discovering their own mathematical ideas. The Standards recognize that this can only happen if teachers have a solid understanding of mathematics and are treated as professionals who are responsible for creating a rich mathematical environment where learning can take place. Building a Community “One of the major accomplishments of the mathematics education reform movement has been to create a ‘mathematical community’ from among the many diverse professional societies in the mathematical sciences and to unify their attention on the importance of educational quality at all levels. Although many fissures remain within this community, individuals at all levels now speak with each other and are beginning to take responsibility for mathematics education as a single seamless system.” Lynn Arthur Steen, Executive Director, Mathematical Sciences Education Board The people working on mathematics education reform have been remarkably successful at drawing into their fold a variety of groups having an interest in seeing mathematics education improve. The Mathematical Sciences Education Board (MSEB) has been responsible for much of the success of this alliance. Created at the National Research Council in 1985, MSEB serves as a broker for mathematics education reform, bringing together not only teachers and curriculum supervisors, but also people whom one would not ordinarily expect to see discussing mathematics education reform – researchers from national laboratories, CEOs from high tech industries, scientists, mathematicians and representatives from the media. With EEF as one of its major supporters, MSEB has worked in close collaboration with the NCTM to broaden consensus about the Standards. EEF has also supported one of MSEB’s most successful outreach programs, the State Coalitions. Begun in 1989 and now operating in most states and the District of Columbia, the Coalitions are like mini-MSEBs operating at the state level. Activities vary from organizing teacher in-service programs to working with politicians to change educational policies at the state level. In 1995, the State Coalitions reached a milestone by creating their own national organization, the National Alliance of State Science and Mathematics Coalitions. Some of the Coalitions have established strong links to business and industry, while others have joined forces with groups working in science education reform. Together, the State Coalitions provide the mathematics community with a crucial link to local reform efforts. Bringing in the voices of mathematicians has been an important development in the reform effort. As the group with the deepest understanding of the subject and its connections to other areas, mathematicians clearly have an important contribution to make to discussions of what it is about mathematics that is most important for students to learn. There have been calls for more emphasis on probability and statistics, on shape and geometry, on combinatorics and discrete mathematics – which is the right path to take? Answers to such questions must grow out of conversations between mathematicians and mathematics teachers. Each summer, the Park City/IAS Geometry Institute, sponsored by the Institute for Advanced Study, brings together research mathematicians, graduate students, undergraduates and high school mathematics teachers for a three- or four-week session. “You get the best cooperation when these people are talking about common interests, and their common interest is education,” says John C. Polking, a professor of mathematics at Rice University and director of the Park City Institute. “The teachers have a lot to offer the researchers because they are the experts on teaching, much more so than the typical researcher. And the researchers can offer a lot about mathematics that may not be known to the high school teachers.” Polking says that his contact with teachers at the Park City Institute has inspired changes in his own teaching at Rice. Bringing Vision to Life The influence of the Standards is everywhere. People interviewing for jobs as mathematics teachers are routinely asked about the Standards. Just about every mathematics education proposal to the National Science Foundation mentions the Standards somehow. Across the country, groups working on mathematics curriculum frameworks and testing programs at the state level have made serious efforts to align their work with the Standards. Most secondary school teachers and many middle school and elementary school teachers are aware of the Standards. But are educational practices really changing? “When you move to how many teachers are systematically trying to analyze their practice and move towards the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards, then the numbers go down,” says Lappan. “There’s an awareness level, there are people who are trying to get on board, trying to think hard about what they’re doing. But clearly this is a reform that’s going to take a very long time.” One of the toughest jobs is at the elementary level, where many kids turn off to mathematics and where teachers often have weak mathematical backgrounds. EEF is investing in this area, through its K-3 Mathematics Specialist program, which is the most extensive and the longest running of the Foundation-funded mathematics programs. Seventy-five K-3 Specialist projects in twenty-eight states have received EEF grants. All of the projects are guided by the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards, but “EEF is not interested in pushing any particular program,” explains Pat Hess, the facilitator for the K-3 Specialist projects. “You couldn’t go to the store and purchase the ‘Exxon Education Foundation Project’ program.” This diversity is the key to the success of the K-3 Specialist program: Teachers begin to disReclaiming Intuition in Mathematics "For me, math is like falling down a giant waterfall. Going down is fun and easy; but once you hit the bottom, you are thrown about by the force of the water. It's a challenge to see if you can 'beat' the water and survive or whether you will just give up and let the water get the best of you. Eventually if you stick it out you move on to calm waters and everything is fine...until the next fall." "For me, math is like climbing a huge mountain. It is terribly difficult going up, yet when you get there, you know you've accomplished something." "For me, math is most like a fog because you cannot see or understand where it came from, but you just have to keep moving forward. You can only move forward slowly, otherwise you'll get lost." "For me, math is a never-ending list of rules that don't really mean anything. Math seems to be the most indecisive subject there is. In the beginning we were taught basic math, like, you can't subtract four from one. That seemed logical to me. Then they told us that you could do that, but it equals a negative number. A negative number is less than zero. Zero is nothing. How can anything be less than nothing?" These "mathematics metaphors," with their vivid expressions of the exhilaration, confusion, and frustration of learning mathematics, were written by high school students. They appear in a book which was edited by Dorothy Buerk, a mathematics education professor at Ithaca College, and published in 1994 by the NCTM. The book grew out of a project, funded by the Exxon Education Foundation, in which Buerk met with teachers to discuss classroom strategies for implementing the NCTM Standards. Entitled "Empowering Students by Promoting Active Learning in Mathematics: Teachers Speak to Teachers," the book provides ideas for cooperative learning and using writing in the mathematics classroom. Out of the project grew CLAM, the Cooperative Learning Alliance for Mathematics, through which Ithaca-area teachers in grades five through college meet once a month. "My belief is that one of the major problems for students is their perception of mathematics as something that's rote, something in which they have to shut off their own thinking and try to reproduce somebody else's thinking, without having it make sense to them," says Buerk. "The metaphors give clues about the students' learning strategies and their conceptions of mathematics. This helps the teacher deal with them individually in different ways." cover the conditions that allow reform to happen in their schools and districts. They are given the means to develop their own ideas for how to improve teaching and learning in mathematics. For many of them, improving their own mathematical backgrounds becomes a natural next step. In addition, the teachers have formed a community in which they can share ideas. Hess puts out a newsletter that describes activities of the projects and, each September, the K-3 program brings the teachers together for a conference. Some of these teachers have become leaders of change at the regional or state level. Marilyn Burns, an educational consultant in Sausalito, California, runs in-service programs in mathematics for elementary school teachers which reach 7,000 to 8,000 teachers each year. She calls the K-3 Specialist program "fabulous," noting that the flexibility EEF allows for the projects "mirrors the kind of flexibility I want teachers to allow for students learning different ways." "To me, teachers are the key," Burns declares. "You can change materials, but a unit is just a unit. Without changing the teachers' belief systems, attitudes, understandings and instructional approaches, you're not doing anything, because they're the ones who are seeing children for six hours a day." Assessment Issues "Evaluation has become a political carrot: Standardized tests that children take as often as four or five times a year are used as a way to evaluate teachers and schools, sell real estate and further the ambitions of politicians. Houses are advertised as being in school districts with above-average test scores, secretaries of education point to test score graphs as though they were some sort of Dow Jones average. Lost in this numbers blitz is much concern about how the constant and continual testing in schools affects the day-to-day learning of individual children." Susan Obanian, from her book entitled Garbage Pizza, Patchwork Quilts, and Math Magic At the same time that many teachers are wading into deeper mathematical waters by using manipulatives, open-ended problems, student groups and other innovative methods, the tyranny of standardized testing remains. "I know for a fact that teaching stops at least three to five weeks before the tests," Marilyn Burns observes. "I can't tell teachers not to prepare their kids for tests if those scores are going to be published in their local paper. Teachers don't lose their salaries, they don't lose their jobs, but it's a pall that hangs over them - 'Oh my God, how are the kids going to do on the test?'" Standardized testing is a major stumbling block to implementing the Standards, because the tests do not measure what the Standards say is important for students to learn. For reform to happen in a lasting way, all three parts of the educational triad of teachers, curricular materials and assessment must change together. The NCTM's Assessment Standards will provide some guidance on these issues. This set of standards was carefully developed to align with the other NCTM standards for curriculum and for teaching. School systems around the country are experimenting with new ways to assess what kids know in mathematics. One such program in Bellevue, Washington, funded by EEF, has an unusual twist. It brings parents and administrators in on the ground floor of the development of the new assessment methods, such as portfolios. Led by Sherry Beard, elementary mathematics specialist for the Bellevue public schools, the program brought together a team of eighty people – parents, teachers and principals – to formulate goals for mathematics in grades K-5 and to explore ways of assessing whether those goals are being met. With help from EEF, MSEB issued Measuring Up, a set of prototypes for fourth-grade assessment. One prototype asks students to look at five different bar graphs and decide, based on the characteristics of the graphs, which one could represent the heights of students in a fourth-grade class, which one could represent the distribution of cavities, which one could represent the distribution of their mothers' ages and so on. A look at the sample student responses shows how these prototypes give a far richer view of what the students do and do not understand than any bubble-answer test could. Start Pitching In "The textbook people say, 'Well, we're not going to change because of the tests.' And the test people say, 'We're not going to change because of the textbooks.'... Everyone's got the 'because, because', and really, everything has to change at once. 'So don't be waiting around, start pitching in,' is my thought. So the Exxon Education Foundation says, 'We'll pitch in,' and I say, 'Hallelujah.'" Marilyn Burns The strength of the Mathematics Program of the Foundation is that it invests in people – savvy, dedicated people, each of whom contributes a unique strength, a unique voice to the tough job of reforming mathematics education. And their voices are being heard. "People say, 'The mathematicians really have their act together,' or 'Mathematics is leading the reform effort,'" notes Marcia Sward. "I think that we have charted out new ways of thinking about the whole educational system." But more is needed. To get change going in our 16,000 school districts and 3,000 colleges and universities, the entire nation has to join the chorus. "One thing that is going to make a tremendous difference over the next few years is whether or not we can find a way to articulate the intent of this mathematics vision so that parents and community leaders and business and industry buy in and help support it," says Glenda Lappan. "We need to find ways to develop this sense of ownership and support in individual communities across this country." Bringing all of these voices into the melody, to discuss and debate and find common ground, is what it will take. Listen to the voices of the reform movement. Each is a little different, but they're all singing the same song and rejoicing in the same harmonies. Allyn Jackson is the staff writer for the American Mathematical Society.
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BS 417 .H36 v.7 Murphy, James Gracey, 1808-1896. The books of Chronicles The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that controls the hardware and software resources of a computer. 10. Programming Language: A set of instructions that a computer can understand and execute. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of related components that work together to achieve a common goal. 15. User: An individual who uses a computer or other electronic device. 16. Virtualization: The creation of a virtual version of a physical resource. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices. 19. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 20. YAML: Yet Another Markup Language, a markup language that is used to represent structured data. The following is a list of the most important and frequently used terms in the field of computer science: 1. Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem or performing a task. 2. Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a code so that only authorized parties can understand it. 6. Hashing: A process of converting data into a fixed-size string of characters, typically used for data integrity checks. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources and communicate. 9. Operating System (OS): A software program that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. 10. Programming Language: A formal language designed to be used by humans to express instructions to a computer. 11. Query: A request for information from a database. 12. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction. 13. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 14. System: A collection of interrelated components that work together to achieve a common goal. 15. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer system that interacts with the user, allowing them to input commands and receive feedback. 16. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 17. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 18. Wireless Network: A network that uses radio waves to transmit data between devices. 19. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language that defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. 20. YAML: Yet Another Markup Language, a data serialization language that is easy to read and write, and is commonly used for configuration files. HANDBOOKS FOR BIBLE CLASSES. EDITED BY REV. MARCUS DODS, D.D., AND REV. ALEXANDER WHYTE, M.A. EDINBURGH: T. & T. CLARK, 38 GEORGE STREET. PRINTED BY MORRISON AND GIBB, FOR T. & T. CLARK, EDINBURGH. LONDON, . . . . . HAMILTON, ADAMS, AND CO. DUBLIN, . . . . . ROBERTSON AND CO. NEW YORK, . . . . . SCRIBNER AND WELFORD. THE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES. BY JAMES G. MURPHY, LL.D. T.C.D. PROFESSOR OF HEBREW, BELFAST. EDINBURGH: T. & T. CLARK, 38 GEORGE STREET. 'And these are ancient things.'—I Chron, iv. 22. 'We have heard with our ears, O God, our fathers have told us, what work Thou didst in their days, in the times of old.'—Ps. XLIV. 1. THE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES. INTRODUCTION. Of the nine books included in the Kethubim or Hagiographa, the following are regarded as historical: Esther, Daniel, Chronicles, and Ezra and Nehemiah. The second of these is partly historical and partly prophetical, and belongs to the period of the captivity. The first is a monograph, standing by itself, and referring to a singular instance of the protection vouchsafed by Divine Providence to the Jews of the dispersion under the Persian Empire. The other three form really and designedly a continuous history from the beginning of time, and more fully from the accession of David to the administration of Nehemiah. The books of Chronicles are the only proper antecedent to the history of the times after the captivity. The Occasion.—The books of Ezra and Nehemiah contain a narrative of events occurring after the return of the Jews from the exile of seventy years; the former having for its central event the rebuilding of the temple, the latter the restoration of the walls of Jerusalem. The grand difference in the condition of this people after the captivity was this, that the civil and religious affairs of the nation were no longer governed by a common principle, or as we should say, that the state and the church were no longer the counterparts of one common polity. The ministers of religion still continued to acknowledge the supremacy of God and profess obedience to His law. But the rulers of the state had become subject to the paramount authority of a foreign and heathen power. It is true that a descendant of David was for some years the civil head of the community. But this was a short-lived and evanescent shadow of the kingdom that was to have no end. Zerubbabel, son of Shealtiel, was the leader of the returning colony. But we read of no descendant of his holding sway over Judah. It is true that the posterity of Judah continued to be a nation having a civil polity in certain respects peculiar to itself. But in other respects it was modified and controlled by the arbitrary will of an external power. Hence we have Ezra, a priest and a scribe, by the favour of the sovereign possessing the influence and performing the part of a governor. After him Nehemiah, son of Hachaliah, whom Eusebius and Jerome naturally conclude to be of the tribe of Judah, though not of the royal line, acts in the administration of civil affairs simply as the deputy and representative of the Persian monarch. In accordance with this, Josephus (Ant. xi. 4, 8) states that 'they made use of a form of government that was aristocratical, but mixed with an oligarchy; for the high priests were at the head of affairs, until the posterity of the Asmoneans set up a kingly government.' In the intervening period here noticed the civil ruler was controlled in all important matters by the supreme authority of the foreign potentate. Hence it is plain that the government, so far as it could be the theme of an inspired record, was of necessity sacerdotal, Levitical, or ecclesiastical; while the civil department was virtually under the control of the Persian monarchy, the second of the four great world-powers symbolized in the dream of Nebuchadnezzar. This state of things forced upon the Jewish mind some rude conception of the distinction between church and state. The Davidic sovereignty became henceforth in their thoughts more a spiritual than a secular kingdom. And the books of Ezra and Nehemiah depict the sacerdotal, or more exactly the spiritual, polity of the nation as alone accordant with the principles of the ancient economy. The state of things recorded in these books is therefore in so far out of harmony with the theocratic system of the period before the captivity. The thread of narrative, recounting the ancient unity of church and state under the heavenly King, was broken off at the end of the Second Book of Kings. A new condition of things came in before the history was resumed; and Ezra and Nehemiah want the proper connection with the antecedent history of the people of God. Hence the necessity of the books of Chronicles. Recapitulating the history of man before the times of David, they present the higher aspect of that kingdom, which took its origin from his family, had the promise of a perpetual duration, and was to culminate in the Messiah. The history of David and his line is therefore traced to the exclusion of that of the ten tribes, which became, by their apostasy, strangers to the covenant of promise, and with constant reference to the loftier destiny of his throne as the kingdom of God that cannot be moved. Hence the religious, not the civil, underThe Special Difference of the Work. takings of its kings are dwelt upon with special attention. And the narrative is carried on beyond the burning of the temple and beyond the life of Jehoiachin to the proclamation of Cyrus, authorizing and inviting the banished people to return to Jerusalem, and rebuild the temple and the city. This furnishes the fitting link, to which may be attached the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, containing the history of the remnant who returned on this invitation, until it vanishes in the inert and obscure interval between the Old and the New Testament. The Special Difference of the Work.—The distinguishing characteristics of the books of Chronicles may be gathered from these facts. The work is really one, and is manifestly due to one compiler. It is called in the Masoretic recension Dibre hayyamim, Acts of the Days, freely rendered Chronicon by Jerome, which has come to us in our Chronicles through the Latin Vulgate. This means a record of the leading incidents of the times somewhat in the form of annals. It is designated by the Septuagint Paralcipomena, things left aside or unnoticed. This marks a second peculiarity of the book. It furnishes a supplement to the former series of historical books, bringing to light many interesting particulars which were there omitted. But neither of these comes up to the leading characteristic of the book. Its main scope is to raise into conspicuous prominence the religious and eternal aspect of the kingdom of God, as contradistinguished from the civil and temporal form of government under which the people of God were then constrained to live, and so to exhibit such a view of the former course of events as would fitly introduce the state of things presented in the narrative of Ezra and Nehemiah. The state paramount in this period of the affairs of the chosen people was the second heathen monarchy. The kingdom of God had then no visible reality, unless in the sacerdotal or ecclesiastical department. It remained in the background during the Persian, the Grecian, and the Roman monarchies, and only comes into conspicuous power and progress when the last of these kingdoms is about to decline and fall. Civil government under these mundane powers is a part of the general scheme of Providence, and hence has a primary place in a universal history of the world. But in a record of the commonwealth of grace and salvation, it can come in only for incidental notice. Hence it is plain that the main topic of the present course of history is determined not by the personal leanings of the writers, as has been frequently asserted, but by the real situation of affairs. The civil administration had ceased to be sacred at its fountain-head; the ecclesiastical alone belonged to the sphere of sacred things. The writers are conscious of this fact, and write and speak accordingly. And the author of Chronicles devises and composes a summary of ancient things adapted to the new situation. **Time of Composition.**—It follows from the above considerations, that the composition of Chronicles was coeval with that of Ezra. This alone brings out the reason for its existence. It presents that aspect of former sacred things, of which Ezra and Nehemiah are the legitimate continuation. It points out this higher aspect as having an undoubted existence, and forming the perpetual element in the ancient economy. It accounts for the peculiar character of these books, and links them by a continuous chain with the beginning of things. Many circumstances corroborate this obvious conclusion. The close of the book, which records the proclamation of Cyrus, permitting the Jews to return, is the opening passage of Ezra. How this actually happened may be at present hid from our view. But it goes to prove the inseparable connection of the books in point of time. And at several antecedent points the book alludes to the end of the captivity. In the third chapter the grandsons of Zerubbabel are mentioned; and in the ninth, the captivity is noticed as a thing of the past. These latest events indicated in the book are prior to the activity of Ezra. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah are reckoned by the Jewish doctors as one, but merely for the purpose of grouping all the pieces of the Old Testament in twenty-two books. They may notwithstanding be fairly ascribed to different authors. There is an interval of ten or twenty years from the last event recorded in Ezra to the first in Nehemiah; and we find Ezra still able to perform the function of a scribe, and therefore a reader in the time of Nehemiah. There is no reason therefore why he should not have been the author of the book which bears his name. The existence and character of this book, as well as the state of things after the return, demand a reconstruction of the antecedent history, such as we have in Chronicles. And to serve these purposes this work must have been prepared as a companion to Ezra; at any subsequent period it would have been too late. **The Author.**—The Talmud in Baba bathra, xv. 1, ascribes this work to Ezra; and most of the Rabbins, and after them the early The Author. Fathers, hold the same view. Ezra is the man in every respect qualified to accomplish this task under the Divine guidance. The interval of ten or twelve years from his return to the arrival of Nehemiah is sufficient and suitable for the purpose. The only plausible objection to this view of the ancient Church is that the books of Chronicles contain accounts of events later than the time of Ezra. This, if proved on the small scale proposed, is not a fatal objection. It appears to be a sounder as well as a safer course to accept Ezra, as an adequate source of the books in question handed down to us by earlier tradition, and to ascribe, if needful, a few interpolations to a subsequent redactor, than to assign the whole work to a later unknown author, because a few circumstances or names mentioned are presumed to belong to the times after Ezra. This is more in keeping with the customs and exigencies of the ancient scribes and historians. They wrote as witnesses of the present and recorders of the past at a time when there was no printing. They constituted a successive order of men, having charge of public records, and authority to add to them from time to time as occasion required. Thus a subsequent continuator added the last chapter to Deuteronomy, and may have inserted a few explanatory clauses in other parts of the Pentateuch. It has not yet been proved, however, that there are names or events reported in Chronicles, that were subsequent to the times of Ezra. In 1 Chron. iii. 17-21, Pelatiah and Jesaiah the grandsons of Zerubbabel, the grandson or great-grandson of Jechoniah are mentioned. Now as Jeconiah or Jchoiachin had wives (2 Kings xxiv. 15) at the date of his captivity, about 597 B.C., his son Shealtiel may have been born not far from that date, say in 596 B.C., and therefore about sixty years before the return from the captivity. Taking the average of a generation in the royal line at twenty-four years, though it is somewhat less, we should have Zerubbabel born about thirty-six years and Hananiah about twelve years before the same event. Pelatiah and Jesaiah were thus probably born twelve and fourteen years after the return, and therefore both about 522 B.C., and consequently sixty-three years before the return of Ezra in 459 B.C. They were born some time before the death of their grandfather Zerubbabel, who, though active in commencing the building of the temple in the time of Cyrus, and in resuming the work in the reign of Darius Hystaspis, seems not to have lived long after its completion. The Chronist appears therefore to have traced the royal line no farther than those who had themselves returned from exile or who were born to such as had returned. Hence it is that these two grandsons of Zerubbabel are mentioned. The sons of Reephaiah, the sons of Arnan, the sons of Obadiah, the sons of Shechaniah, mentioned in the following verses, belonged, we conceive, to the time of the captivity. One of these, Shechaniah, who may have been parallel with Jehoiachin, has his line traced to the fourth generation, and therefore not farther than that of Jehoiachin. So far as we know, then, no line is continued farther than the rebuilding of the temple, seventy years after its destruction by Nebuzaradan, or at the very most, a generation farther. The obvious reason for stopping with the grandsons of Zerubbabel is that he was the last ruler of the line of David, and his immediate posterity retired into the obscurity of private life. As the temple was finished in the sixth year of Darius, 516 B.C., and Ezra was still an active man in the twenty-first year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, 445 B.C., seventy-one years after that event, even though more than one generation had to be added, there is every reason to assent to the tradition that Ezra was the compiler of the books of Chronicles, as the proper antecedent to the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and the singular episode of Esther. Contents.—These books are naturally divided into four parts. Part I., including nine chapters, consists of a series of genealogies or a bare summary of the ancient history of man in the line of Israel to the time of David. The first chapter brings down the genealogy from Adam to Israel. The following eight chapters trace the pedigree of most of the tribes of Israel generally to the captivity, in which they were removed from their country. The pedigree of David in particular is continued down to the building of the second temple. And that of Aaron is extended to Jozadak, who was carried into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar. Part II., completing the first book, contains the history of David. Part III., in nine chapters, comprises the reign of Solomon. And Part IV., being the remainder of the second book, continues the history of the line of David and the kingdom of Judah to the proclamation of Cyrus authorizing the return of the people and the rebuilding of the temple. Apart from the special aim of the book to give prominence to the spiritual and perpetual character of the kingdom of God, there is a singular interest awakened by the things which were omitted in the older summary and are here rescued from oblivion and recounted for our instruction. The following passages in these books are among the things left out in the earlier record: 1 Chron. ii. 18-55, iii. 19-24, iv.-ix., xi. 41-47, xii., xv. 1-26, xvi., xxii.-xxix.; 2 Chron. vi. 40-42, xi. 5-53, xii. 4-8, xiii. 3-21, xiv. 3-15, xv. 1-15, xvi. 7-10, xvii., xix., xx. 1-30, xxi. 2-4, 11-19, xxiv. 15-22, xxv. 5-10, 12-16, xxvi. 5-20, xxvii. 4-6, xxviii. 5-25, xxix. 3-36, xxx., xxxi., xxxii. 22, 23, 26-31, xxxiii. 11-19, xxxiv. 3-7, xxxv. 2-17, 25, xxxvi. 11-23. Hence it appears that twenty whole chapters and twenty-four parts of chapters are occupied with matter not to be found in the other books of Scripture. These books are therefore highly important on account of the new material as well as the new aspect of things which they present. Sources.—The compiler of these books makes reference to the Chronicles of King David, the words of Samuel the seer, of Nathan the prophet, and of Gad the seer, for the reign of David; to the words of Nathan, the prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite, and the visions of Jedi or Iddo the seer, for the reign of Solomon; and for the remaining reigns to the writings of Shemaiah the prophet, of Iddo, of Jehu son of Hanani, of Isaiah son of Amoz, of the seers or of Hozai, and again and again to the book of the Kings of Israel and Judah, which is quoted with some variety of designation. As none of these works are extant or elsewhere described, we could offer nothing but conjecture respecting their nature or contents. We simply learn that the nation was very well provided with contemporary public records as well as private memoirs of its principal transactions, and that the works quoted must be different from the historical books of Scripture, as they contained information not to be found in the latter. Besides these he had before him the five books of Moses and the eight books of the prophets with the exception of Malachi. Moreover he must have had access to some very old registers or annals, from which he compiled most of the first nine chapters of his work. Ezra, being a priest and a scribe, would have the best opportunities of access to such ancient documents. Credibility.—The least that is due to an author is to assume his veracity and competence until the contrary is proved. A thorough examination and fair exposition of this work will, we have no doubt, establish the honesty of the compiler on unassailable grounds. Making due allowance for errors of transcription, we shall find him in accord with the collateral books of history and with himself. And it is impossible on the one hand to suggest a motive for deviating from the truth, and on the other to give any colour for a charge of falsehood in those parts of the work for which we have no longer any parallel vouchers. Style.—The author having to go over the whole of the ancient history of man in a narrow space, is conscious of the necessity of brevity. He therefore touches on the heads of things, and sometimes gives a mere string of names without indicating fully their relation to one another, when it can be learned from antecedent Scripture or is unimportant in itself. When he comes down to David, he is generally clear in his supplements to the older historical books of Scripture, and eloquent in his description of events that are of moment in the religious progress of the chosen people. His style resembles that of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther, and belongs to the silver age of Hebrew, when it began to approach to the Aramaic, and to admit a greater number of foreign words. The literature of the book may be found in Zöckler on Chronicles, in Lange's *Theologisch-kommtetisches Bibelwerk*, or the translation of this work published by Messrs. Clark, and in the various biblical cyclopedias and dictionaries. PART I.—THE PERIOD BEFORE DAVID. CHAPTER I. 1–23. THE GENEALOGY OF THE WHOLE RACE OF ADAM. In the first paragraph we have the line of descent from Adam to Noah's three sons; and in the other three the principal descendants of each of these sons. The Deluge was 1656 years from the creation of Adam, according to the Hebrew.\(^1\) 1–4. The names in these four verses take us over Gen. i.–ix. The chronist presumes his reader to be acquainted with Genesis, and therefore adds Shem, Ham, and Japheth without indicating that they are the sons of Noah, the tenth inclusive from Adam. This is to be noted as furnishing a principle of interpretation in some other parts of this book. It is to be observed that in the English Version the translator of this book adheres more closely to the original in the names Sheth, Enosh, Kenan, Jered, Henoch, than the translator of Genesis. 5–23. This is an abbreviation of Gen. x. Vers. 5–7. Descendants of Japheth, the eldest son of Noah. Ver. 6. \(Riphath\) is the reading in Gen. x. 3, though Diphath appears in some copies here; the \(d\) and \(r\) of the original being similar in form. Ver. 7. In like manner \(Dodanim\) is in some copies Rodanim. The former readings are probably correct. 8–16. Descendants of Ham, the youngest son. This passage, as far as it goes, coincides with Genesis more exactly in the original than the versions do. Ver. 12. *The Philistines* stands for Philistim, which appears in the translation of Genesis. It is to be noted that the Philistines are traced to Mizraim or Egypt. Canaan has eleven descendants. 17–23. Descendants of Shem, the second son. We learn that Ham was the youngest, from Gen. ix. 24. As Shem was a hundred years old two years after the flood (Gen. xi. 10), he must have been born in the 502d or 503d year of Noah's life, and therefore two years after Japheth (Gen. v. 32). Uz, and Hul, and Gether, and Meshech are sons, not immediately of Shem, but of Aram (Gen. x. 23). This is a second case of the principle exemplified in ver. 4. *Meshech* here stands for the Mash of Genesis; where, indeed, there is Mosoch in the Septuagint as here. It appears to be the same with Meshech in Ps. cxx. 5, where it is parallel with the tents of Kedar. The remaining verses coincide with the corresponding parts of Genesis. \(^1\) The reader is expected to have the Authorized Version before him when he consults these notes. CHAPTER I. 24-54. THE COLLATERAL BRANCHES OF THE PEDIGREE OF ISRAEL. The passage now before us contains three notable paragraphs: descendants of Shem, vers. 24-33; descendants of Esau and Seir, vers. 34-42; and kings and dukes of Edom, vers. 43-54. It covers Genesis from the eleventh to the thirty-sixth chapter. 24-33. Descendants of Shem. Vers. 24-27. The bare line from Shem to Abram, that is, Abraham, extends over Gen. xi.-xvii. Abraham is the tenth from Noah, and the twentieth from Adam. He was born A.M. 2008 (1992 B.C.), and called, when seventy years of age, to go into the land of Canaan. After spending five years in Haran, where his father died, he proceeded into the Land of Promise. Vers. 28-33. The collaterals of Isaac. This paragraph reaches from Gen. xvi. to xxv. Isaac and Ishmael. Isaac is put first as the child of promise, though born fourteen years after Ishmael (Gen. xvii. 25, and xxi. 5). So Shem is put first, though he was the second son. This point is to be kept in mind in the examination of lists. From the call of Abraham to the birth of Isaac were thirty years. Vers. 29-31. This passage is taken from Gen. xxv. 12-16. These are their generations. This is a new starting-point. It is modified from Gen. xxv. 12, to include Isaac as well as Ishmael. Hadad is Hadar in Genesis, though some editions there also give Hadad. Hadad seems the correct reading. Vers. 32, 33. This is abridged from Gen. xxv. 1-4. The sons of Dedan are omitted. 34-42. Descendants of Esau and Seir. This and the next paragraph correspond with Gen. xxxvi. Vers. 34-37. Descendants of Esau. On comparing this with Gen. xxxvi. 1-15, we find that Timna, here placed in the list after the sons of Eliphaz, was his concubine, and that Amalek was another son he had by her. Hence we learn that these names are loosely added, without any note of their relation to those before, or to one another. Compare with this ver. 4 and ver. 17. The writer plainly supposes his reader to be acquainted with Genesis. We must suppose a colon after Kenaz. Zephi here is Zepho in Genesis, by a change in the last letter, which is not unusual. Vers. 38-42. Descendants of Seir. This Seir was probably a Shemite, though his relationship is unrecorded. Comparing this paragraph with Gen. xxxvi. 20-30, we find Homam for Heman, Alyan for Alwan, Shephi for Shepho, by the exchange of y for w and m for n. Ver. 41. Abolibamah, daughter of Anah, is omitted. Amram stands for Hemdan, which appears to be correct. Ver. 42. Jakan stands for Akan of Genesis. The latter is the true reading. 43-54. The kings and dukes in Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 31-43). Before any king. This simply means, before Israel became a nation having an independent civil magistrate and government. The Lord God was their King, and Moses was His first representative (Ex. xv. 18, iv. 16, xviii. 19; Num. xxvii. 16-23; Deut. xxxiii. 5). Hence the line of kings is traced down no farther than the time of Moses. Ver. 50. *Hadad* here stands for Hadar, and *Pai* for Pau, by a change of similar letters, which is of frequent occurrence. Ver. 51. Here it is added to the older record, ‘and Hadad died.’ The event must have taken place during the lifetime of Moses, after he had penned Gen. xxxvi. 39. We have no intimation here of a successor. But from Num. xx. 14 we learn that there was still a king of Edom, though his name is not given. The interval from the call of Abraham to the Exodus was 430 years. Vers. 51-54. The dukes of Edom. These are the dukes in the time of Haddad. Timna and Aholibamah appear here as proper names of men. *Alvah* stands for Alvah. This first chapter, we see, is simply a genealogy, connecting Israel, who is named in ver. 34, with Adam, and with the collateral branches of the race. 1. What is the chief end for which the Book of Chronicles was written? 2. What is the meaning of the name it bears in our version? 3. What is meant by the name it bears in the Septuagint? 4. How much of the two books is supplemental to the preceding books? 5. Why is the present chapter so brief? 6. What is the interval from the Deluge to the call of Abraham? 7. What is the date of the Exodus? 8. Construct a chronological table, containing the creation of Adam, the Deluge, the call of Abraham, and the Exodus. 9. Mention a rule of interpretation requisite for these genealogical chapters CHAPTER II. THE SONS OF ISRAEL.—I. JUDAH. The Chronist now becomes more copious in names than Genesis, and grows in interest from the supplies which he makes for the omissions of the former account. The tribe of Judah (1) takes up ii.-iv. 23; Simeon (2), iv. 24-43; Reuben (3), v. 1-10; Gad (4), v. 11-17; Reuben, Gad, and half-Manasseh, v. 18-26; Levi (5), vi.; Issachar (6), vii. 1-5; Benjamin (7), vii. 6-12; Naphtali (8), vii. 13; Manasseh (9), vii. 14-19; Ephraim (10), vii. 20-29; Asher (11), vii. 30-40; Benjamin again, viii. In this enumeration the tribes of Zebulun and Dan are omitted, and Joseph counted as two. 1, 2. In this list of the sons of Israel, the sons of Leah stand first; Joseph and Benjamin, the sons of Rachel, are placed between Dan and Naphtali, the sons of her handmaid; and the sons of Leah’s handmaid come last. These two verses cover Gen. xxix.–xxxv. 3-8. The descendants of Judah to the third generation. Judah is placed first, because he came to have the pre-eminence (Gen. xl ix. 8). Vers. 3 and 4 contain a brief record of his five sons, abridged from Gen. xxxviii.; and ver. 5 is found in Gen. xlvi. These three verses therefore range over Gen. xxxvii.-l. Vers. 6-8 record some of the descendants of Zerah. Of his five sons, Zimri seems to be identical with Zabdi in Josh. vii. 1. The remaining four, Ethan, Heman, Calcol, and Dara appear to be Ethan the Ezrahite, Heman, Calcol, and Darda (a mere variation of Dara), mentioned in 1 Kings iv. 31. The designation Ezrahite means of the family of Ezrah or Zerah, and points to this ancient record. They are said to be sons of Machol, or the choir. As the sons of the East in the very context (1 Kings iv. 30) are the Easterns, so the sons of the choir are the choristers. This implies a knowledge of music, and its kindred arts, poetry, singing, and dancing. In accordance with this, Ps. lxxxviii. is ascribed to Heman the Ezrahite, and Ps. lxxxix. to Ethan the Ezrahite, the latter at least being a descendant of the Ethan in our text. They were distinguished, however, for other mental qualities of a high order; for it is said that Solomon was wiser than these four men. Hence it appears that they were eminent among the sons of the East and of Egypt (1 Kings iv. 30) for their wisdom. In Egypt they dwelt when Joseph was in authority, and his family was still in high esteem; and in Egypt, accordingly, their natural talents for the fine arts and for social wisdom were developed and cultivated. These qualities of the Zarhites descended in the tribe of Judah, and attained their highest lustre in David and Solomon. Ver. 7. The sons of Carmi. The plural form is occasionally used, when only one son is mentioned. This is a hint that the Chronist is extracting from a pedigree which contains other sons or descendants; and that he selects only as much as serves his purpose. Carmi, according to Josh. vii. 1, is the son of Zabdi, or, as we may assume, Zimri. Achar (troubler) is a variation of Achan (bender, twister), the name in Josh. vii., probably arising from the sad history which is there given of his crime. The thing accursed is that which is shut up, debarred from common use, and devoted to God, under a ban or curse upon any one who attempts to appropriate it to himself. Ver. 8. The sons of Ethan. Azariah, who alone is named, is otherwise unknown. 9-55. The descendants of Hezron. The phrase, ‘the sons of Hezron,’ stands as a heading, to which is then appended, ‘to whom were born,’ etc. There is new ground here. This Jerahmeel occurs only in this chapter. Ram is in the Sept., and Matt. i. 3, Aram. Kelubai has the appearance of a Gentile or class name, including several of the name of Caleb. If not, it is simply a variant for Caleb, which appears here in the Sept. The remainder of this chapter consists of the descendants of the sons of Hezron, among whom Caleb is a conspicuous and recurring name. Vers. 10-17. The descendants of Ram. He is placed first as the ancestor of David. The line is given in Ruth iv. 18-22. Nahshon is given as the prince of Judah in Num. i. 7. As Hezron was born immediately before Jacob came down into Egypt, we have Pharcz, Hezron, Ram, Amminadab, and Nahshon to cover the period during which the children of Israel were in Egypt. As it is said in Ex. xii. 40, that ‘the sojourning of the children of Israel who dwelt in Egypt was 430 years,’ it is supposed by many that this whole period was spent in Egypt. But the 430 years is plainly the period, not of their dwelling in Egypt, but of their sojourning first in Egypt and other lands, and finally for a long time in Egypt. For in Gen. xv. 13-16, Abraham is informed that his seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs for 400 years, and in the fourth age they shall come hither again. Hence it is plain that the time from the birth of Isaac till the entrance of the seed into the Land of Promise, was to be four ages, an age being a hundred, or a hundred and ten years. As the interval from the birth of Isaac till the entrance of Jacob into Egypt was (60+130) 190 years, the balance of years for their sojourn is 210 years. Even this period is very long for four generations. But if we suppose the first three generations to be on an average forty years each, and Nahshon to be ninety years of age at the Exodus, we perceive that the thing is quite possible. Salma is in the Sept. Salman, and in Ruth, Matthew, and Luke, Salmon. The five names from Salma to David cover a period of at least 450 years from the Exodus to the birth of Solomon. Though some of these men may have been late in marrying, yet most of us are more willing to suppose that several names are omitted, than that in a special line, on an average, the interval from father to son was so high as ninety years. If so, the names must have fallen out between Nahshon and Boaz, if the latter was only the great-grandfather of David. Salma may have been the grandson or even the great-grandson of Nahshon, and other links may have come in between Obed and Jesse. Vers. 13-15. Seven sons of Jesse are here enumerated. It is not said that he had only seven, and in 1 Sam. xvii. 12 it is expressly affirmed that he had eight sons. The Peshito gives here Elihu the seventh, David the eighth; for which may be quoted 1 Chron. xxvii. 18, ‘Of Judah Elihu, of the brethren of David.’ But the Sept. here agrees with the original Hebrew. The explanation of the apparent discrepancy is perhaps to be found in 2 Sam. xvii. 25: ‘Amasa was a man’s son whose name was Ithra, an Israelite, that went in to Abigail, the daughter of Nahash, sister to Zeruiah.’ From this it appears likely that Jesse had two wives. Whether Nahash was the name of the second wife, as Tremellius thinks, or of her father, we cannot tell. But it is probable that David was the seventh son of the first wife, and at the same time younger than a son of the second wife, a full brother of Abigail, if not of Zeruiah, who is here left out of account. Ver. 13. These three are named in 1 Sam. xvi. Ver. 14. Raddai is supposed by some to be the same as Rei (1 Kings i. 8), as Shimma is sometimes identified with Shimei in the same passage. Ver. 16. The name of the husband of Zeruiah is nowhere mentioned. Ver. 17. Jether, otherwise called Ithra, is here said to be the Ishmaelite, but in 2 Sam. xvii. 25, the Israelite; for which the Sept. there gives the Jezeelite. The last is likely to be correct; because David's first wife was Ahinoam the Jezeelitess, which indicates a connection with that town, whether it be in Ephraim or Judah (1 Chron. iv. 3). He might in that case be an Ishmaelite by race at the same time. Vers. 18-24. The descendants of Caleb, v. 18. The text as it stands can only be rendered as in the English Version. Caleb is called 'the son of Hezron,' to distinguish him from the other Calebs of his family mentioned in this chapter. Begat of Azubah, a wife, and of Jerioth. The latter is no further mentioned. For 'a wife' we should expect 'his wife.' And these are her sons. The reference appears to be to Azubah, as her death is afterwards mentioned. Of her sons we know nothing further. Ver. 19. Ephrath, called also Ephrathah in vers. 24 and 50. This Ephrath appears to have been named after her who gave name to the town Ephrath, which is Bethlehem, where Benjamin was born and Rachel died. We here begin to learn the interesting and unexpected fact, that the intercourse of Israel with the localities in Palestine where their ancestors had acquired property, was kept up so long as they were a free and honoured people in Egypt. This condition of things must have lasted a considerable time. Before the new king arose in Egypt that knew not Joseph, this patriarch had died and all that generation. As he was thirty-nine years of age when Jacob came to Egypt, his death at the age of one hundred and ten years took place seventy-one years after the descent. The death of 'all that generation' would considerably extend this period. Moreover, the new king's motive for oppressing Israel was, that they were 'more and mightier than we.' An obvious inference from this is, that the new king was the head of a dynasty which held only a part of the country, while contemporary sovereigns held sway in other parts. But an equally plain consequence is, that the Israelites must be allowed as long a time as possible to become formidable by their numbers, even to a petty kingdom. We shall not be far astray, then, in allowing 120 years to have elapsed from the descent into Egypt to the rise of the new dynasty. If, according to Wilkinson, Amosis, 1575 B.C., were the new king, the period of growth would be at least 126 years, and that of bondage less than ninety years. During this interval of freedom and unwonted increase, the Israelites appear to have kept up a constant connection with the ancient scenes of their fathers. We know that Abraham dwelt in the plain of Mamre, which is in Hebron, and in the south country when he made a league with the king of Gerar, and purchased the field of Machpelah in perpetuity from the sons of Heth; Isaac dug the wells of Rehoboth and Beersheba, and made a covenant with Abimelech the Philistine, by which he was recognised as a sheik, holding a territory by acknowledged right; and Jacob bought a parcel of a field near Shechem, and acquired a piece of land by sword and bow (Gen. xxxiii. 19, xlviii. 22). Accordingly, in the early time of prosperity and freedom, Caleb formed a matrimonial alliance with Ephrath, by which he probably became master of Ephrathah or Bethlehem. Ver. 20. Hur appears to be the companion of Aaron in holding up the hands of Moses in the battle with Amalek (Gen. xvii. 12). Bezaleel, his grandson, is the famous constructor of the tabernacle (Ex. xxxi. 2). Vers. 21-24. Other descendants of Hezron. As the author has put Ram, the ancestor of the royal line, first, he disposes of these collateral branches after and under Caleb, that he may reserve the last place for Jerahmeel the first-born. And afterwards, after the birth of his sons already mentioned. The daughter of Machir, son of Manasseh and grandson of Joseph. This Machir is called the father of Gilead, who was born before the death of Joseph (Gen. l. 23). Gilead was a memorable point in the history of Jacob, and the scene transacted there had taken hold of the memory of Joseph, who was an observant youth at the time of the parting covenant between Laban and Jacob. If Jacob established any title to the mount at that time, this would be an additional reason for calling a son of Machir after this celebrated spot. The Amorites may not yet have entered the Perea, which in the time of Abraham was possessed by the Rephaim (Gen. xiv. 5). Whether Machir had visited this region during the period when Israel was a free people in Egypt, we have no means of knowing; but in the time of Caleb's intercourse with the land of Bethlehem, it is not impossible. The name of this daughter of Machir is not given here or elsewhere. Ver. 22. Jair was therefore the son of Manasseh (Num. xxxii. 41), because he was the grandson of his grand-daughter. Though he belonged to Judah by the father's side, he attached himself to the house of Machir. His wife was an heiress, and her inheritance was to follow her tribe (Num. xxvii. and xxxvi.). There is a trace, moreover, of his descent by the father from Judah, in Josh. xix. 34, where Judah on the Jordan toward the sunrising marks the region inherited by Jair. The three-and-twenty cities in the land of Gilead, were part of the Havoth-jair, livings or towns of Jair (Num. xxxii. 41). These were taken by Jair and called after his name, a name which was recurrent in the tribe (Judg. x. 3). But he pushed his conquests into the land of Argob (Deut. iii. 14), the threescore cities of which seem also to have been included in the Havoth-jair (Josh. xiii. 30). Ver. 23. Took Geshur and Aram, that is, from Geshur and Aram. The original might be rendered, 'And Geshur and Aram took Havoth-jair.' But the combination of these two as agents is not very natural; the context refers to Jair, and we expect a continuance of the reference; while the statement that the twenty-three cities were in the land of Gilead, prepares us for a conquest beyond that region, and there is no other hint of a conquest by Geshur and Aram. The part taken from them is defined by the following words: 'even Jair's towns from them.' This part of Jair's towns is further explained to be Kenath and its dependencies, comprising the sixty cities of Argob. Nobah (Num. xxxii. 42), who took these cities, seems to have been a general of Jair, probably a kinsman, possibly a son. Kenath is taken to be Kanwat in the Hauran; and the name Nobah given to it seems to have faded into obscurity, as it is no further mentioned, unless it be in Judg. viii. 11. All these were the sons. It is evident that the monument from which the previous passage was taken contained more names than Segub and Jair, and belonged to the genealogy of Machir rather than Hezron. Ver. 24. Caleb-Ephrathah appears to be Bethlehem, or the district to which it belonged, having received this designation from the united names of Caleb and his wife. After the death of Hezron in this place, his wife Abiah bore him a posthumous son, Ashur, who became the founder of Tekoa, a town two hours south of Bethlehem. We see in all this a reason for placing these descendants of Hezron as a sequel to the family of Caleb, as they dwelt in his territory and were under his jurisdiction, with the exception of Jair, who attached himself to the family of his mother. Hezron seems to have settled and died in the territory of his son Caleb, and the sons of his old age were contemporary with their nephews, and took rank with them under Caleb. Vers. 25-41. Descendants of Jerahmeel. He is the first-born of Hezron. His family settled in the south of Judah (1 Sam. xxvii. 10). His first-born, Ram, appears to have been called after his uncle. It is most probable that only four sons are here enumerated, of whom the last is not Ozem, but Uz. The m at the end of the last name should belong to the following word, which must then be rendered 'of' or 'from Ahijah.' This is a simpler change than that proposed by some others, namely, that an m has fallen out, as it involves no amendment of the text. These names do not occur elsewhere. Ver. 26. The naming of his second wife suggests at least that the first has been named. Her son is otherwise unknown. Ver. 27. Ram is the father of Maaz, Jamin, and Eker, and therefore not to be identified with his uncle of the same name, who was the father of Amminadab. Vers. 28-33. The descendants of Onam are here traced to the seventh generation inclusive, in the line of Shammai, and to the fourth, in the line of Jada. And the closing sentence, 'These were the sons of Jerahmeel,' is rightly placed, as the following line in vers. 34-41 is traced from Jarha the Egyptian. Ver. 35. Ahlai (ver. 31) seems to have been a daughter of Sheshan. Ver. 41. Elishama, the last mentioned of this line, was the eighteenth, inclusive, from Onam, and the twenty-second from Judah, and might therefore be contemporary with Uzziah or Jotham, or, if we make allowance for omitted names, with Rehoboam. But as the members of this line do not recur in history, we have no means of pursuing the investigation. Vers. 42-49. The offspring of Caleb, brother of Jerahmeel. This Caleb is different from the Caleb of vers. 18-24, as he flourished after the bondage in Egypt; and the latter, who was probably his ancestor, before it. He is called brother of Jerahmeel, plainly to distinguish him from the other Calebs. Either the word 'brother' must be taken in a wide sense for kinsman of the family, one of the clan of Caleb, the brother of Jerahmeel, or this Jerahmeel must be an otherwise unmentioned descendant of Hezron. This would be quite in keeping with the manner of our abbreviator. Mesha is the father of Ziph, either the founder of the town or the father of him who founded it. Mareshah seems to have been another son of Caleb. He is the father of Hebron, who was probably called after the town Hebron, or after the founder of it. The city Hebron was very ancient, having been built seven years before Zoan in Egypt (Num. xiii. 22). Ver. 43. The genealogy is then traced through Hebron to Maon, the sixth inclusive from Caleb. Of the names of this list, several were given to towns. Ziph was a town a little south-east of Hebron, mentioned in Josh. xv. 55, and bordering on the wilderness of Ziph (1 Sam. xxxiii. 14). There was, however, another Ziph (Josh. xv. 24) at a distance from this, to the south-west. Mareshah, now Marash, lay in the lowland (Shephelah). Tappuah probably took his name from the founder of the town of that name, or of Beth-tappuah, both of which were in Judah (Josh. xv. 34, 53). Ver. 45. Maon occurs as the name of a town, now Main, in the highlands south of Hebron. Bethzur lies north of Hebron, and may have owed its consequence to Maon. Vers. 46-49. Two concubines of Caleb are now introduced. The three sons of Ephah are otherwise unknown. The nephew Gazez is called after his uncle, as in the case of Ram (ver. 25). Ver. 47. Jahdai is from the brevity of the compiler unconnected with the foregoing names, but was probably a son or grandson of Ephah. Vers. 48, 49. The second concubine was the mother of four or five sons and a daughter. Of the first two sons nothing is recorded. Ver. 49. The third is the founder of Madmannah, a city of Judah (Josh. xv. 31), supposed by some to be Minich, south of Gaza. The fourth, Sheva, is the founder apparently of two cities, of which the former is not otherwise known. But the father of Gibea may be a fifth son, whose name is not given. Gibea is mentioned in Josh. xv. 57, and is thought to be Jeba in the hills of Judah east of Bethlehem. The daughter is Achsa, who was promised by Caleb to the captor of Kiriath-sepher and won by Othniel, son of Kenaz, Caleb's brother (Josh. xv. 16, 17). This determines the time of Caleb, and distinguishes him from the son of Hezron. He was the son of Jephunneh, and was appointed one of the twelve spies and one of the commissioners for dividing the land (Num. xiii. 6, xxxiv. 19). Vers. 50-55. Offspring of Caleb, son of Hur. This third Caleb is nearly contemporary with the preceding one, but of less importance. Hur is designated the first-born of Ephrathah or Ephrath, and therefore son of the first Caleb. The present Caleb, then, is the grandson or descendant of the first, according as we take son of Hur in a strict or in a wide sense. He is the father of three sons. Shobal is the coloniser of Kiriath-jearim, the city of the woods, a Gibonite town (Josh. ix. 17), otherwise called Kiriath-baal or Baalah (Josh.xv. 9, 60), which is identified with Kuryet el Enab, 'city of the grape,' on the way from Jerusalem to Joppa. Shobal is mentioned once more in iv. 1. Ver. 51. Salma is the coloniser of Bethlehem, perhaps named after the Salma of ver. 11, the ancestor of Boaz, a previous colonist or chief of the same town, which lies six miles south of Jerusalem, and is celebrated as the birthplace of David and of King David's greater son. Hareph is the colonist or head of Beth-gader. This is identified by Zöckler with Geder (Josh. xii. 13) and Gederah (Josh. xv. 36). Ver. 52. As sons of Shobal are here mentioned Haroeh and the half of Menuhoth. Haroeh appears to be a variation of Reiah (iv. 2, the seer, seer of Jah). The half of Menuhoth is the counterpart of half of the Manahthite in ver. 54. The town Manahath was colonised in part by descendants of Shobal. Ver. 53. Among the colonists of Kiriath-jearim descended from Shobal (ver. 50) were the Ithrite, the Puthite, the Shumathite, and the Mishraite. Two of David's heroes, Ira and Gareb, were Ithrites (2 Sam. xxiii. 38). From these families were colonised the towns of Zorah and Eshtaol. Zorah was the home of Samson, midway between Jerusalem and the western sea, now Sura. Zorathite and Zorite differ only in form. Eshtaol was not far from it, and is identified with Um-eshteyeh. Ver. 54. The descendants of Salma were settled in Bethlehem (ver. 51), Netophah, Atroth-beth-Joab, half Manahath, and Zorah. Netophah was not far from Bethlehem (Neh. vii. 26), and gave birth to two of David's heroes (2 Sam. xxiii. 28, 29). *Ataroth-beth-joab*, 'rings or fences of the house of Joab.' This may be Joab, son of Zeruiah (ver. 16) and general of David. Half of Manahath was inhabited by descendants of Shobal and half by those of Salma. Zorah also was colonised by both. Ver. 55. Among the descendants of Salma are also included the families of scribes who dwelt at Jabez. This is a town of unknown site in the south of Judah, connected somehow by name with Jabez of the family of Koz and tribe of Judah (iv. 9). The Tirathites, Shimathites, and Suchathites are other families besides those who dwelt in Jabez. Jerome renders these words 'singing,' 'resounding,' and 'dwelling in tents.' But this is very doubtful. The three families are named from three individuals who stood at the head of them. They are here said to be Kinites, the inhabitants of Kinah (Josh. xv. 22); not the Kenites, who did not belong to Israel, though they were probably Shemites (Gen. xv. 19; Num. xxiv. 21). Who came from Hammath of the father. To take Hammath as the town or fort of the father of the house of Rechab suits better for the word 'came,' which usually denotes motion, not descent. From this Hammath came the three families who built or settled in Kinah. In this way the verse has a meaning which makes the author consistent with himself and with other parts of Scripture. We have no reason to conclude from 2 Kings x. 15 and Jer. xxxv. that the Rechabites were other than descendants of Judah, as they are here described. 1. What was the condition of Israel in Egypt before the king arose that knew not Joseph? 2. How long probably did they remain in this condition? 3. What proofs does this chapter afford, that Israel during this period at least kept up an intercourse with the Land of Promise? 4. To what parts of the land had their ancestors acquired a claim by law or conquest? 5. How many Calebs were there, and how far were they related? 6. What arts or sciences were cultivated by the sons of Judah? By whom in particular, and where? 7. What was the law of heiresses in Israel? 8. What example of it appears in this chapter? 9. In what sense might David, the seventh and youngest son of Jesse, be at the same time an eighth son? CHAPTER III. LINE OF DAVID. This chapter contains the sons of David, the line of David to the captivity, and some of his descendants after the exile. It continues the narrative contained in ii. 9-17. 1-9. The sons of David. Vers. 1-3. First, those born in Hebron. Jezreel, the home of Ahinoam, and Carmel, that of Abigail, were both in Judah. The second son Chileab is here called Daniel. A second name given in commemoration of some incident in his life was not unusual in ancient times, as Jacob and Israel, Esau and Edom, Reuel and Jethro. This is one among the many proofs that the Chronicist had other sources of information besides the former prophets. David came to the throne about 1055 B.C. Ver. 2. Maachah, the mother of Absalom, was daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur in Aram (2 Sam. xv. 8), with whom David seems to have formed alliance in his wars with the house of Saul, while he was king in Hebron. Whether the Geshurites in the south of Judah (Josh. xiii. 2; 1 Sam. xxvii. 8) were connected with the inhabitants of Geshur in Aram, is not apparent. Haggith, Abital, and Eglah are otherwise unknown. Ver. 4. This statement is found in 2 Sam. v. 4, 5. Vers. 5-9. Second, the sons born in Jerusalem. Shammuah of 2 Sam. is here Shimea, a mere variation from the same root. The first four, including Nathan and Solomon, are the sons of Bathshua. This name is a weakened form of Bathsheba. She is here said to be the daughter of Ammiel, which in 2 Sam. is Eliam, the components being merely transposed. Of the nine other sons born in Jerusalem, Elishama is in 2 Sam. v. 14 softened into Elishua, and Eliphelet and Nogah are inserted in addition to those found in 2 Sam. v. 15, 16. Other sons were born of concubines (2 Sam. v. 13, xv. 16), but their names are not given. One daughter is added whose melancholy history is found in 2 Sam. xiii. 10-16. The line of David to the captivity. In this list Abia or Abijah is a variation of Abijam in 1 Kings xv. 1. Athaliah, the usurping queen, mother of Ahaziah, being out of the line of David, is omitted. Azariah ('help of Jah') begins to be called Uzziah ('strength of Jah') in 2 Kings xv. 30 immediately after his death, and is so named in Isaiah and elsewhere in Chronicles. Ver. 15. Of the sons of Josiah four are named. Johanan never reigned. Being the first-born, he cannot be identical with Jehoahaz, who was two years younger than Eliakim (2 Kings xxiii. 31, 36). Eliakim was named Jehoiakim when Pharaoh Necho made him king. Mattaniah was named Zedekiah when Nebuchadnezzar appointed him king. Shallum (Jer. xxii. 11) is another name for Jehoahaz, who reigned immediately after Josiah. Though older than Zedekiah by at least thirteen years, he is placed last, because he reigned only three months, and was therefore scarcely acknowledged as a sovereign (Keil). Yet he may be said to have been the only legitimate successor to Josiah, as the following sovereigns were imposed on the people by foreign potentates. Ver. 16. Jeconiah is called in Jer. xxii. Coniah by abbreviation, and in Kings (by transposition of the components) Jehoiachin, all these names being equivalent in meaning ('Jehovah will establish'). The addition 'his son' after Zedekiah makes him the son of Jeconiah and grandson of Jehoiakim. As we hear nothing further of him, he may have died in infancy before his father was carried into exile. He seems to have been named after his uncle. 17-24. Descendants of David after Jeconiah became an exile. Assir here is most probably an appellative designating Jeconiah as a captive or prisoner, which he continued to be during the life of Nebuchadnezzar. Shealtiel is the son through whom the succession is to proceed. Vers. 18, 19. Six other names are then enumerated, of whom Pedaiah is said to have had two sons, Zerubbabel and Shimei. Zerubbabel is elsewhere invariably called the son of Shealtiel. This may be explained by taking Pedaiah to be a slip of the pen for Shealtiel; or by regarding Malchiram, etc., as the sons of Shealtiel, and therefore Zerubbabel his grandson; or by supposing Pedaiah to take his deceased brother's wife and raise up seed for his childless brother. The first is supported by three uncials, including A and B, and at least eight cursives of the Sept. (see Holmes and Parsons). It is curious that in the Syriac and Arabic Versions, Nedabiah appears in place of Pedaiah. The second solution is plausible, as our author in like manner writes (i. 17): 'Aram, and Uz, and Hul,' etc., though the latter are the sons of Aram. Of Shimei no more is heard. Ver. 20. Of Zerubbabel seven sons and a daughter appear at first sight to be enumerated. But as the number 'five' occurs after Jushab-hesed, it is more probable, from the summarizing habit of our author, that Zerubbabel had only two sons, and that these five were the sons of Meshullam. Ver. 21. Of the names here given, Hananiah and Pelatiah recur among the sealed in Neh. x. 22, 23; but they are not likely to be the same. This closes the royal line. Assuming that Rehoboam began to reign 975 B.C., and Jehoiakim ceased in 597, we have 378 years for sixteen reigns, and therefore, on an average, twenty-four years for each generation. Jeconiah had wives in 597 (2 Kings xxiv. 15); and therefore Shealtiel may have been born in 596, Zerubbabel in 572, Hananiah in 548, Pelatiah in 524, and Jeshaiah in 522 B.C., two years before the building of the temple was resumed. The royal line is now dropped with the grandsons of Zerubbabel, simply because he was the last that had any shadow of authority, and these were born during his lifetime. After him the royal line disappears in the obscurity of private life. The next Tirshatha of whom we read is Nehemiah. Vers. 21-24. Of the four families here mentioned, that of Shechaniah is traced to the fourth generation. Among the names of his descendants, Hodijah and Hezekiah recur among the sealed in Nehemiah. Hattush a priest, and Pelaiah a Levite, in Neh. x., cannot belong to the tribe of Judah. Ver. 22. The number six at the end of the verse seems to include Shemaiah, who is also mentioned as a son in the verse (J. H. Mich., Starke). This accords with the compiler's mode of stringing together descendants of different degrees. Ver. 24. Shechaniah and Elioenai ('my eyes are unto God,' Ps. xxv. 15) recur in Ezra viii. 4, but of other parentage. It is not to be supposed that any line is carried farther down than the direct line of the royal house. Accordingly the sons of Rephaiah, the sons of Arnan, the sons of Obadiah, the sons of Shecaniah, are probably contemporary with the sons of Jeconiah (ver. 17), and collateral branches of the family of David. The four generations may be arranged thus: Shealtiel, b. 506 B.C. Shemaiah. Zerubbabel, b. 572 B.C. Neariah. Hananiah, b. 548 B.C. Elioenai. Pelatiah, b. 524 B.C. Hodaiah. and Jeshaiah, twelve years old, 510 B.C., when Anani was at least two years old. If we suppose Zerubbabel to be the grandson of Shealtiel, Jeshaiah will be twelve years of age about 486 B.C. Now Ezra returned in the seventh year of Axtaxerxes Longimanus, 459 B.C., and was active in the affairs of the reinstated people in the twenty-first year of this monarch, 445 B.C. Thus the latest event recorded in Chronicles occurred at the very least forty years before Ezra read the law to the assembled people (Neh. viii.), and there was ample time for him to compose all that is contained in these books. 1. According to the list of names given in Scripture, who is the tenth from Abraham? 2. Who is the fifteenth from Adam inclusive in the line of the kings of Judah? 3. What was the average length of a reign in the line from Rehoboam to Jehoiakim inclusive? 4. On the average, what is the probable date of the birth of Zerubbabel’s younger grandson? 5. And what is the possible, if not probable, time of Shemaiah? and what of his grandson’s grandson Anani? 6. Show that on this supposition Ezra might in point of time have composed the whole of this chapter. CHAPTER IV. OTHER DESCENDANTS OF JUDAH, 1-23—DESCENDANTS OF SIMEON, 24-43. The obscurity often arising from brevity is very conspicuous in this passage. Yet we discern an order in it indicated in the first verse. It contains descendants of Shobal, of Hur, of Carmi, of Hezron, and of Pharez. The section is chiefly of local interest, being intended to point out the founders of some of the towns in the province of Judah. 1. This list of ‘the sons of Judah’ is characteristic of the author. Pharez is a son, Hezron a second in descent, Carmi a third in another line, Hur a fourth, and Shobal a sixth. 2. Descendants of Shobal. Reaiah is the Haroeh of ii. 52. His son Jahath and his grandsons are not otherwise known. The Zorahites. This explains how the inhabitants of Zorah came from Shobal (ii. 53). 3, 4. Descendants of Hur. These were the father, that is, the joint founders of Etam, a town and rock among the hills of Judah, in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem and Tekoa (Judg. xv. 8; 2 Chron. xi. 6). Jezreel was probably the colonist also of Jezreel in the land of Judah, to which Ahinoam (iii. 1) belonged. The sister of these brothers is not otherwise known. Ver. 4. Gedor (Josh. xv. 58), now Jedur, in the territory of Judah, was peopled in part by Penuel. Hushah is of unknown site, whence came Mebunnai or Sibbechai, one of David's thirty heroes (2 Sam. xxiii. 27; 1 Chron. xi. 29, xx. 4). These six were among the descendants of Hur (ii. 19), who is here called the colonist or governor of Bethlehem, in which his son Salma had a chief place (ii. 51). 5–10. Descendants of Carmi. Abiah the mother of Ashur (ii. 24) may have been a daughter of Carmi, grandson of Zerah (Josh. vii. 1), whom Hezron married in his old age. If this be so, Ashur is the grandson of Carmi; and this explains the introduction of this name in the first verse. His two wives may have been also of the family of Zerah. Ver. 6. Ahuzam is otherwise unknown. Hephher may have given name to the district so called (Josh. xii. 17; 1 Kings iv. 10) in the south of Judah. Temeni (southern) and the Ahashteri are colonists in the same region otherwise unknown. Ver. 7. These three sons of Helah occur only here. Zohar ('light') is of the same name with the father of Ephron the Hittite (Gen. xxiii. 8), who may have given it to some place from which the son of Helah derived it. Ver. 8. Coz is a son (Glassius, Starke, and others) or maternal kinsman of Ashur. Anub probably gave name to Anab (Josh. xi. 21, xv. 50) near Debir. Zobebah and Harum are not found elsewhere. Ver. 9. Jabez is another son or maternal kinsman of Ashur, who has the name of the town Jabez (ii. 55). He is said to have been more honourable than his brethren, partly from his piety toward God as here recorded, perhaps with an allusion to Achan son of Carmi who transgressed in the accursed thing (ii. 7), and partly for other reasons not mentioned. His mother called him Jabez, saying, 'Because I bare him with sorrow' (ozeb, by transposition obez, whence Jabez). If, as we have supposed, Abiah was the daughter of Carmi and sister of Achan, and the mother of Jabez was his kinswoman, we can easily conceive the grief and shame she must have felt when Achan and his sons and his daughters and all that he had were stoned by all Israel in the valley of Achor. Ver. 10. The story of this transgression and its terrible punishment seems to have made a deep impression on the mind of Jabez. This gave occasion to the petition which he addressed to the God of Israel. He besought Him to bless him, to enlarge his border, to be with him, and to keep him from evil. This prayer, which was granted, is interesting in two ways: 1. It refers to present blessings, reminding us of the promise to Abraham (Gen. xv. 18), of the vow of Jacob (Gen. xxviii. 20), and of the sorrow of his mother. 2. Present blessings are, as always, the earnest and token of perpetual blessings, rising in spirituality with the growth of the soul. 11–15. Descendants of Hezron. Chelub is distinguished from others of the name by being brother of Shuah, as Caleb by being brother of Jerahmeel. The name was frequent in several forms in Hezron's family. Mehir and Eshton do not recur in Scripture. Ver. 12. Beth-rapha denotes a family of Rapha not otherwise known. Ir-nahash is the city of Nahash, the name of the mother or grandfather of Abigail, David's sister (2 Sam. xvii. 25). Chelub's descendants are called the men of Rechah, as inhabiting an unknown place of that name. Vers. 13–15. Kenaz was brother to Caleb the son of Jephunneh (Josh. xv. 17, comp. with Josh. xv. 13 and 2 Sam. xiii. 32), the brother of Jerahmeel so called (ii. 42). Caleb himself is called the Kenizzite, from being born in or holding part of their territory, which lay south of Judah. Hence the name Kenaz ('hunter') was a favourite in the family. Othniel was married to his cousin Achsa. Hathath is otherwise unknown. Ver. 14. His second son Meconothai is also unknown. Joab, the son of Seraiah, does not reappear. Ge-charashim is the valley of craftsmen. Of these names only the place recurs in Neh. xi. 35. Ver. 15. At least two other sons of Caleb are mentioned in ii. 42. Of these three we know nothing further. And Kenaz. This implies that another name had stood before Kenaz, which has been omitted by the transcriber. Otherwise we must regard Ukenaz as the name. 16–20. Descendants of Pharez. Pharez had two sons Hezron and Hamul. As these verses have no ostensible connection with the previous context, we presume they refer to the descendants of Hamul, second son of Pharez. Jehaleleel may have been his son; but of him or his sons we have no other information. Ver. 17. Ezrah may have been another son of Hamul. Of his four sons we know nothing but what is related here. And she bare, or more exactly, conceived. Who 'she' is, does not appear. The Sept. has, 'And Jether begat.' It is more probable, however, that a clause has fallen out, or is to be understood before these words. And the simplest appears to be this, 'And Bithiah became wife to Mered' (ver. 18). Miriam is Maion or Maron in the Sept. Eshtemoa is now Samua on the hills of Judah south of Hebron. Ver. 18. And his wife Tchudijah. The original Hajehudijah appears to be a mere variation of Hodiah in ver. 19. Her three sons are founders or governors of three cities. Gedor appears in ver. 4; Socho is Suweileh in the lowland south-west of Jerusalem; and Zanoah either in the lowland near Zorah, or in the upland of Judah (Josh. xv. 35, 36). And these. There is nothing in the text to which this sentence introduces. Hence Bertheau, and many after him, place it after Jalon in ver. 17, where it would supply the antecedent to 'she' in the following sentence. But it is simpler to understand there the supplement given above, and to take this clause and the following verse as not an introduction, but an explanatory recapitulation of the previous statement concerning the two families of sons born to Mered. This sentence has a peculiar interest of its own. It indicates that these descendants, probably of Hamul, certainly of Pharez his father, belonged to the early period of the sojourn in Egypt, when Israel was free and prosperous, and acknowledged by Pharaoh to be of noble descent. It was then as becoming for a sovereign of Egypt to give a daughter in marriage to Mered, as at a later period a sister-in-law to Hadad. This Pharaoh may have been the last of the dynasty that preceded the eighteenth. Ver. 19. This verse completes the recapitulation begun in the last clause of the previous verse. The sons of his wife. The 'his' is not in the original, but must be understood in order to bring this verse into harmony with ver. 18. Hodiah is known only from this and the previous verse. How Keilah got the title of Garmi ('the strong'), and Eshtemoa that of Maachathi ('the depressed'), we are not informed. Ver. 20. The names in this verse are otherwise unknown; and their relationship to the other descendants of Pharez cannot be ascertained. Ben-zoheth may be rendered son of Zoheth. 21-23. Descendants of Judah. We have been ascending through the previous verses of this chapter from Shobal to Hur, to Carmi, to Hezron, to Pharez; and now we rise to Judah himself. A list of the descendants of his son Shelah is here given. Er is probably named after his uncle, as in the case of Ram (chap. ii. 9, 25). He is the planter of Lecah, a place otherwise unknown. Ladaah also took part in planting Mareshah, already mentioned in chap. ii. 42. The families of the linen factory belonged to the house of Ashbea. Linen was a staple commodity of Egypt, as has been proved by the microscopic examination of ancient fabrics. Ashbea, a descendant of Shelah, had his factory in that country. Ver. 22. Jokim, from the same root as Joiakim or Jehoiakim, is a fourth son or scion of Shelah. Chozeba is radically the same with Chezib or Achzib, where Shelah was born in the lowland of Judah (Gen. xxxviii. 5; Josh. xv. 44). Men of this town had become followers of Judah. These sons of Shelah with their followers seem to have betaken themselves to conquest, and brought Moab into subjection. This must have been during the hundred and twenty years of freedom and independence in Egypt. Jashubi-lehem ('settler in Lehem') may be either another descendant of Shelah, or a portion of his posterity who resided in Lehem or Bethlehem. And these are ancient things, or, 'And the things are ancient.' This confirms the view that has been taken of this passage. From Shobal, the sixth in descent from Judah, we have been advancing step by step to Shelah, who was born more than twenty-five years before the descent into Egypt. Ver. 23. These or those, namely the dwellers in Lehem, and perhaps others of the family of Shelah, who were afterwards employed in pottery and gardening in the royal demesnes of the house of David, which lay in the territory of Judah. Some think that Netaim and Gederah are names of places, and not plants and hedges. But a town Netaim does not occur elsewhere; though Gederah appears as a town in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 36). There is much interest in this supplement to the early history of Judah. THE DESCENDANTS OF SIMEON, IV. 24-43. Simeon is placed next Judah, because he is the second in birth, and his territory lay in that of Judah. This passage contains the genealogy and territory of Simeon, and an extension of their territory in consequence of two migrations to the south. 24-27. The posterity of Simeon. Some of the names vary from those in Gen. xlvi. 10. Nemuel stands for Jemuel, Jarib for Ohad, and Zerah for Zohar. The variation may come either from the writer or the speaker. In Num. xxvi. 12, we find Jachin for Ohad. Vers. 25, 26. The line is now carried through six generations, with a break after the third by the words, 'And the sons of Mishma.' Whether this break points to the rise of the 'new king in Egypt,' we cannot tell. Ver. 27. Shimei is distinguished from his brethren by his large family. Simeon fell away from 59,300 to 22,300 during the sojourn in the wilderness (Num. i. 23, xxvi. 14). The progeny of Simeon is here traced as far as the settlement in Canaan. 28-33. His territory. Simeon had his lot within the territory of Judah. His eighteen cities are enumerated in Josh. xix. 2-7. In the list before us, Sheba or Shema (Josh. xv. 26) is omitted, Bilhah takes the place of Balah, Tolad of Eltolad, Bethuel of Bethul, Hazar-Lusim of Hazar-susah, Beth-birei of Beth-lebaoth, and Shaaraim of Sharuhen. These changes took place in the interval between Joshua and David. Ver. 32. The words 'and their villages,' according to Josh. xix. 6, properly belong to the preceding verse. Etam is here added, making up for the omitted Sheba; and Tochen stands in place of Ether. Of the whole list, Moladah is identified with El-Milh, south of Hebron; Hormah, formerly Shephath (Judg. i. 17), is now Sepata, two and a half hours south of Khalusa (Elusa); Shaaraim (Josh. xv. 36) is now Tel Sheriah, between Beersheba and Gaza; Etam has been noticed on ver. 3; Ain and Rimmon, which are distinguished in Josh. xv. 32, lay near each other, four hours north of Beersheba, where is now Rum er Rummanin. The others are not known. Ver. 33. Baal here is the Baalath-beer of Josh. xix. 8, which is called Ramah of the south, and lay in the south of Judah, though the site is not yet ascertained. 34-38. Subsequent increase in certain families of Simeon. These thirteen heads of houses are not clearly connected with the pedigree before given. Ver. 37. Ziza, one of these chiefs, is here traced back through six links to Shemaiah. It is possible that this may be the Shimei of ver. 27. If so, the first migration was at least six generations from the settlement in the Land of Promise, and therefore about the time of the discomfiture of Midian by Gideon the Abiezrite (Judg. vii. 8). This great defeat would encourage the Simeonites to enlarge their borders. Ver. 38. Mentioned, that went by names. The house of their fathers means the houses here mentioned. The tribe was divided into clans, and these into houses. The great increase was one of the motives for migration. 39, 40. The first migration. The entrance means the usual way into the place, like the entering of Hamoth (Num. xiii. 21). Gedor means a fort, and is therefore applied to a great many places of this kind. We can only say that it lay south of Judah. The Sept. has Gerar; but this is doubtful. The valley here cannot be the Arabah south of the Dead Sea, the east of which would be too remote from Judea. It is rather the Wady el Arish in its upper course, which receives from the eastern hills many little mountain streams, affording pasture for cattle. Ver. 40. This land was wide at least for the Simeonites, and quiet and peaceable partly from its seclusion, like the land of Laish (Judg. xviii. 7). Part of the reason, however, was the long undisturbed continuance of its inhabitants. These were certain descendants of Ham, who halted there on their way to Africa, induced by the abundance of water and the consequent fertility of the soil. The Simeonites seem to have found room for their flocks during many generations beside the natives of the district. This must be our interpretation, if Shemaiah be the same as Shimei. 41-43. The further migrations of the Simeonites. These written by name are usually taken to be those enumerated in vers. 34-37. But they may be simply the chiefs appointed for the expedition with their followers. Hezekiah was a successful warrior in this very neighbourhood (2 Kings xviii. 8). The habitations. The original may be rendered fountains or springs, with which the region evidently abounded. The verb ‘smote’ might apply to these by a well-known figure. In the Sept., however, we have the Minaei, a variation of the Meinites, a tribe of Arabs who were mingled with the Hamites. The Keri gives Meunites or citizens of Maon, a town east of the Wady Musa. The Simeonites, when they became strong and were supported by Hezekiah, executed the ban upon the old inhabitants and dwelt in their stead. *Unto this day.* The day in which the original record was made, from which this extract is taken. Ver. 42. Another expedition is made by a number of the Simeonites. If the Ishi here named were the Jeshaiah of chap. iii. 21, the captains Pelatiah, Neariah, and Rephaiah might be of the tribe of Judah and even of the royal line. But this would bring down this expedition to the days of or after the captivity. Mount Seir was considerably to the east of the former settlement. The rest of the Amalekites are those who escaped the defeats by Joshua in the wilderness (Ex. xvii.), by Saul (1 Sam. xv. 7), and by David (2 Sam. viii. 12). On the southern progress of Simeon, compare Hitzig, *Das Königreich Massa.* 1. What relation does the first part of this chapter bear to chapter ii.? 2. What is the relationship of the several persons mentioned in the first verse? 3. What proof is given in this passage of the free and independent position of Israel in the early part of their sojourn in Egypt? 4. What is the probable source of the sorrow felt at the birth of Jabez? 5. How far are the descendants of Simon actually traced? 6. How many migrations were made by the Simeonites? 7. Into what regions did they penetrate? CHAPTER V. REUBEN, GAD, AND HALF MANASSEH. This chapter contains Reuben, Gad, and the half of Manasseh east of the Jordan, with two episodes, one on the wars of these tribes, and the other on their removal by Tilgath-pilneser. The upper Assyrian monarchy began 1273 B.C., the lower 747 B.C. 1–10. Reuben. When Reuben the first-born lost his birthright, the rights were given to other sons of Israel. The priesthood went to Levi; the double portion (Deut. xxi. 17) to Joseph, whose two sons Ephraim and Manasseh were reckoned as distinct tribes; and the supremacy to Judah. The genealogy of Reuben is not to be reckoned according to the right of birth. Ver. 2. Judah, having the supremacy, is reckoned first; and from him came the chief ruler, that is, David, and eventually King David's greater Son (Micah v. 1). Joseph had the birthright, which here means the double portion. Ver. 3. The sons. A resumption after the preceding explanatory parenthesis. The four sons are given as in Gen. xlvi. 9; Ex. vi. 14; and Num. xxvi. 5. Vers. 4–6. The line of Joel. The connection of Joel with his tribe is not stated; but his line is traced to Beerah, who was carried away by Tilgath-pilneser, called Tiglath-pileser in 2 Kings xv. 29. The prince to the Reubenite may be Beerah, or rather Joel, who is here the chief figure. Ver. 7. His brethren are the kinsmen of Joel, among whom the chief was Jeiel. Ver. 8. Bela, great-grandson of Joel, dwelt in Aroer, now Arair, on the Arnon. Baal-meon was near Heshbon on the skirts of Nebo. Ver. 9. The entering in is the way to the wilderness, as in iv. 39. How far they penetrated we are not informed. But the desert between them and the Phrat was very wide. Ver. 10. The days of Saul lay beyond the age of Joel, who may have been contemporary with Asa. This war with the Hagarites, therefore, refers to the whole tribe of Reuben. The Hagarites or Hagarenes (Ps. lxxxiii. 6) were a tribe of North Arabia, perhaps the Agraioi of Strabo. The territory of Reuben lay north of the Arnon. 11–17. Gad. Over against them, on the north of Reuben. Salcah, now Sulkhad, is in the south of Trachonitis. Ver. 12. It is not stated how these chiefs are connected with the sons of Gad, mentioned in Gen. xlvi. 16 and Num. xxvi. 15. Ver. 13. Belonging to the houses of the chiefs above named were these seven others, of whom we know only what is added in the next verse. Vers. 14, 15. Their pedigree is traced back through ten generations. For Buz and Ahi are really but parts of one name, Buzahi, for which the Sept. has Ahibuz by transposing these parts. We are not informed to what family Guni belonged. Ver. 16. Gilead seems here to be reckoned as a part of Bashan. At all events, the Gadites occupied a part of Bashan. Her towns are in the original her daughters. This Sharon is otherwise unknown. Ver. 17. Hence Guni the ancestor, to whom these families are traced, must have been contemporary with Solomon or David, and therefore antecedent to the secession of the Ten Tribes from the house of David. 18–22. Wars of the Eastern Tribes with the Arabs. Valiant men. In eastern phrase, ‘sons of valour.’ In Josh. iv. 13, about 40,000 went over the Jordan to assist in conquering the land of Canaan. A considerable portion of the full-grown men had to be left for the cultivation of the soil and the tending of cattle. Ver. 19. Jetur becomes in Greek form Ituraea, now El Jedur. Jetur and Naphish appear as descendants of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 15). Nodab probably belonged to the same family, though not otherwise known. This serves to connect the name Hagarites with Hagar the mother of Ishmael. Ver. 20. These Hagarites (‘fugitives’) appear to have made raids upon the eastern tribes from the desert. Hence the war was in self-defence. The confederate tribes appealed to the Lord, and were helped by Him, so that they prevailed over the invaders. Ver. 21. The vast numbers of their cattle indicate a dense population and a very extensive campaign. These Nazarites probably occupied a part of Trachonitis, the present Hauran. Ver. 22. The captivity is the transportation of these tribes effected by Tiglath-pileser (2 Kings xv. 29). Perea, the region beyond the Jordan, was previously invaded by Chedorlaomer in the days of Abraham (Gen. xiv.), and perhaps by Cushan-rishathaim in the time of Othniel (Judg. iii.). 23, 24. Half Manasseh, on the north of Gad. Bual-hermon is Baal-Gad under Hermon (Josh. xii. 7, xiii. 5). Senir is the Amorite name for Hermon, or a part of it (Deut. iii. 9). Hermon is the range called Antilibanus, now Jebel esh Sheik. Ver. 24. The connection of these names with the families of Manasseh in Num. xxvi. is not indicated. There is a resemblance in some of the names, but it is only apparent. Famous men are 'men of names,' whose names are celebrated. 25, 26. Captivity of the tribes east of the Jordan. From their position they were peculiarly exposed to the temptation of idolatry, and to the assaults of a powerful enemy. In 2 Kings xvii., a lengthened description is given of their apostasy and vice. Ver. 26. Pul precedes Tiglath-pileser. As the latter begins a new dynasty at the era of Nabonassar, 747 B.C., the former may have been a Chaldean, as Berosus calls him, who held the supremacy in the transition from the former to the latter Assyrian monarchy. This would account for his absence from the Assyrian monuments. He exacted 6000 talents of silver from Menahem (2 Kings xv. 19). In the reign of Pekah (759-739 B.C.), about 740 B.C., Tiglath-pileser effected this deportation of the trans-Jordanic and northern tribes (2 Kings xv. 29). Halah, Habor, and the river of Gozan are named in 2 Kings xviii. 11 as parts of the region to which the remainder of the ten tribes were removed by Shalmaneser. Hara means the hill, and refers to some high land of Media. The words 'unto this day' may belong to the document from which the Chronicist made this extract. The expeditions of these heathen sovereigns is here ascribed to an influence on their spirits proceeding from the God of Israel. The providence of the Most High disposes as it pleases Him all affairs of men. 1. What was the Perea? 2. By whom was it invaded before Pul and Tilgath-pilneser? 3. What is the date of the former Assyrian monarchy, and what of the latter? 4. What was the probable position of Pul? 5. What was the relative position of the territories of Reuben, Gad, and half Manasseh? 6. What is the approximate date of the invasion by Tilgath-pilneser? 7. Into what region were the captives taken? 8. What was the moral cause of this captivity? CHAPTER VI. THE TRIBE OF LEVI, AND THEIR DWELLINGS. This chapter refers wholly to the tribe of Levi. It gives the family of Aaron, vers. 1-15; the descendants of Gershom, Kohath, and Merari, vers. 16-30; the pedigrees of the song-masters, vers. 31-48; the line from Aaron to Ahimaaz, vers. 49-53; and the towns assigned to the tribe, vers. 54-81. 1-15. The family of Aaron. These verses go to chap. v. in the original. *Gershon* is a mere variation of *Gershom* (Gen. xlvi. 11). Ver. 3. Nadab and Abihu perished on the day of their consecration (Lev. x.). Eleazar was the head of one line, and Ithamar of another line of priests. The high priest was sometimes of the one line and sometimes of the other. Vers. 4-15. This list must have been obtained from the priestly registers. It is given in an inverse order in Ezra vii. 1-5, with the omission of the names between Meraioth and Azariah II. It wants the name Meraioth between Ahitub II. and Zadok II. (ix. 11). It is, moreover, not a succession of high priests, but simply the line from Eleazar to Jehozadak. The high priests from Eli to Abiathar inclusive were not of this line (1 Sam. xiv. 3, xxii. 9, 20; 1 Kings ii. 27). This may partly account for the omission in Ezra, which begins with Amariah, son of Meraioth, who was parallel with Eli. The table stands thus: | Meraioth. | Eli. | |-----------|------| | Amariah. | | | Ahitub. | Ahitub. | | Zadok. | Ahimelech. | | Ahimaaz. | Abiathar. | | Azariah. | Jonathan. | | Johanan. | Rehoboam. | | Azariah. | Abijam. | | Amariah. | Asa. | | Ahitub. | Jehoshaphat. | | Meraioth. | Jehoram. | | Zadok. | Ahaziah. | | Azariah. | Jehoash. | | Shallum. | Amaziah. | | Hilkiah. | Uzziah. | | | Jotham. | | | Ahaz. | | | Hezekiah. | | | Manasseh. | | | Amon. | | | Josiah. | Ver. 8. Zadok was priest at the same time with Abiathar (2 Sam. viii. 18), the one probably in Gibeon and the other in Zion. Ahimaaz his son was active in the time of David (2 Sam. xv.), and appears to have been one of Solomon's officers (1 Kings iv. 15). As the entrance into Egypt was about 1702 B.C., and the accession of Solomon about 1015, the interval from Kohath to Zadok inclusive was about 680 years, and to Samuel about a generation less. Ver. 9. Azariah, the grandson of Zadok, seems also to have been a high official in the court of Solomon (1 Kings iv. 2). Zadok may, however, have had a son of the same name. Ver. 10. In explanation of the statement concerning Azariah, it is to be observed that from Zadok i. to Jozadak are fourteen generations, including the omitted Meraioth, while from David to Jeconiah are nineteen generations. It is probable, therefore, that some other names may be omitted in the line of Jozadak. At all events, it is difficult to adjust the line of priests to that of kings. Besides, it is plain that Jehoiada, Zechariah, Azariah, and Urijah, from the time of Joash to that of Ahaz, find no place in the pedigree. It is therefore not improbable that the line of Zadok may have been discharged from the office of high priest before the temple of Solomon was consecrated. If so, it may have been restored to this dignity during the reign of Asa and in the person of Azariah, who was the father of Amariah the high priest in Jehoshaphat's time (2 Chron. xix. 11), and of whom it might then be said that he executed the priest's office in the temple, while his ancestors had not. It is generally thought, indeed, that this statement should be transferred to ver. 9, and applied to the grandson of Zadok. But this is a violent mode of explanation, simply founded upon our ignorance, and not to be adopted without necessity. The omission in Ezra also favours our hypothesis. Ver. 11. Amariah appears in the time of Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. xix. 11), his father having been probably reinstated in the high-priesthood by Asa. How many of this line succeeded him we cannot tell. But during the usurpation of Athaliah, we find Jehoiada of another line acting as high priest, and followed by Zechariah, Azariah, and Urijah. This Azariah acted in the days of Uzziah (2 Chron. xxvi. 17), and Urijah in those of Ahab. In the reign of Hezekiah, the line of Eleazar is restored; for Azariah, the chief priest in his day, was of the line of Zadok (2 Chron. xxxi. 10). This Azariah does not appear in the present list, a clear proof that it is deficient in names. Ver. 12. From ix. 11, it appears that Meraioth came between Ahitub and Zadok. And Shallum is there called Meshullam. Ver. 13. Hilkiah held office in the reign of Josiah (2 Kings xxii. 8). Ver. 14. Seraiah was put to death at Riblah by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings xxv. 18–21). He was ancestor of Joshua, son of Jozadak, and of Ezra (Ezra vii. 1). Ver. 15. Jozadak was the father or ancestor of Joshua, who accompanied the first caravan of returning exiles (Ezra ii. 2). It is plain that the members of this line came to be and ceased to be high priests according to the vicissitudes of political and religious feeling. The high priests from Eli to Abiathar, from Jehoiada to Urijah, and probably from the successor of Zadok to the predecessor of Azariah II., were of a different line. 16–30. The sons of Levi. Gershom is the name given by Moses to his first-born (Ex. ii. 22). Vers. 17–19. These names appear in Ex. vi. Vers. 20, 21. This line appears to coincide with part of that of Asaph (vers. 39–43), except in Jeaterai, who may have been another son of Zerah. Vers. 22–28. Sons of Kohath. This line is plainly the same as that of Heman (vers. 33–38). By writing them in parallel columns, it will be seen that Amminadab must be another name of Izhar; that the first Assir and Elkanah should be inserted in the genealogy of Heman, this Elkanah being called after his uncle, and his son Ebiasaph called after his grand-uncle, as appears from Ex. vi. 24; that Uriel must be another name for Zephaniah, Uzziah equivalent to Azariah, and Shaul a substitute for Joel; that Ahimoth must be a variant for Mahath, a son of Amasai, and father of Elkanah III.; that Zophai is equal to Zuph, Nahath to Toah, and Eliab to Eliel; and lastly, that Samuel is the son of Elkanah IV., and has a first-born son Vashni, who is called Joel (ver. 33 and 1 Sam. viii. 2). The comparison of these lists is very instructive in regard to the way in which our compiler admits of variants, and strings names together. The object of the present list seems to be to trace the genealogy of Samuel the prophet and judge of Israel. Vers. 29, 30. The line of Mahli is here traced through six generations. But the persons named are otherwise unknown. Asaiah may be the chief named in xv. 6. 31–48. Pedigrees of the three song-masters. The service of song became a matter of great importance in the time of David. The ark had wandered without a proper resting-place from the victory of the Philistines in the time of Eli to the removal of it to the tabernacle of David, an interval of about fifty years (1 Sam. iv.; 2 Sam. vi.). Ver. 32. The dwelling-place is, in other words, the tabernacle of the tent of meeting. The tent is the awning of haircloth. The tent of meeting is that in which God and His people met through the high priest. The tabernacle is the pavilion or mansion, which is hung within with curtains, and covered with the tent and its coverings (Ex. xxvi. 12). The house of the Lord is a title common to the tabernacle and the temple. The latter was strictly the holy place, as distinguished from the oracle or most holy place (1 Kings vi. 16, 17). Vers. 33–38. The pedigree of Heman. They stood in the service of song. Heman was a Kohathite, and the chief master of song. He was grandson of Samuel the prophet. The variants of this list from that in vers. 22–28 have been already noticed. Vers. 39–43. The pedigree of Asaph the Gershonite. He is the brother of Heman in a wide sense. He stood on the right hand of Heman. His pedigree is not fully given, as he is here the 14th from Levi, while Heman is the 21st. Even Libni, son of Gershon, is omitted (ver. 20). Shimci appears here between Zimmah and Jahath (ver. 20). Adaiah and Ethan appear to stand for Iddo and Joah (ver. 21). Vers. 44-47. The pedigree of Ethan the Merarite. Their brethren are the classes under the lead of Ethan, who stood on the left of Heman. His pedigree is traced through Mushi, the second son of Merari. This line therefore differs from that of Asaiah, who sprang from Mahli (vers. 29, 30). Kishi is Kushiaiah in xv. 17. Ethan is here the 13th from Levi. The line most probably wants some names. Ver. 47. This Mahli is called after his uncle, which is a very common usage. Ver. 48. The other Levites were employed in keeping the doors and attending upon the priests. They were appointed or given to Aaron and to the Lord for the first-born (Num. viii. 16). 49-53. The priests. Aaron and his sons were charged with the priestly office. They performed their functions at the brazen altar, the golden altar, and the mercy-seat or propitiatory in the holy of holies, which was in some sense an altar, as the blood of expiation was sprinkled on the front of it in the day of atonement (Lev. xvi. 14). Vers. 50-53. The line of Eleazar is here traced as far as Ahimaaz, who was active in the days of David (2 Sam. xv. 36). From its place here this appears to be regarded as the legitimate line of high priests. But in fact the line of Eli came into its place for five generations (1 Sam. xiv. 3, xxii. 9, 20), and after Zadok another breach appears to have taken place. THE CITIES OF THE PRIESTS AND LEVITES, VI. 54-81. This passage contains first the cities given to the priestly family, and next those assigned to the other Levites. It has its parallel in Josh. xxii. 54-60. Cities given by Aaron's family. Their castles were places of defence against robbers or beasts of prey. The Kohathites had the first lot, because they included the priestly family (Josh. xxii. 10). Vers. 55, 56. Hebron is otherwise Kiriat-arba. The arrangement here is found in Josh. xxii. 11, 12. Ver. 57. The words 'of Judah,' 'namely,' 'the city,' are not in the original; and by transposing two letters, 'cities' becomes 'city,' and the statement is simply, 'the city of refuge, Hebron,' as in Josh. xxii. 12. Ver. 58. Hilen is in Joshua (xxi. 15) Holon. Ver. 59. Ashan appears in Joshua as Ain. This may have been an exchange for the convenience of both parties. They are both Simeonite cities (Josh. xix. 7). Juttah is here omitted. Ver. 60. Of the four cities out of Benjamin (Josh. xxii. 17, 18), Gibcon is here left out, and Alemeth takes the place of Almon. Yet the cities are said to be thirteen, as in Joshua; whence it appears that the other two must have fallen out by the inadvertence of some copyist. 61–81. The cities of the Levites. Vers. 61–63. Their number and distribution. The sons of Kohath which were left are the other Kohathites not descended from Amram. Such were simply Levites. But there is an omission in the text here. For the words of the family... Manasseh, should be read, ‘out of the family of the tribe of Ephraim, out of the tribe of Dan, and out of the half of the tribe of half Manasseh.’ This would be in harmony with the following context (vers. 67–70), and with Josh. xxi. 20–26. From these tribes they received ten cities. Ver. 62. The portion of Gershon consists of thirteen cities, as in Josh. xxi. 27–33. Ver. 63. The lot of Merari contains twelve cities, as in Josh. xxi. 34–40. Vers. 64–81. Here the cities are tabulated by name, vers. 64, 65. The cities given by the children of Israel to the family of Aaron are here indicated by reference to vers. 51–60, where they are already named. Vers. 66–70. The cities of the other Kohathites. For of the cities of refuge is to be read, as in ver. 17, ‘the city of refuge.’ Shechem was one of these cities on the west of Jordan (Josh. xx. 7, 8). Ver. 68. Jokmeam stands here for Kibzeam of Joshua. These four are in Joshua assigned to Ephraim. Ver. 69. The former two of the cities out of Dan, Eltekeh and Gibbethon, are here omitted. From Joshua we learn that the two here mentioned belong to Dan. Ver. 70. Instead of these, perhaps by exchange, Tanach and Gathrimmon are found in Joshua. Only eight in all out of the ten cities are here enumerated. Vers. 71–76. The cities of the Gershonites. Of the two from half Manasseh, Ashtaroth is a variant of Beeshterah (Josh. xxi. 27). Vers. 72, 73. Of the four out of Issachar, Kedesh stands here for Kishon, which latter is perhaps the true name. Daberath is the original word in Joshua, as here. Kamoth is a variety for Jarmuth, and Anem for En-gannim. Vers. 74, 75. Of those from Asher, Mashal is for Mishal, and Hukkok for Helkath. Ver. 76. In Naphtali, Hammon appears for Hammoth-dor, and Kiriathaim for Kartan. Any one who is conversant with old documents will know that the early names of persons and places varied greatly. Vers. 77–81. The cities of the Merarites. Unto the rest, etc., should be ‘unto the children of Merari that remained (of the Levites).’ Only two of the four towns out of Zebulun are here named, and the names are different from those in Josh. xxi. 34, 35. Vers. 78, 79. The four cities out of Reuben have the same names in Joshua. Vers. 80, 81. These also agree with those in Joshua. Ten only of the twelve are named. Only forty-two, therefore, out of the forty-eight are mentioned by name; and some of them are different from the original cities assigned to the Levites. This is a proof of the accuracy of the author. He remembers the old numbers of the time of Joshua. But political arrangements require to be readjusted in the course of time. And the author gives us the state of things that had supervened probably in the time of David (vii. 2). The imperfect subjugation of the country, as Hengstenberg (Kingdom of God, vol. i. p. 460) remarks, the convenience of the tribes and the relative growth of the population, with perhaps some decline in the religious life, will account for the change and the decrease of the Aaronic and Levitical cities in the interval from Joshua to David. 1. What facts show that the line from Eleazar to Jozadak wants some links? 2. What explanation may be given of Azariah, son of Johanan, executing the priest's office in the temple of Solomon? 3. What was the relationship of Heman to Elkanah IV., to Elkanah III., to Elkanah II., and to Elkanah I. in the lists of this chapter? 4. How was Elkanah I. of these lists related to the Elkanah of Ex. vi. 24? 5. How many names in descent from Kohath to Samuel inclusive? 6. How many from Kohath to Zadok inclusive? 7. What is the average of a generation in each case? 8. How may the changes in the Levitical cities since the account in Josh. xxi. be most easily explained? CHAPTER VII. NOTICES OF ISSACHAR, BENJAMIN, NAPHTALI, WEST MANASSEH, EPHRAIM, AND ASHER. Having disposed of Judah, Simeon, and perhaps Dan; of Reuben, Gad, and half Manasseh; and of Levi, the compiler starts anew with Issachar and Naphtali, the sons of Joseph, who are south, and Asher, who is north of these tribes. 1-5. Issachar. Puah is a variant for Puvah (Gen. xlvi. 13, and Num. xxvi. 23). Jashub instead of Job (Gen. xlvi. 13) is supported by Num. and the Sept. in Gen. Ver. 2. Shemuel should be uniformly Samuel (vi. 36), to which we are accustomed. Their father's house, to wit, of Tola, should rather be 'their houses for Tola.' The house of a father was a branch of the family or clan. In the days of David. This is a hint that these notices of the tribes have a reference to the time of David. The numbers here rest probably on the census partially taken by Joab (xxi.). Ver. 3. *Five.* Izrahiah is here counted with his four sons among the five chief men of Uzzi, as in iii. 22. Ver. 4. *With them.* With these five chiefs was associated a very high war contingent, because 'they had many wives and sons.' Ver. 5. *Their brethren* are the other descendants of Issachar, who furnished a large number of men fit for military service, and raised the total for Issachar to the high figure here given. *Reckoned . . . genealogies* should be 'their register in all.' The registration of the genealogy was a custom throughout all Israel. 6–12. *Benjamin.* Of the ten sons of Benjamin, only five are mentioned in Numbers (Gen. xlvi. 21; Num. xxvi. 38); and Bela is there described as having two sons, Ard and Naaman, who must have been called after their uncles. Here three sons are named at first, and then three others. Jediael appears to be another name of Ashbel (Gen. xlvi. 21). Ver. 7. The five sons of Bela are not elsewhere mentioned. Vers. 8, 9. Of the nine sons of Becher, Anathoth and Alemeth occur as names of towns in the land of Benjamin (vi. 60). It is remarkable that Becher, though having so large a progeny, did not constitute a distinct family, and hence is not mentioned in Numbers. His sons must have had few children. Vers. 10, 11. The sons of Jadiael may be supposed to include his grandsons. Of these grandsons, Benjamin, Ehud, and probably Ahishahar, in the form of Shaharaim, recur in viii. 1, 6, 8. Ver. 12. Three other sons of Benjamin are here named. Shuppim is in Genesis, Muppim; and in Numbers, Shephupham. Huppim is in Numbers, Hupham. These are said to be the sons of Ir. This is a hint that Ir was only one of the wives of Benjamin. A plurality of wives will explain more easily how Benjamin, being only twenty-six years of age, had ten sons when he went down into Egypt. *Hushim* is a new name. *Aher* is supposed to be the same as Ehi (Gen. xlvi. 21) and Ahiram (Num. xxvi. 38). But this may be the name of a third wife. The indirect or incidental way in which this name is introduced is in keeping with the author's manner. With Keil we abandon Bertheau's ingenious explanation of Aher ('another') as a covert way of bringing in Dan. Besides, the son of Dan is not Hushim, but Shuhum in Num. xxvi. 42. Dan seems to be intentionally omitted here, as he is in vi. 61, 67. 13. *Naphtali.* Jahziel is a slight variation for Jahzeel, and Shallum for Shillem (Gen. xlvi. 24; Num. xxvi. 48, 49). The sons of Bilhah, if this be the handmaid of Rachel, were Dan and Naphtali, of whom the former is omitted in our present text. Here, however, they seem to mean the preceding sons of Naphtali, as if Dan had at this time disappeared from history. His territory was originally included chiefly in that of Judah (Josh. xix. 40). 14–19. *Manasseh.* This passage is very intricate and elliptical. It appears to refer to the western half of this tribe. *Ashriel*; rather, Asriel. From Num. xxvi. 31 it appears that he was the son of Gilead, grandson of Manasseh. *Whom she bare*; rather, ‘whom his concubine the Aramitess bare,’ in the wide sense that she was the ancestress of Asriel. *She bare Machir*, the first-born of Manasseh (Josh. xvii. 1), and father of Gilead. This is added to explain the previous statement. She was the mother of Machir, grandmother of Gilead, and great-grandmother of Asriel. There is a curious interest in finding Machir, the first-born of Manasseh, having for his mother a daughter of Aram, and calling his first-born Gilead, plainly in remembrance of that hill where Jacob parted from Laban the Aramite. This hints at a connection with this region even from the days of Joseph, long before the sons of Israel were made the serfs of Egypt. Ver. 15. *And Machir took*. The rendering should continue thus: ‘And Machir took a wife akin to Huppim and Shuppim.’ She was their sister, and her name was Maachah. The mention of Machir leads to this anecdote of his private history. With this the account of Asriel closes. Zelophehad is the son of Hepher, brother of Asriel, and son of Gilead. As representing his father, he is the second of the sons of Gilead mentioned in this place. The history of his daughters is noticed in Num. xxvi., xxvii., xxxvi. This prepares us for something concerning them in this place. The name Maachah recurs as the daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur, and the mother of Absalom. Vers. 16, 17. Maachah, the sister of Huppim, and a second wife of Machir, is the mother of Peresh and Sheresh. Two sons and a grandson of the latter are then mentioned. These five descendants of Machir through Maachah seem to be introduced here because they became the husbands of the five daughters of Zelophehad. For they might be called their uncle’s sons (Num. xxxvi. 11), the term uncle being taken in the wide sense of the ancestor of a collateral kinsman. This explains the added statement, ‘These were the sons of Gilead.’ Asriel and Zelophehad were his son and grandson, and the five descendants of Maachah were his sons-in-law. Ver. 18. *And his sister*, the sister of Gilead. *Hammoleketh* means the queen or the wife of a reigning prince. From the circumstances that Manasseh had a daughter of Aram for a concubine, and that Machir called his son Gilead, it is not unreasonable to suppose that her husband was sovereign of an Aramaic principality which afterwards became part of the kingdom of Og. Her three sons here mentioned seem to have followed their mother’s house, for what reason we need not surmise. Abiezzer is of the same name with his cousin Iezer (Num. xxvi. 30), or Abiezzer (Josh. xvii. 2), the ancestor of the famous Gideon (Judg. vi.). Ver. 19. Shemida is another son of Gilead (Num. xxvi. 32). His son Shechem is called after his uncle (Num. xxvi. 31). This paragraph is of peculiar interest, as illustrating the freedom and independence with which the sons of Israel must have moved in the period before the new king arose that knew not Joseph. 20–29. Ephraim. The line of Shuthelah, the first-born of Ephraim, is traced through six generations to another Shuthelah. After 'Shuthelah, his son,' should be a semicolon. Ver. 21. Ezer and Elead were the next two sons of Ephraim. Born in that land. The natives in contrast with the sons of Ephraim, who were strangers. They came down. This may refer to the Gathites attacking the shepherds of Ephraim tending their flocks in the valleys, or as most think to the Ephraimites, who had their station in the highlands of Ephraim. Jacob bought a parcel of a field near Shechem (Gen. xxxiii. 19), which he enlarged by conquest (Gen. xlviii. 22), and bequeathed to Joseph, from whom it descended to Ephraim. In the period of freedom we find Ephraim's sons coming from Egypt to visit this region, and asserting their right to it. The conflict with the natives produced the usual fatal result. Ver. 22. His brethren. Ephraim himself was probably in Egypt, where he was surrounded by his brethren. Ver. 23. His sons may have been very young at the time of their death. His daughter and two other sons, yet to be mentioned, may have been born before this sad bereavement. There was in that case nothing remarkable in his wife having another son after this event. Beriah is rendered 'in evil.' The word, if referred to the Arabic, might mean exaltation, 'because elevation had come to his house' by the birth of another son. At all events, the play upon the word in the following clause, which is lost in the Authorised Version, is not uncommon in a primitive tongue (Gen. iv. i.). The name occurs in Gen. xlvi. 17 and in ver. 30. Ver. 24. The parenthesis should be omitted, and a semicolon placed at the end of the verse. His daughter is mentioned on account of her singular history. Beth-horon the nether, and B. the upper are still preserved in Beit Ur et Tachta and Beit Ur el Foka, on the way from Jerusalem to Joppa. Uzzen-Sherah ('Sherah's fort') is no longer known. It is plain from the site of these towns that Ephraim's family had added to their territory by conquest. This whole passage is of singular interest to the antiquarian. It concurs with many previous notices, in showing the freedom and independence of action enjoyed by Israel in the early period of their sojourn in Egypt. Vers. 25–27. Two other sons of Ephraim are now added, Rephah and Resheph, from the latter of whom sprang Joshua, who is the ninth in descent from Joseph. His name (Jehovah Saviour) is the same as Jesus, of whom he was a type. Elishama, son of Ammihud, was prince of Ephraim in the time of Moses (Num. i. 10). Non is a mere variant of Nun. It shows that the Masorites varied a little in their orthography. From Num. xxvi. 35, 36, it appears that Ephraim had another son Becher, and perhaps a son Tahan, if these be not here represented by Bered, son of Shuthelah, and Tahath his grandson, or Tahan, grandson of Resheph. Shuthelah also had another son Eran. Vers. 28, 29. Some traces of the possessions and boundaries of the two Josephite tribes are here given. This paragraph therefore refers to the two foregoing ones. Bethel, now Beitin, belonged properly to Benjamin (Josh. xviii. 22), but was on the border of Ephraim (Josh. xvi. 17). The towns thereof are in the original her daughters, the neighbouring hamlets. Naaran is Naarah in Josh. xvi. 7, now Neara, north of Jericho. Gezer is a border town in the south-west corner of Ephraim. Shechem, now Nablus, lay to the north. Gaza is rather Azzah or Ajjah lying near Shechem (see Zöckler in Lange). Bethshean, Taanach, Megiddo, and Dor lay beyond the province of Manasseh within the bounds of Issachar and Asher (Josh. xvii. 11). These places mark little more than out-points in the boundaries of 'the sons of Joseph.' 30-40. Asher. His sons, daughters, and grandsons are given as in Gen. xlvi., and partly in Num. xxvi. Ver. 31. Birzavith is probably a town of which Malchiel was the founder or fortifier. It is otherwise unknown. Ver. 34. Shamer is another form of Shomer (ver. 33). Ahî. This in the original with the next letter would be 'his brother,' as we have it in the following verse. Jehubbah should be 'and Hubbah,' as in the margin of the original. Ver. 35. His brother Helem. His brother Hotham is mentioned in ver. 32. The names mean stamp and seal, and seem to denote the same individual. Ver. 38. Jether is a variant of Ithran in the verse before, where the Sept. has Jether. Ver. 39. Ulla. This name seems to have fallen out at the end of the previous verse (Bertheau). Ver. 40. The number here given probably refers to the time of David. The tribes of Dan and Zebulun are omitted in this list. 1. Enumerate the indications in the foregoing chapters of the liberty, prosperity, and activity of Israel beyond Egypt in the early period of their sojourn in that country. 2. What is the plan of arrangement for the tribes in these chapters? 3. To what time does the condition of Issachar here described refer? 4. What is the relationship of the second Benjamin to the first? 5. Where did Simeon and Dan obtain their territories? 6. Enumerate the sons of Ephraim as given in this chapter. 7. How far in the line of descent was Joshua from Ephraim? CHAPTER VIII. OTHER DESCENDANTS OF BENJAMIN, INCLUDING SAUL. As an appendix to the genealogy of Judah is presented in iv. 1-23, on account of its connection with the line of David; so here, on account of the inhabitants of Jerusalem and the house of Saul, a supplement is added with regard to the posterity of Benjamin. 1-28. Descendants of Bilhan. Benjamin. This is not Benjamin, son of Jacob, but his great-grandson Benjamin, son of Bilhan (vii. 10)—first, because his sons are nearly all different; and next, because he is here parallel with Ehud (ver. 6), and with Shaharaim (ver. 8), two other sons of Bilhan. Bela and Ashbel occur before. The same names often recur in the same family. But between them in the family of the older Benjamin was Becher. The remaining three are quite different in name from the older Benjamin's sons. Vers. 3-5. The nine sons of this Bela are all different in name from the five sons of the earlier Bela (vii. 7). The names Gera, Naaman, and Shephuphan (Num. xxvi. 39) are heirlooms from the household of the former Benjamin (Judg. iii. 15). Vers. 6, 7. Ehud, spelled here indeed with a soft h, as in Judg. iii. 15, is plainly the same with Ehud, spelled with a hard h, in vii. 10, and therefore another son of Bilhan and brother of the above Benjamin. Some of his sons were heads of houses in Geba or Gibeah, now Jeba. But they appear to have been removed by force to Manahath, which was partly peopled by men of Judah (ii. 52, 54). His other sons are Naaman, Ahiah, and Gera. Here two of the old names appear again. Gera was the expeller of his unnamed brothers from Geba. Two sons of his are here named. Ver. 8. Shaharaim. This is a variant of Ahishahar (vii. 10), the one meaning 'two dawns,' and the other, 'the dawn's brother.' He is therefore another son of Bilhan and brother of the later Benjamin. In the field of Moab. These three sons of Bilhan were great-grandsons of the elder Benjamin. They may have come to manhood in the time of Israel's freedom in Egypt. Shaharaim from some untold cause made a temporary migration to the plains of Moab, as Elimelech and David afterwards (Ruth i. 2; 1 Sam. xx. 3). After he had sent them away. By the omission of a letter this clause would become simpler: 'After he sent away Hushim and Daara, his wives.' The divorce of these two seems to have prepared the way for another. Vers. 9, 10. By the third wife he had seven sons, some of whose names indicate the Moabite affinity. Mesha differs in the original only by a letter from Mesha, a king of Moab (2 Kings iii. 4). Malcham is the name of an idol of Moab (Jer. xlix. 1). Shachia should perhaps be Shobiah, as in the text and the Sept. Ver. 11. It appears that Hushim had two sons before she was divorced. Ver. 12. Of the three sons of Elpaal here named, Shamer (not Shamed) was the builder of two cities. One was near Lod, the Lydda of the New Testament, now Ludd. Ver. 13. Two other sons of Elpaal are the heads of houses in Aijalon, now Yalo. It is situated on the hills at some distance from Gath. Benjamin as well as Ephraim had encounters with Gath. Vers. 14-16. Nine sons of Beriah, son of Elpaal, are here enumerated. And Ahio, Shushak should be, 'And Ahi and Shashak.' Ahi is the same name as Ehi in the family of Benjamin the patriarch. Vers. 17, 18. Here follow seven other sons of Elpaal, making twelve in all. They are mentioned separately from the others, as they had a separate place of abode from some portion of their families. Vers. 19-21. Nine sons are here assigned to Shimi, who appears to be Shema (ver. 13), son of Elpaal, who is associated with Beriah. Vers. 22-25. Eleven sons belong to Shashak, son of Beriah (ver. 14). Several recurring names are here to be observed. Vers. 26, 27. Jeroham appears to be the same as Jeremoth, another son of Beriah (ver. 14). Ver. 28. Thus all from the beginning of this chapter are the descendants of Bilhan, one of the grandsons of Benjamin, son of Jacob. These dwell. This refers to those specified in vers. 14-27, who are most of the descendants of Elpaal, the fourth in descent through Ahishahar from Benjamin the patriarch. Hence it appears that part of the population of Jerusalem was of the tribe of Benjamin from the time of the conquest. 29-40. Genealogy of Saul. Gibon, now el Jib. The father, patriarch. His name was Jehiel (ix. 35), the father of Ner and grandfather of Kish, Saul's father. But in 1 Sam. ix. 1, Kish is said to be son, strictly grandson, of Abiel. Hence it follows that Jehiel is another name of Abiel, who is there traced through Zeror and Bechorath to Aphiah, a Benjamite. The link is wanting that connected him with his ancestors. Maachah is a name of frequent occurrence (iii. 2, vii. 15). Vers. 30, 31. Abdon. This name may be traced back to Abdon, son of Shashak (ver. 23). Ner is omitted between Baal and Nadab. Zacher is varied by Zechariah; and Mikloth is omitted at the end (ix. 36, 37). Ver. 32. Shimeah is called Shimeam in ix. 38. And these also, as well as the descendants of Elpaal mentioned in the previous part of the chapter. Ver. 33. Kish was doubtless called after his uncle Kish (ver. 30). Ner had another son Abner (1 Sam. xiv. 51). Abinadab seems to be another name for Ishui (1 Sam. xiv. 49, xxxi. 2). Esh-baal, otherwise Ishbosheth, the idol's name being changed into bosheth, shame, as in Jerub-baal and Jerub-besheth (2 Sam. xi. 21). Ver. 34. *Merib-baal* ('striving with Baal'), called Mephi-bosheth ('blasting the shame'), 2 Sam. iv. 4. Micah is not otherwise known. Vers. 35-38. *Tarea* is differently spelt in ix. 41. *Ghoadaah* is Jarab, or according to Sept. Jadah, in ix. 42. *Rapha* is Rephaiah in ix. 43. In these verses the descendants of Micah, great-grandson of Saul, are traced through nine generations. Vers. 39, 40. *Eshek*, brother of Azel, is not mentioned before. His son Jeush revives the name of Bilhan's eldest son (vii. 10). The grandsons of Ulah would be fourteenth in descent from Saul, and therefore might be contemporary with Hezekiah. 1. What was the object of continuing the account of the offspring of Benjamin? 2. What are the indications that the Benjamin of this chapter is the great-grandson of Benjamin the patriarch? 3. In what period did Shaharaim make his temporary abode in Moab? 4. What Moabite names appear in his family? 5. What later sojourners were there from Israel in Moab? 6. Of what family were most of the Benjamites who dwelt in Jerusalem? 7. What number in descent was Saul from Aphiah? 8. How far is the line of Saul traced downwards? CHAPTER IX. THE INHABITANTS OF JERUSALEM, AND THE HOUSE OF SAUL. This chapter consists of two parts, the first containing the inhabitants of Jerusalem at a period not earlier than Josiah, and the second repeating the genealogy of Saul. 1-34. The inhabitants of Jerusalem at the close of the reign of Josiah. This date may be inferred from the circumstance that this reign was a time of reflection and reconstruction, while the following reigns were full of trouble and disorder; and from the statement (ver. 11) that Azariah was the ruler of the house of God (vi. 14). The table of the inhabitants of Jerusalem is preserved as the model on which that of Neh. xi. was to be constructed. So is simply 'and,' the connective particle. The author has given an abstract from the national records in the previous chapters. All Israel, inclusive of Judah. The unity of the people of God is studiously kept in view in this document. Reckoned by genealogies, registered in the form of a genealogy, genealogized. Written. The author, after the return from the captivity, casts a loving glance on the ancient records of his people, and longs to see the state of things therein described as far as possible restored. The book of the Kings of Israel and Judah. According to the Hebrew pointing, this should be . . . 'Israel: and Judah was carried away.' The distinction, though seeming to be more in accordance with history, is not of vital importance. The book is the same whether it be called that of the kings (2 Chron. xxiv. 27), or of the kings of Israel (2 Chron. xx. 34), or of Judah and Israel (2 Chron. xvi. 11), or of Israel and Judah (2 Chron. xxvii. 7). And though Judah was the chief exile to Babylon, yet remnants of other tribes were also carried thither. This verse lays the foundation for the following list. Ver. 2. The first inhabitants are those before the captivity, in contrast with those after the return. With this corresponds the parallel phrase in Neh. xi. 3, 'the chief of the province.' This verse is general, referring not merely to the city, but to the whole country still in possession of the remnant of Israel. In their possession. The land allotted to them. Israel. The whole nation, as in Neh. xi. 3, inclusive of Judah. Nethinim. Persons given to the priests as helps, as the Levites were given (Num. viii. 19), but limited to the Gibeonites (Josh. ix. 27), and others appointed for menial offices. The term belongs to Ezra and Nehemiah. They are not particularized in the following passage. The reference here is mainly to the arrangements in the time of David, while the parallel document in Nehemiah alludes also to the times of Solomon. Ver. 3. And in Jerusalem. This document goes no farther than the inhabitants of Jerusalem. That in Nehemiah gives a few notices of the other towns of Judah and Benjamin. Ephraim and Manasseh. Some of Manasseh (xii. 19) and some of Ephraim attached themselves to David, when he was a fugitive, and became citizens of Jerusalem when it became his capital (2 Chron. xxxiv. 9). Vers. 4-6. Sons of Judah. Uthai is simply the chief of the family living in Jerusalem and called after his name. He is not the same as Athaiah in Neh. xi. 4. They differ totally in pedigree, so far as it is traced; and an interval of 150 years, including the captivity and return, is sufficient to account for a change in the chief of the clan of Pharez that dwelt in Jerusalem. Ver. 5. The Shilonites or the Shelani, the family of Shelah, the third son of Judah, but not the most important (iv. 21). Asaiah might be the same as Maaseiah (Neh. xi. 5). But the silence here concerning his genealogy is against the coincidence. He may be an ancestor of the latter. Ver. 6. Zerah. This family does not reappear after the return; though Pethahiah of this house was at the Persian king's hand in all matters concerning the people (Neh. xi. 24). Six hundred and ninety. This includes the three families. The number indicates a precise date at which this document was drawn up. This we have supposed to be in the end of Josiah's reign. Vers. 7-9. Sons of Benjamin. Sallu, representing the family of which he was the head, is most probably the same as the Sallu of Neh. xi. 7. The line may be the same: for Joel and Hodaviah are radically connected, and Hasenuah means the hated or the thorny, and may be a famous mother in Israel, having another son Judah (Neh. xi. 9). These are so late as not to be traceable to the pedigree in chap. viii. Vers. 8, 9. Ibneiah, Elah, and Meshullam have all disappeared before the time of Nehemiah. Chief of the fathers. This corresponds with the chief of the province (Neh. xi. 3). Vers. 10-13. The priests. Jedaiah, Jehoiarib, and Jachin are priestly families, having their abode in Jerusalem, and named simply by their heads. In Neh. xi. 10, Jediah is said to be the son of Joiarib. Ver. 11. Azariah is the father of Seraiah (Neh. xi. 11), who, though slain by Nebuchadnezzar, is regarded as the head of the high-priestly family. There is, indeed, another Seraiah (Ezra ii. 2; Neh. xii. 1), who appears to have been grandson or great-grandson of the former, and cousin of Ezra the scribe. But he is not in the direct line of the high priests. Azariah succeeded Hilkiah, who was active in the reformation instituted by Josiah (2 Kings xxii.). Ver. 12. Adonijah. In his pedigree Nehemiah inserts Pelaliah, Amzi, and Zechariah between Jeroham and Pashhur. Masai appears to be different from Amshai (Neh. xi. 13), though both are descended from Meshillemoth (Meshillemith), son of Immer. Vers. 14-34. The Levites. Shemaiah. This head still appears in Neh. xi. 15, where he is traced a step farther to Bunni. Ver. 15. Bakbakkar, Heresh, and Galal disappear in the interval. Mattaniah. In his line Zichri appears as Zabdi in Neh. xi. 17, in place of whom we have Zaccur in xxv. 2. The consonants are like one another in the original. Ver. 16. Obadiah appears as Abda, and Shemaiah as Shammua, in Neh. xi. 17. For Galal we have Gedaliah in xxv. 3. Berechiah, descending from Elkanah, represents Heman the first master of song. He dwelt in the district of Netophah (ii. 54). He does not appear in Nehemiah. Vers. 17-27. The porters. Door and gate keepers were men of considerable trust. Shallum and Ahiman had disappeared in the time of Nehemiah. And they had not yet appeared in the days of David (xxvi.). Shallum, the chief in the time of our list, was doubtless named after a distant ancestor. Ver. 18. Hitherto, up to the time of the list. The king's gate was that on the east, by which the king alone entered (Ezek. xliv. 3). The four captains of the porters kept the gates at the camps of the Levites on the four sides of the temple. Shallum the chief was at the east. Ver. 19. This Shallum is different from the former, and identical with Meseleemiah of ver. 21, and of xxvi. 1, and with Shelemiah of xxvi. 14. This appears from the genealogy which is given to distinguish him from the Shallum that goes before. He is at least the great-grandson of Korah, the cousin of Aaron. Though Korah perished in his gainsaying, yet the descendants of Korah became eminent among the doorkeepers and choristers of the house of God, and were keepers of the gates of the tabernacle as long as it existed. Their fathers, in the wilderness, at the camp of the Lord, guarded the entrance. Here we are brought back to the time of Moses. Ver. 20. Phinehas succeeded Eleazar in this office (Num. iii. 32). The time past refers to the forty years in the wilderness. The statement that the Lord was with him alludes to the action of Phinehas, by which the plague was stayed in the matter of Baal-peor (Num. xxv.). Ver. 21. Zechariah belongs to the times of David (xxvi. 2). His father Mesehelemiah is called the son of Kore (xxvi. 1, 14). He is also called Shelemiah, and in this passage (ver. 19) Shallum, all these names having the same root. The family of Zechariah still held office. The tabernacle of the congregation is literally the tent of meeting, where the Lord met with the representative of the people (Ex. xxix. 42). This points to the tabernacle on Mount Zion in the time of David. Ver. 22. They were registered in their villages, from which they came to Jerusalem in the time of their service. David and Samuel. David was the king; Samuel was both prophet and priest. As Samuel anointed David, he had full opportunity of counselling in this matter. The seer was the ancient popular term for the prophet (1 Sam. ix. 9). Ordained. Founded, instituted. Set office. Trust. Ver. 23. They and their children. The office was hereditary, and hence the head representing the family is said to hold it as long as the family survives. This explains the language of the whole document. Ver. 24. In four quarters, or winds, as in ver. 18. Ver. 25. After seven days (2 Kings xi. 5). The change of guard was made on the Sabbath, which commenced at sunset. With them. The four chiefs. Ver. 26. The four chiefs (ver. 17). The chambers were the cells for the use of the priests on the sides of the temple. Ver. 27. Lodged, during their week of office. Vers. 28-34. Various other functions of the Levites. Charge of the vessels. The ministering vessels were the sacrificial bowls, trays for the shew-bread, and cups and flagons for the libations. Ver. 29. The vessels, not directly used in the worship, but for holding the stores of the sanctuary, and other purposes. Ver. 30. Charge of the ointment. Of the sons of the priests. The compounding of the ointment was a special service (Ex. xxx. 23). Ver. 31. Charge of the baking. Mattithiah was the first-born of the former Shallum (ver. 17). This family had charge of the baking in pans for the meat-offering (Lev. ii. 5). Ver. 32. Charge of the shew-bread. The bread of order, which was laid in order on the table every Sabbath (Lev. xxiv. 8). Ver. 33. Charge of the singing. *And these.* It is probable that the document from which this was taken, specified the Levites who took charge of the singing. But enough had been given on this head in vi. 31-47. *Free from other functions,* that they might devote themselves to the service of song. *Were employed;* rather, were over the choirs in their employ. Ver. 34. This subscription closes the first part of the chapter. 35-44. This is a repetition of the last paragraph in the preceding chapter, with the exception of the last two verses. It is there in its chronological place, after the descendants of Bilhan and before the inhabitants of Jerusalem. It is repeated here, not through inadvertence, but as an introduction to the fall of the house of Saul from the sovereignty of Israel, which is related in the following chapter. It supplies the name Jehiel (ver. 35), which is wanting in the former account; and it wants the words 'And Ahaz' (ver. 41), which are supplied in the former. This affords us an instructive rule of criticism for other passages of this work. Other slight variations have been already noticed. 1. What purpose does the table of the inhabitants of Jerusalem in this chapter serve? 2. What various titles had the political records of the people of Israel? 3. What subsequent passage is modelled after this? 4. To what different periods do they refer? 5. What proofs are there of this list being the earlier? 6. What are probably meant by the Shilonites? 7. What relationship is there between Kore and Korah? 8. Why repeat the pedigree of Saul? PART II.—REIGN OF DAVID. CHAPTER X. FALL OF THE HOUSE OF SAUL. The preceding nine chapters contain all that the author thinks fit to give concerning the history contained in the five books of the law, in Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and in the first book of Samuel as far as the last chapter. The obvious reason is that all these books were in existence and in authority among the people of God. And the slender thread of these nine chapters is designed merely to afford a suitable and intelligible introduction to the higher and more special aspect of affairs which he is about to present. The religious has now been actually separated from the civil administration of affairs among the holy people. This distinction is accordingly recognised in the present history. It is to be observed that of the first nine chapters most of the second, part of the third, and the whole of the remaining six are occupied with new matter. And a prominent place is given to the royal line of David (iii.), to the pedigree and function of the tribe of Levi (vi.), and to some interesting traces of the activity of the sons of Jacob during the brilliant part of their sojourn in Egypt. The narrative now expands into twenty chapters on the reign of David. The first twelve verses of the present chapter are a second edition of 1 Sam. xxxi. The remaining two verses contain the moral of Saul's official career. 1–12. On comparing the two editions, they appear to be both drawn from a somewhat more ample public record of the death of Saul; as the former omits to state that they fastened his head in the temple of Dagon, and the latter does not mention that they fastened his body to the wall of Bethshan. The variations in the diction arise partly from the brevity at which the Chronicist aims, and partly from the change of style in an interval of five or six centuries. Vers. 1–7. The death of Saul. *Gilboa*; from the Gilboa, 'the bubbling fountain.' This battle was fought about 1055 B.C. Ver. 3. *Hit him*; rather, found, reached him. *Was wounded*, as the Sept. renders in 1 Sam. xxxi. 3; or was galled, as it renders here. Ver. 6. *And all his house*, who were in the field of battle. In Samuel the phrase is 'all his men.' Ver. 7. *In the valley of Jezreel*; in Samuel, 'at the pass of the valley and at the Jordan, on both sides of Gilboa.' The Philistines became masters of the country. Before this time Shiloh must have been destroyed. The tabernacle was probably then carried to Nob as a place of greater security or seclusion. Vers. 8–12. The treatment of his remains. Ver. 10. *In the house of their God*; in Samuel, of 'Ashtaroth.' Astarte, the queen of Heaven, the Aphrodite of the Greeks, worshipped at Askelon (Herod. i. 108). *Fastened his head*, or skull. *In the temple of Dagon*, the fish god of Ashdod (1 Sam. v.). In Samuel it is said that they fastened his body to the wall of Bethshan, now Beisan, between Gilboa and the Jordan. The choice of facts to be narrated depends on the taste or aim of the writer. Ver. 11. *All Jabesh-gilead*, moved by gratitude for his former help (1 Sam. xi.). Ver. 12. *The oak*, or terebinth; in Samuel, 'the tree,' or in particular the tamarisk. Both trees may have grown at the spot, either together or in succession. 13, 14. The moral causes of Saul's defeat are his transgression in disobeying the word of the Lord by Samuel (1 Sam. x. 8, xiii. 15), and in consulting a witch or one having a familiar spirit (1 Sam. xxviii.). The characteristic of the Chronicist comes out in this reflection. The reader is also presumed to be acquainted, from other sources, with the facts here stated. 1. What portion of the Old Testament do the previous nine chapters cover? 2. What are the main topics which they notice? 3. How much new matter do they contain? 4. What is the chief characteristic of the new narrative which the author has given? 5. What is the necessity of such a narrative? 6. What was the date of Saul's death? 7. What may be inferred from comparing this chapter with 1 Sam. xxxi.? 8. What is the moral drawn by the writer from the death of Saul? CHAPTER XI. DAVID AND HIS MIGHTY MEN. This chapter contains the appointment of David as king of all Israel at Jerusalem, and the list of his mighty men. He had reigned seven and a half years in Hebron. He began to reign about 1055 B.C. He reigned forty years. 1-9. David king in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 1-10). The abbreviating Chronicist passed over 2 Sam. i.-iv. altogether. He even shortens the present passage in words and phrases. All Israel; in Samuel, 'All the tribes of Israel.' Ver. 2. Said unto thee, by the mouth of Samuel. Though we have no account of this in the previous narrative, yet Samuel must have spoken after the tenor of these words to David, and have held frequent conference with him concerning the mode of worship (ix. 22). Ver. 3. By Samuel. This remark is in accordance with the action of Samuel (1 Sam. xvi. 12, 13. See also 1 Sam. xv. 18, and 2 Sam. iii. 9, 18). The covenant contains the terms on which David is to rule, and the people to obey. It was a solemn transaction before the Lord, and united the monarch and the subjects. Vers. 4-9. The conquest of Zion. It was natural that David, on his accession to the throne of all Israel, should assail the hold of the Jebusites in Jerusalem; and that he should transfer the seat of government to a city that was naturally strong, that came into his hand in the providence of God, and that was on the border that connected Judah and the rest of Israel. The author does not give 2 Sam. v. 4, 5. Jebus is a name of Jerusalem (Josh. xv. 8; Judg. xix. 10), derived from the Jebusites, a tribe of the Canaanites (Gen. x. 16), who held the eastern hill up to this time. The western hill was already in possession of Israel (1 Sam. xvii. 54; Judg. i.). The two hills of Jerusalem were separated by the valley Tyropœon, or of the cheesemongers. Ver. 5. The taunt about the blind and the lame (2 Sam. v. 6) is here omitted. The name Zion occurs in this narrative (2 Sam. v. 7) for the first time. It means the bare rocky top exposed to the sun. It appears to have been applied first to the gibbous hill between the Pharax Tyropeon and the Kidron, including the temple and the city of David (2 Sam. v. 7, vi. 12; Ps. xlviii.); and at last, in Christian times, to have been transferred to the western hill (see Joseph. Wars, v. 4; and Caspari, Chronol. and Geog. Introd. to the Life of Christ). There was at first a broad valley between the fort Acra and the temple hill. Ver. 6. The proclamation of the post of captain to him who should be the first to smite the Jebusite is here simple and direct. Chief and captain. The former might refer to the government of the town, the latter to the command of the army. The Sept. favours this. But as Joab was already commander of the troops, both terms may refer to the government of the town. Ver. 7. It was natural that he should take up his abode in the hill that had been gained by conquest. This castle is called Acra (Chaqra) in the Targ. on 2 Sam. v. 7. Ver. 8. Built, fortified with a wall. The Millo is a mound or embankment filling up a space, and surmounted by a tower or hold. It appears to have stood on the substructions in the valley between the two eastern hills. It is rendered by the Sept. in 2 Sam. v. 9 the Acra. Beginning from the Millo, he carried the wall round the whole of the lower city. The rest of the city is the upper city to the west, which was repaired by Joab. Ver. 9. The Lord of hosts is in the Sept. the Lord Omnipotent. 10-47. David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 8-39). The chief includes the names here added to the list in Samuel. Who strengthened themselves with him, held fast with him. To make and keep him king. The word of the Lord by Samuel. This preface explains the insertion of this list here, and not, as in Samuel, near the close of David's career. Ver. 11. This is the number; in Samuel, 'These are the names.' Jashobeam, son of Hachmoni, a Hachmonite, namely Zabdiel, as in xxvii. 2, where he appears as captain of the first monthly division. He is called here the chief of the captains, the term captain denoting a thirdsman or commander of a third part. This agrees with the text in Samuel, though here it might be rendered chief of the thirty. Against three hundred. The number in Samuel is eight hundred. If we presume that Jashobeam was at the head of his company, the latter number is not improbable. Ver. 12. Dodo or Dodai (xxvii. 4, and in Samuel). The Ahohite; in Samuel, 'son of Aholi.' Ahoah was a descendant of Benjamin (viii. 4). Ver. 13. Pas-dammim is otherwise Ephes-dammim ('spot of blood'), between Shochoh and Azekah (1 Sam. xvii. 1). Gathered together to battle. On comparing 2 Sam. xxiii. 9-12, it appears that the achievement of Eleazar, as here described, bears a considerable resemblance to that of Shammah, son of Agee the Hararite. But as the account here is taken not from Samuel, but from another source, we cannot adjust the matter between them. It is better, therefore, to assume that Shammah and his mighty deed are here omitted. The parcel of ground is here full of barley, while in Shammah's adventure it was full of lentiles. Ver. 14. They set. Eleazar was supported by a few faithful men of his troop. A great deliverance. These words, occurring here and again at the end of the narrative concerning Eleazar, may have occasioned the omission of the exploit of Shammah. Vers. 15-19. Feat of the three mighty men of or from the thirty (2 Sam. xxiii. 13). The thirty are enumerated in vers. 26-40. To the rock. For this Samuel has, in the harvest. Both may have been in the original record; but as the locality is otherwise expressed, the reading of Samuel is the more probable. Adullam must have been not far from Bethlehem. The valley of Rephaim ("giants") was separated from the valley of Hinnom by a narrow ridge of hills, and therefore near Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Ver. 16. This hold must have been at Adullam. A detachment of the Philistines was at Bethlehem. Ver. 17. The well of Bethlehem at the gate lay a quarter of an hour to the north-east, according to Robinson. But there may have been a nearer well. Ver. 18. The longing and the refusal to drink of the water are fine traits of the character of David. Ver. 19. Shall I drink the blood, the water procured at the risk of shedding their blood; a striking instance of oriental figure, illustrating John vi. 53. These three mightiest were perhaps the first three already mentioned in the original narrative. Vers. 20-25. Abishai and Benaiah (2 Sam. xxiii. 18-23). Abshai, or as usual, Abishai (ii. 16). Chief of the three. Manifestly a second three. Ver. 21. More honourable; in Samuel, 'Was he not most honourable of the three?' Not unto the three, rightly distinguished as the first three. He succoured David on one occasion (2 Sam. xxi. 17). Ver. 22. Son of a valiant man. This means simply a valiant man. Of Kabzeel, in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 21). Two lion-like men, two Ariels, lions of God, probably princes of Moab, in David's war with that nation (2 Sam. viii. 2). In a snowy day. In a severe winter, when the lion was found to come nearer the abodes of men. Ver. 23. A man of stature, measure, or as in Samuel, aspect, conspicuous for his size. Ver. 24. Among the three mighties, the second three. Ver. 25. Among or above the thirty. Over his guard. He was over the Kerethi and the Pelethi (2 Sam. viii. 18), and captain of the third division (xxvii. 6). 26-47. The forty-eight men of war, rendered here 'the valiant men of the armies.' Asahel (ii. 16) was among and above the thirty (2 Sam. xxiii. 24). He appears to be the third of the second three. He was captain of the fourth division (xxvii. 7). He was slain by Abner (2 Sam. ii.). After him follow, in Samuel, the names of the thirty mighty men, and one over, Uriah the Hittite. Elhanan, son of Dodo, is apparently different from Elhanan, son of Jair or Jaur (xx. 5), who slew Lahmi. Ver. 27. Shammoth the Harorite is in Samuel, Shamma the Harodite; and in xxvii. 8, Shamhuth the Izrahite. Harodite is a name of place from Harod (Judg. vii. 1), near Mount Gilboa; Izrahite is a name of family from Zerah, son of Judah. He was the fifth captain. After him is omitted Elika of the same place (2 Sam. xxiii. 25). Helez the Pelonite is in Samuel the Palite. He was the seventh captain of division, and in xxvii. 10 is said to be of the sons of Ephraim. The former designation may refer to family, the latter to place. Ver. 28. Ira was the sixth captain (xxvii. 9). Abiezzer of Anathoth is the ninth (xxvii. 12). Ver. 29. Sibbecai was the eighth captain, of the family of Zerah and of the town of Hushah (iv. 4). For this name we find Mebunnai in Samuel. See also xx. 4; 2 Sam. xxi. 18. Ilai stands here for Zalmon of Samuel. The latter names may belong to substitutes for the former in the list at a later period, or the reverse. For Ahohite see ver. 12. Ver. 30. Maharai was the tenth captain (xxvii. 13). Heled is in Samuel, Heleb; and in xxvii. 15, Heldai, the twelfth captain. Ver. 31. Ithai; in Samuel, Ittai. Benaijah, the eleventh captain (xxvii. 14). Pirathon was in the land of Ephraim (Judg. xii. 15). Ver. 32. Hurai is perhaps correct; in Samuel, Hiddai. Gaisah was a hill in the range of Mount Ephraim (Josh. xxiv. 30). Abiel is in Samuel, Abi-albon. The Arbathite, perhaps from Beth-arabah (Josh. xv. 61). Ver. 33. The Baharumite is in Samuel, Barhumite, perhaps from Bahurim (2 Sam. xvi. 5). The Shaalbonite, from a town in the lot of Dan (Josh. xix. 42). Ver. 34. Hashem is in Samuel, Jashem. Only one son, Jonathan, is mentioned. This is not uncommon in this book (i. 41, ii. 7, 8). For the son of Shage we find in Samuel, Shammah. Gizoh and Harar are unknown. Ver. 35. Sacar is in Samuel, Sharar. Eliphal, in Samuel, Eliphelet, the full form. For Ur is in Samuel, Ahasbai. Ver. 36. Hepher the Mecherathite stands for 'the son of the Maachathite' in Samuel. For Ahijah the Pelonite appears in Samuel, 'Eliam, son of Ahithophel the Gilonite.' These are further signs that the list varied from time to time. Giloh lay south of Hebron (Josh. xv. 55). Ver. 37. *Hezro*; in Samuel, Hezrai. Carmel is a town south of Hebron (Josh. xv. 55). *Naarai, son of Ezbai*, is in Samuel, ‘Paarai the Arbite,’ of Arab (Josh. xv. 52). Ver. 38. For *Joel, brother of Nathan*, is in Samuel, ‘Igal, son of Nathan of Zobah,’ a district of Aram, north of Damascus. For *Mibhar, son of Hagri*, is in Samuel, ‘Bani the Gadite.’ Ver. 39. *The Berothite* of Beeroth in Benjamin. Ver. 40. *The Ithrite*; see on ii. 53. Including the omitted Elika, we have thirty mighty men, and these with the two threes and Uriah make the thirty-seven of Samuel. Vers. 41–47. These sixteen are a supplement to Samuel. *Uriah the Hittite* is well known (2 Sam. xi.). Ver. 42. *Thirty with him* are perhaps officers over whom he had command. Ver. 44. *The Ashterathite* of Ashteroth in east Manasseh (vi. 71). *The Aroerite* of Aroer, east of the Jordan (Josh. xiii. 16, 25). Ver. 46. *The Mahavite*. This may be for Mahanite, from Mahanaim. Ver. 47. *The Mezobaite* Mezobah is unknown, unless it be the same as Zobah. These added to the thirty-two before make forty-eight mighty men. 1. When did David begin to reign? 2. What part of Samuel is here omitted? and what is added to his account? 3. What proves that the government of Israel was a limited monarchy? 4. Where does the name Zion first occur in Scripture? 5. What part of Jerusalem was properly so called? 6. What was the Millo, and where situated? 7. What indicates that the lists of David’s mighty men in Samuel and Chronicles refer to different points of time? 8. What are the main differences between the two lists? 9. Why did David choose Jerusalem for the seat of Government? CHAPTER XII. FOLLOWERS OF DAVID. This whole chapter is supplementary to Samuel. It contains a list of those who joined David in the time of Saul, vers. 1–22; and of those who came to make him king of all Israel, vers. 23–40. 1–22. The list of those who attached themselves to David in the time of Saul. First, those of Benjamin and Judah, who came to him at Ziklag (vers. 1–7). This town belonged to Simeon (Josh. xix. 5); but being given by Achish to David for a residence, it fell to the tribe of Judah. It lay south of Judah. *Kept himself close*, or was kept close or restrained in Ziklag (1 Sam. xxvii.–xxx.). Ver. 2. Of Saul's brethren. The injustice of Saul estranged some even of his own tribe, such as Eleazar, Ilai, and Ithai (xi. 12, 29, 31). The Benjamites were great archers (1 Chron. viii. 40), and remarkable for the use of the left hand (Judg. iii. 15, xx. 16). Ver. 3. Shemaah and Azmaveth are names found among the Benjamites (viii. 13, 30). Antothite, native of Anathoth. Ver. 4. Among the thirty. The members of the thirty varied from time to time, and likewise their ruler. The Gederathite, of Gederah in the lowland of Judah. Ver. 5. Jerimoth is a Benjamite name (vii. 8). The Haruphite. The sons of Hariph (Neh. vii. 24) may have been Benjamites. Ver. 6. Elkanah is a Korhite name (vi. 23). These are Levites dwelling in Judah. Ver. 7. Jeroham is a name among the Benjamites (viii. 27), though Gedor was in Judah (iv. 4). 8-15. Gadites. Into the hold, at the cave of Adullam or some other fort in the wilderness of Judah (1 Sam. xxii. 5). The faces of lions. Compare 2 Sam. i. 23, ii. 18. Buckler; rather, lance or spear, as in ver. 24. Ver. 14. Was over; rather, 'was equal to,' as in the margin. Ver. 15. All them of the valleys; literally, all the valleys on both sides of the Jordan. The event here mentioned is not otherwise known. 16-18. Others of Benjamin and Judah. Ver. 17. Knit unto you, at one with you. Ver. 18. Came upon; literally, clothed. Amasai may be the same as Amasa (ii. 17), who was made captain of the host by Absalom (2 Sam. xvii. 25), and then by David, and was slain by Joab (2 Sam. xx. 10). 19-22. The men of Manasseh. They, David and his men, helped not the Philistines, who would not trust them (1 Sam. xxix.). Ver. 20. David therefore turned to march to Ziklag (1 Sam. xxx.), and these men of Manasseh deserted from Saul to him. As seven appears to have been a stated number among the eastern Manassites (v. 24), these may be the representatives of the eastern half tribe. They seem to have joined David without their companies. Ver. 21. The band, the troop of Amalek (1 Sam. xxx. 8). And were, became captains in the host of David. Ver. 22. The six hundred grew into a great camp, and therefore needed many officers. 23-40. The chiefs who came to make David king of Israel. Bands; rather, chiefs of those equipped for war. To turn the kingdom. See x. 14. According to the word. See xi. 3. Vers. 24, 25. Judah and Simeon were the two southern tribes who had already acknowledged David. Vers. 26-28. Many of the Levites were closely associated with these tribes. Jehoiada, probably father of Benaiah (xi. 22). Leader for Aaron, commander of the priestly troops. Zadok was commander of the Levites. Ver. 29. The Benjamites were few, because the greatest part of them was still in the service of the house of Saul. Ver. 30. The men of Ephraim were famous, men of name or renown. Ver. 31. This is west Manasseh. Ver. 32. Issachar lay north of Manasseh. He is no longer characterized as ‘a strong ass’ (Gen. lix.), but as governed by men of political and religious sagacity. Their chiefs only are enumerated. But their brethren were at their command. Ver. 33. The fifty thousand men of Zebulun were prepared to keep rank not with a heart and a heart, not with a double mind. Expert in war, marshalling the war. Ver. 34. Naphtali was equally decided. Ver. 35. Dan came out in great strength. Expert in war, as in ver. 33. Ver. 36. Asher appears in full force. Expert in war, to marshal the war. Ver. 37. The eastern tribes are grouped together, and make a large contingent. 38-40. The men of war hospitably entertained. With a perfect heart, ‘of one heart,’ and ‘not with a heart and a heart.’ The great majority were enthusiastic for David. Ver. 39. Three days eating and drinking. The supply came partly from their brethren in Judah, and partly from themselves as far as Naphtali. The ancients excelled in such entertainments, which were mostly contributed in kind. The total number of men was over 331,300 by the contingents of the Levites and of Issachar. This is moderate for the time, when every man over twenty years of age fit to bear arms was reckoned in the strength of the nation for defence. These amounted to 600,000 when they left Egypt (Ex. xii. 37). Ver. 40. Joy in Israel. To have one king, who was chosen of God and beloved by the people, was a threefold source of joy. 1. What are the subjects of the two parts of this chapter? 2. Where do we find the story of David’s connection with Ziklag? 3. Why did not David’s men help the Philistines in the war with Saul? 4. What was the band of the rowers? 5. What were the remarkable characteristics of the Benjamites? 6. Did the thirty of David’s mighty men always consist of the same individuals? 7. For what were the men of Issachar distinguished? 8. How many were entertained by David when they came to make him king? 9. How was it possible to entertain so great a number? CHAPTER XIII. THE REMOVAL OF THE ARK TO THE HOUSE OF OBED-EDOM. This chapter has its parallel in 2 Sam. vi. 1-11. It records the removal of the ark of the Lord as far as the house of Obed-edom. 1-4. Consultation with the chiefs of the people. This is peculiar to Chronicles. Consulted. This was the custom of the kingdom (Judg. xx. 7; 1 Kings xii. 6; 2 Chron. xx. 21). The captains. The civil and the military organization in many respects coincided. Ver. 2. All the congregation, the assembled heads of the people. Kahal denotes any congregation, without reference to a special constitution or appointment. Send abroad, spread abroad and send. That are left. This seems to allude to the desolations caused by the Philistines. Ver. 3. Bring back, or turn to. The ark was taken from Shiloh (Josh. xviii.) to the battle-field (1 Sam. iv.), taken by the Philistines and sent to Bethshemesh (2 Sam. v., vi.). Ver. 4. Said that they would do so, commanded to do so. It was more natural to remove the ark to a place of security, such as the capital was, than to Gibeon (xiv. 16), which was a temporary resting-place for the tabernacle after it was driven from Shiloh and Nob (1 Sam. iv., xxi., xxii.; 2 Chron. i. 3). 5-14. The resolve undertaken (2 Sam. vi. 1-11). This corresponds often word for word with Samuel. All Israel; in Samuel, 30,000 men. Shihor (Josh. xiii. 3), now Wady el Arish. Shihor means a dark stream, and is elsewhere applied to the Nile (Isa. xxiii. 3) and to a stream in the land of Asher (Josh. xix. 26). The entering of Hamath is the way to Hamath or Epiphania, a city near the sources of the Orontes, on the slopes of Hermon or Antilibanus. Ver. 6. Baalah; in Samuel, Baale-judah, the old name of Kiriat-jearim (Josh. xv. 9, 60), where the ark had been for a long period (1 Sam. vii. 12). From the death of Eli to the ninth year of David was an interval of about forty-eight years. That dwelleth between the cherubim, that stand on the mercy-seat above the ark of God (Ex. xxv. 10-22). Whose name; rather, as his name is called. The Lord, the self-existent Author of all else that exists, who sits on the throne of grace, attended by the intelligent ministers of His power. This is the proper name of the God, the Almighty, as He is called in this passage. How the ark came to Kiriat-jearim ('city of the woods'), we learn from 1 Sam. v.-vii. Ver. 7. Uzza and Ahio were sons (2 Sam. vi. 3), or it may be grandsons, of Abinadab. Ver. 8. Before God; in Samuel, before the Lord; and so in vers. 12 and 14. With all might and with songs. This is a curious variation from the reading in Samuel, 'with all trees of firs' or cypresses. It is to be preferred. Harps and lutes, stringed instruments; the former of the shape of a bow or angle, the latter more like the lyre or guitar. Timbrels and cymbals, percussive instruments for keeping time in a solemn dance or march. The trumpets are generally used by the priests on jubilant occasions (Num. x.; Ps. xcviii. 6). 9-14. The breach on Uzza. Chidon is in Samuel, Nachon. Stumbled or halted, being tempted by the grain on the floor. Ver. 10. Put his hand to the ark. To touch was to violate it, and incur death (Num. iv. 15). It was to be borne on poles, which were provided for the purpose (Ex. xxv. 14) by the Kohathites (Num. iv. 15). Doubtless it had been lifted into the cart by these poles. Vers. 11, 12. David was both displeased and afraid—displeased that Uzza was smitten, and afraid of the God that so suddenly and sharply vindicated His holiness. Perez-uzza, breach on Uzza. Ver. 18. Obed-edom. The men of Kiriah-jearim were servants of the house of God (Josh. ix. 17, 27). But Obed-edom was a Levite, and afterwards a doorkeeper in the tabernacle (xv. 18). The Gittite, of Gath-rimmon, a Levitical city of Dan lying west of Jerusalem (Josh. xxi. 23, 24). CHAPTER XIV. DAVID'S HOUSE, FAMILY, AND VICTORIES OVER THE PHILISTINES. This chapter corresponds with 2 Sam. v. 11-25. The events in it were spread over some space of time after the capture of the stronghold of Zion. It is placed here as an episode in the interval between the first and second movement of the ark of God. It records the building of a house for David, vers. 1, 2; his family, vers. 3-7; and his victories over the Philistines, vers. 8-17. 1, 2. David's house. The building of a palace implied the stability of his reign and capital. Hiram was a Phœnician, a Canaanite, speaking the same language with David; and he was sovereign of a city trading in cedars and abounding with craftsmen in stone and wood. 3-7. David's family. The list of his additional sons agrees with Samuel in the eleven, and with iii. 7, 8 in the whole thirteen, with the exceptions there noted. 8-12. The first victory over the Philistines. The Philistines had possession of some part of the territory north of Jerusalem (1 Sam. xxxi.). To seek David in a hostile sense. Went out against them; in Samuel, 'went down to the hold,' probably the hold at Adullam mentioned in xi. 15. Ver. 9. In the valley of Rephaim (xi. 15), south-east of Jerusalem, in the territory and near the very capital of David. Ver. 10. Enquired of God. This was David's custom (1 Sam. xxx. 8). Go up. The answer is definite, as the voice of the true God always was (Judg. i. 2). Ver. 11. Baal-perazim, master of breaches, marked out by such. It was near the valley of Rephaim; but the site is unknown. Ver. 12. Their gods; in Samuel, their images. Burned. After they had taken them (2 Sam. v. 21), they burned them, as commanded in Deut. vii. 5. 13–17. The second victory. In the valley of Rephaim (2 Sam. v. 22). This was a favourite battle-field. Ver. 14. After them is wanting in Samuel. It merely implies advance in search of the enemy. Turn away from them, round to the rear of them, as in Samuel. The mulberry trees were behind the Philistines. The baka is said to be a sort of balsam, from which a resin exudes like tears. Ver. 15. A sound of going, a rustling of leaves like the stepping of men. God is gone forth. The mode of acting is no farther indicated. It may have been a heaven-sent panic. Ver. 16. From Gibeon; in Samuel, Geba. Both lay north of Jerusalem. This shows that Gibeon was no place for the ark of God (xiii. 3). Gezer (Judg. i. 29) was about two hours north-west of Gibeon. The Philistines may have fled by the east side of Jerusalem, and then turned towards their own country. They were probably still in possession of the country about Gezer. Ver. 17. Upon all nations on his borders. 1. What is the history of the ark of God from its settlement at Shiloh? 2. Where was Hamath? 3. What is the meaning of Jehovah, rendered the Lord in the English Version? 4. What does Kiriyath-jearim mean? 5. Why was Uzza smitten for touching the ark? 6. How long was the ark in Kiriyath-jearim? 7. Why bring the ark to Jerusalem and not to Gibeon where the tabernacle was? 8. Who was Obed-edom? 9. What is implied in building a royal palace in Jerusalem? 10. What and where was the site of the two battles of David with the Philistines? 11. What was David's custom in going to battle? CHAPTER XV THE REMOVAL OF THE ARK OF GOD TO THE TABERNACLE. In this chapter is recorded the conveyance of the ark from the house of Obed-edom to the tabernacle on Zion, a brief summary of which is contained in 2 Sam. vi. 12–16. It contains the preparation, vers. 1-15; the singers, vers. 16-21; the bearers, vers. 22-24; and the procession, vers. 25-29. 1-15. The preparation. Houses, including the dwelling for himself mentioned in xiv. 1. A place, a site for the tent, which he pitched upon it. Ver. 2. None but the Levites should bear the ark (Num. i. 50). It was not to be conveyed on a cart nor by a non-Levite. Abinadab may have been a Hivite (Josh. ix. 7, 17). External things were carried on waggons under the charge of the Gershonites and Merarites; but the articles of the sanctuary were to be borne on poles by the Kohathites (Num. iv.). Ver. 3. All Israel, representatives of the whole nation. Vers. 4-10. The chiefs of the priests and Levites. Ver. 5. Uriel in vi. 24 may be here represented by his descendants, or a descendant of the same name. Ver. 6. Asaiah of vi. 30, or a descendant of that name. Ver. 7. Joel is not elsewhere named among the Gershonites (vi. 20). These three represent the three families of the Levites. Vers. 8-10. The Kohathites who were not priests. Elizaphan here holds the place of Izhar, second son of Kohath. He is a cousin or kinsman of Elzaphan, son of Uzziel (Ex. vi. 22). Shemaiah does not appear elsewhere unless in xxiv. 6. Ver. 9. Eliel, having a predecessor of the same name (vi. 34). Ver. 10. Amminadab is not elsewhere named. The three subdivisions of the Kohathites are here given, because the business in hand belongs to them. Vers. 11-13. David's address to them. Zadok of the line of Eleazar, and Abiathar of that of Ithamar, stand for the priests, the sons of Aaron (ver. 4). Ver. 12. Sanctify yourselves. The sanctification of Aaron is enjoined in Ex. xl. 13, and described in Lev. viii. This with the proper changes applies to the present occasion. Ver. 13. Because ye were not the agents at the first according to the manner. Ver. 15. With the staves, as enjoined in Ex. xxv. 14 and Num. iv. 15. 16-21. The singers. And David spoke. The sacred song was in use from the earliest times (Ex. xv.; Deut. xxxii.; Judg. v.). But David brought it to the highest state of perfection. Instruments of music, or of song. Psalteries, which we may call lutes (xiii. 8). Sounding, striking the ear afar. By lifting up, to lift up the sound with joy. Ver. 17. Heman, Asaph, and Ethan represent the three families of Levites (vi. 33-48). Kushaiah is Kishi in vi. 44. Ver. 18. Of the second degree. The former three were the masters of song. Zeckariah appears only in the present context. Ben does not appear in ver. 20 nor in xvi. 5, and therefore probably means 'son of,' the name of Zechariah's father having fallen out of the text. Ẓaaẓiel is the same as Aziel in ver. 20 and Jeiel in xvi. 5. Obed-edom and Jeiel the porters are added because they had the gift of song. Ver. 19. The three masters of song used the cymbals to beat the time. Ver. 20. Eight played on the lutes. On Alamoth, maidens; that is, with the voices of maidens in the treble. This refers to the singing. Ver. 21. To the remaining five is added a sixth, Azaziah. These played on the harp. On the Sheminith, the eighth, or an octave lower than the former. This we may call the bass, though we are not to understand these technical terms in the modern sense. The ancient mode of common song was rather a melody than a harmony, though the treble singer must have been an octave higher than the bass. It is not clear that there was a choir of female singers; yet in the solemn procession described in Ps. lxviii. 24-27, the damsels had a conspicuous part. To excel, rather to lead or preside, the harpers with the bass voices taking the lead, and the lutists with the treble following. 22-34. The bearers of the ark. Chenaniah, here called chief of the Levites, was probably a Kohathite from his office, and therefore different from Chenaniah mentioned in xxvi. 29. For song; rather, for bearing. This was the main and central part of the procession. The choir of singers with accompaniment of music, headed by the three masters of song, went before; then followed the chief of the Levites, for bearing with his men in relays, bearing the ark. Instructed about the song; rather, 'presided over the bearing,' because he was skilful. Vers. 23, 24. This part of the cortege appears to have been arranged thus. Berechiah and Elkanah went before to open the doors. The seven priests then followed, blowing the trumpets (Num. x. 8). And Obed-edom and Jehiah brought up the rear and closed the doors when the ark was put in its place. Obed-edom appears to be the Gittite, and Jehiah may be a variation of Jeiel in ver. 18. The arrangements here were merely for the occasion; and it was quite possible for these two doorkeepers to sing in the choir and afterwards close the sacred doors. 25-29. The procession. David and the chiefs of the civil and the military orders accompanied the procession of the ark-bearers from the house of Obed-edom with gladness. Ver. 26. God helped the Levites, regarded them with favour and upheld them in their work. They offered. This offering was made when they had got well through their task, and is therefore distinct from the offering which David made when the bearers had gone six paces (2 Sam. vi. 13). Ver. 27. A robe of fine linen, made of buts, byssus, a species of flax. The robe of the priest was of shesh (Ex. xxviii. 5). The Levites, both singers and bearers, appear to have been arrayed in the same way. Master of the song; properly, of the bearing. With the singers. The original word seems an inadvertent repetition by the copyist. If retained as part of the text, it should be rendered 'of the singers.' The bearers may have taken part in the song of praise. An ephod of linen. In Ex. xxviii. 6, the ephod of the high priest is of shesh; this is of baa. Shesh is linen, and baa and buts appear to be other kinds of linen; but the distinction is not clear. David, as the representative of a holy nation, a kingdom of priests (Ex. xix. 6), wears part of the priestly attire. Ver. 28. The cornet is here named for the first time in this account. Ver. 29. King David dancing and playing. This accords with 2 Sam. vi. 16, though the words are different. The Chronist, in accordance with his plan, pursues this matter no further. 1. What things belonging to the tabernacle were to be borne on men's shoulders? 2. Who were to bear them? 3. What other offices were discharged by the Levites? 4. Who were at the head of the Levites, who of the Kohathites, who of the priests? 5. Who were the masters of song? 6. Who was master of the bearers? 7. Who were over the porters? 8. What is the meaning of alamoth? what of Sheminith? what of to excel? 9. Whose part was it to blow the trumpets? 10. To what officer did the ephod properly belong? CHAPTER XVI. FIRST SOLEMN SERVICE, AND ARRANGEMENTS OF WORSHIP. Here is the sequel of this important transaction, the close of the procession, vers. 1-3; the thanksgiving service, vers. 4-7; the song of thanksgiving sung on the occasion, vers. 8-36; and the arrangements of worship for the interval until the temple was built, vers. 37-43. In 2 Sam. vi. 17-23 we have only three verses and a clause parallel with this chapter. 1-3. The close of the procession. In the midst of the tent. It is to be noted that in the original the tent is strictly an awning of haircloth, supported by one or more poles or planks (Ex. xxvi. 7, 11). The booth (sukkah) is composed of boughs of trees (Lev. xxiii. 40, 42). The tabernacle is the mansion or pavilion, distinguished by an inner curtain, as well as the wooden frame and the outer covering (Ex. xxvi.). It included, therefore, the wooden structure and the awning. Burnt sacrifices and peace-offerings are the two principal kinds of sacrifice—the former representing atonement; the latter, communion upon atonement (Lev. i., iii.). It is evident that an altar was here erected. Ver. 2. Blessed the people. The benediction belongs to the king as the patriarch or father of his people. Ver. 3. And he dealt. This is quite in the line of ancient royal hospitality. Man and woman. This intimates that women were present at this celebration. A loaf or cake. A good piece of flesh, as in the Chaldee; a measure (of wine) with Gesenius. The word means a piece or portion, and it may well have been of the cooked flesh of the peace-offerings. A flagon (of wine); rather, a cake of raisins or figs. These three verses nearly coincide with 2 Sam. vi. 17–19, except the last sentence (cp. v. 43). 4–7. The arrangement for thanksgiving. To minister, or as ministers to conduct the service of praise. This is expressed by three words—to record, call to mind; to thank, express gratitude; and to praise, celebrate the worth of the Almighty Creator and Saviour. Ver. 5. Asaph was chief at the tabernacle of David (vi. 39). His second, Zechariah, with Jeiel (or Jaaziel, xv. 18) and seven others, form a company of nine, who played, six on lutes, and three on harps, while Asaph kept time with cymbals (xv. 19–21). Ver. 6. Jahaziel is a new trumpeter, unless this be another name for Eliezer (xv. 24). Continually, or of the continued service. A daily service seems to have been set up. Ver. 7. First. This was the inauguration of public worship at the capital. Delivered; rather, gave charge, appointed to thank the Lord by the hand of Asaph and his brethren. The following selection of sacred song is composed of the first fifteen verses of Ps. cv., of Ps. xcvi., wanting the last half verse, and of Ps. cvi. 1, 47, 48. It celebrates redemption in the first part as unfolded in the seed of Abraham, and in the second as extended to all nations and culminating in the judgment. It is arranged in stanzas of three verses, except the five verses at the beginning of the second part. As it is an adaptation of pre-existing compositions, some changes are to be expected in the forms and words. 8–36. The song of thanksgiving. Vers. 8–10. Thanksgiving. For exposition, reference may be made to Ps. cv. Vers. 11–13. Call to seek the Lord. Seed of Israel; in the Psalm, ‘seed of Abraham,’—a more general phrase. Vers. 14–19. The covenant with Abraham. Be ye mindful, admonitory. In the Psalm it is, ‘he hath remembered.’ When ye were; in the Psalm, ‘when they were.’ But few; literally, men of number. Vers. 20–22. Preserved while wandering. When is an added word. Mine anointed. His people were anointed as priests, kings, and prophets unto him (Ex. xix. 6). 23–36. A song to the God of salvation for all nations. Ver. 23. This combines the second halves of the first two verses of Ps. xcvi. Ver. 27. Gladness; in the Psalm, ‘beauty.’ His place; in the Psalm, ‘his sanctuary.’ Vers. 28–30. Call to acknowledge his name. *And come before him;* in the Psalm, ‘and come into his courts.’ In these changes we discern an adaptation to the primitive simplicity of the tabernacle of David. The third line belongs to the 9th verse of the Psalm. In ver. 30 the first line is the second of the 9th verse in the Psalm, and the second is the second of the 10th verse. Vers. 31–33. Call to celebrate the Lord as king and judge. The 31st verse contains the first line of ver. 11 and the first of ver. 10 in the Psalm. *And let them say:* in the Psalm, ‘say ye.’ The 32d verse consists of the second line of ver. 11 and the first of ver. 12 in the Psalm. In ver. 33 are the second line of ver. 12 and a simplification of the first line of ver. 13, while the remainder of this verse in the Psalm is here omitted. Vers. 34–36. Any one who will read over the 106th Psalm will perceive that in these three verses the people in this day of gladness are very gently reminded of the calamities of their past history and their causes, down to the humiliating times of Eli and Saul, when the ark was taken captive, and the glory was departed from Israel. *Oh give thanks.* This is now the burden of their song. *And say ye.* This is addressed to the worshipping people. *O God of our salvation.* This is a variation for ‘O LORD our God,’ suitable to the occasion. *And deliver us.* This is inserted here to express their longing for freedom from a foreign yoke, such as that of the Philistines, from which they were beginning to be delivered. *And all the people said.* This, as it stands here, is not a part of the hymn; yet it is an adaptation of the end of the Psalm, ‘And let all the people say, Amen. Hallelujah.’ 37–43. New distribution of the priests and Levites. Asaph and his brethren are to minister in song before the ark. Ver. 38. Obed-edom is to minister with his brethren as doorkeeper. *With their brethren.* The writer has in mind the two heads of the doorkeepers. *Threescore and eight.* This includes a part of Hosah’s company (xxvi. 8, 11). Obed-edom and Hosah are then mentioned as the chiefs of the porters at the tabernacle. Obed-edom was of Gathrimmon, and therefore a Kohathite (vi. 69), and indeed a Korhite (xxvi. 1, 4). Hence his father Jedithun, as it is in the original, is different from Jeduthun (Ethan), who was a Merarite (vi. 44). These were to officiate at the tabernacle on Zion. Vers. 39–43. The officiating staff at Gibeon. The tabernacle erected in the wilderness was first placed at Shiloh (Josh. xviii. 1). After the fatal defeat by the Philistines, in which the ark was taken (1 Sam. iv.), it appears to have been removed to Nob, near Gibeah (1 Sam. xxi.). And when the priests at Nob were slaughtered by Doeg the Edomite, it was removed to Gibeon. Zadok was of the line of Eleazar (vi. 8). Ver. 40. *To offer burnt-offerings,* the customary morning and evening sacrifices, because the stated altar of burnt-offerings was there. Ver. 41. Heman and Jeduthun (Ethan), the other two masters of song. Expressed by name in a book of order for Gibeon. To give thanks. The song of thanksgiving (ver. 4) was to be sung from day to day at the solemn service. It becomes the redeemed to give thanks. Ver. 42. Heman and Jeduthun. These words are not in the Sept., and have therefore come in by a slip of the copyist; in which case the sentence will run thus: 'And with them trumpets and cymbals to strike the car.' The instruments of God's song, or God's instruments of song, are the harps and lutes used in the worship of God. The sons of Jeduthun are given in xxv. 3. Were porters; literally, were at the gate. Their employment as gatekeepers was a temporary arrangement. Ver. 43. This verse is made up of the end of ver. 19 and the beginning of ver. 20 in 2 Sam. vi. 1. Distinguish the tent, the booth, and the tabernacle. 2. Distinguish the burnt-offering and the peace-offering. 3. Who was the master of song in Jerusalem? 4. How is the song here given made up? 5. What are the themes of the two principal parts? 6. Who were wont to be anointed in ancient times? 7. Of what were the people reminded in the last part of the song? 8. Who were chief of the porters in Jerusalem? 9. Who was the father of Obed-edom? 10. Who was priest at Gibeon? CHAPTER XVII. PURPOSE OF DAVID TO BUILD A HOUSE FOR THE LORD APPROVED. This chapter coincides with 2 Sam. vii. It records the purpose conceived in David's heart to build a house for the Lord, vers. 1, 2; the promise thereupon announced to him of a kingdom perpetuated in his line, vers. 3–15; and his grateful response to God for this promise, vers. 16–27. 1, 2. David's purpose. As David sat in his house, and felt all the comfort, grandeur, and stability which it embodied. In Samuel it is added, 'And the Lord had given him rest round about from all his enemies.' This refers to the final defeat of the Philistines after the conquest of Zion. Ver. 2. Nathan heartily approved of the design, and felt that it would be acceptable to God. He could not, indeed, penetrate into the counsel of God, nor discern the way in which it was to be accomplished. 3–15. The gracious promise of God to David by Nathan. This is to make him a house, or perpetuate the regal office in his line. Ver. 4. Not thou shalt build; in Samuel, 'Shalt thou build?' implying a negative. Ver. 5. *From tent to tent and from tabernacle*; in Samuel, ‘in a tent and in a tabernacle.’ See on xvi. 1. Ver. 6. *Of the judges*; in Samuel, ‘of the tribes.’ The reading here is more suitable to the context, ‘whom I have commanded to feed my people.’ Ver. 8. *And have made thee.* This may be, ‘And I will make thee;’ and so the promise may begin here. *A name*; in Samuel, ‘a great name.’ Ver. 9. *Waste them*; in Samuel, ‘afflict or humble them.’ *As at the beginning,* under the Egyptians. These verses presuppose the existence of a record of the past history of the people of God. Ver. 10. *And since the time,* the interval from their settlement in the land unto the death of Saul. *And I will subdue*; in Samuel, ‘And I will cause thee to rest from.’ *And I will show thee*; in Samuel, ‘And the Lord will show thee.’ *A house,* a family, a line of successors. The promise now turns to David personally. Ver. 11. *Go with thy fathers*; in Samuel, ‘Sleep with thy fathers.’ *Which shall be of thy sons*; in Samuel, ‘which shall proceed out of thy bowels.’ Ver. 12. *Build me a house*; in Samuel, ‘build a house for my name.’ Ver. 13. *I will not take my mercy away from him*; in Samuel, ‘my mercy shall not depart from him;’ before which stands the sentence, ‘I will chasten him with the rod of men and with the stripes of the sons of men.’ *As I took it from him*; in Samuel, Saul is named. Ver. 14. The turn of the sentence is different in Samuel, and refers to David. Ver. 15. On comparing these two statements of the message of God by Nathan, we see that the sacred writer allows himself a latitude which is at variance with the literalism of some modern critics. And the statement of the Chronist by certain turns and forms of expression proves itself to be the later of the two. It also approaches more nearly to the Messianic aspect of the promise. 16–27. David’s thanksgiving for the promise. *And sat,* probably on a carpet or rug laid on the ground. Sitting was not unusual in prayer (1 Kings xix. 4). *Jehovah God*; in Samuel, ‘Lord Jehovah’ in several instances. Ver. 17. *Hast regarded me,* regarded me after an exalted rank of men. In Samuel, ‘And this (perpetuity, etc.) is to be a law of man.’ Both texts indicate a perpetuity and exaltation of man in the person and family of David, that in its highest form comports only with the Messiah. Ver. 18. *For . . . Thy servant*; rather, of the glory of Thy servant. In Samuel the clause is simpler. Ver. 19. *For Thy servant’s sake*; in Samuel, ‘For Thy word’s sake.’ Ver. 20. In Samuel this verse begins thus: ‘Wherefore Thou art great, O Lord God.’ Ver. 21. The text in Samuel deviates in some phrases; but the general intent is the same. Ver. 22. *Thou didst make*; in Samuel, ‘thou didst confirm.’ Ver. 23. *Let . . . be established*: in Samuel, ‘establish Thou.’ Ver. 24. *It even be established that*, is wanting in Samuel. Ver. 25. *Tola*, opened the ear of. Ver. 26. The second clause in Samuel, ‘and Thy words be true,’ is here omitted. Ver. 27. *Let it please Thee*, or be Thou pleased. The deviations from Samuel are unimportant. *That it may be before Thee for ever*. This has its fulfilment only in the Messiah (Ps. ii.). The response of David is in fine keeping with the promise of the Lord. This chapter affords a striking instance that a good resolve never fails to meet with due regard from God. 1. On what occasion did David propose to build a house for the Lord? 2. How much of David’s purpose did Nathan commend? 3. What was the promise of the Lord to David? 4. How was the proposal of David modified by the Lord? 5. What is to be inferred from comparing the report of the Divine message in Chronicles with that in Samuel? 6. What presumption does this chapter afford of the existence of the previous historical books of Scripture? 7. What aspect of the promise to David is more prominent in Chronicles? 8. Have the people of God confined themselves to one attitude in devotion? 9. To what does the phrase ‘hast regarded me according to the estate of a man of high degree’ point? 10. What is the farthest point in the promise here noticed by David? 11. What law of Divine providence is exemplified in this chapter? CHAPTER XVIII. DAVID’S WARS AND OFFICERS OF STATE. This chapter is parallel to 2 Sam. viii. It reports the warlike achievements of David, vers. 1–13; and closes with a list of his principal officers, vers. 14–17. 1. The Philistines subdued. *Took Gath and her towns* (daughters); in Samuel, ‘took Metheg-ammah,’ the curb or dominion of the mother city. Gath appears to have been the metropolis or capital of the Philistines. The phrase in our author is therefore explanatory. This was an aggressive war. 2. Moab. The punishment inflicted on Moab (in Samuel) is here omitted. *Brought gifts*, paid tribute. The tradition is, that the Moabites had not treated David’s parents well. 3–8. Zobah conquered. *Hadar-ezer*; in Samuel, Hadad-ezer. *Zobah* lay east of Hamath, and north of Damascus, perhaps the Zabe of Ptolemy. *Unto Hamath*, which was in the valley of the Orontes. This was the northern boundary of the Promised Land (Num. xiii. 21, xxxiv. 8). To establish his dominion, his hand; in Samuel, ‘to restore.’ He was attempting to recover his power, when it had been checked by Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 49), and was defeated by David. Ver. 4. A thousand chariots. In Samuel the word for chariots appears to have fallen out. Seven thousand; in Samuel, ‘seven hundred.’ The former is not an extravagant number, and may be correct. All the chariots, or teams of horses, which he had taken, with the reservation of one hundred teams. Ver. 6. The word for ‘garrisons’ appears in Samuel, but has fallen out here. Ver. 7. The shields of gold indicate the wealth of Zobah. Ver. 8. Tibhath; in Samuel, Betah, a simple form growing into the former by transposition and addition. Chun, for which in Samuel stands ‘Berothai.’ We do not know the reason of this diversity. These towns are specially named on account of the brass or copper obtained there. The use of it is mentioned only here. 9–11. Congratulations from Tou. Tou; in Samuel, Toi. Ver. 10. Hadoram; in Samuel, Joram, which should perhaps be Jedoram, as the Sept. has the d in both cases. To inquire of his welfare, to greet him well. Had war; literally, was a man of wars. Ver. 11. From Edom; in Samuel, ‘from Aram.’ It is probable that both may have been in the original source. From the children of Ammon, mentioned in anticipation of the events narrated in the following chapter. His encounter with Amalek is recorded in 1 Sam. xxx. 12, 13. The Edomites. Abishai, acting apparently under Joab. Edomites; in Samuel, ‘Aramites,’ which appears to be a wrong reading. The valley of Salt is south of the Salt Sea, where the Edomites dwelt. Eighteen thousand. In the title of Ps. lx., ‘twelve thousand’ is given. But this may refer only to one conflict in the campaign with Edom, as the nation was nearly exterminated in this war (1 Kings xi. 16). 14–17. Officers of the king. Ver. 15. Joab. See on ii. 16. Recorder, remembrancer, who advises the king of what is going on, and conveys his orders. Ver. 16. Abimelech; rather, Ahimelech, as in Samuel and the Sept. (xxiv. 3, 6, 31), of the same name with his grandfather (1 Sam. xxii. 20). Shavsha is Shisha in 1 Kings iv. 3, and Sheva in 2 Sam. xx. 25; for which ‘Seraiah’ in the parallel place (Sept., Sasa) is probably a slip of the pen. Ver. 17. Benaijah. See on xi. 22. Was over; in Samuel, ‘and,’ the guards over whom he presided being merely annexed to their commander. The Cherethi and Pelethi, said to be lictors and couriers, appear to have been two tribes of the Philistines whom David attached to his service. Chief; in Samuel, priests or ministers (1 Kings iv. 5). 1. Enumerate the various enemies subdued by David. 2. What difference was there between this war with the Philistines and the former campaigns with them? 3. What possible reason has been assigned for the war with Moab? 4. What was the situation of Zobah? 5. How far did the promise of God warrant the conquests of David in this direction? 6. What instances have we in this chapter of the same place having different names? 7. Who were the Cherethi and Pelethi? 8. How is the number slain in Edom here reconciled with that mentioned in Ps. lx.? CHAPTER XIX. WAR WITH AMMON AND SYRIA. This is a record of the war with Ammon and Aram combined. It contains the insult offered to David's messengers of condolence, vers. 1-5; the victory over the confederates, vers. 6-15; and the second victory over Aram, vers. 16-19. It corresponds with 2 Sam. x. 1-5. The condolence of David met with insult. After this, after the leading events related in the previous chapter. Ver. 2. His father showed kindness to me. Nahash was signally defeated by Saul (1 Sam. xi.), and perhaps on that account became the friend of David. Ver. 3. Thinkest thou that David? literally, in thine eyes doth David. To overthrow and to spy out with a view to impose a tribute. In Samuel, the order is to spy and to overthrow. Ver. 4. Shaved them; in Samuel, 'shaved off the half of their beards.' The Chronicist omits the detail and softens the insult. The beard was greatly valued among the Easterns, and to violate it was a great offence (cp. Herod. ii. 121 with Blackslcy's note). 6-15. Victory over Ammon and his confederates. Ammon aggravates the insult by preparing to make war on David. A thousand talents. This is not mentioned in Samuel. The talent contained 3000 shekels, and is estimated at £342. And horsemen, fighters who rode on the war-car. Mesopotamia, Aram-naharaim, Aram of the two rivers Phrat and Tigris. For this stands in Samuel, Aram-beth-rehob, which refers either to Rehoboth on the Phrat, or to Rehob east of the Lebanon. Aram maachah lay north of East Manasseh. In Samuel is also Ish-tob, the men of Tob, a district in the north of Arabia Deserta. Ver. 7. Hired 32,000. These are the men-at-arms. After the number should be a comma. The particulars follow, namely, those with chariots and the King of Mesopotamia and his people. In this way the sum total nearly corresponds with that in Samuel, where the chariots are not mentioned. *Medeba*, about nine miles south-east of Heshbon. This is not stated in Samuel. Vers. 8–11. Joab found himself between the Ammonites at the city gate and the sons of Aram in the field, and arrayed his choice troops against Aram, the stronger force, and the rest against Ammon. The gate appears to be that of Medeba. Vers. 12, 13. His brief address appeals to the courage, patriotism, and religion of his men. Vers. 14, 15. The Ammonites, seeing Aram defeated, fled without delay; and Joab returned for the present to Jerusalem. 16–19. Second victory over Aram. *Put to the worse*, smitten. *Beyond the river*, Phrat. Here in Samuel is inserted, ‘and they came to Helam.’ *Shophach*; in Samuel, ‘Shobach.’ Ver. 18. In Samuel, the chariots are 700; and in contrast with ver. 6, for footmen is given ‘horsemen.’ It seems probable that the text of Chronicles is in this case correct. The number may refer to the men connected with the chariots. Ver. 19. *The servants*, tributaries or vassals. Hadarezer appears to have extended his sway across the Phrat. CHAPTER XX. WAR WITH RABBAH AND WITH THE PHILISTINES. This extract from the ancient records tells of Rabbah taken, vers. 1–3; and three sons of the giant of Gath slain, vers. 4–8. It covers 2 Sam. xi.–xxi. 1–3. Rabbah taken (2 Sam. xi. 1 and xii. 26–31). This only completed the chastisement of Ammon for the insult to David’s messengers. *After the year was expired*, at the return or beginning of the year, in contrast with the round or end of the year (Ex. xxiii. 16, xxxiv. 22). The sacred year began with the new moon which became full next after the vernal equinox; the civil year, at the seventh new moon, and therefore some time before the autumnal equinox. The series of feasts regulated the year. They began in spring and ended in autumn. *When kings go out* on any enterprise, after the repose of the winter. *David tarried at Jerusalem*. His presence was more required at the seat of government than at the siege of Rabbah. At this point is introduced the episode in the history of David concerning the wife of Uriah, which the Chronist omits as unnecessary to his purpose. *Joab smote Rabbah*. The circumstances are more fully given in 2 Sam. xxvi. 26–31. When ‘the city of waters’ was taken, Joab sent a message to David to come and take the city or citadel. Ver. 2. *A talent of gold*. A crown weighing 11.4 pounds Troy could not be set upon the head in the ordinary way. It may have been suspended over it. A crown weighing even a maneh, the fiftieth part of a talent, would make an uneasy head. Ver. 3. As saws, harrows or threshing drags, and axes or scythes, are not instruments of torture or execution, it is obvious that David did not 'cut' them, but forced or 'put' them to hard labour as serfs with instruments of husbandry, or in the making of bricks, as is added in Samuel. The verb rendered cut is nowhere else used in this sense, but in that of ruling, and therefore employing in forced labour. 4–8. Three sons of the giant of Gath slain (2 Sam. xxi. 18–22). The history of Absalom, his rebellion and its consequences, and of the famine of three years and its cause, given at some length in 2 Sam. xiii.–xxi., is here omitted. The first son of the giant Ishbibenob is also here omitted. Gezer belonged to the tribe of Ephraim, and lay north of Philistia (vii. 28, xiv. 16). The more precise scene of the event was Gob (2 Sam. xxi. 18), a place otherwise unknown in the vicinity of Gezer. Sibbecai is mentioned among the mighty men in xi. 29. Sippai; in Samuel, Saph. Of the sons of the giant, the Rapha, a native of Gath, who belonged to the Rephaim, Anakim, or Avim (Deut. ii. 20–23; Josh. xiii. 3). Ver. 5. Elhanan, son of Jair; in Samuel, Jaari is perhaps different from Elhanan son of Dodo (xi. 26). Lachmi, brother of Goliath. This is a simpler and better text than that of Samuel. Vers. 6–8. Another unnamed son of the giant is slain by Jonathan, son of Shimea (Shimma, ii. 13). The six-fingered (sedigiti) are mentioned by Pliny (N. H. ii. 43), and appear in the family of Forli among the Himyarites. 1. What offence was added by Ammon to the maltreatment of David's messengers? 2. What consequences did this involve? 3. How much is a talent in weight? and if of silver, in value? 4. What is meant by the 'thirty-two thousand' in xix. 7? 5. At the gate of what city did the Ammonites take their stand? 6. What is meant by the return of the year? 7. In what respect did Joab smite Rabbah? 8. What use did David make of the saws, threshers, and scythes? 9. What is the word in Samuel for 'cut'? 10. What history is omitted in this part of Chronicles? 11. What naturalist mentions the sedigiti? CHAPTER XXI. THE NUMBERING AND THE CONSEQUENT PLAGUE. The events here recorded appear in 2 Sam. xxiv., the two previous chapters being occupied with the eighteenth Psalm, the last words of David, and the list of his mighty men. This list has been already given in 1 Chron. xi. We have here the numbering of the people, vers. 1-8; the choice of punishment given to David, vers. 9-14; the respite, vers. 15-17; the propitiation, vers. 18-27; and the perpetuity of this place of sacrifice, vers. 28-30. 1-8. The numbering of the people. Satan, the adversary, accuser. The spirit of evil was a busy agent in the temptation of the mother of all living. He appears first under the name of Satan in Job i. We are informed in Samuel that the anger of the Lord was again kindled against Israel; and He moved, or as it is here, permitted Satan to move David to number Israel. The web of human actions is very complex. The great Mover rules over all, but many under-movers intervene in the drama of life; so that it is not more difficult to foretell the course of the weather than of the will. We see here that displeasure had been provoked antecedent to this temptation to number the people, which is simply the link that brings on their chastisement. God's people were only to be numbered for His service, and with a ransom for each soul of a beka or half-shekel, lest a plague should come upon them (Ex. xxx. 12). This numeration from a lower motive, and without ransom, was an act of treason against the majesty of God. Ver. 2. If the payment of the beka was punctually made by all Israel, the number of men of twenty years and upwards should be known without a special enumeration. Ver. 3. The king counts them as his servants; but the Lord regards them as His, and therefore resents this numeration. Ver. 4. This covers 2 Sam. xxiv. 4-8, and reports simply the return to Jerusalem after an absence of nine months and twenty days. Vers. 5, 6. In Samuel, the numbers are, of Israel 800,000, and of Judah 500,000. As we know not the principle of enumeration in each case, we cannot explain the discrepancy. But as round numbers only are given, if we suppose the sums in the present text to include in Israel all the monthly courses with their officers (xxvii.) amounting to nearly 300,000, and to exclude from Judah the contingent of Benjamin (say 30,000), by subtracting and adding accordingly, we shall approximate sufficiently to the numbers in Samuel. The number of Benjamin may have been known to Joab, though he did not count it in the muster of Judah. Levi he had a special dislike to number, as they were dedicated to the Lord, and the numbering was contrary to law. Ver. 7. Smote Israel. The Chronist, writing long after the event, sums up in this sentence the history, which he afterwards details. It is curious, however, that Samuel has here, 'And David's heart smote him, after that he had numbered the people.' On reflection, conscience was wont to strike David (1 Sam. xxiv. 5). This accounts for the statement of the following verse. 9-14. The mode of his punishment left to the choice of David. Gad was probably a scholar of Samuel, and attached himself early to David (2 Sam. xxii. 8). *David's seer*, the successor of Samuel in this office (ix. 22). Ver. 10. *Offer*, lay upon thee for thy choice. Ver. 11. *Choose*, take to thee. Ver. 12. *Three years' famine*; in Samuel, seven years. But even in Samuel the Sept. has three. The triad, famine, sword, and pestilence, often recurs in the word of God (Deut. xxviii. 21-25; Rev. vi. 4-8). Ver. 13. We can see, in some of David's answers, the father of Solomon the Wise. But there is also a tenderness of conscience which is all his own (2 Sam. xv. 25). Ver. 14. If the time noted in Samuel be from the morning till the time of the evening sacrifice, the great mercy of the Lord is shown in shortening the three days to less than one. There fell of Israel 70,000 men. Increasing 1,570,000 in the proportion of 5 to 7 for all the males, and then doubling to include the females, we have about 4,500,000 for the whole population, 70,000 of which would give an average of 16 deaths in the 1000. 15-17. The respite. *Ornan*; in Samuel, Araunah or Orenah. A scion of the old Jebusite race that formerly held the fort of Zion, was now living peaceably on the hill Moriah. Ver. 16. David had confessed his sin, and pleaded the mercy of God; and while the angel of destruction was still stretching his hand over Jerusalem, he made intercession for the people. Ver. 17. He takes the blame on himself, and pleads that the punishment of a crime that was all his own may fall on himself alone. The people, however, in the sight of God, were guilty of other offences that had incurred this penalty, and had not till now shown any repentance. But when David and the elders in sackcloth fell upon their faces in supplication, at the same instant the Lord repented Him of the evil, and said to the angel, 'It is enough; stay now thine hand.' 18-27. The propitiation. The Lord's command warrants David in erecting the altar, and renews the consecration of Moriah as a holy place. It was made sacred before by the sacrifice of Abraham (Gen. xxii.); and the priesthood of Melchizedec was exercised either on this or the adjacent hill of Jerusalem (Gen. xiv.). Ver. 20. While David was interceding, Ornan and his four sons hid themselves at the sight of the angel. Ver. 21. When the angel stayed his hand, Ornan returned to his occupation, and on seeing the king, went forth to meet him with due respect. Ver. 22. *The place*, on which the floor was made. It was the top of the middle hill of the eastern ridge on which Jerusalem stood (xi. 7). Ver. 23. In the eastern style of politeness, Ornan offers the whole to David, as Ephron to Abraham (Gen. xxiii.). Ver. 25. The value of *the place* is here given. That of the threshing-floor and the oxen is given in Samuel. The shekel of silver (about 2s. 8d.) was of higher relative value then than now. And gold is to silver as 16 to 1. The place was probably the whole hill; the threshing-floor was rated at the cost of making, apart from the ground. The one writer states the matter of present interest, the other records the matter of permanent moment. Ver. 26. Burnt-offerings, denoting propitiation; peace-offerings, communion after propitiation. The answer by fire was given on great and critical occasions (Lev. ix. 24; 1 Kings xviii.). Ver. 27. The sacrifice is accompanied with the cessation of the plague. 28-30. The perpetuity of the altar on Mount Moriah. Answered him by the voice of Gad at the bidding of the angel, and also by the fire on the altar. He sacrificed there. He continued to sacrifice there, for the reasons assigned in this and the following verses. Vers. 29, 30. The altar of burnt-offering was still at Gibeon, and he could not go thither in the present emergency, for fear of the angel. After this Divine institution, Mount Moriah (2 Chron. iii. 1) became a place of lawful sacrifice. 1. What was the legitimate way of numbering the people? 2. How is the statement, 'And Satan moved,' reconciled with that in 2 Sam. xxiv. 1, 'And He (the Lord) moved'? 3. How is it that David is only punished through the punishment of the people? 4. In what time was the census completed? 5. How may the numbers here be nearly harmonized with those in Samuel? 6. What was the place of Ornan's threshing-floor? 7. Give a probable explanation of the difference between the payment here and that in Samuel. 8. Mention some instances in which the Lord answered by fire. 9. What indication does David give of the perpetuity of the altar of sacrifice on Mount Moriah? CHAPTER XXII. DAVID'S PREPARATIONS FOR THE BUILDING OF THE TEMPLE. The remaining chapters of this book are peculiar to the Chronicist. They narrate the arrangements of David for the building of the temple, his religious and political regulations, and his last will and death. This chapter contains the preparations of David for the building, vers. 1-5; his charge to Solomon, vers. 6-16; and to the princes, vers. 17-19. 1-5. David's own preparations for building the temple. David had erected a tabernacle for the ark of the Lord on the hill of Zion. He had now found, like Jacob (Gen. xxviii.), a 'house of the Lord God' on the adjoining summit, and built there an altar of burnt-offering for Israel. He regards this as the site of the temple. Ver. 2. The strangers, the non-Israelites, who were employed as serfs. They were no doubt proselytes, as the Sept. translates. Masons, stone-cutters. Ver. 3. Joinings were braces or brackets for binding together the boards of which the doors and other articles were made. Ver. 4. Zidon and Tyre abounded in timber merchants and navigators. Ver. 5. Young and tender. Josephus (Ant. viii. 7, 8) implies that Solomon was fourteen years old when he came to the throne. He was the fourth son of Bathsheba, and could not be very old. I will now, or let me now prepare for it. 6-16. His charge to Solomon to build the house. Ver. 7. My son; rather, his son, in apposition with Solomon. In my mind, my heart. Ver. 8. This is the first intimation of the reason why David himself was not to build the house of God. Ver. 9. Solomon means a man of peace. He was in this respect a type of the Prince of Peace. This name, therefore, as well as Jedidiah (2 Sam. xii. 25), was of Divine appointment. Ver. 10. This is contained in the message by Nathan (xvii. 13; 2 Sam. vii. 13). Ver. 12. Wisdom. This part of the paternal admonition must have struck the youthful Solomon, and helped to prompt the petition he afterwards made (1 Kings iii. 9). Ver. 13. These are the phrases of the law (Deut. iv. 1, xxxi. 6). Ver. 14. If the talent of gold be taken at £5475, and that of silver at £342, the total will be an enormous sum, yet perhaps not too much for the gatherings of at least thirty years of David's reign. Cyrus is said to have taken 34,000 pounds of gold and 500,000 talents of silver in the conquest of Asia (Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxii. 15). Such accumulations of treasure were not unusual in ancient times. Yet, all things considered, many think that some augmentation of the numbers has crept into the text. Ver. 15. The serfs of ancient kingdoms were very numerous (2 Chron. ii. 17). 17-19. His charge to the princes of Israel. Ver. 18. This verse contains the reasons for liberality in giving. Ver. 19. To seek the Lord your God. Self-consecration to God is the foundation of all zeal in His cause. 1. What are the subjects of the remaining chapters of this book? 2. What does David affirm of the place of the altar now erected? 3. Who were the strangers spoken of in this chapter? 4. What was the age of Solomon at his accession, according to Josephus? 5. What other name was given to Solomon at his birth? 6. Why were the princes bound to be liberal in contributing to the building of the temple? CHAPTER XXIII. THE ORDER OF THE LEVITES AND THEIR SERVICE. This chapter refers to the Levites, and the order and distribution of their service. It gives the classification, vers. 1-5; the houses, vers. 6-23; and the general regulations of the Levites, vers. 24-32. 1-5. Classification of the Levites. Made Solomon King. The remainder of this book is the detail of this statement. Ver. 2. All the princes. This was a regular convention for arranging the affairs of the kingdom before the death of David. Ver. 3. The first matter for the assembly was the ministry of religion. The ministers are the Levites. Thirty years. This was the legal time for entering on their stated functions (Num. iv. 3). When, by the six wagons offered by the princes (Num. vii.), their duties were somewhat lightened, their period of service began five years earlier (Num. viii. 24). The younger men were employed under their seniors for certain services that were suitable to their age. In the time of Moses the number of Levites over thirty years of age was 8580. Vers. 4, 5. In these verses we have the four classes of the Levites, which are afterwards described in detail. The 24,000 include the priests and their attendants. The priests are treated of in xxiv. 1-19; their attendants in xxiv. 20-31; the 6000 officers and judges in xxvi. 20-32; the 4000 porters in xxvi. 1-19; and the 4000 choristers in xxv. Set forward, to oversee, as in xv. 20. They had under their charge the younger Levites and the serfs of the sanctuary, who were devoted to menial duties (ix. 2). The officers (shoterim) appear very early in the history of Israel (Ex. v. 6). They were superintendents and managers of business. The judges must have had jurisdiction over all cases in which religion was concerned. Ver. 5. David was the adopter and improver, if not the inventor, of musical instruments for the worship of God (Amos vi. 5). 6-23. Houses or families of the Levites. The following enumeration embraces all the Levites, who are afterwards distributed into their classes. The courses or divisions were arranged by David, and therefore consisted of a definite number. Ver. 7. Laadan is a variant for Libni (vi. 17; Ex. vi. 17). Ver. 9. Shimei here is a descendant of Libni or Laadan, named after his brother, who has come into such prominence as to give rise to three houses. This follows from the last clause of the verse. Ver. 10. Jahath is an oft-repeated name in this family (vi. 43). Zina is in the Sept. Ziza, as in the following verse. Ver. 11. It appears that there were only three houses from Shimei, and nine in all from Gershon. 12-20. The houses of Kohath. Ver. 13. Aaron's two sons form two houses that are not mentioned here, as they come out very distinctly in the following chapter. *That he should sanctify*; rather, to sanctify him as most holy—him and his sons for ever. The office of the priest is threefold—first, to make atonement (offer the fire-offering); second, to minister to God for man; third, to bless man for God. These are the functions of a mediator. *For ever.* This takes in the great Archetype Himself. Vers. 14–17. Two houses from Moses. Shebuel, otherwise Shubael (xxiv. 20). Vers. 18–20. One house from Izhar, four from Hebron, and two from Uzziel; in all, eleven from Kohath. Jesiah should be Isshiah, as in xxiv. 25. 21–23. The houses of Merari. Ver. 22. *Their brethren,* that is, their cousins or kinsmen. Ver. 23. *Mahli.* The nephew we often find named after the uncle. As there are four houses from Merari, we have twenty-four in all of the sons of Levi. 24–32. General regulations concerning the Levites. *Twenty years.* Younger men from twenty years and upwards are now admitted among the attendants in the courts of the Lord's house. Two reasons are assigned for this. Ver. 25. *First,* Jerusalem was the chosen city for the stated national service. There would be no more moving from place to place. Ver. 26. *Secondly,* the carrying of the tabernacle would be no more necessary. Ver. 27. *By the last words of David.* At the close of his life these new arrangements were made. Ver. 28. *Their office,* stand, or station, was at the hands of the sons of Aaron. While the services were of a higher nature, they were more numerous and varied than formerly. In the primitive simplicity of the wilderness, the worshipper was wont to kill the victim, flay and cut it in pieces, and wash the inwards and legs. But now all these services were performed by the Levites or the Nethinim (ix. 2). Other offices were performed *in the courts,* and in the chambers, and in the purifying of all holy things. Ver. 29. They prepared the shewbread and the various kinds of oblation or meat-offering (Lev. ii., vi. 14). *Measure and size*; rather, rate or portion and measure. Ver. 30. The morning and evening song of praise was performed by the four thousand that were set apart for singing and playing on instruments of music (ver. 5). Ver. 31. *And to offer*; more exactly, and for all offering. It belonged to the priests alone to sprinkle the blood, to trim the fire on the altar, and to lay the parts of the victim on the fire (Lev. i.). It fell to the other Levites to do everything that was preparatory or incidental to these priestly acts. This refers particularly to the attendants of the priests in the performance of their functions. Ver. 32. The Levites have the charge of the tent of meeting, of the holy apparatus, and of the duties required by the priests, so that everything may be fit, orderly, and ready for the special functions of the priests (Num. xviii. 2–5). This includes the four thousand doorkeepers or porters (ver. 5). The officers and judges are not noticed here, because they were out of the range of the strictly religious service. 1. Enumerate the classes of the Levites. 2. Give the successive enlargements of the range of age for the service of the Levites, and the reasons for them. 3. Where are the ‘officers’ first named? 4. What prophet alludes to David as an inventor of musical instruments? 5. How many houses or clans of Levites under each son of Levi, and in all? 6. What are the chief parts of the priest’s office? 7. What part did the worshipper take in the sacrifice at first, and by whom was this afterwards discharged? 8. What were the other duties devolving on the Levites? 9. Who assisted them in the menial or servile parts of their work? 10. How many were singers, and how many doorkeepers? CHAPTER XXIV. THE TWENTY-FOUR CLASSES OF PRIESTS AND OF LEVITES. This chapter contains the twenty-four classes of priests, vers. 1–19; and the classes of Levites, who attended them in the performance of their sacerdotal functions, vers. 20–31. 1–6. Introduction to the list. The sons of Aaron are given in Ex. vi. 23. Ver. 2. The death of these young men is narrated in Lev. x. That they were childless is stated in Num. iii. 4. Ver. 3. Both Zadok; rather, and Zadok. David distributed the priests with the aid of Zadok and Ahimelech. He gave the order and superintended the process. But Zadok and Ahimelech performed the work. Ahimelech was the son of that Abiathar that escaped to David from the sword of Saul (xviii. 16; 1 Sam. xxii. 20; 2 Sam. viii. 17). Their office, charge or muster. Ver. 4. Chief men, heads of classes or divisions. And thus they were divided; rather, ‘and they,’ David and his assistants, ‘divided them, to the sons of Eleazar,’ etc. Ver. 5. And thus they were divided; rather, ‘and they divided them.’ One sort with another, ‘these,’ sons of Eleazar, ‘with those,’ sons of Ithamar. Princes of holiness, or, princes of the sanctuary, and princes of God are titles belonging to the same persons. The one is merely the complement of the other. The former occurs in Isa. xliii. 28; the latter is expressed in the name Israel (Gen. xxxii. 28). They characterize the chiefs of the several classes of priests. Ver. 6. Shemaiah, if not the same that is so named in xv. 8, is otherwise unknown. Wrote them in a list in the order in which they were drawn. The princes, of the state. Chief of the fathers, chief fathers of the priests, whose order of service was to be determined. One principal house, one house. And one taken; rather, 'and next taken.' Taken, taken, means distributively or alternately taken. That two of Eleazar were drawn for every one of Ithamar, as Bertheau thinks, is not improbable. It was a matter merely of order, and therefore not very important. 7-19. The allotted order. Of the names in this list, some occur elsewhere, and others not. Came forth, as in Josh. xvi. 1. Joiarib and Jedaijah (Ezra ii. 36) are mentioned together in ix. 10, and both belong to Eleazar. From Joiarib sprang the Maccabees (1 Macc. ii. 1). Ver. 10. From Abijah came Zacharias, father of John the Baptist (Luke i. 5). Ver. 12. If the Jachin of ix. 10 be the same as Jakim, being here the twelfth, he belongs on Bertheau's hypothesis to Ithamar. Ver. 14. The name Immer appears in ix. 12; but there it belongs to the distant ancestor of Adaiah. Ver. 17. If Jachin in ix. 10 be the Jachin here, he still belongs to Ithamar. Ver. 19. The orderings, the charge or muster, as in ver. 3. Their manner, rule or custom. Under, by the hand of Aaron. As the Lord God of Israel commanded. This is the constant phrase in the law of Moses (Ex. xxix. 42; Lev. xxvii. 34; Num. xxxvi. 13; Deut. xxxiv. 9). The high priest and the heads of the twenty-four classes are supposed to be represented by the twenty-five men at the door of the temple facing towards the east in Ezek. viii. 16. 20-31. The distribution of the other Levites. The rest, of the 2400 Levites, who were to preside over the work of the house of the Lord (xxiii. 4). The priests were included in the number; and when these have been treated of, the attendants upon them are the remainder. Of the sons of Amram. The whole of these attendants appear to have belonged to the Kohathites and Merarites. The Gershonites were to be found, at least as heads of houses, only among the officers, judges, and singers. Shubael; in xxiii. 16, Shebuel. Among his sons Jehdeiah forms a distinct draft. Ver. 21. Rehabiah was the son of Eliezer. Among his very many sons (xxiii. 17), Isshiah became head of a draft. Thus there were four drafts from Moses. Ver. 22. Shelomoth; in xxiii. 18, Shelomith. Of his descendants, Jahath formed a second draft. These are two drafts from Izhar. Ver. 23. The supplements in the English accord with xxiii. 19, though the Sept. here agrees with the Hebrew text. It is possible, however, that the sons of Jeriah stand here simply for their father, who was the first, Amariah the second, etc. Our author is very brief in unimportant matters. There are four drafts from Hebron. Vers. 24, 25. Among the sons of Micah, Shamir or Shamur became a head; and among the sons of Isshiah (xxiii. 20), Zechariah. There were thus four drafts from Uzziel. Hence there were in all fourteen drafts from the four sons of Kohath. Vers. 26–30. The Merarites. Jaaziah was a descendant of Merari, who became head of a draft. We hear nothing of him elsewhere. This verse is a summary of the family of Merari, adapted to the number of drafts particularized in the following verses. The abrupt entrance of Jaaziah is quite in the manner of our author (ii. 7, iii. 21, iv. 3, v. 4). Ver. 27. *The sons of Merari.* These are reckoned to Merari as distinct from the drafts traced to his two well-known sons. Instead of the one son mentioned in the previous verse, four sons or descendants are here assigned to Jaaziah, who were heads of drafts. These with Jaaziah himself make five. There is no reason for supposing this passage to be an interpolation, except its difficulty and unexpectedness to us. But this is rather an argument in favour of its genuineness. Vers. 28, 29. Eleazar founded no draft. But Kish and Jerahmeel were heads of two drafts. Ver. 30. Mushi gave rise to three drafts. Thus there were ten drafts of Merarites and fourteen of Kohathites, making in all twenty-four drafts corresponding to the twenty-four divisions of priests. Ver. 31. These were arranged by lot to match the courses of their brethren, the sons of Aaron, in the presence of the same presidents. The last clause should run thus, ‘the fathers, the chief over against his lesser brother.’ This seems to intimate that in the preceding enumeration the heads of drafts are branches of the pedigree at different removes from the parent stem. 1. How many courses of priests, and how many drafts of the other Levites? 2. Who were Zadok and Ahimelech? 3. Where else do we meet with the phrase ‘Princes of holiness’? 4. What remarkable family sprang from Joiarib? 5. What conspicuous person from Abijah? 6. What prophet seems to refer to the high priest and the heads of the twenty-four courses? 7. Who are ‘the rest of the sons of Levi’? 8. Why do the Gershonites not appear among ‘the rest’? 9. How many drafts of ‘the rest’ descended from Moses? 10. What argument may be offered in favour of the genuineness of the passage about Jaaziah? CHAPTER XXV. THE CHORISTERS. This chapter relates to the choristers. It contains an account of the families of the three chiefs of song, vers. 1-8; and a list of the choirs in the order in which their lots came out, vers. 9-31. 1-8. The families of song. The captains. The princes of the host for service are the chiefs who preside over the order of worship in the temple, not the officers of the army. The word host is often applied to the routine of Levitical worship (Num. iv. 23, viii. 23). Separated, distributed the choristers. Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun (Ethan) belong respectively to Gershom, Kohath, and Merari (vi. 33-47), all of whom are therefore represented among the singers. Who prophesy, the prophets or revealers of the Divine will in song. The harps and lutes give the note; the cymbals regulate the time. The former are the ordinary instruments of music. The lute includes the stringed instruments that differ from the harp (xiii. 8). It has the shape of a skin-bottle, or of the old Greek delta. It had therefore generally a neck, and resembled the guitar. The solid part of the harp, on the other hand, was a bow or angle of wood, across which the strings were stretched. Workmen, performers, who took part in the service of songs. Ver. 2. Four sons of Asaph are here named. Asarelah is otherwise Jesharelah (ver. 14). Under the hand, the direction of Asaph. Who prophesied. Asaph was himself an inspired poet, and composed a part of the twelve psalms that are inscribed 'for Asaph' (Ps. I., lxiii.-lxxxiii.)—that is, for the band of song that was under the charge of Asaph, and continued to bear his name. Ver. 3. Jeduthun is another name for Ethan, the Merarite master of song (vi. 44). Of his six sons, only five are named here. The Sept., however, supplies Shimei after Jeshaiah, which appears from ver. 17 to be correct. Who prophesied. Though Jeduthun occurs in the titles of Ps. xxxix., lxii., lxvii., yet it does not appear that he was the author of any of the three. The prophesying refers simply to the singing of inspired songs, while he accompanied himself on the harp. To thank and praise. These words are very familiar in the Psalms. Vers. 4, 5. Of the sons of Heman, Uzziel appears in ver. 18 as Azarel, as we have Uzziah and Azariah; and Shebuel appears in ver. 20 by the variant Shubael. The king's seer. This title is given also to Jeduthun (2 Chron. xxxv. 15), as it was to Gad (xxi. 9). The term seer is ancient (1 Sam. ix. 9), but it kept its ground in the language. In the words, the matters that concern God. To lift up the horn is to exalt to honour and power. The phrase is often used with regard to the blessing of God (1 Sam. ii. 1, 10; Ps. lxxv. 10, lxxxix. 17, xcii. 11). Heman was exalted by receiving fourteen sons and three daughters from the Lord. Ver. 6. *All these.* This refers to Heman. The statement is similar to that made concerning each of the other two masters of song. *According.* There should be a full stop before this clause, and it should run thus: ‘At the king’s hands were Asaph, Jeduthun, and Heman;’ or, under the direction of the king, of Asaph, of Jeduthun, and of Heman. Ver. 7. *With their brethren,* their fellows in the same choir. Every choir with its leader consisted of 12, and therefore the 24 choirs contained 288 choristers. Ver. 8. *Ward against ward;* rather, ‘for the ward (or charge), for as well the small as the great, the teacher with the scholar.’ The 288 were the teachers, and the remainder of the 4000 were the scholars. This would give at least twelve scholars for every teacher. 9–31. *The list of choir leaders. For Asaph to Joseph.* Joseph was the second son of Asaph. His sons and his brethren, and the number of his choir are omitted, while they are mentioned in all the others. This omission may have occurred in copying. But whether so or not, it is plain that he must have had a choir of like number with the rest. Ver. 11. Izri is the same as Zeri, ver. 3. Some other slight variations occur in the names. ‘The series is so determined by the lot, that the four sons of Asaph hold the first, third, fifth, and seventh places; the six sons of Jeduthun the second, fourth, eighth, tenth, twelfth, and fourteenth places’ (Keil). The remaining places, of course, fall to the sons of Heman. It appears, therefore, that Asaph first alternated with Jeduthun, then the latter with Heman, and that the lot determined which son of each should precede the others. 1. How many were the choirs? 2. What is meant here by the captains of the host? 3. What other name had Jeduthun? 4. What is meant here by prophesying? 5. How does the psaltery or lute differ from the harp? 6. What is the meaning of a psalm of or for Asaph? 7. Was Jeduthun a composer of psalms? 8. What is meant here by lifting up the horn? 9. How many in every choir? 10. How many scholars apparently to every teacher? 11. How far apparently were the places determined by lot? CHAPTER XXVI. THE PORTERS AND THE OFFICERS AND JUDGES. 1–19. The porters. These belong to the Korhites and the Merarites. *The Korhites;* compare on ix. 17–19. *Meshelemiah,* called Shelemiah in ver. 14, seems to be identical with Shallum mentioned in ix. 19. *Asaph* is here a variant for Abiasaph (Ex. vi. 24). Vers. 2, 3. The sons of Meshelemiah, the sons and grandsons of Obed-edom, and the sons of Hosah make twenty-five in all. But if Shemaiah be left out, as represented by his sons, we shall have twenty-four. Vers. 4, 5. Obed-edom was a Kohathite of Gath-rimmon (xv. 18, 24, xvi. 38). God blessed him, among other reasons, because he took charge of the ark when David was terrified by the breach upon Uzza (xiii.). Hence he had a large family of eight sons. Vers. 6, 7. The sons of Shemaiah are mentioned, because they became rulers of houses. Whose brethren. These appear to be Elihu and Semachiah, who were distinguished among their brethren. Vers. 8, 9. The grandsons are here reckoned with the sons. All the Korhites amounted to eighty. Vers. 10, 11. The sons of Hosah (xvi. 38). The chief, over the Merarite porters. His father saw in him some eminent qualifications for this position. The porters here enumerated are in all ninety-three. At a later period there were 212 porters (ix. 22). 12-19. The arrangement of the porters. Among these, who are already enumerated. The chief men, the ninety-three under whom the remainder of the 4000 (xxiii. 5) were distributed. Ver. 13. The order or rank seems to have been invariably determined by lot. The four chiefs cast lots for the sides of the sacred enclosure. Ver. 14. Zechariah had a chief place on a par with his father. This was owing partly to his being a first-born son, and partly to his wisdom in counsel. Shelemiah was on the east, Zechariah on the north. Ver. 15. On the south was the house of Asuppim or gatherings. The word in the beginning of the next verse, rendered 'to Shuppim,' should be placed at the end of this verse. It may mean 'for stores,' from a root meaning to cut or place. This was therefore a house in which certain things were collected, though we cannot tell what they were. Ver. 16. On the west side is the gate Shallecheth. This word means casting out; and hence Thenius and others call this the refuse gate. The causeway of the going up; rather, the causeway that goeth up, rising up from the valley of the cheese-makers. Ward against, or with, ward. Vers. 17, 18. The disposition of the companies. Eastward. Six Levites under Shelemiah, with their companies, kept the east gate during the whole day and night. Northward, under Zechariah. Southward, under Obed-edom. Four a day, or for the day. The keepers on the north and south appear to have held the ward only during the day, the gates being closed during the night. Two two, two succeeding two at the collecting house. Ver. 18. On the west, under Hosah, there seem to have been two gates. At Parbar, at the suburb or separate place. The roots parar and barar coalesce here; they signify to separate. The place so called appears to be the fore-city (προύστιον, Joseph. Ant. xv. 11, 5), which was separated from the city proper by the first wall, and lay to the west of the temple court (Caspari, Life of Christ, p. 265). On this side six were constantly on guard—four at the causeway mentioned above, and two at Parbar. Hence it follows that the two gates opened, the one on the causeway leading across the valley to the upper city, the other on a street belonging to the fore-city. How often the twenty-four warders were relieved during the day we are not informed. Ver. 19. Kore here ought to be Korah. The porters belonged to the Kohathites and Merarites, to the exclusion of the Gershonites. We are not informed how the 4000 porters were distributed under twenty-five chiefs or the ninety-three captains. 20-32. The officers and judges (xxiii. 4). The number of these was 6000. Vers. 20-28. The grand treasurers. Ahijah. As we find in the following verses the names of the treasurers, we can scarcely take the original word here as the proper name of a treasurer-general over them both. As a common noun, if it is to stand in its present form, it must mean a brotherhood or body of brothers to the other Levites. As this noun, however, occurs nowhere else, we may suppose an m dropped at the end to be restored, and then we shall have the Sept. reading, 'their brethren,' which is certainly the meaning in any case. There were two treasures, one for the house of God for the maintenance of its officers and services, and one for the things consecrated for the building of the temple. Vers. 21, 22. The sons of Laadon (xxiii. 8). This periphrastic verse is shorter in one or more copies. Jehiel is the Jehielite. Jehiel gives name to the family, which accordingly includes his two brothers (xxiii. 8). Two of this family were the grand treasurers for the house of the Lord, under whom many of the Gershonites may have been employed. Ver. 23. Of or for the four houses of the Kohathites. This verse appears to be prefatory to the remainder of the chapter. 24-28. The Amramites. Shebuel (xxiii. 16) is ruler of the treasures, that is, as Zöckler conceives, lord high treasurer over both departments of the sacred revenue. This is favoured by the absence of any specification of the treasures here. Yet this may result from the brevity of the narrative; and such a treasurer-general would naturally be named before all his subordinates. Ver. 25. And his brethren, cousins or kinsmen. The pedigree of Shelomith (Shelomoth) is here briefly traced from Eliezer, son of Gershom. Ver. 26. Which; rather, this. This Shelomith is to be distinguished from the son of Shimei (xxiii. 9) and the son of Izhar (xxiii. 18). He and his kinsmen were over the second branch of the sacred treasury. The great dedicators of treasure for the building of the temple were David, the chief fathers, and the captains of the host (xxviii., xxix.). Ver. 27. To maintain is here to build and keep in repair the house of the Lord, which involved the erection of the temple in place of the tabernacle. Ver. 28. We learn from this verse the curious fact that Samuel, Saul, Abner, and Joab had dedicated treasures which were to be applied to the above general purpose. David originated the special project which issued in the erection of the temple. 29–32. The officers and judges, ver. 29. The Izharites. These were under Chenaniah. The outward business over Israel is indicated by the titles here given, officers and judges (xxiii. 4). The judges administered the law; the officers collected the revenue. Under the latter head would fall the collection and distribution of the tithe. All this was civil or outward business, in contrast with the sacred functions of public worship. Vers. 30–32. The Hebronites. Of these, 1700 were ‘officers,’ or over the charge of Israel west of the Jordan. The business of the Lord and the service of the king are the religious and civil matters of the people. Ver. 31. Jeriah (xxiii. 19, xxiv. 23) is the chief of outward business on the east of Jordan. The arrangement is renewed in the last year of David’s reign. Jazer was a Levitical city assigned to the Merarites (vi. 81), with whom Jeriah and his kinsmen resided. Ver. 32. From this paragraph it appears that the Hebronites furnished 4400 of the 6000 officers and judges. The remainder were supplied by the Gershonites, Amramites, and Izharites. The Uzzielites, who were not otherwise occupied, must have served under the Hebronites. The curious fact comes out in all the arrangements, that office was hereditary. The heads of the different departments are named after the heads of the families employed in them. All that David seems to have done was to restore and regulate a system that had been organized at the first settlement of the nation. In this respect it presents a striking contrast to our modern customs. 1. What was the full number of the porters? 2. Who were the four grand chiefs over them? 3. How many divisions of the porters? 4. How many chiefs of all ranks? 5. How were the grand chiefs arranged? 6. How many divisions under each? 7. What is the meaning of Asuppim? 8. What of Shallecheth? 9. What is the probable meaning and connection of ‘To Shuppim’? 10. What the probable meaning of Parbar? 11. To what families did the treasurers belong? 12. To what the officers and judges? 13. What difference in these arrangements between ancient and modern customs? CHAPTER XXVII. OFFICERS OF STATE. This chapter contains the captains of the monthly divisions of the army, vers. 1-15; the princes of the tribes, vers. 16-24; the stewards of the treasures and other possessions of the king, vers. 25-31; and the ministers of state, vers. 32-34. 1-15. The captains of divisions. And the sons of Israel. After treating of the Levites and their distribution, the author comes to the whole people and the military and civil arrangements that subsist among them. The chief fathers include the princes of the tribes and the chief officers of state. The captains are subordinate to the commanders of the monthly divisions. This verse is therefore a general heading to the whole chapter. Vers. 2, 3. The first course. Teshobeam (xi. 11; 2 Sam. xxiii. 8) is here called the son of Zabdiel, who is therefore the Hachmonite of xi. 11. He is of the family of Perez (ii. 4), and therefore of the tribe of Judah. He was the chief of David's mighty men. Ver. 4. The second course was under Dodai or Dodo. He was probably the son of Eleazar, one of David's three mighty men, and named after his grandfather Dodo (xi. 12). Being an Ahohite, he was of the tribe of Benjamin (viii. 4). Mikloth, if the same with him who bears this name in viii. 32 and ix. 37, was also a Benjamite. He was the second in command. Vers. 5, 6. The third course. Benaiah (xi. 22-24; 2 Sam. xxiii. 23) was son of Jehoiada the priest (xii. 27), and therefore head of the Aaronites. Ammizabad his son was his second on account of his advanced age. Ver. 7. The fourth course. Asahel (xi. 26; 2 Sam. ii. 18-23) was slain by Abner and succeeded by his son Zebadiah. He was of the tribe of Judah. Ver. 8. The fifth course. Shamhuth—in xi. 27, Shammoth; in 2 Sam. xxiii. 11, Shammah—is a native of Harod and a descendant of Zerah, son of Judah. Ver. 9. The sixth course. Ira (xi. 28) was of Tekoa, belonging to Judah. Ver. 10. The seventh captain was Helez (xi. 27), of the tribe of Ephraim. Ver. 11. The eighth was Sibbecai (xi. 29), a Zarahite of the tribe of Judah. Ver. 12. The ninth, Abiezer (xi. 28), of the tribe of Benjamin. Ver. 13. The tenth, Maharai (xi. 30), was of the tribe of Judah. Ver. 14. The eleventh, Benaiah (xi. 31), was of Ephraim. Ver. 15. The twelfth, Heldai, sprang from Othniel (Josh. xv. 17), belonging to Judah. Of the twelve captains, seven appear to belong to Judah, two to Benjamin, one to Levi, and two to Ephraim. 16-24. The princes of the tribes. This is a civil institution in contrast with the military one. Zichri. Whether this be the same as Zechariah in v. 7, we cannot tell. Ver. 17. Two princes are assigned to Levi. Hashabiah. It is uncertain whether this be the Hebronite of xxvi. 30, or another of the same name. Zadok. The prince for civil purposes and the high priest do not necessarily coincide. Ver. 18. Elihu is either the seventh son of Jesse omitted in ii. 15, or a variant for Eliab, which appears here in the Sept. Michael. This name occurs among the descendants of Issachar (vii. 3). Ver. 19. Zebulun is not found in the pedigrees of the tribes in ii.-viii. Ver. 21. Abner. This may be Abner the cousin of Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 50). Ver. 22. Dan is also omitted in the pedigrees of the tribes. We have here thirteen princes, and yet Gad and Asher are omitted. The number is made up by giving two for Levi, one for the Levites, and one for the priests; and three for Joseph, one for Ephraim, and one for each half tribe of Manasseh. This seems to have been the state of things at the close of David's reign. Ver. 23. David did not take a census of those under twenty for the reason here assigned (Gen. xv. 5). The people were continually receiving accessions by birth, and hence the number cannot be said to be completed. Ver. 24. But even the numeration above twenty years was displeasing to God. The actual number of the people that were alive at a given time was not the sum of the Lord's people, which in the Divine estimate included those that were gone before as well as those that were to follow after. Besides, they were not all Israel who were of Israel. The pride indicated by such numeration was punished by a pestilence suddenly and seriously diminishing the number of the people (xxi.; 2 Sam. xxiv.). The Chronicles were the daily or yearly records of the transactions of the kingdom. 25-31. The stewards of the royal possessions. The king's treasures are here those in his own palace. Azmaveth may be different from Azmaveth in xi. 33. The storehouses or stores in other places. The revenue of the king consisted largely of the produce of the royal domains. Ver. 27. The Ramathite, of Ramah in Benjamin. Shiphmite, a native, perhaps, not of Shepham (Num. xxxiv. 10), but of Siphmoth (1 Sam. xxx. 28), a region of vines in the south of Judah. Ver. 28. The sycamore, or the sycamine (Sept.), the black mulberry of Egypt, proverbially abundant in Palestine (1 Kings x. 27). The low plain, or Shephelah, a tract extending from Joppa to Gaza. The Gederite, of Geder or Gederah in the lowlands (Josh. xv. 36). Ver. 29. Sharon lay from Cæsarea to Joppa. The valleys among the hills of Judah, falling into the Jordan and the Salt Sea. Ver. 30. The Ishmaelite, and thereby well fitted to take charge of camels. The Meronothite recurs in Nehemiah; but the place is not precisely known. Ver. 31. The Hagrites (v. 10) were a tribe in the north of Arabia. 32-34. The ministers of the courts. David's uncle, after whom David's nephew (xx. 7) was called. From his age he should be wise. He was also a man of learning. Jehiel the Hachmonite was probably of the same tribe with David. Ver. 33. For Ahithophel and Hushai, see 2 Sam. xv. 12, 37, xvi. 16. Ver. 34. Jehoiada, the son of Benaiah, is named after his grandfather. Abiathar is the son of Ahimelech, who was slain by Saul (1 Sam. xxii.). Joab (ii. 16) was commander-in-chief. 1. What are the chief topics of this chapter? 2. What proportion did the sum of the monthly divisions bear to the males over twenty years? 3. To what tribes did the several captains belong? 4. How many civil princes are enumerated? 5. To what tribes are no princes assigned? 6. Who was Elihu? 7. Why was no census taken of those under twenty years? 8. What are the Chronicles of David? 9. In what did David's possessions consist? 10. Where was Sharon? 11. What is meant by the sycamore? CHAPTER XXVIII. PUBLIC INSTRUCTIONS TO SOLOMON. This chapter and the following contain the last words of David. They give directions to Solomon concerning the building of the temple. This contains the address to the people and to Solomon, vers. 1-10; and the plan of the temple, vers. 11-21. 1-10. Address of David to the people and to Solomon. He convenes a general assembly of the representatives of the people. The princes of the tribes (xxvii. 16-22); the principal and subordinate officers of the army (xxvii. 1-15); the stewards of the royal revenues (xxvii. 25-31); and the other nobles of the land. Ver. 2. My brethren. He was the kinsman of his people. A house of rest (Ps. cxxxii. 8, 14), in contrast with the tabernacle, which moved from place to place in the wilderness, and with the ark after it was taken by the Philistines. Made ready, settled everything. Ver. 3. The struggles in which David was engaged, first with the house of Saul, and next with foreign enemies, prevented him from undertaking the building at first, and unfitted him at last for this peaceful and holy work (xxii. 8; 1 Kings v. 3). Ver. 4. *Judah to be the ruler.* This is indicated in v. 2, and Gen. xl ix. 8-10. *Liked me.* We have the story in 1 Sam. xvi. Ver. 5. It is here carefully acknowledged that the kingdom of Israel belongs to the Lord. Vers. 6, 7. The promise here cherished in memory is recorded in 2 Sam. vii. Ver. 8. Grounded on this promise is a double charge, first to the people and then to Solomon. Keeping and seeking the commandments of the Lord is at once the test and the security of His people. Vers. 9, 10. The charge to Solomon is very touching and of perpetual interest. ‘The God of thy father;’ ‘a perfect heart and a willing mind;’ ‘the Lord searcheth the heart;’—these are eternal principles of truth and duty, as potent now as ever. The special point of duty is then urged in the tenth verse. 11-21. The plan of the temple. *The pattern,* or working plan, as in Ex. xxv. 40. *The porch* before the sanctuary (2 Chron. iii. 4). *The houses,* the holy and most holy places. *The treasuries* appear to have been partly in the three-storied side buildings or wings of the temple (1 Kings vi. 5). *The upper chambers* over the most holy place (2 Chron. iii. 9). *The inner parlours* are supposed to be the porch and the holy place. The place of the mercy-seat is the holy of holies. Ver. 12. *By the Spirit.* The literal rendering, ‘all that was in the Spirit with him,’ favours the reference of the Spirit to the Spirit of the Lord which was with him. If the spirit of David himself had been meant, ‘his spirit’ would have been the natural expression. This interpretation agrees with ver. 19. *The courts* (2 Chron. iv. 9), the court of the priests and the great court. *The chambers round about* the four sides of the court. The treasures are here divided as in xxvi. 20. Ver. 13. All these were included in the Divine communication which David had received. Vers. 15-18. The articles to be made of gold. *The candlesticks* in the temple were ten (2 Chron. iv. 7). The silver candlesticks were for uses not specified. *The tables* were also ten. The silver tables were for minor purposes. *Bowls* for sprinkling (2 Chron. iv. 11). *Cups* for libations (Ex. xxv. 29). *Basins,* covered vessels, tankards; only elsewhere in Ezra i. 10, viii. 27. The altar of incense was a framework of wood overlaid with gold. *The chariot of the cherubim,* or the chariot, the cherubim. The two cherubs on the mercy-seat constitute in themselves the chariot in which the Lord sits. Ver. 19. *The hand of the Lord upon me* (2 Kings iii. 15), indicates an inspiration from the Lord, which enabled David to put in writing the plan of all these things. This, and nothing less, is the import of the verse. Vers. 20, 21. The aged king now reiterates his exhortation to Solomon, promising him the never-failing help of the Lord his God, and the co-operation of the courses of the priests and Levites already arranged, of the willing men of skill, and of the princes and all the people. *Wholly at thy commandment*; literally, 'for all thy words,' which may have the meaning given. 1. How does David designate the representatives of the people in his address? 2. Where else is the house of rest mentioned? 3. Enumerate the principal wars in which David was engaged. 4. Give the proofs that Judah was to be the ruling tribe. 5. To whom was the plan of the temple due? 6. How many courts of the temple? 7. What were the several uses of the bowls, cups, and basons? 8. On whom was Solomon to rely for aid in the building of the temple? CHAPTER XXIX. LAST ACTS OF DAVID THE KING. In this chapter we have the contributions of the princes to the building of the temple, vers. 1-9; the thanksgiving of David, vers. 10-19; the conclusion of the assembly, vers. 20-25; and the close of the reign of David, vers. 26-30. 1-9. The contributions of the princes. Vers. 1-5. First, the exhortation and the example of David. *All the congregation*, which was convened in the previous chapter. *Whom alone*. There were several older than Solomon (iii. 1-5). *Young*. According to Josephus (*Ant.* viii. 7, 8), he was fourteen years old when he began to reign. He could not have been more than twenty. *The palace* or castle (Birah). The word occurs here for the first time, and is applied only in this chapter to the temple buildings, probably on account of the wall and fort by which they were defended. Ver. 2. *Glistening stones*, dark and glancing, such as the ruby (*nephek*, connected with *puk*). *Of divers colours*, as agate. Ver. 3. *Set my affection*. True religion touches not only the conscience, but the affections. Ver. 4. *Ophir*. This land received its name from Ophir, a son of Joktan, the patriarch of the original Arabs. His first settlement, at all events, was in Arabia. It is a question whether the gold-producing Ophir was in South Arabia, or in some more remote land, and in the latter case, whether it was in Africa or India. It is certain that Arabs crossed into Africa, and colonized Kush or Æthiopia; but it is not clear that Shemites settled in India, or penetrated, as colonists, beyond the Persian Gulf. It appears most likely that the primitive Ophir was in the south of Arabia, trading with India for algum-wood, and such animals as were natives of it, and at the same time with the coast of Africa for its peculiar commodities. But it is not improbable that a colony from Ophir may have at length been formed on the coast of Africa. At the rate of £5475 for a talent of gold and £342 for a talent of silver, the gold and silver here amount to nearly nineteen millions sterling. To overlay. The ground was perhaps plated with silver, the figuration with gold. Ver. 5. Who is willing? A willing offering is expected in every sacred undertaking (Ex. xxv. 2). Consecrate his service, in the original simply 'fill his hand;' as the priest when he made his first offering to the Lord (Lev. viii. 27). Vers. 6-9. The offerings of the princes. The rulers of the king's work are those who presided over the royal domains (xxvii. 25-31). Ver. 7. Drams. The adarcon (Ezra viii. 27) is generally presumed to be the darik, a Persian coin, and the same as the darkemon (Ezra ii. 69; Neh. vii. 70), variously valued at 12s. 6d. and 25s. This is somewhat doubtful. The princes alone present coins of this name. The coin was doubtless foreign, probably Assyrian or Babylonian. From Babylon it may have passed to the Persians. Brass or copper seems to have been scarcer of old than now. Ver. 8. By the hand, under the hand of Jchiel (xxvi. 22), the treasurer of the house of the Lord. 10-19. The thanksgiving of David. Our father here refers to Israel, as is plain from the similar phrase in ver. 18, though the Sept. refers it to God. Ver. 11. To this Rev. v. 12 may be compared. Ver. 12. Power and might, physical and moral power. Ver. 14. Be able, retain strength. Ver. 16. Strangers, in a habitation which is not their own, and from which they pass away. Such is the earth to the children of mortality (Heb. xiii. 14). Hence there is no abiding or continuance. Ver. 17. Triest the heart. This is a final appeal of David. He goes beyond all this outward store to the inward uprightness of heart with which it was offered, as that in which the Lord has pleasure. Ver. 18. Keep this, uprightness of goodwill. In the imagination of the thoughts of the heart (Gen. vi. 5), a very ancient phrase. David was very familiar with the books of Moses; and his thanksgiving is full of its cherished phrases. Ver. 19. A perfect heart. Solomon means perfect, and therefore peaceful. Thy commandments, laws binding the conscience; testimonies, the testifying of the character of God; statutes, enactments written for the instruction of the people. 20-25. Conclusion of the assembly. Worshipped, prostrated themselves, fell on their knees with their foreheads to the ground. The Lord and the king, with the respect due to each. Ver. 21. Sacrifices, peace-offerings, sacrifices of communion (Lev. vii. 11), in which the reconciled people held communion with God. and with one another. Burnt-offerings, representing the great propitiation. Ver. 22. Eat and drink, in the fellowship of their peace-offerings. The second time. Hence we learn that the anointing of Solomon at Gihon recorded in 1 Kings i. preceded this last solemn act. And Zadok to be priest, to the exclusion of Abiathar (1 Kings i. 7, ii. 27), who followed Adonijah. Ver. 23. And prospered (xxii. 13), being unopposed by any rival, after he was anointed, or any hostile power from abroad. Ver. 24. Submitted; literally, gave the hand under. Ver. 25. The grandeur of Solomon is ascribed to the source of all true greatness. 26-30. Close of David's reign. Ver. 27. Seven years. In 2 Sam. v. 5, more minutely seven and a half years; but in 1 Kings ii. 11 as here. Ver. 28. Full of days. David, according to Josephus, was seventy years old when he died (2 Sam. v. 4). This was the full time of human life (Ps. xc. 10). Ver. 29. We know no more of these books than what is here stated. Ver. 30. This verse arranges the narrative under the heads of his private life, his civil career, and his military enterprises. It will be observed that the writer, in accordance with his design of signalizing the religious aspect of the chosen people, has omitted from the history of David his persecution by Saul, his sin against Uriah the Hittite, the incest of Amnon, and the attempts of Absalom and Adonijah upon the throne, and at the same time has enlarged the narrative by the detail of the arrangements of worship, and of the preparations for the building of the temple. 1. Why is the word palace used here for the temple? 2. What gave persuasive force to the exhortations of David? 3. What was the situation of Ophir? 4. What renders an offering acceptable to God? 5. What emotion accompanies a free-will offering? 6. What acknowledgment is to be made to God in giving? 7. What does God regard beyond the mere gift? 8. Is respect for the king inconsistent with reverence for God? 9. What are meant by sacrifices as distinguished from burnt-offerings? 10. How was David full of days? 11. What are the main things omitted and added in this account of David's life? THE SECOND BOOK OF CHRONICLES. PART III.—REIGN OF SOLOMON. CHAPTER I. THE SOLEMN SACRIFICE AND THE WEALTH OF SOLOMON. The reign of Solomon is comprised in nine chapters of this book, corresponding to 1 Kings i.–xi., and forms the third part of the whole work. The first chapter contains the solemn sacrifice at Gibeon, vers. 1–6; the vision of Solomon, vers. 7–12; and his riches, vers. 13–17. 1–6. The solemn sacrifice at Gibeon (1 Kings ii. 12, iii. 4). The first verse is a heading to the record of Solomon’s glory. Ver. 2. All Israel is represented by the following classes. The chief of the fathers are the natural heads of a primitive people. Ver. 3. The high place at Gibeon. The tabernacle was removed from Shiloh, in consequence of the inroads of the Philistines, to Nob (1 Sam. xxii. 1); and thence, after the destruction of Nob by Saul (1 Sam. xxii. 9), to Gibeon. This high place was consecrated to the worship of the true God. Ver. 4. In 1 Chron. xiii. and xv. the account of this is given. Ver. 5. The brazen altar (Ex. xxxviii. 1; Num. xvi. 39). This was therefore the legitimate place of worship by sacrifice. He put. The more probable reading is ‘was there.’ Sought unto it; rather, sought Him, the Lord. Ver. 6. The thousand burnt-offerings attest the magnificence of the sovereign. 7–12. The vision of Solomon at Gibeon (1 Kings iii. 5–15). Vers. 8–10. Solomon’s prayer. He acknowledges the goodness of the Lord, and asks for wisdom to govern so great a people. Ver. 10. Wisdom and knowledge. Wisdom is the faculty of applying knowledge aright. Solomon may have remembered the paternal prayer, 1 Chron. xxii. 12. Go out and come in (Num. xxvii. 17), do all the parts of the kingly office. Vers. 11, 12. The answer of God. Riches and wealth. The latter refers to stores of commodities ready for use. This was a chief branch of ancient wealth. He that asks for the highest things, finds all other things coming to him in due measure (Matt. vi. 33). Solomon asked wisdom to rule the people of God. This came far short of the highest wisdom. In 1 Kings iii. 14, length of days also is promised, but with a condition. 13–17. Solomon’s riches (1 Kings x. 26–29). *From his journey to.* This gives the sense; but the original was probably *from and not to.* Ver. 15. *And gold.* This does not appear in 1 Kings x. 27. *Sycamore trees,* or sycamines; see in 1 Chron. xxvii. 28. *In the vale,* the lowland (*shephelah*). Ver. 16. *And linen yarn.* This rendering seems to be a conjecture of the Chaldean paraphrast. The Vulg. has ‘from Coa;’ but nothing is known of such a place. The original word (*mikve*) means influx, and thence import (*nabo*), the contrast of export (*sioñov*, Sept. 1 Kings x. 28); in which case the verse would run thus: ‘And the export of horses for Solomon was from Egypt; and the import which the king’s merchants took was an import in price,’ that is, in money. It was more convenient for Solomon to send cash than commodities in exchange for the chariots and horses. Ver. 17. If the silver piece be the shekel, the chariot would cost about £70, and the horse about £17. The Hittites here are the Tyrians or the Phoenicians in general. *By their means.* By the hand of these traders of Solomon were all the neighbouring potentates in Phœnicia and Syria supplied with horses. This vast trading enterprise indicates the wealth of Solomon. 1. How many chapters of this book are taken up with the life of Solomon? 2. How much of 1 Kings is covered by this? 3. What classes of men were included under ‘all Israel’? 4. What occasioned the removal of the tabernacles to Gibeon? 5. What may have led Solomon to ask for wisdom and knowledge? 6. What was the condition on which length of days was promised to him? 7. What is the possible meaning or reading of the word rendered ‘linen yarn’? 8. Who were the Hittites here mentioned? CHAPTER II. SOLOMON’S TREATY WITH HURAM OF TYRE. This chapter contains the purpose of Solomon to build the temple, vers. 1, 2; his message to Huram, vers. 3–10; the reply of Huram, vers. 11–16; and the distribution of Solomon’s serfs, vers. 17, 18. It corresponds with 1 Kings v. 1–2. Solomon’s resolve to build. *Determined;* literally, *said,* gave orders to build. *The name,* the Lord Himself as made known by His name. *A house for his kingdom,* a royal palace. Ver. 2. The number of labourers indicates the grandeur of the work. 3–10. Solomon’s message to Huram (1 Kings v. 1–6). *Huram;* in Kings, Hiram, a variety of spelling. Huram, according to 1 Kings v. 1, had sent a message of congratulation to Solomon. *Send him cedars* (1 Chron. xiv. 1). *Even so.* The real consequent of the sentence is the following part of the message. Ver. 4. *I build*, am about to build. *To burn*. This explains the dedicating of it to him. The leading parts of the temple worship are here enumerated. Incense sets forth prayer; the continual shewbread, communion with God; the burnt-offering, propitiation for sin (Ex. xxx. 7; Num. xxviii.; Lev. xxiii.). *For ever*. Perpetuity is a mark of the worship of God. Ver. 5. *Above all gods*. This scarcely comes up to the first commandment. Ver. 6. *But who is able*, as in 1 Chron. xxix. 14. *Seeing*. Here Solomon rises to the sublime heights of truth. Ver. 7. *Send me now*. This is the proper consequent of the opening clause. *A wise man* to design and superintend all work in metals and other materials (Ex. xxv. 4). *With the wise men*. David had been establishing and fostering the various arts here enumerated in Jerusalem and Judah (1 Chron. xxii. 15). Ver. 8. *Fir*; some say, cypress. *Algium* or almug (1 Kings x. 11). The finest specimens of this wood (ix. 10) came to him by sea from Ophir. But it seems that the tree grew also in Lebanon. It is supposed to be the sandal or santal wood of Malabar. It must at all events be common to these two regions. Ver. 9. *Wonderful great*, great and wonderful. Ver. 10. *Beaten*. The original word (*makkoth*) describes the wheat as prepared for use as food by being pounded or crushed. Though not parallel with the word ‘food’ (*makkoloth*) in 1 Kings v. 11, which refers to another occasion, yet the Sept. (*εἰς βούλησιν*) favours this reading. The cor=homēr contained about twenty-two pecks, though some make it thirty-two. The bath or ephah was a tenth of the homer. This verse states the provisions for the hewers of wood, and is therefore different from 1 Kings v. 11, which gives the allowance granted to Hiram for his own household. This message of Solomon is not declared to be in writing, which will account for the substance of it only being given in the two reports here and in 1 Kings v. 11. 11–16. Hiram’s reply in writing (1 Kings v. 8, 9). The passage in Kings is not in writing. Ver. 12. *The Lord, God of Israel*. Hiram has no scruple about acknowledging the God of Israel as the Self-existent, that made heaven and earth. There was a community of speech between the two sovereigns, and Hiram may have accepted the primitive Hebrew term as applicable to the one God, whom he worshipped simply under another title. Ver. 13. *Of Hiram my father’s*; rather, in Hiram my father, that is, my well-beloved master-worker. He is called also the father of Solomon (iv. 16), as Joseph was a father to Pharaoh (Gen. xlv. 8). Ver. 14. His mother was of the daughters of Dan, though her father was of Naphtali (1 Kings vii. 14). He was skilled not only in all that Solomon specified, but also in stone and in wood and in fine linen. Ver. 16. Joppa in the Greek, Japho in the original, now Jaffa, the nearest port to Jerusalem. 17, 18. The distribution of the serfs (viii. 7, 8). This has been partly anticipated in ver. 2. The numbering by David is referred to in 1 Chron. xxii. 2. The overseers were to the workers nearly as one to forty-one. In 1 Kings v. 13-16, mention is made of a levy of 30,000 men out of all Israel, and 3300 rulers over the people. Here strangers only, not Israelites, are mentioned; and to the 3300 overseers are added 300 higher officers over them, making in all 3600. A work should be one word, a-work. 1. What is meant by 'the name of the Lord'? 2. Explain the difference between the 3300 overseers in 1 Kings v. 16 and the 3600 here. 3. What were the chief parts of the temple worship? 4. What was signified by incense, the show-bread, and the burnt-offering? 5. What was the aliyim, and where usually obtained? 6. Give two explanations of the word rendered 'beaten.' 7. How much was a cor? 8. What is meant by 'Hiram my father'? 9. What is the modern name of Joppa? 10. Who are the 'strangers'? CHAPTER III. THE BUILDING OF THE TEMPLE. In two chapters is narrated the building of the temple. These correspond with 1 Kings vi., vii. The present chapter contains the place and time, vers. 1, 2; the holy house with its porch, vers. 3-7; the most holy house, with its cherubim and veil, vers. 8-14; and the pillars, with their ornaments, vers. 15-17. 1, 2. The place and time of building. Mount Moriah (Gen. xxii. 2), from which was named the land of Moriah. Where the Lord. The subject is here rightly supplied in the English Version. Had prepared, or fixed. Ornan, a variation of Araunah (2 Sam. xxiv. 18; 1 Chron. xxi.). Ver. 2. In the second day. This is not mentioned in Kings. In the fourth year, about 1012 B.C. 3-7. The holy house, with its porch. Now these, referring to the measures afterwards given, were the foundation of Solomon. The first measure, the ancient cubit, which was a handbreadth longer than the later (Ezek. xliii. 13), seven handbreadths instead of six. The dimensions are given here as in Kings. Ver. 4. And the porch, which was in length as the breadth of the house, and ten cubits in breadth (1 Kings vi. 3). A hundred and twenty. By the change of one letter (he into tau), and the rearrangement of the four letters in the original, 'an hundred and' would become 'cubits;' which agrees with A of the Sept., and with the Syr. and Arab. It is natural that the porch should be lower than the house, which was thirty cubits high. Ver. 5. The greater house. The holy place was double the area of the holy of holies. Ceiled. From 1 Kings vi. 15, it appears that the walls were lined with cedar and the floor with fir, the ceiling only remained to be covered with fir and overlaid with gold. Fir. Some take this to be the cypress. It is, however, a wide-spreading tree (Ezek. xxxi. 9). Palm. From John xii. 13 and Rev. vii. 9 it is evident that the palm was a symbol of joy, victory, and triumph. Chains, probably garlands representing flowers, the emblems of bloom and beauty. Ver. 6. Garnished, as in the margin, covered. Precious stones (1 Chron. xxix. 2). It is probable that there were pilasters in the walls, in which stones of various kinds may have been visible. Parvaim. This occurs only here. Some take it for Sepharvaim, some for Ophir; some render it eastern land, and some two hills. It probably lay in the south of Arabia. Ver. 7. Doors. These were of fir (1 Kings vi. 34). 8-14. The most holy house, with the cherubim and the veil. Ver. 9. The upper chambers. As the holy of holies was twenty cubits high and the whole building thirty, there was a chamber or set of chambers above it (1 Chron. xxviii. 11). Vers. 10-13. The cherubim. Of image work, sculptured. The original word is only here. Vers. 11-13. Their position is here quaintly but plainly described. They stood on the floor, occupying each a space ten cubits in height and in width (1 Kings vi. 23). Ver. 14. The veil corresponds with that in Ex. xxvi. 31. From 1 Kings vi. 31 it appears that between the holy and the most holy place there was a partition wall, in which was a folding door. Over this was stretched the veil. 15-17. The two pillars. High; in the margin, long. As the height of these pillars was eighteen cubits (1 Kings vii. 15; 2 Kings xxv. 17; Jer. lii. 21), the length here refers to the distance of the one from the other. They appear to have stood on a line with the front of the porch. The wings, including the thickness of the temple wall, would project on each side seven and a half cubits—five for the chamber, and two and a half for the walls (1 Kings vi. 6). The breadth of the temple and of the two wings would thus be thirty-five cubits; and the two pillars would range with both the front line of the porch and the outward line of the wings, and give a proper finish to the whole front. The brevity of the author leads him to omit the height of the pillars, and to define their position in an obscure manner. Including their chapiters, they were at least as high as the porch, and the ornament of these chapiters seems to have matched that of the porch (1 Kings vii. 19). Ver. 16. *As in the oracle*, in the manner of the oracle. In the brevity of the author he says that chains were made in the oracle, and also put upon the chapiters. The front of the oracle must have had a similar chain work, which appears to be alluded to in 1 Kings vi. 21 and ver. 5. As the lily work on the chapiters was also in the porch (1 Kings vii. 19), so the chain work was also in the oracle. There was therefore a correspondence of ornament in the fronts of the oracle within and the porch without. There were two chains on each head, and 100 pomegranates on each chain (iv. 13). Ver. 17. In the position above described, these pillars were really before the temple, and very conspicuous to the beholder approaching to its front. *Jachin*, he will establish. *Boaz*, not, *in him strong*, but simply, strength. The Sept. gives for the two ζαροθωνις and ἱσχυς. These names intimate that the Lord is the source of stability and strength to His people. 1. What ancient event was connected with Mount Moriah? 2. At what date was the building of the temple begun? 3. How many handbreadths in the ancient cubit? 4. What was the length, breadth, and height of the porch? 5. Where were 'the upper chambers'? 6. What was the height of the two pillars? 7. What was the length of the distance between them? 8. What was the breadth of the temple, that of the wings, and the thickness of the walls on each side? 9. Where were the pillars placed? 10. What ornament was common to the front of the most holy place, and that of the porch? 11. What do the names of the pillars signify? CHAPTER IV. THE APPURTENANCES OF THE TEMPLE. This chapter contains the account of the holy furniture of the temple and the court, vers. 1–10; the brazen works of Huram, vers. 11–18; and the golden vessels of the sanctuary, vers. 19–22. This is in part parallel with 1 Kings vii. 1–10. The furniture of the temple court. The altar of burnt-offering was overlaid with brass. As it was ten cubits, and therefore at least fifteen feet high, it must have been provided with a stair or slope either in its very structure or at its side, by which the priest might ascend to perform his functions. Its construction is not mentioned in Kings. It symbolizes propitiation. Vers. 2–5. The molten sea (1 Kings vii. 23–26). From the dimensions of its basin, and its elevation upon twelve oxen, it also must have been reached by a stair or slope. It is the symbol of sanctification. Ver. 3. Under it; in Kings, under the brim of it. Oxen. The true reading appears to be knobs, colocynths, or flower-buds, as in 1 Kings vii. 24. The word oxen seems to have come in by mistake from the next verse. Ver. 4. As the vessel was about forty-eight feet in circumference, the oxen must have been of full size. The lip of this vast basin would be about twelve feet from the ground. Ver. 5. The handbreadth was four fingers. Received and held, it was capable of holding. Bath, probably about four and a half gallons. Three thousand. From a calculation of the contents of the vessel, it appears that this should be two thousand, as in Kings. Ver. 6. The ten lavers. Ten is the symbol of completeness. In 1 Kings vii. 27-38 the ten bases on which the lavers stood are described in eleven verses, and the lavers themselves in one. They were placed in the court, five on the south and five on the north side. In them they washed the parts of the offerings. Ver. 7. The ten candlesticks are not mentioned in Kings. They were placed within the temple, five on each side. Ver. 8. The ten tables are also wanting in Kings. The basons of gold are tankards for making libations. Ver. 9. The court of the priests is called in 2 Kings vi. 36, the inner court. The great court, though implied, is not mentioned there. It was open to the people. Ver. 10. The sea was placed between the brazen altar and the porch, a little to the south (1 Kings vii. 39), where the laver before the tabernacle (Ex. xxx. 18) formerly stood. 11-18. The works in brass by Huram. The pots are the buckets for carrying the ashes from the altar; the shovels, for lifting them from the altar; the basons, for receiving and pouring the blood on the altar. Vers. 12-16. The various pieces of work (1 Kings vii. 40-47). The pommels or bowls (1 Kings vii. 41) were balls on the top of the chapiters to make a proper finish, when they had nothing to support. The wreath gave relief to the globes or balls on the capitals. Ver. 14. The bases are now mentioned for the first time. Ver. 16. The basons of 1 Kings vii. 45 may be included in ‘all their instruments.’ Huram his father, or master-workman, as in ii. 13. Ver. 17. The clay ground, the thick clay of the ground. Succoth lay beyond Jordan south of the Jabbok. Zeredathah is in 1 Kings vii. 46, Zarthan. This lay on the west of Jordan, farther south. The soil to the north of it is said to be marly. 19-22. The golden vessels for the sanctuary (1 Kings vii. 48-51). And the tables. In Kings it is ‘the table.’ It may be that the one row containing six of the twelve cakes (Lev. xxiv. 5, 6), was placed on the inmost table northwards, and the other on the corresponding table on the south side. Ver. 20. It may be also that the candlesticks that were next the oracle were in like manner usually lighted. Ver. 21. For the flowers, lamps, and tongs, see on Ex. xxv. 31-39. Perfect gold perhaps means solid gold. Ver. 22. Spoons, or trays for the incense. Censers, or snuff-dishes. The entry of the house appears to be the door frame, while the doors are the door leaves. These, as has been stated before, were overlaid with gold. 1. How many courts in the ancient temple? 2. How was the brazen altar ascended? 3. What is symbolized by the molten sea? 4. In ver. 3 what is to be read for oxen? 5. How much was a bath? 6. Why were the lavers, candlesticks, and tables ten? 7. What was the position of the molten sea? 8. What were the fomnells? 9. How many of the tables were probably used at once? 10. What are meant by the spoons and the censers? 11. How does the entry differ from the door? CHAPTER V. THE REMOVAL OF THE ARK TO THE TEMPLE. The removal of the ark (vers. 1-10) is followed by a manifestation of the glory of God (vers. 11-14). Parallel to this is 1 Kings viii. 1-11. The building began in the fourth year of Solomon (1 Kings vi. 1), was finished in seven years, and fitted up and furnished in thirteen years more (1 Kings ix. 1, 2). 1-10. The removal of the ark from the tabernacle to the temple. This closes the account of the two previous chapters (1 Kings vii. 51). This was at length done in the twenty-fourth year of Solomon's reign. Vers. 2, 3. The assembly of the elders. In the feast of tabernacles, which began on the fifteenth of Ethanim (perpetual), the seventh month. This was the closing festival of the sacred year. Ver. 4. It was the office of the Levites, and in particular of the Kohathites (Num. iv. 15), to bear the ark. In 1 Kings viii. 3 the priests are said to bear the ark. Ver. 5. The tent of meeting appears to mean the tabernacle at Gibeon, which was consecrated to the Lord, and was properly called by this name. We are not informed what was done with the tent of David or the tabernacle at Gibeon. In Num. iv. we learn what was to be borne by each of the three families of Levites. The priests and the Levites. The conjunction is rightly supplied here, as it stands in the Sept. and in 1 Kings viii. 4. Ver. 6. Sacrificed, by the agency of the priests. Ver. 7. The cherubim (iii. 10), which stood at the western wall of the oracle. Ver. 9. They drew out; rather, the staves projected (intrans. as in Ex. xx. 12), so that their ends were seen in the oracle, but not without. Unto this day. The Chronist here copies the old record, as it was written before him. Ver. 10. Hence we learn that the two tables of the law, which Moses placed in the ark (Deut. x. 5), were in existence in the time of Solomon. 11–14. Manifestation of the glory of the Lord. All the priests. On this solemn occasion the priests of all the twenty-four courses who were present took part in the ceremony, without regard to the ordinary succession of the courses. Ver. 12. In like manner all the twenty-four choirs were combined into one grand choir, headed by Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun. White linen, the symbol of purity. Cymbals, regulating the time; lutes and harps, accompanying the song of praise (1 Chron. xv.). The trumpets belonged to the priests (Num. x. 8), and the sounding of them usually constituted a distinct part of the ceremony. Even the house. The Sept. has 'of the glory.' At least it should be 'of the house.' Ver. 13. As one. The performance of the trumpets, cymbals, lutes, and harps, along with the singing, was so arranged as to form one whole. The song has the usual refrain (1 Chron. xvi. 34; Ps. cxxxvi). A cloud, as at the erection of the tabernacle (Ex. xl. 34). Ver. 14. As in Ex. xl. 35. 1. What time was occupied in building the temple? 2. What in fitting up and furnishing it? 3. In what year of Solomon does the temple appear to have been dedicated? 4. When was the feast of Tabernacles? 5. Who were the proper bearers of the sacred things? 6. What is meant by the tabernacle of the congregation? 7. How many choirs of the singers were there? 8. To whom did the blowing of the trumpets belong? 9. What former instance was there of a cloud filling the holy place? CHAPTER VI. SOLOMON'S ADDRESS AND PRAYER. ADDRESS (vers. 1–11) and prayer (vers. 12–42) of Solomon at the dedication of the temple. These are found in the remainder of 1 Kings viii. 1–11. Solomon's address to the people (1 Kings viii. 12–21). Then, when he saw the cloud filling the house of God. The Lord hath said (Ex. xix. 9, xxiv. 16). He veils His glory in the cloud. Ver. 2. He knew now by the cloud that God was dwelling in the house, For ever, constantly, not moving from place to place as in the tabernacle. Vers. 3-11. His address. The congregation, consisting of men, women, and children, as far as they were present. Ver. 4. Which he spake, in 2 Sam. vii. Ver. 5. I chose no city. He at length chose the threshing-floor of Araunah (2 Sam. xxiv. 18) on Mount Moriah to be his constant dwelling-place. He also chose David (1 Sam. xvi.) to be a prince of his people. These are types of heaven and its King. Vers. 10, 11. The promise is fulfilled. 12-42. The prayer of Solomon. Before the altar, eastward of it, with his face to the temple as the spokesman of the people. Ver. 13. On a platform about five feet high, he would be visible to the people. His posture in prayer is plainly described. Ver. 14. This is the longest prayer in Scripture; it can be repeated in seven or eight minutes. It is very comprehensive in its topics and systematic in its arrangements. It opens with a preface, vers. 14, 15. Then follow three petitions—first, to perpetuate the line of David, ver. 16; second, to have regard to the place where His name is put, vers. 17-20; third, to hear the prayer addressed to Him in this place, ver. 21. This last petition is then urged in seven different cases—(1) the man wronged by his neighbour, vers. 22, 23; (2) the people worsted by the enemy, vers. 24, 25; (3) suffering from drought, vers. 26, 27; (4) visited by death or any other calamity, vers. 28-31; (5) the stranger coming to pray, vers. 32, 33; (6) the people going to war with the Divine permission, vers. 34, 35; (7) the people in captivity, vers. 36-39. It is then closed in vers. 40-42. Vers. 14, 15. The preface. This is a very solemn address to God as the keeper of covenant, especially with David. Ver. 16. The first petition. To keep covenant with David by perpetuating his line. This was promised in 2 Sam. vii. It had a special interest for Solomon. Vers. 17-20. The second petition. To have respect unto the house in which He had now put His name. Thy word (1 Chron. xvii. 9-12). The reference to the house is not explicit in this verse; but it comes out in the following verses. Ver. 18. Solomon had some conception of the condescension and at the same time of the majesty of God. He by no means limits Him to this house. Ver. 19. The prayer of Thy servant, which comes out in the next verse. Ver. 20. He prays Him to have respect unto the place where He meets with His people (Ex. xxix. 43). Ver. 21. The third petition. To hear in heaven the supplications made in this place. The centre and core of all worship is prayer. This is the great thought of Solomon. He now proceeds to enumerate seven cases of prayer under this head. Vers. 22, 23. Case first. If a man wrong his neighbour and take an oath of self-purgation, the petition is that the heart-searching Judge will hear and requite the way of the wicked and do justice to the righteous (Ex. xxii. 7; Lev. vi. 2-5). Vers. 24, 25. Second. Defensive war, in which the people are worsted on account of their ungodliness (Lev. xxvi. 17; Deut. xxviii. 25). If they repent and make supplication, the petition is that they may be heard and delivered. Vers. 26, 27. Third. There is a cessation of rain, because they have sinned against the Lord (Lev. xxvi. 19; Deut. xxviii. 23). Then if they in penitence pray towards this place, let them be mercifully answered. Vers. 28-31. Fourth. If any other plague come upon them (Lev. xxvi. 19 f.; Deut. xxviii. 59 f.), then if they pray with a penitent heart at this house, let them be heard and delivered. The royal suppliant here indicates one great end of forgiveness and acceptance, namely, that they may fear Thee, to walk in Thy ways (Ps. cxxx. 4). Vers. 32, 33. Fifth. Let the stranger, who comes and prays at this house, be heard. The spirit of the Old Testament was catholic. There was always a welcome for any one of all the nations of men who should draw nigh to God. The end of this invitation is broadly stated, that all people of the earth may know Thy name, and fear Thee, as Thy people Israel. The rights and privileges of all the redeemed were to be equal. Vers. 34, 35. Sixth. This is the case of aggressive war undertaken by commission from Heaven. If they from afar pray toward this place, let their cause be maintained. Vers. 36-39. Seventh. Captives of war on account of national sin. If they bethink themselves and turn and pray and confess their sins with all their heart, then let them be heard and forgiven. This case is much more fully expressed in 1 Kings viii. 46-53. This is a foreboding of the future, like some of the other cases. Vers. 40-42. The conclusion. This is wanting in Kings. The spokesman of the people returns to the third great petition he had made. Thy resting-place, that thou mayest rest, after the wanderings of the past in the wilderness, and even in the Land of Promise. The ark of Thy strength (Ps. cxxxii. 8-10). The ark is a figure of the atonement, in which the strength of God for salvation is wonderfully displayed. The mercies of David, the mercies shown to him, and to be shown to all who have like faith in God. There is a wonderful grandeur of thought, force of moral truth, and beauty of arrangement in this inspired prayer. It is a noble appeal to the long-suffering mercy of God, and it displays a catholicity of spirit which glorifies the justice of God. 1. Of what is Jerusalem a type? 2. What was the attitude of Solomon in prayer? 3. What was the height of his pulpit? 4. What are the component parts of his prayer? 5. How many distinct topics of prayer? 6. Into how many petitions is the last topic expanded? 7. What proves the catholicity of this prayer? 8. What prophetic element appears in it? 9. What striking conception of God does it contain? 10. What is meant by the phrase, 'ark of thy strength'? CHAPTER VII. THE ANSWER OF GOD TO SOLOMON'S PRAYER. This chapter records the acceptance of the dedicated temple by fire from Heaven, vers. 1-10; and the answer given by the Lord to Solomon, vers. 11-22. Parallel is 1 Kings viii. 62-ix. 9. 1-10. The acceptance of the temple by fire. This is not mentioned in Kings. Made an end of praying. This indicates that the fire from heaven was a response to the prayer of Solomon and an acceptance of the temple as the house of God. It corresponds to the like event at the consecration of the tabernacle (Lev. ix. 24). Ver. 3. The people bowed in adoration, thanking the Lord in the wonted formula (1 Chron. xvi. 34). The pavement was a tessellated work. Vers. 4, 5. These sacrifices were peace-offerings, which were dressed and eaten by the priests and the people in sacred communion before the Lord. This accounts for the vast number of them. Ver. 6. The priests stood at their charge. A part of the Levites were employed in praise, as in v. 12. By their ministry, by their hands (1 Chron. xxiii. 5). Ver. 7. The middle of the court had to be sanctified, because the blood of all the sacrifices had to be poured out and the fat burned, while the burnt-offerings were wholly consumed by fire; for all which even the large brazen altar was not sufficient. Ver. 8. This is the feast of tabernacles (Lev. xxiii. 34). The entering in of Hamath is the way into the land of Hamath through the valley of the Lebanon. Hamath the town is Epiphaneia on the Orontes. The river of Egypt, the Sihor, which separated Egypt from Palestine. The two previous feasts are the Passover and the Pentecost (Ex. xxiii. 15, 16). Ver. 9. A solemn assembly, the close of the festival. According to 1 Kings viii. 65, they kept the dedication seven days, and the feast of tabernacles the next seven days. Ver. 10. The feast closed on the twenty-second of the month, and on the twenty-third the people were sent home rejoicing. 11-22. The answer to Solomon's prayer (1 Kings ix. 1-9). The eleventh verse is a summing up of the labours of Solomon. The house of the Lord was seven years in building. But the court, the pillars, and all the external and internal fittings and appurtenances of it, began to be constructed probably after the building was finished. The builders, who were released from the work of the Lord's house, were free to betake themselves to the erection of the royal palace and other public buildings. At the end of thirteen years (1 Kings vii. 1) the temple finishings and requisites were all completed, and everything was ready for the consecration. This explains the statement which is here made at the end of the dedication. Vers. 12–22. Here is the explicit answer of the Lord to Solomon. Vers. 12–15. These verses contain the answer to the third petition (vii. 21). A house of sacrifice, in contrast with synagogue, in which was no sacrifice. Ver. 16. This is the answer to the second petition (vii. 17–20). Vers. 17–22. These verses refer to the first petition, which concerns the line of David. 'If thou wilt walk before me as David, then will I establish thy throne' and line. Vers. 19–22. The other alternative is now put before Solomon. 'If ye turn away... and serve other gods, then I will pluck them,' the people of Israel. 'This house' will I cast out of my sight. This whole passage stands out in high relief, when illuminated by the light of history. 1. What was the practical response to the prayer of dedication? 2. What is usually meant by sacrifices in Scripture? 3. What is the Greek name of Hamath, and where was it situated? 4. What are the great feasts of the year, and when do they occur? 5. What is meant by the 'solemn assembly' here? 6. What are the parts of the verbal answer to Solomon's prayer? 7. How are they arranged in reference to the petitions of Solomon? 8. What distinguishes the temple from the synagogue? CHAPTER VIII. ACTS OF SOLOMON. The buildings, vers. 1–6; serfs, vers. 7–10; worship, vers. 11–16; and navigation, vers. 17, 18, of Solomon (1 Kings ix. 10–28). 1–6. The buildings of Solomon (1 Kings ix. 10–19). The house of the Lord was built in seven years, the royal palace and other buildings in thirteen. Ver. 2. Which Huram restored. From 1 Kings ix. we learn that Solomon presented Huram with twenty cities in Galilee. These, not being acceptable to Huram, he appears to have returned to Solomon, who repaired and colonised them. Ver. 3. Hamath-zobah, a portion of the land of Hamath bordering on Zobah. Zobah was identified in Jewish tradition with Helbon (Aleppo), the territory north-east of Hamath extending to the Phrat. Ver. 4. Tadmor is Palmyra (palm-city), the splendid ruins of which remain to this day. The sway of Solomon extended to the great river. Ver. 5. The two Beth-horonos in the territory of Ephraim are of early notoriety (1 Chron. vii. 24), having been fortified by Sherah the daughter of Ephraim. Ver. 6. Baalath (Josh. xix. 44) belonged to the tribe of Dan. It is here classed with the cities of store, chariots, and horsemen. In Jerusalem is mentioned Millo (1 Kings ix. 15), a structure whose foundations filled the hollow at the south-west corner of the temple hill. In Lebanon were built forts and store-cities for the defence of the border (xvi. 4). Other cities are mentioned in Kings. 7–10. The serfs of Solomon (1 Kings ix. 20–23). These serfs were employed in the vast building operations which Solomon carried on. They included all the people that were not of Israel (Judg. iii. 1–7). Until this day. This the Chronist copies from his source. Ver. 9. The sons of Israel were employed, not as serfs for labour, but as soldiers and officers. Chiefs of his captains, or captains of his knights. Ver. 10. The chief of the officers or overseers counted here are only for the Israelites, and not for the serfs, and therefore amount to 250 (ii. 18; 1 Kings ix. 23). 11–16. His regulations concerning worship (1 Kings ix. 24, 25). The Pharaoh whose daughter Solomon married, was probably Psusennes, the last of the twenty-first dynasty. [But cp. Smith's Dict. art. 'Pharaoh.'] The city of David was the eastern hill, south of the temple site (Caspari, Geogr. Life of Christ, App.). As she still adhered to the gods of Egypt, she is transferred to a house built for herself (1 Kings vii. 8) in the upper city; because the old Zion derived a sanctity from having been the site of the tabernacle, which was on the same ridge with the temple mount. Vers. 12, 13. The Chronist is careful to inform us that Solomon continued to observe all the ordinances of the house of God which he had built. Ver. 14. He also arranged the courses of the priests, and the three classes of Levites, according to the regulations in 1 Chron. xxiv.–xxvi. Ver. 15. Provision is made for the management of the several treasures mentioned in 1 Chron. xxvi. 20–32. Ver. 16. The summing up. Was prepared; rather, settled, completed. Was perfected, not only built, but furnished and consecrated. 17, 18. The navigation of Solomon (1 Kings ix. 26–28). Ezion-geber, a haven beside Eloth, on the north-east point of the gulf of Akaba. Eloth or Elath derives its name probably from a wood in the neighbourhood; it was the Ælana of the Greeks, and from it the gulf of Akaba was named the Ælanitic Gulf. Ver. 18. Solomon made his navy by receiving ships as models, materials for building, carpenters, and seamen from Huram, who probably had ships lying in the ports of the Red Sea. His own servants went with the Phœnicians on the voyage. Ophir, son of Joktan (Gen. x. 29), gave name to the land of Ophir, which was at least originally in the south of Arabia, though some look for it in India or Ceylon. The 450 talents of gold (in Kings, 420) may have been the result of many voyages to this land. 1. What were the other buildings of Solomon beside the temple? 2. What is meant by Solomon's building the cities restored by Huram? 3. Where was Zobah? 4. Who before Solomon fortified the two Beth-horon? 5. Where was Baalath? 6. What was Millo? 7. How many chiefs of officers mentioned in Kings, and what explains the difference from the number here? 8. Whence did Huram probably send his ships to Solomon? 9. Where was Ophir, and who gave name to it? CHAPTER IX. THE GLORY OF SOLOMON. This chapter records the visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon, vers. 1-12; the glory of Solomon, vers. 13-28; and the close of his reign, vers. 29-31. The first two sections correspond with 1 Kings x., and the last with 1 Kings xi. 41-43. 1-12. The visit of the Queen of Sheba. Sheba was in the south of Arabia Felix. The queen may have heard of the glory of Solomon through the traders to Ophir. Hard questions, riddles, enigmas, that try the quickness and keenness of the mind. The Arabs were famous for their riddles. Vers. 3, 4. The sitting in council of his chief officers. The attendance, standing of his attendants. The ascent or stair by which he went up to the house of God. This appears to be more suitable than 'the burnt-offerings which he offered at the house of God,' as the Sept. renders both here and in 1 Kings x. 5. No more spirit in her. She was breathless with amazement. Vers. 5-8. The saying of the queen. Thine acts, thy affairs. Ver. 8. Blessed be the Lord thy God. She is quite frank in acknowledging the reality and the glory of the God of Solomon. But she does not adopt Him as her own God or as the only true God (ii. 12). Ver. 9. The gifts of the queen are enormous, when we consider that the talent of gold was worth about £5476 at £4 the ounce. This mode of giving must be very much a matter of business. Ver. 10. Accordingly we have a mercantile transaction appended n this verse. Algum or almug trees, as they are called in Kings, are supposed to be the santal wood of Malabar. And this is made an argument for Ophir belonging to India. But the almug was also found in Lebanon (ii. 8); and even if these almugs came from India, they may have been purchased by Solomon's factors in the marts of Ophir. Besides, the almug is said by Kimchi to be the bukllum, Brazil wood or Sapan, which is found in Ethiopia as well as India (Keil on 1 Kings ix. 26-28). Ver. 11. Terraces, raised walks or corridors protected by a balustrade consisting of a rail and its supporting balusters. All the parts of this structure, but especially the balusters, it would be very suitable to make of this wood. Harps and lutes required a fine resonant wood. None such seen. But there might be ordinary kinds of almug wood as well as of spice (ver. 9). This was the last sight which attracted the attention of the Queen of Sheba. Ver. 12. All her desire, in the way of bounty. Beside that which she had brought. For all this an equivalent was returned. This is only differently expressed in 1 Kings x. 13. She then departed to her own country. 13-28. The glory of Solomon (1 Kings x. 14-28). This weight of gold at £5476 for the talent amounts to an enormous sum. Ver. 14. This did not include the taxes paid by merchants, nor the tribute coming from the kings of Arabia and the governors of the country. The latter are probably the governors of the subject territory beyond the limits of Israel proper. Vers. 15, 16. Targets are large shields, covering the whole man. They were made of wickerwork or wood, and usually covered with leather. But these were covered with a plating of gold. The shekel weighed about 9 dwt. 3 gr. But the word shekel does not appear in the original either here or in Kings. And the beka or half shekel may be supplied. The two passages will thus harmonize throughout. For the maneh or pound contains 100 bekas. The gold of one target thus weighs more than eleven pounds Troy. Ver. 16. The plating of the shield weighs half that of the target. The house of the forest of Lebanon is described in 1 Kings vii. 2-5 as a part of the royal palace. It was so called because its material was chiefly cedar, and its structure resembled a forest. It appears to have been a government house, employed in the business of the state, and serving as an armoury for these state targets and shields. Vers. 17-19. The throne. Of ivory, adorned or inlaid with ivory. Overlaid in all other parts with refined gold. Ver. 18. Stays, arms on each side of the seat. Two lions. The lion is the symbol of royal power. Ver. 19. The number alludes to the twelve tribes of Israel. Some other details are given in Kings. Ver. 20. It appears that the house of the forest of Lebanon was furnished with vessels of gold. This points to its use as a place of social resort. Ver. 21. Went to Tarshish. This is sufficient to prove that ships of Tarshish mean ships trading with Tarshish. Tarshish has left its mark in Tartessus, a river, town, and district in the south of Spain. The sway of the Phoenicians extended over the opposite coast of Africa also; and this region may have come under the name of Tarshish in its widest range. The commodities mentioned may have been obtained at several ports of call. They were all to be found in Africa. The voyage appears to have occupied three years. It is still a question with some whether the ancients knew the passage round Africa from the Red Sea. The affirmative best satisfies the notices of the trade to Tarshish in Scripture. Vers. 22–24. The surpassing glory of Solomon in wealth and wisdom. All the kings of the earth within the range of his influence. The source of his wisdom was God. Every man his present. This appears to be a tribute of respect for his wisdom. But it was rendered year by year. Ver. 25. Four thousand. This, and not 40,000 (1 Kings iv. 26), is the correct number. Ver. 26. The extent of his sway was from the Phrat to the border of Egypt. Hamath, Zobah, and Tadmor were under tribute. These territories reached to the Phrat (Gen. xv. 18; 1 Kings iv. 21). Vers. 27, 28. See on i. 15, 16. 29–31. The close of Solomon's reign (1 Kings xi. 41–43). Nathan and Ahijah (1 Kings xi. 29) must have given the earlier part of his life; Iddo (xii. 15), the later. Against, or concerning Jeroboam. This may apply to Ahijah (1 Kings xi. 29, xiv. 4) as well as Iddo. The Chronicist omits the blemishes that marked the character and administration of Solomon, and leaves the impression that notwithstanding these he continued to be a follower of the Lord unto the end of his career. This is in harmony with his design to note the progress of the kingdom of God in its religious aspect. 1. Where was Sheba? 2. What is meant by the sitting of Solomon's servants? 3. What opinions are held about the algum trees? 4. What are meant by 'terraces'? 5. How were targets distinguished from shields? 6. Who were the governors of the country? 7. What is probably understood after the numbers representing the weight of gold in each target? 8. What was the house of the forest of Lebanon? 9. What are the stays of the throne? 10. Where was Tarshish? 11. How was the three years' voyage made to it? 12. Where in Scripture is the full extent of the Promised Land mentioned? PART IV.—THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH. CHAPTER X. THE REVOLT OF THE TEN TRIBES. Here begins the fourth part of the book of Chronicles, extending from the division of the kingdom to the decree of Cyrus, authorizing the return of the exiles, and confining itself to the affairs of the kingdom of Judah. The present chapter includes the proposal of the people to Rehoboam, vers. 1-5; the counsel given to him, vers. 6-11; and the answer that provokes the revolt, vers. 12-19. This corresponds to 1 Kings xii. 1-19. 1-5. The proposal of the people. Shechem appears first in the history of Jacob (Gen. xxxiv.). It was the old place of assembly for all Israel in the time of Joshua, who was himself an Ephraimite (Josh. xxiv. 1). It was in the territory of Ephraim. The people met there rather than in Jerusalem, because they had a condition to propose to Rehoboam before accepting him as king. All Israel means here the representatives of the whole nation. Ver. 2. Jeroboam was an Ephraimite, and had been appointed by Solomon to take charge of the civil administration of the house of Joseph (1 Kings xi. 28), of which Ephraim was the chief branch. In 1 Kings xi. 29-40 is recorded the occasion of his flight to Egypt. Ver. 3. He returned at the call of the people to be their leader and spokesman on this occasion. Ver. 4. The proposal of the people is briefly and plainly stated. The style and pomp of Solomon had rendered the burden of taxation great. The vast building operations and the enormous establishment of the court were a constant and grievous drain upon the resources of the nation. The proposal to lighten the burden met with universal concurrence, and was reasonable in itself. Ver. 5. The first answer of Rehoboam is at least prudent. 6-11. The counsel given to the king. The counsel of the old men should have met with more consideration from Rehoboam, who was now forty-one years of age. Vers. 8, 9. Yet it was not acceptable; for he proceeds to consult younger advisers. Vers. 10, 11. These inexperienced young men give an advice more flattering to his vanity and agreeable to the haughtiness and presumption of his temper. 12-19. The final answer of Rehoboam. This impels the people to revolt. He answered them roughly, according to the suggestion of the young men. Ver. 15. It is here added that the cause was of God. It is the manner of Scripture to rise above the secondary causes of things, and trace every event up to the primary cause in the will of God, especially in the field of moral conduct. The 'cause' is here the turn of events, which was in fact the revolt of the people from Rehoboam. This was from God, as he had already indicated in his message to Solomon himself (1 Kings xi. 13), and in his words to Jeroboam (1 Kings xi. 31-39). And now the action of Rehoboam determines the issue. The Chronicist here, as elsewhere, refers to events which he has not himself recorded. Ver. 16. The people break out into open revolt, and having expressed their thoughts in a few pithy and pointed words, depart to their tents. Ver. 17. The tribe of Judah, to which the family of David belonged, were not prepared for this extreme step. Ver. 18. Hadoram is in Kings, Adoram, apparently the same as Adoniram (1 Kings iv. 6). The sending of the collector of the revenue appears to have increased the exasperation of the people, who stoned him to death. Rehoboam now hastened back to Jerusalem. Ver. 19. Unto this day is retained from the original document, as in Kings. 1. What are the topics of the four parts of Chronicles? 2. Where does Shechem first become known? 3. Why did the people meet there on this occasion? 4. What is the antecedent history of Jeroboam? 5. Why was heavy taxation necessary in Solomon's time? 6. What is meant by 'the cause' in this chapter? 7. What shows that the writer of Chronicles presumes the books of Kings to be known? 8. Why did Judah still cling to Rehoboam? CHAPTER XI. PROCEEDINGS OF REHOBOAM. Rehoboam is restrained from going to war to recover the ten tribes, vers. 1-4; fortifies many towns, vers. 5-12; receives accessions of the priests, Levites, and God-fearing people from the kingdom of Jeroboam, vers. 13-17; and takes many wives and concubines, vers. 18-23. The first of these paragraphs corresponds with 1 Kings xii. 21-24; the others are peculiar to the present writer. 1-4. Rehoboam restrained from war. Joab gave the sum of the men of Judah fit to bear arms as 500,000 (2 Sam. xxiv. 9) in the time of David. The present levy is about a third of that number. Vers. 2-4. The Lord interferes to prevent this unnatural war, assigning as the reason, 'This thing is done of me.' The message is addressed to all Israel in Judah and Benjamin, as well as to Rehoboam. This may have contributed to the readiness with which it was obeyed. We see here that Benjamin adhered to Judah. 5–12. Fortifying of towns. Judah is here the southern kingdom, named from its dominant tribe. Rehoboam fortifies the south and west against Egypt. Ver. 6. *Bethlehem*, the city of David, south of Jerusalem. *Etam* (1 Chron. iv. 32) was near Bethlehem. *Tekoa*, two hours south-east from Bethlehem. Ver. 7. *Beth-zur*, now Beit-sur (Josh. xv. 58). *Socho*, now Sumeikeh, three and a half hours south-west of Jerusalem. *Adullam*. See on Josh. xv. 35. Ver. 8. *Gath* belonged to the Philistines; but this may be Gathrimmon (Josh. xix. 45), a town belonging to Dan. *Mareshah*, now Marash, south of Eleutheropolis (Josh. xv. 44). *Ziph*, south-east of Hebron. Ver. 9. *Adoraim*, Adora or Dora, now Dura, west of Hebron (Josh. xv. 24). *Lachish*, now Um-Lakish, on the road from Hebron to Gaza. *Azekah* (Josh. x. 10), not far from Socho. Ver. 10. *Zorah* (1 Chron. ii. 53) and *Ajalon*, now Jalo, belonged to Dan. *Hebron*, or Kiriath-arba, now El-khalil. Ver. 11. These fifteen towns he fortified, manned, and provisioned. 13–17. Accessions came to Rehoboam. *Resorted to him*, because they would not minister to the calves of Jeroboam, who appointed priests who were not of the tribe of Levi (1 Kings xii. 31). Ver. 14. *Their suburbs* are the pasture grounds for their cattle round the cities assigned to them (? 2 Chron. vi. 55). They had no part in the northern kingdom when Jeroboam cast them off. Ver. 15. *The high places* in Bethel and Dan. *Devils* (Lev. xvii. 7), hairy ones, he-goats, like the Pan of Egypt and the satyrs of Greece and Rome. The calves are noticed in 1 Kings xii. 28. Ver. 17. *Strengthened*. The priests, Levites, and pious people were a great source of strength, as long as he walked in the way of David and Solomon. The change in his walk is notified in the next chapter. 18–23. Rehoboam takes many wives and concubines. This was directly opposed to Deut. xvii. 17. *Took him*. ‘To wife’ should be placed here. *Daughter of Jerimoth*—not son, as in the text—is found in some copies and in the Sept. *Jerimoth* does not appear among the sons of David (1 Chron. iii. 1–8), unless this be a by-name of Ithream. But he had doubtless other sons besides those that are named. *And Abihail* should be, ‘and of Abihail.’ The mother as well as the father of Mahalath is given, no doubt because they were both descended from Jesse. Ver. 20. *Daughter*, grand-daughter of Absalom by his daughter Tamar, who was married to Uriel (xiii. 2). *Abijah* was his successor. Ver. 21. *Threescore concubines*, thirty according to Josephus (Ant. viii. 10, 1). Ver. 22. This was contrary to Deut. xii. 15-17. Ver. 23. Desired, sought, asked. From the connection some suppose that the wives were sought for his sons. By a slight alteration of the original, it would be, 'he took for them wives.' But as it stands, the Sept. understands it of himself. 1. How much of this chapter is found in Kings? 2. What proportion does the number of the levy of Rehoboam bear to that of the census of Judah by Joab? 3. To what did Rehoboam betake himself when forbidden to attack Jeroboam? 4. How many towns did he fortify, and against what foe? 5. What effect had the policy of Rehoboam on some of his subjects? 6. What were the devils for whom Jeroboam made priests? 7. What two precepts of the law did Rehoboam violate? 8. Who was the mother of his first wife? 9. In what sense was Maachah the daughter of Absalom? 10. What explanation is proposed of the statement, 'And he desired many wives'? CHAPTER XII. INVASION OF SHISHAK. This chapter contains the invasion of Shishak, vers. 1-12; and the close of Rehoboam's reign, vers. 13-16. This corresponds to 1 Kings xiv. 21-31. 1-12. The invasion of Shishak (1 Kings xiv. 25-28). After Rehoboam grew strong, he became secure and forsook God. According to Kings, Judah, led by the king, did evil in the sight of the Lord, built high places, made statues and stocks, and followed sodomy, a vile form of carnal lust. Ver. 2. Shishak, Sheshonk or Sesonchis, the first king of the twenty-second dynasty of Manetho, the friend and protector of Jeroboam, who celebrated this campaign and the submission of Rehoboam in a relief still extant at Karnak, which corroborates the present narrative. Ver. 3. The numbers are not given in Kings. Lubim, the Libyans west of Egypt. Sukkium. These are called in the Sept. Troglodytes, cave-dwellers in the hills along the Red Sea. But their name might be derived from the booths in which they dwelt. Ethiopians, Kushites, south of Egypt. This dynasty began with a wide sway. Ver. 4. The fenced cities, which Rehoboam had been at so much pains to fortify (xi. 5-12). Vers. 5-8. Shemaiah's message is not in Kings. Shemaiah appeared before in xi. 2. Left you should be 'forsaken you' (vii. 19-22). Ver. 7. The Lord always regards repentance (1 Kings xxii. 27-29; Jonah ii. 5-9). Some deliverance. This is better than deliverance in a little time. Ver. 8. The deliverance is partial, leaving them tributary to Shishak. Ver. 9. The treasures are distinguished into sacred and civil. The shields (xi. 15, 16) were of great value. Ver. 10. *The guard*, the runners who kept guard at the palace gate. Ver. 12. *Things went well*; rather, there were good things, some good purposes and practices, to which the Lord had regard. 13–16. Close of Rehoboam’s reign (1 Kings xiv. 21, 22, 29–31). Rehoboam was therefore born one year before Solomon came to the throne. There is no good reason to question this number. Naamah, probably a daughter of Nahash (1 Chron. xix. 1). Ver. 15. The words of Shemaiah and of Iddo (xi. 29) are not otherwise known. *Concerning genealogies*; literally, to make a register, to preserve the genealogy of the house of David. The wars are the hostile feelings and dealings which continued during the reign of Rehoboam. 1. How long did Rehoboam serve the Lord? 2. What modes of sin did he practise? 3. Who was Shishak? 4. What moved him to invade Judah? 5. What record has he left of this campaign? 6. Who were the Sukkites? 7. Mention other instances of the Lord’s regarding repentance even though evanescent. 8. What was the age of Rehoboam? CHAPTER XIII. REIGN OF ABIJAH. This chapter includes the opening of the war of Abijah with Jeroboam, vers. 1–3; the address of Abijah to the enemy, vers. 4–12; his victory and his end, vers. 13–22. Parallel to this chapter is 1 Kings xv. 1–8. 1–3. The opening of the war. *Abijah*, Abijam in Kings. Ver. 2. *Michaiah*, a variation of Maachah (xi. 22). She was daughter of Uriel and Tamar, daughter of Absalom. Hence she is called the daughter, that is, the grand-daughter, of Absalom. Ver. 3. In the return made by Joab to David (2 Sam. xxiv. 9), there were in Israel 800,000 valiant men that drew sword, and in Judah 500,000. The latter return was probably the most complete, though Benjamin was not counted (1 Chron. xxi. 6). In the course of the war, the strength of each kingdom appears to have been brought into the field. In the case of Rehoboam, the Lord prohibited the war. Here He does not interfere, partly because He is wont to teach by a single lesson, and partly because the circumstances were different. Abijah’s heart, according to Kings, was not perfect with the Lord his God. Yet there were good things in him; and he certainly acknowledged the Lord to be his God. The idolatry of Jeroboam had now become flagrant. 4-12. Address of Abijah. Zemaraim, on the range of Mount Ephraim, has not yet been identified. The address has many good points with some special pleading. Ver. 5. A covenant of salt is irrevocable (Lev. ii. 13; Num. xviii. 10), salt being an emblem of perpetuity. This was in substance true (2 Sam vii.). Ver. 6. This statement is also well founded. Ver. 7. There are, there were gathered unto him. Children of Belial, those who are animated by malice, malignants. Belial means no profit, the opposite of good. Some of Jeroboam's followers deserved this character. Young. Rehoboam was then forty-one years of age. He was open to flattery, ignorant, and inexperienced; but he was not otherwise young nor tender-hearted. Ver. 8. Here Abijah is stronger. The enemy were proud of their numbers, which was a weakness. With them were the golden calves made by Jeroboam, which was an immeasurable weakness. Ver. 9. Another strong point for Abijah. They cast out the priests of God, and made men of any tribe priests. The young bullock and seven rams were part of the offering for consecration (Ex. xxix. 1, 35). To consecrate himself is to fill the hand with the materials of office. Yet such a one is a priest of no gods. Ver. 10-12. The contrast on the side of Judah. The Lord was their God. They had not forsaken Him, and their priests were sons of Aaron. Ver. 11. They had the daily sacrifice and all its accompaniments. Ver. 12. God was their captain (Josh. v. 14). The closing admonition is just, and must have made a deep impression on the hearers. 13-20. The victory of Abijah. Jeroboam was an adept in the art of war. Though superior in numbers, he lays an ambush behind Judah. Ver. 14. Judah seeing the situation, made his appeal unto the Lord. Ver. 15. The shout of confidence in God rose to heaven, and victory followed in the providence of God. Ver. 17. The routed army was destroyed. The division of their troops increased the carnage. Many perished in the mountain passes. There fell of Israel 500,000 men! More than the whole host of Judah! Men stand aghast at the magnitude of the number. In the copying of ancient documents the numbers are occasionally changed. But it is an undeniable fact that the numbers slain were greater in ancient than in modern battles. Ver. 18. The moral of this narrative is here made prominent by the historian. Ver. 19. Bethel was the chief seat of the idolatry of Jeroboam. Jeshanah is otherwise unknown. Ephraim, rather Ephron, is mentioned by Josephus (Wars, iv. 9, 9), and some suppose it identical with the Ephraim of John xi. 54. Ver. 20. The blow was so great that Jeroboam did not recover in Abijah's time. He died in the second year of Asa (1 Kings xv. 25). The stroke of God that brought him to his grave, may have been the message of Abijah the prophet concerning his son and his house and his kingdom (1 Kings xiv. 10, 12, 15). 21, 22. The end of Abijah. In contrast with Jeroboam, he waxed mighty. Like his father Rehoboam, he had many wives, which is contrary to the precept in Deut. xvii. 17. Ver. 22. The story of Iddo is the midrash or memoir, which was extant in the time of the Chronist, or the original from which he drew his information. 1. Who was Michaiah? 2. What were the returns for Israel and Judah in the census of Joab? 3. What are the good points in the address of Abijah? 4. What points do not fully stand examination? 5. What were the chief parts of the stated service? 6. What is the right orthography of Ephraim here? 7. When did Jeroboam die? 8. What is meant by the story of Iddo? CHAPTER XIV. ASA OPPOSES IDOLATRY AND DEFEATS ZERAH. Asa labours to suppress idolatry and defend his kingdom, vers. 1-8; and gains the victory over Zerah the Kushite, vers. 9-15. There is a parallel to the first paragraph in 1 Kings xv. 8-12, 14, 15. 1-8. Asa represses idolatry. The land was quiet ten years on account of the victory of his father over Jeroboam. Ver. 3. The strange gods are those of foreign origin. The images are stone statues of Baal to be broken. The groves were trunks or stocks of trees to be hewn down, dedicated to Ashtoreth or Astarte, the Venus of the Phœnicians. Ver. 5. The images here were the sun images of Baal, who in the confusion of the heathen mind was identified with the sun. Vers. 6-8. He defends the kingdom. He fortified cities like his grandfather Rehoboam (xi. 5). Ver. 7. What constitutes the fortifying of a city is here stated. Sought the Lord. This is the true defence of a kingdom (Zech. ii. 5), without which all other means are ineffectual (Isa. xxvi. 1). Ver. 8. The target was a larger shield (ix. 15). Benjamin was a warlike tribe (Gen. xl ix. 27; Judg. xx.), among whom were archers and slingers (Judg. xx. 16; 1 Chron. viii. 40). This accounts for the large number of their troops. Benjamin continued to adhere to David. 9-15. Asa's victory over Zerah. The Ethiopian. The nation was so called by the Greeks because their faces were burned or blackened by the sun. The country south of Egypt was easy of access from Arabia, and so was colonized by Kush. Zerah has been supposed to be Osorchoron or Usarken, the second king of the twenty-second dynasty of Egypt. But it is plain that he is a sovereign of Kush, who in the reign of Takelotho, about 944 B.C., invaded Egypt and penetrated into Asia. A million of men is an enormous host; but ancient sovereigns were followed by most of their subjects capable of bearing arms, who were attracted by the hope of plunder. Xerxes assembled nearly three millions for the invasion of Greece. Darius Codomannus had 1,040,000 men at Arbela. Mareshah in Judah, between Hebron and Ashdod (xi. 8). Ver. 11. Asa feels the inferiority of his numbers, and is the more induced to cry to the Lord for help. His prayer is full of faith. Ver. 12. The Lord smote the Kushites by the agency of Asa and his host. Ver. 13. Gerar was three hours and a half south of Gaza on the way to Egypt. The spoil of such an army must have been prodigious. Ver. 14. The cities belonged of old to the kingdom of Abimelech (Gen. xx.). The brook Besor flows through this region; and when there is water, there follow fertility and food for man and beast. Hence the abundance of spoil. Ver. 15. The tents were for the nomads who tended the cattle. The Besor and the Sihor, which was the boundary of Egypt, watered the country and made it rich in sheep and camels. 1. What are the 'images' and the 'groves'? 2. What mean the 'images' in ver. 5? 3. What is included in fortifying a city? 4. For what were the Benjamites celebrated? 5. What is the meaning of Ethiopian? 6. Where is Kush? 7. Who was Zerah? 8. Is the number of his host incredible? 9. Where was Gerar? 10. What rendered the adjacent country fertile? CHAPTER XV. RELIGIOUS REFORM OF ASA. The chapter embraces the prophetic warning from Azariah, vers. 1-7; Asa's reform of worship, vers. 8-11; and renewal of covenant with the Lord, vers. 12-19. The three verses concerning the queen-mother and the dedicated things have a parallel in 1 Kings xv. 13-15. 1-7. The warning from Azariah. This prophet is not mentioned elsewhere. The Spirit of God, coming upon a prophet, illuminates him and speaks by him. Ver. 2. To meet Asa, as he was returning from his victory. The great principle of the Divine government is here stated. One great aim of the Chronist is to illustrate and enforce this principle by the light of history. Vers. 3-6. If this passage were, as some suppose, a prediction, it would be conditional on the apostasy of Asa and his people. But this is not the condition to be supposed in the present case, and the passage does not correspond throughout with such condition. It is therefore to be taken as a historical exhibition of the law of providence announced in ver. 2. Many days have been to Israel without the true God. There were occasions during the whole period from their settlement to the days of Asa, in which they had forsaken the true God, the priest had forgotten his teaching (Lev. x. 11; Deut. xxxiii. 10), and the written law was neglected; but especially has this been the case since the separation into two kingdoms. Ver. 4. In their trouble, which was usually subjection to a foreign yoke, they sought the Lord, and he sent them a deliverer. During the times of the judges there was a constant round of backsliding, bondage, repentance, and deliverance. Ver. 5. This is a picture of the time of bondage. No peace for him that went out or came in; no freedom of intercourse for the ordinary business of life. The highways were unoccupied (Judg. v. 6). Under Midian they made them dens in the mountains and caves. When they sowed, the invader seized the crop and left them no sustenance (Judg. vi. 2-6). Under the Philistines they were not permitted to have a smith among them, lest they should make them swords or spears (1 Sam. xiii. 19). Ver. 6. The external oppressor was not the only calamity. They dashed themselves one against another. The civil war of Abimelech (Judg. ix.), the conflict between Jephthah and the men of Ephraim (Judg. xii.), and the exterminating feud of all Israel with Benjamin (Judg. xix., xx.), attest the truth of this statement. The revolt of the ten tribes was the climax of this internal contention. Ver. 7. This is the moral of the past. Be ye strong in resolve and action. Reward will follow. This admonition was much to the point. 8-19. Asa's reform of worship and renewal of covenant. Of Oded, or from Oded, the verb having two objects in the original. Oded concurred with his son in this message. The Sept., however, and the Syriac have Azariah here. The measures of this sovereign are both judicious and decisive. He pursues his reform not only in his own kingdom, but also in the cities which his father had taken from Jeroboam, and he himself had no doubt to hold or retake. The altar before the porch is the altar of burnt-offering. Ver. 9. In this gathering are to be noted the strangers that fell to him from the northern kingdom, when they saw that the Lord was with him. Ver. 10. About the sixth of the third month was the feast of Weeks. Ver. 11. These were chiefly peace-offerings, of which the people partook in token of communion with the Lord and with one another (Lev. vii. 11-21). 12-15. The covenant. Ver. 13. This was to seek the Lord and cut off idolaters (Deut. xvii. 2-6). Ver. 15. The oath is taken with every demonstration of solemn and joyful emotion. It is added that the Lord was found of them and gave them rest. Ver. 16. Maachah was the grandmother of Asa (xiii. 2), and held the honoured place of queen-mother, like the Sultana Walide of the East. Her rank is withdrawn and her idol destroyed. An idol in a grove is properly, a horror to Asherah, otherwise called Ashtoreth. Ver. 17. The high places were hills on which sacrifice was offered, which was not to be done without special authority, as Jerusalem was the chosen place of sacrificial worship. Israel was in great part beyond the jurisdiction of Asa. Ver. 18. These were for the ornamenting and repairing of the temple and all its appurtenances. Ver. 19. No more war; rather, no war. As Baasha died in the twenty-sixth year of Asa (1 Kings xvi. 8), it appears from ver. 10, and from chap. xvi. 1, 9, that the date here ought to be, not the thirty-fifth, but the twenty-fifth year of Asa. This allows a period of repose after the reform of Asa. 1. What is implied in the Spirit of God coming upon Azariah? 2. What great principle of Divine government is illustrated in Chronicles? 3. In what times has Israel been without the true God? 4. How does it appear that the priests were to teach? 5. What great external vexations came upon the people in their apostasy? 6. What internal troubles befell them? 7. What was the tenor of this new covenant? 8. Who was Maachah? 9. How long was war suspended after the defeat of Zerah? CHAPTER XVI. REMAINDER OF THE REIGN OF ASA. Asa’s war with Baasha, vers. 1-6; his transgression rebuked, vers. 7-10; and his end, 11-14. The first and last paragraphs have a parallel in 1 Kings xv. 16-24. 1-6. Asa’s war with Baasha. In the six and thirtieth year. This must be a slip of the pen for the twenty-sixth. For Baasha died in the twenty-sixth year of Asa (1 Kings xvi. 8). This affair with Baasha can only be called a war in the sense of a state of hostility. Built, that is, fortified Ramah. Ver. 2. Benhadad, in the Assyrian monuments Benhidri, which agrees with the Sept. here ("Ader, Ader). This is simply an orthographical variation. Damascus in the original here is Darmeseek, a variety of form. Ver. 3. Between my father. There is no other notice of this except in the parallel passages. Ver. 4. Ijon is a city of Naphtali. The colonization of Dan is recorded in Judg. xviii. Abel-maim is Abel-beth-maachah in Kings, situate at the foot of the Lebanon. The store cities of Naphtali stand here instead of 'all Cinneroth and all the land of Naphtali,' in I Kings xv. 20. Both statements are no doubt true, and merely supplement each other. Ver. 5. Let his work cease. For this in Kings is, 'and dwelt in Tirzah.' This is a hint that he had intended to reside in Ramah. Ver. 6. It appears that there was no actual engagement with the troops of Baasha. 7-10. Asa rebuked. Hanani is not otherwise known except as the father of Jehu the prophet (xix. 2). It is a double folly, moral as well as intellectual, to rely on man and not on God. And there was a double loss from this folly—the loss of victory not only over Baasha, but over Benhadad. Ver. 8. Asa must have been thoroughly confounded when reminded of this fact. Ver. 9. This is a striking description of the providence of God causing all things to work for the man whose heart is perfect toward Him. Folly in the double sense has been the cause of all the trouble in the world. Wars from the twenty-fifth year of his reign (see ver. 1). Ver. 10. No man is so angry as the man that is in the wrong. Prison-house; rather, house of the stocks, a sort of torture for crime. Oppressed; wronged, treated with violence. 11-14. Asa's end. The book of the Kings, a public record of civil events. Ver. 12. To the 'wars' is now added a disease in his feet [gout?], which became very grievous. Here, again, he leans on man, not on God. Ver. 14. His own sepulchres, which he had dug for himself. The bed, which was as like life as possible, and indicated a belief in a future state. And divers kinds compounded by art. Burning, of spices. Such pomp was common in the East. 1. In what year was the war with Baasha? 2. What stands in the Sept. for Benhadad? 3. What was the origin of the Dan here mentioned? 4. What were the faults in Asa's conduct? 5. Is anything known of the seer who reproved him? 6. What is meant by the prison-house? 7. What was customary in the East at the funerals of the great? CHAPTER XVII. JEHOSHAPHAT BEGINS TO REIGN WELL. Jehoshaphat takes measures for the defence of his kingdom, vers. 1-9; and in consequence grows in power, vers. 10-19. This chapter is peculiar to the writer of Chronicles. 1-9. Jehoshaphat's measures for defence. The hostility against the northern kingdom continued at the beginning of his reign. Ver. 2. Garrisons, military posts. Compare xv. 8. Ver. 3. David his father. The Sept. omits David. If it be retained, the first ways mean the ancient ways. Baalim, the false gods of the surrounding tribes. Ver. 4. Israel here means the northern kingdom. Ver. 5. Presents. The precarious nature of the tribute or revenue is indicated by this term. Vers. 6-9. Moral measures of defence. His heart was lifted up. He was encouraged and resolved to follow the Lord. He took away the high places and Asherim or stocks sacred to Ashtoreth. Ver. 7. These princes are otherwise unknown. To teach (xv. 3) indicates a recurrence to the primary custom of the Jewish state (Lev. x. 11). It is the duty of the parents to teach the children (Deut. iv. 9), and by parity of reason of the princes with the priests and Levites to teach the people. Ver. 8. These Levites and priests (Deut. xxxiii. 10) are otherwise unknown. Ver. 9. The text-book from which they taught was the law, which was therefore still extant. The king was bound to have a copy of it (Deut. xvii. 18). Went about. These teachers had a circuit which they followed. 10-19. The consequent increase of his power. The fear of the Lord restrained the neighbouring powers from war. Ver. 11. The tributaries continued their allegiance. The Philistines and Arabians had in part yielded submission to Asa. Ver. 13. Business, involving the men employed in it and the work in which they were engaged. Vers. 14-19. The muster of the troops. The enormous number of 780,000 men able to bear arms in Judah and 380,000 in Benjamin, making 1,160,000 men in all, may be due to the following causes:—1. Every man fit to bear arms is enumerated; 2. Judah at this time included Simeon, part of Dan, and the auxiliaries from the Philistines and Arabs who were tributary, and Benjamin included the cities of Ephraim that were annexed to the southern kingdom; and, 3. Many had, on religious grounds, attached themselves to the kingdom of Judah (xv. 9). Hence there are three captains or marshals in Judah—one for Judah, one for Dan and the Philistines, and one for Simeon. and the Arabs; and two in Benjamin—one for Benjamin proper, and one for the annexed part of Ephraim. Ver. 16. Amasiah is described as a volunteer in the service of the Lord, and had under his command, no doubt, a body of volunteers from the north. Ver. 17. The Benjamites bore their proper armour (xiv. 8). Ver. 19. These officers were in attendance on the king, while others were in command of garrisons throughout the country. Most of the men here enumerated were in the time of peace pursuing their ordinary civil callings. 1. Why was it necessary to put the kingdom in a state of defence? 2. What are garrisons here? 3. What is meant by the first ways of David his father? 4. What are meant here by presents? 5. What were Jehoshaphat's moral measures of defence? 6. What were the groves? 7. Who were officially bound to teach? 8. What was the duty of the princes with regard to teaching? 9. What do we learn here with regard to the book of the law? 10. What effect had the king's measures on his prosperity? 11. For what reasons was a great increase of Judah to be expected at this time? 12. Why were there three chiefs in Judah and two in Benjamin? CHAPTER XVIII. JEHOOSHAPHAT IN ALLIANCE WITH AHAH. This chapter contains Jehoshaphat's alliance with Ahab, vers. 1-3; his suggestion to consult a prophet of the Lord concerning the war with Ramoth-gilead, vers. 4-11; the answer of Micaiah, vers. 12-27; and the result of the battle, vers. 28-34. With this chapter corresponds 1 Kings xxii. 1-35. 1-3. Jehoshaphat's alliance with Ahab. Joined affinity. As he had riches and glory in abundance, he was under no temptation to take this step. Yet he gave his son Joram in marriage to Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel (xxi. 6). Ver. 2. After certain years, at the least eleven years after the affinity was formed. As Ahaziah son of Joram of Judah was twenty-two years old in the twelfth year of the reign of Joram of Israel (2 Kings viii. 25, 26), he must have been born ten years before the death of Ahab. The affinity therefore took place at latest in the eleventh year of Ahab's reign. Samaria had been chosen as the capital by Omri (1 Kings xvi. 24). Ramoth-gilead (heights of Gilead) was in the territory of Gad (1 Chron. vi. 80). 4-11. Jehoshaphat suggests that a prophet of the Lord be consulted. While acknowledging his alliance with Ahab, he wishes to obey God. Ver. 5. Ahab complied with the reasonable suggestion. His 400 prophets of the calves encouraged the king in his project. Ver. 6. Jehoshaphat wishes to hear a prophet of the Lord. This implies that the 400 were not proper representatives of the true God (1 Kings xii. 26-33). Ver. 7. This Micaiah is known only from this incident. Vers. 8-11. While Micaiah is sent for, Zedekiah encourages the king. One of his officers, a eunuch or chamberlain. Ver. 9. The scene is presented to us in a highly graphic form. A void place, an area or court at the gate of Samaria, the place of reception and of judgment in the East. Ver. 10. Horns of iron. The horn is a symbol of power, and the material intimates that it is irresistible. 12-17. Micaiah comes. His fixed resolve is to speak as the Lord commands. Ver. 14. The answer of Micaiah is the ironical echo of the 400 other prophets, as King Ahab understands. Ver. 16. A vision of the event presents itself to Micaiah, which he announces. 18-27. Micaiah explains the state of things. I saw. The vision before the prophetic eye is a representation of the providence of God, in which the whole course of events is regulated by the Divine purpose. Ver. 20. The spirit represents therefore the spirit that was in the false prophets, which, as well as every other influence, was wholly under the control of the Governor of the universe. This control is exercised by command, direction, or permission, according to the nature of the case. Ver. 23. Zedekiah is provoked to violence by the announcement of Micaiah, and insinuates that the Spirit did not speak by him. Ver. 24. The event is to be the answer to this insinuation. Ver. 28. Micaiah calmly replies to the unjust sentence of the king, and makes his appeal to all people concerned. This had reference to Jehoshaphat as well as others who should witness the result. 28-34. The issue of the war. Notwithstanding the announcement of Micaiah, Jehoshaphat follows Ahab to the field. He could hardly avoid it, when Ahab chose to take the risk. Ver. 29. Ahab disguises himself to escape the danger, and leaves Jehoshaphat to appear in his royal attire. Ver. 30. The order of the king of Aram shows the prudence of the course pursued by Ahab. Ver. 31. Jehoshaphat was the only king apparent in the field. He cried out, whether to his followers or to the enemy is not stated. But they discovered that he was not the object of their search, and so the Lord delivered him. Ver. 33. At a venture, in his simplicity, without aiming at any one in particular. Between the joints and the harness, between the pendant part of the mail and that which covered the breast. Wounded, made sick. Ver. 34. The death of the king left the people without a leader, and it is added in *Kings*, that the order went forth, 'Every man to his city, and every man to his country.' 1. In what year of Ahab's reign did the affinity take place? 2. When did Samaria become the capital of the northern kingdom? 3. What is to be understood by a void place? 4. Where was Ramoth-gilead? 5. What does the horn symbolize? 6. What is the import of Micaiah's vision? 7. Explain the phrase 'at a venture.' 8. What is the meaning of 'between the joints and the harness'? CHAPTER XIX. JEHOSHAPHAT PURSUES HIS REFORM. Jehoshaphat is rebuked by Jehu, vers. 1-3; and takes further measures in reform, vers. 4-11. This chapter has no parallel in *Kings*. 1-3. The rebuke. *In peace* (xviii. 16), without being pursued, captured, or slain. Ver. 2. Hanani is probably the prophet who was sent to Asa (xvi. 7). *Wrath*, in the defeat and flight from the field of battle, and it may be in the invasion of his kingdom which was about to take place. Ver. 3. The groves are stocks of trees, representing Ashoreth (xiv. 3). 4-11. Farther reforms. This is a beautiful picture of his renewed activity in the cause of God. Ver. 4. Religious reform. The extent of the field shows that he still held some parts of Ephraim. Vers. 5-7. Judicial reform in the cities of Judah. His address to the judges is wise and just. Vers. 8-11. Reform of the supreme tribunal at Jerusalem (Ex. xviii. 19, 26; Deut. xvii. 8-13). The Levites, the priests, and the chief of the fathers take part in this court. *Returned* should probably be 'dwelt' in Jerusalem, which involves no change in the letters of the original. Ver. 9. *A perfect heart*, the singleness of a good intent. Ver. 10. *Your brethren that dwell in their cities*, coming to Jerusalem as appellants. *Between blood and blood*, in cases of life and death. *Between law*, the ruling principle; *commandments*, precepts in particular; *statutes*, written laws; *judgments*, precedents for like cases. *Warn*, advise in these matters. Ver. 11. Amariah. It is probable that this is the one mentioned in 1 Chron. vi. 11, though this line does not consist only of high priests. Zebadiah is otherwise unknown. The sacred and civil affairs were under the charge of these men. *Officers*, superintending managers (Ex. v. 10). *Deal courageously*, take courage and do. *The good*, i.e. the good judge. CHAP. XX. 1-11.—Jehoshaphat's Measures lead to a Prosperous Issue. 1. How did Jehoshaphat return in peace? 2. In what way did wrath come upon him? 3. Was Hanani mentioned on any previous occasion? 4. What were the reforms of Jehoshaphat? 5. What was the peculiarity of the tribunal at Jerusalem? 6. Distinguish law, commandments, statutes, and judgments 7. Is Amariah mentioned before? 8. What are officers? CHAPTER XX. JEHOASHAPHAT'S MEASURES LEAD TO A PROSPEROUS ISSUE. This chapter records the invasion of Judah by the Moabites, Ammonites, and others, vers. 1, 2; the fast and supplication of the king and people, vers. 3-13; the answer by Jahaziel, vers. 14-19; the victory over the enemy, vers. 20-30; and the close of Jehoshaphat's reign, vers. 31-37. Only the last paragraph is found in Kings. 1, 2. The alarm of war. The Moabites had been defeated in a great battle by Joram of Israel in conjunction with Jehoshaphat and the king of Edom (2 Kings iii.). Hence, no doubt, this war of retaliation. The Ammonites, who dwelt farther to the east, were often in hostility with Israel. The other besides the Ammonites are in the Sept. some of the Minæi, for which the original may have been the Meunim or inhabitants of Maon, a town near Petra. Ver. 2. On this side Syria, from Aram, or rather from Edom, the letters \( r \) and \( d \) being very like in the Hebrew character. Edom was south-east of Judah, from which these troops might readily come to En-gedi on the west shore of the Salt Sea. Hazazon-tamar ('division of the palm'), west of the Salt Sea. 3-13. The fast with the supplication of Jehoshaphat. Set himself, set his face. A fast, by royal proclamation. Ver. 5. The new court (iv. 9) is the outer court, which was open to the public, the inner court being that of the priests, which was anciently the only one. Vers. 6-12. The supplication. This opens with an appeal to the omnipotence of God, the God of heaven, the Ruler of the nations, and the Possessor of power and might, before whom nothing can stand. Ver. 7. Then an appeal to His choice of Israel to be His people, to whom He gave this land from which they are not to be expelled. Abraham thy friend, Isa. xli. 8; Jas. ii. 23; here for the first time. Vers. 8, 9. Thirdly, an appeal to His promise (vii. 12-16) to hear His people when they pray to Him at this sanctuary which they have built. Vers. 10, 11. Then follows a special plea against the invaders, whom the Lord would not let Israel invade when they came out of Egypt (Deut. ii. 4, 9, 19), and yet they now come to cast Israel out of His land. Mount Seir refers to the Meunites in ver. 1. Ver. 12. After this comes the petition to God to judge them. This is a well reasoned prayer. Ver. 13. The whole congregation, men, women, and children, join in the prayer. *The little* or tripping ones are the wives and children (Ex. xii. 37). 14-19. The answer to the prayer. This is immediate, like that to Daniel (ix.). Jahaziel is traced to Mattaniah or Nethaniah, son of Asaph (1 Chron. xxv. 2). This prophet is parallel with Amariah (1 Chron. vi. 11). Ver. 15. The answer is first, the battle is the Lord’s. Ver. 16. Next, the order. *The cliff*, the rise or ascent of Ziz or Haziz, El Husasah, to the north of Engedi. Ver. 17. Lastly, the direction to stand still and see the salvation of the Lord. Vers. 18, 19. This is followed by the acknowledgments of the king and the people, and the thankful song of praise from the Kohathites in general, and from the Korhites, a branch of them, in particular. 20-23. The march and the issue. They started early from Jerusalem. Tekoa is south of Jerusalem, from which a wady descends to the Salt Sea. The king exhorts the people to trust in the Lord. Ver. 21. *Singers*, men to sing unto the Lord, and to praise in the beauty of holiness (1 Chron. xvi. 29). *Praise*; rather, thank ye the Lord, as in Ps. cvi. and cxxxvi. Vers. 22, 23. The issue. *Ambushments*, men in ambush; from what quarter they came is not stated. But it is not unlikely that they were from Edom, through whose territory the foe had come. A panic ensued. Ammon and Moab attacked the Seirites, whom they regarded as traitors. And when they had made an end of them, they fell on one another. 24-30. The thanksgiving and triumph. Judah beheld the enemy slain. *None escaped*, remained to dispute the field. Ver. 25. For ‘the dead bodies’ should probably be garments, as in the Sept., by a slight change of the letters. Ver. 26. On the fourth day they blessed the Lord in the valley of Berachah (*blessing*), the present wady Bereikat, west of Tekoa, on the road from Jerusalem to Hebron. Ver. 28. *With lutes and harps* of the Levites, and trumpets of the priests. Vers. 29, 30. A salutary dread fell on the surrounding kingdoms. 31-37. The close of Jehoshaphat’s reign (1 Kings xxii. 41-50). Of Azubah nothing more is on record. Ver. 34. The words of Jehu are not elsewhere noticed. *Who is mentioned*; rather, which are entered in the book of the Kings of Israel, which appears to be the same as the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah mentioned in Kings. Ver. 35. The alliance with Ahaziah does not meet with approval. *Who*, Ahaziah. Vers. 36, 37. The ships to go to Tarshish are accordingly doomed to destruction by the voice of Eliezer. After this Jehoshaphat withdrew from the alliance (1 Kings xxii. 49). 1. What is the probable reading instead of 'other besides the Ammonites'? 2. What instead of 'on this side Syria'? 3. Where was Hazazon-tamar? 4. What is the new court? 5. What are the three grounds of appeal in the prayer of the king? 6. Where else is Abraham called the friend of God? 7. What are the parts of the answer to the prayer? 8. What is apparently to be read in ver. 25 for 'the dead bodies'? 9. What in ver. 34 for 'who is mentioned'? CHAPTER XXI. REIGN OF JEHORAM. To this chapter corresponds 2 Kings viii. 16-24. It contains Jehoshaphat's family arrangements, vers. 1-4; the conduct of Jehoram, vers. 5-11; the writing from Elijah, vers. 12-15; and the end of his reign, vers. 16-20. 1-4. Jehoshaphat's family arrangements. After the record of his death, and of the accession of Jehoram, mention is made of his six sons. Ver. 3. To these he gave portions, and placed them in fenced cities in Judah. The first-born, as in Deut. xxi. 15-17. Ver. 4. His brothers and some of the princes probably adhered to the worship of the true God (ver. 13), and were for this reason suspected of disloyalty (Judg. ix. 5). Ambition and jealousy, however may have been his chief incentives. 5-11. Conduct of Jehoram as a sovereign. Eight years. According to 1 Kings viii. 16, he began to reign in the fifth year of Joram of Israel, and therefore in the twenty-second year of Jehoshaphat. Four of his eight years coincided nearly with the last four years of his father's reign, and after his father's death he reigned four years. Ver. 6. The daughter of Ahab, Athaliah, called the daughter (2 Kings viii. 26), that is, the grand-daughter, of Omri. Ver. 7. The promise of David is sure (2 Sam. vii.). Ver. 8. The flourishing power of Jehoshaphat (xvii. 11) was gradually dwindling away. Ver. 9. Compassed by Edom, he fought his way out, and escaped (2 Kings viii. 21). Ver. 10. Libnah at the same time became attached to the Philistines (xvii. 11), who had no doubt asserted their independence. The Chronicist marks the moral reason of these reverses. Ver. 11. To commit fornication. This means or includes following other gods. Compelled (Deut. xiii. 5), drove away, perverted. 12-15. The writing from Elijah. This prophet was distinct, as Cajetan concluded, from the Tishbite in time, place, and circumstance. He lived in the reign of Jehoram; the Tishbite was translated in the lifetime of his father (2 Kings iii. 11). He acted in Judah; the Tishbite had his sphere of action in the northern kingdom. He wrote a prophecy; the Tishbite was engaged in speaking and acting. His description as ‘the prophet’ is quite common, and his name is the same in letters as Elihu, and therefore not unusual. A writing from a prophet is nothing strange (1 Chron. xxviii. 19; Jer. xxxvi.). Ver. 13. Better than thyself; not idolaters, as thou art. Ver. 14. Plague, stroke; the invasion of the Philistines and Arabs, as in ver. 16. Ver. 15. A grievous diarrhoea and dysentery. 16–20. The fulfilment of the prediction. The tributaries of Jehoshaphat (xvii. 11) revolt. The Arabs that were near the Kushites were in the south of the peninsula. This shows how far the sway of Jehoshaphat had extended. Ver. 17. Brake into it, penetrated as far as the camp where were the king, his treasures, and his family, except his youngest son (xxii. 1). Only the king and his immediate retinue seem to have escaped from the invaders. ‘The king’s house’ appears to mean the temporary abode which he occupied in the camp (xxii. 1). Vers. 18, 19. His incurable malady cut him off in two years. The prophetic writing therefore appears to have come a year or two after his father’s death. There was no burning for him (xvi. 14), as he was not honoured by his subjects. Ver. 20. He reigned about four years in conjunction with his father, and four years alone. He departed without being honoured or regretted, as his predecessors were. 1. Why did Jehoram slay some of the princes as well as his own brothers? 2. How long did he reign as sole sovereign? 3. Why was his wife called the daughter of Omri? 4. What tributaries revolted from him? 5. In ver. 11 what does fornication imply? 6. What distinguishes this Elijah from the Tishbite? 7. What was the disease of Jehoram? 8. What in this chapter shows the great extent of Jehoshaphat’s dominions? 9. In ver. 17 what is meant by the king’s house? CHAPTER XXII. REIGN OF AHAZIAH—USURPATION OF ATHALIAH. In this chapter we have the reign of Ahaziah, vers. 1–6; his end, vers. 7–9; and the usurpation of Athaliah, vers. 10–12. This has its parallel in 2 Kings viii. 24–29, ix. 27, and xi. 1–3. 1–6. Reign of Ahaziah (2 Kings viii. 26–29). Ahaziah is called Jehoahaz in xxi. 17, a name with the same components in the inverse order (held by the Lord). The band of men, see xxi. 17. Ver. 2. Forty and two is an error of transcription for twenty and two (2 Kings viii. 26), as Jehoram his father was not more than forty at his death (xxi. 20). The daughter, grand-daughter of Omri (2 Kings viii. 18), who is named as the founder of the family. Vers. 3, 4. His mother and her house counselled him to his destruction. Ver. 5. The rise of Hazael of Aram is recorded in 2 Kings viii. 7-15. Ramoth-gilead was the old object of contention (xviii.). The he in Arammim should be aleph; it has led the Sept. to render 'archers' (τοξόται). Ver. 6. Jezreel was a town of Issachar in the great plain of Jezreel or Esdraelon (in Greek), the valley of the Kishon, celebrated for fertility. Because of, or simply as in 2 Kings viii. 29, 'of' the wounds. Ramah is Ramoth-gilead, near which was the field of battle. Azariah, a variant or a slip of the pen for Ahaziah. 7-9. Death of Ahaziah. The destruction, the trampling down. The Chronicist traces the hand of God in the punishment of Ahaziah. Against, rather 'to meet.' Jehu comes into view in 2 Kings ix. The son, the grandson of Nimshi (2 Kings ix. 2). Ver. 8. Sons of the brethren of Ahaziah are simply his kindred, amounting to forty-two persons (2 Kings x. 14). Ver. 9. For he was hid; rather, 'and he was about to hide in Samaria.' He was making his way to that city, where his friends were (2 Kings x. 12, 13). But he was turned aside by his pursuers, who bringing him to Jehu mortally wounded him, so that though he escaped in his chariot, he died at Megiddo (2 Kings ix. 27). And they, his servants (2 Kings ix. 28), buried him in his sepulchre with his fathers at Jerusalem, not for his own sake, but because he was the son, that is, grandson of Jehoshaphat. There was no one left of the royal house able to assume the sovereignty. 10-12. Athaliah's usurpation. Destroyed, in 2 Kings xi. 1, a more usual word is found in the original. All the seed royal, who might aspire to the throne. She herself was excluded by law from the sovereignty (Deut. xvii. 15). Ver. 11. Jehoshabeath, a variation of Jehosheba (2 Kings xi. 2). Daughter of the king, Jehoram, and sister of Ahaziah. Joash was therefore her nephew. Jehoiada is supposed not to be the high priest, because his name is not in the line from Aaron to Jozadak (1 Chron. vi.). But this is not a line of high priests, but only of the ancestors of Jozadak the high priest, some of whom were and others were not high priests. His actions and his affinity with the royal house are strongly in favour of his being high priest, and there is nothing against it. 1. What is the relation of the two forms of Ahaziah's name? 2. What should be read for forty-two years as the age of Ahaziah? 3. Why is Omri mentioned as the father of Athaliah? 4. How does the Sept. render the word here translated Syrians? 5. What is the Greek form for Jezreel? 6. In ver. 6 what is meant by Ramah? 7. And for what does Azariah stand? 8. What rendering is preferable to the phrase 'he was hid'? CHAPTER XXIII. JOASH MADE KING. In this chapter Joash is made king, vers. 1-11; Athaliah slain, vers. 12-15; and the restoration completed, vers. 16-21. This is parallel with 2 Kings xi. 4-21. 1-11. Joash made king. The captains of hundreds were centurions of the royal guards, who were loyal to the legitimate heir to the crown. The officers named are not otherwise known. The covenant here is the agreement to restore the king. Ver. 2. The Levites and chief fathers have a right to take part in this work. Ver. 3. All the congregation, all that were assembled to represent the people. The covenant contains the terms on which the parties agree to be king and subjects. The king's son. The monarchy is hereditary, according to 2 Sam. vii., and limited by the covenant. Vers. 4, 5. You that enter on the Sabbath, that is, as he explains, the priests and Levites who go in by course to perform their functions. All these were to be divided into three parts. One-third shall take their stand at the doors by the gate behind the guard (2 Kings xi. 6), another at the king's house (2 Kings xi. 5), and another at the gate Jesod or Sur. The guard appears to be in the outer court, the gate by which they enter it being behind them. The private entry from the king's house is kept by the second third, that Athaliah may not intrude. The gate of the foundation or recess seems to have been at the corner of the temple area that was formed by a foundation or substructure, where the ravine ran between Moriah and the southern hill. Thus the courses that went in were to guard the three ways into the outer court. Ver. 6. The course that was to come out on the Sabbath (2 Kings xi. 7) in two parts was to guard the inner court, allowing none to enter but priests and Levites. All the people are to remain in the outer courts or court. Ver. 7. The Levites with arms are to be with the king at his entrance and exit. Ver. 8. All Judah here includes the captains of hundreds in 2 Kings xi. 9. Jehoiada dismissed not the courses, but employed those within to keep the gates of the inner court, and those about to come in to keep those of the outer court. Ver. 9. The captains of hundreds have their proper functions as well as the Levites, and are provided with weapons, the shields being those taken by David from the servants of Hadadezer (2 Sam. viii. 7). Ver. 10. All the people, those who were not priests or Levites. They were placed on the south and north sides, leaving an interval for the king and his attendants. Ver. 11. The testimony is the book of the law, according to which he was to walk and rule (Deut. xvii. 18). 12-15. Athaliah slain. She is permitted to enter the outer court, but without a guard. Ver. 13. His pillar, the platform on which he was elevated in view of the people, being a child of seven years. Treason or conspiracy. Ver. 14. Brought out is in 2 Kings xi. 15 'commanded.' This may be a variety in the mode of narration or an error of transcription, as the original forms are very like. The ranges are usually explained of the ranks of soldiers, but probably mean the precincts of the courts (septa templi, Vulg.). Ver. 15. Laid hands on her, according to the Sept. 'gave her space.' But this is doubtful. When she had passed the horse gate, they slew her. 16-21. The restoration completed. The covenant to be the Lord's people is ratified. Jehoiada represented the Lord (2 Kings xi. 17). Ver. 17. In pursuance of this, the temple of Baal is destroyed. Vers. 18, 19. The arrangements of the priests and Levites, including the singers and porters, are restored. Ver. 20. The king is escorted to his palace by the grandees of the people. The high gate was the chief gate of the outer court, and is called in 2 Kings xi. 19 the gate of the guard, because the guard from the king's palace entered thereby. 1. Who were the captains of hundreds? 2. What covenants were made on this occasion? 3. What kind of monarchy existed among the Jews? 4. Where were the incoming courses stationed? 5. What was the gate of the foundation? 6. What part was assigned to the course that was to come out? 7. What is meant by 'all Judah'? 8. What is the function of the captains of hundreds? 9. What is the testimony? 10. What were the ranges? 11. What was the high gate? CHAPTER XXIV. REIGN OF JOASH. JOASH takes an interest in religion under the guidance of Jehoiada, vers. 1-14; forsakes the God of his fathers when Jehoiada is taken away, vers. 15-22; is distressed by the Syrians, and put to death by his servants, vers. 23-27. Parallel to this is 2 Kings xii. 1–14. Joash zealous for God under the influence of Jehoiada. Of his mother we know nothing more. Under the guidance of Jehoiada, his conduct is good. Ver. 4. To repair, renew. It was neglected by Athaliah. Ver. 5. To repair, strengthen. The Levites hastened it not; perhaps the funds accruing were not more than sufficient for the expense of the public service. Ver. 6. The collection is the tax or assessment of Moses (Ex. xxx. 12–16, xxxviii. 25, 26), which was half a shekel from every one that was numbered for the service of the tent of meeting (Num. i. 50). Ver. 7. The sons of Athaliah include Ahaziah and his brothers, who were devoted to idolatry. Wicked, active in wickedness. Bestow upon Baalim. This note is peculiar to the Chronicist. Ver. 10. Made an end by filling the chest. Ver. 11. The king's office or charge. Day by day, whenever the chest was full. Ver. 12. Such as did the work, undertook to have it done. The service of the house, its repair. Ver. 13. The work was perfected, amendment or progress of the work took place. In his state, its measure, proportion. Ver. 14. And when they had finished it, not till then (2 Kings xii. 13). Vessels to minister and to offer. The offering was peculiar to the priests. 15–22. When Jehoiada died, Joash followed after other gods. This paragraph is wanting in Kings. Full of days. This is applied only to Abraham, Isaac, Job, David, and Jehoiada. All the others except David were older than Jehoiada (2 Sam. v. 4). He must have been a hundred years of age when he placed Joash on the throne. Ver. 17. The king was flattered by their obeisance. As he was twenty-three years on the throne before the temple was repaired (2 Kings xii. 6), it is probable he had now reigned about thirty years, and was about thirty-six years of age. Ver. 18. Groves, stocks of trees representing the moon goddess (xiv. 3). Joash in some degree complied with their proceedings. Ver. 19. Prophets. Their names do not appear in Scripture. Ver. 20. Came upon, clothed (1 Chron. xii. 18). The son, the son of Berechiah, and therefore grandson of Jehoiada (Matt. xxiii. 35). This agrees both with the great age of Jehoiada and the phraseology of Scripture. His father had apparently died before his grandfather. Stood above, being in the court of the priests, which was higher than the outer court. And do not prosper. This is the constant theme of the Chronicist himself. Ver. 21. Stoning is the punishment appointed for idolaters (Lev. xx. 2). In the court, between the temple and the altar (Matt. xxiii. 35). Ver. 22. King Joash himself was the author of this murder. The judicial priest pronounces the doom of heaven on the act. 23–27. Joash is distressed by Aram, and slain by his servants. At the end, in the spring, when the campaign usually commenced (2 Sam. xi. 1). The host of Aram, Aram of Damascus. Hazael the king had already subdued the northern kingdom (2 Kings xiii. 3). The princes were in this case the flagrant transgressors. Ver. 24. A small company. This agrees with the fact that Aram-damascus was alone concerned. A very great host (Lev. xxvi. 8, 17, 25; Deut. xxviii. 25). The judgment upon Joash includes the wounds he received in the battle. Ver. 25. In great diseases, probably with great wounds. The sons. Joash seems to have slain more than one descendant of Jehoiada. Ver. 26. Zabad, perhaps originally Zachar, as the letters are of like form, is in Kings, Jozachar. Shimrith; in Kings, Shomer. It is singular that the mothers only are named. Ver. 27. The burden was the tribute imposed upon him by Hazael, including the payment by which he was induced to go away from Jerusalem (2 Kings xii. 18). The repairing, founding. The story is the memoir contained in the annals of the state. 1. Why did the Levites not hasten the fund for repairing the temple? 2. What was the collection laid upon Israel by Moses? 3. What are meant by 'such as did the work'? 4. What was done with the surplus after the repair was finished? 5. To whom was the phrase 'full of days' applied? 6. How long was Joash on the throne before the temple was repaired? 7. Whose son was Zachariah? 8. In what court was he slain? CHAPTER XXV. REIGN OF AMAZIAH. This chapter contains Amaziah's character, vers. 1–4; his victory over Edom, vers. 5–13; his idolatry, vers. 14–16; his war with Joash of Israel, vers. 17–24; and his end, vers. 25–28. Parallel to this is 2 Kings xiv. 1–20. 1–4. Amaziah's character. Ver. 2. Not with a perfect, or single heart; as it is in Kings, not like his ancestor David, but like his father Joash. Ver. 4. Did as it is written in Deut. xxiv. 16. This is an instance of his doing that which was right in the sight of the Lord. 5–13. His victory over Edom. Found them 300,000, instead of the 160,000 in the time of Jehoshaphat, or the 580,000 in the time of Asa. Ver. 7. Israel is here defined to be all the children of Ephraim, who was the chief tribe in the northern kingdom. The adherents of Ephraim are included. Ver. 8. The English Version here agrees with the original. 'But (if thou wilt take thy own way) go thou alone without thy God, do. Be brave for the war; it will be of no avail.' Ver. 9. Here we have simply the question and answer of prudence. *Army*, troops hired from Israel. Ver. 10. *In great anger*, in the heat of anger. Ver. 11. The valley of Salt lay south of the Salt Sea, where the Seirites dwelt. Seir was associated with Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 18). Ver. 12. *The rock*, probably that of Sela, the capital of Edom. From 2 Kings xiv. 7, it appears that he took Sela and changed its name to Joktheel. Ver. 13. *The soldiers of the army* or sons of the troops are the mercenaries from Israel. *The cities of Judah*. They appear to have been all in the territory formerly belonging to Ephraim. The northern king seems to have sent them back to attack these cities. *Smote three thousand of them*, of the men of these cities. 14–16. His idolatry. This is not in Kings. *The gods of the sons of Seir*, with whom he had the conflict. Ver. 16. *Art thou mad?* Have we made thee? *Why shouldst thou be smitten?* Why should they smite thee? 17–24. His war with Joash of Israel. *See one another in the face*, encounter one another in battle (2 Sam. ii. 13). Ver. 18. *The thistle* or thorn. *A wild beast*. This is meant to show the insignificance of the thistle. Ver. 19. *Thou sayest*, talkest. Ver. 20. *It was from God* to abandon them because of their idolatry. Ver. 21. *Bethshemesh*, on the border of Dan and the Philistines. Ver. 23. *The corner gate*; literally, the gate of the turning (wall), at the north-west corner of the wall. Ver. 24. *Obed-edom* is either put for the chief of the porters, or is a descendant of the former chief in David's time. *The hostages*, sons of pledges. 25–28. His end. Ver. 27. *After the time*. The conspiracy was long after this occurrence, which is therefore introduced as the remote cause which produced it. *Lachish* was in the lowlands of Judah. Ver. 28. *The city of Judah*, for which in Kings we find the city of David. The former is perhaps a slip of the transcriber. 1. Whom did Amaziah resemble in character? 2. What law did he observe with regard to the murderers of his father? 3. Where was the Valley of Salt? 4. What is meant by the rock? 5. Where were the cities attacked by the mercenaries? 6. Wherein lay the folly of Amaziah's idolatry? 7. What was the relation of Joash to Jehu? 8. Where was Beth-shemesh? 9. What was the corner gate? 10. What is meant by the city of Judah? CHAPTER XXVI. REIGN OF UZZIAH. UZZIAH's character, vers. 1-5; his achievements, vers. 6-15; his presumption, vers. 16-21; and his end, vers. 22, 23. There is a parallel to this in 2 Kings xiv. 21, 22, xv. 1-7. 1-5. Uzziah's character. He is called Azariah ('help from Jehovah') in Kings, and his name (Azriyahu) is said to be in the tablets of Tiglath-pileser. Uzziah ('strength from Jehovah') is the usual form in Chronicles and in the prophets. Ver. 2. Built, fortified. Eloth or Elath, at the head of the Gulf of Akaba (viii. 17). He completed the reduction of Edom, begun by his father. Ver. 3. Jecoliah or Jekiliah. Ver. 5. Sought, was in the habit of seeking. This Zechariah is not otherwise known. The visions. For this the Sept. has 'the fear,' by a variation in the text. The Chronist marks as usual the connection between godliness and prosperity. 6-15. His achievements. This is not in Kings. Jabneh, now Jebna, on the coast. The dismantling of these cities and the building of cities among the Philistines is a restoration of the state of things in the times of Jehoshaphat (xvii. 11). Ver. 7. Gur-baal is not known. The Meunites are the inhabitants of Maon (xxii. 1). Ver. 8. The Ammonites were north-east of Moab. The entrance on the border of Egypt is the point opposite to Ammon. His name, his influence. Ver. 9. The corner gate is mentioned in xxv. 23. The valley gate is supposed to be the Jaffa gate on the west, but may be, as Caspari holds, a south gate over the valley of Hinnom, or even the gate at the valley of Tyropceon. The turning is said to be at the south-east corner of the temple area. Ver. 10. The desert of Judah, west of the Salt Sea. The low country, Shephelah, was near the Mediterranean. The plain is supposed to be in the territory of Reuben. Carmel either lies in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 55) or means the fruitful field. Ver. 11. Jeiel, or Jueel, and Maaseiah are officers under Hananiah. Their account, their muster. Ver. 12. These 2600 chief men were over the army. Ver. 13. The number of troops does not much exceed that in the time of Amaziah (xxv. 5). Ver. 14. The different weapons suit different classes of men. Ver. 15. Engines, machines for discharging missiles. These were the balista for stones and the catapult for arrows or darts. 16-21. His presumption (2 Kings xv. 5). Only the priests were to enter the holy place (Num. xviii. 7). Uzziah presumed to act as neighbouring sovereigns were wont to do. Ver. 17. Azariah cannot be identified with any name in the line of Jozadak (1 Chron. vi. 4-15). Ver. 18. The priests asserted their right and withstood the king. Ver. 19. This was the punishment of Miriam for rebelling against Moses (Num. xii.), and of Gehazi for taking a present from Naaman (2 Kings v. 27). Ver. 20. The priests now proceed to thrust him out as unclean; and he himself hastens away. Ver. 21. A several house, a house of separation. The leper was not permitted to dwell in a house with others (Lev. xiii. 46). As he could not perform his regal duties, Jotham was appointed regent. 22, 23. His end. Isaiah the prophet took part in composing the records of the kingdom. CHAPTER XXVII. REIGN OF JOTHAM. JOTHAM's character, vers. 1, 2; actions, vers. 3-6; and death, vers. 7-9. Parallel to this is 2 Kings xv. 32-38. 1, 2. Jotham's character. He was better than his father in so far as he did not intrude into the temple. The corrupt doings of the people are indicated in the statement of Kings, that offerings were still made in the high places. 3-6. His acts. He was a great builder. The high gate (xxiii. 20). This led from the palace to the outer court of the temple. It was loftier in structure than the others. Ophel ('swell,' 'hill') was an elevation in the hill south of the temple mount. Ver. 4. Castles (xviii. 12), forts. These were in situations not suitable for cities, yet needing defence. Ver. 5. The Ammonites were restless under the yoke (xxvi. 8), and required to be reconquered. They now paid tribute at least three years. This points to the reverse from the invasion of Rezin and Pekah (2 Kings xv. 37), which probably released the Ammonites from their subjection. Ver. 6. The Chronist reiterates his great moral lesson. 7-9. His death. His wars included the struggle with Ephraim and Aram combined, to which our author does not otherwise refer. 1. What are the varieties of Uzziah's name? 2. What has the Sept. for the visions of God? 3. What countries did Uzziah reconquer? 4. Where is the valley gate said to have been? 5. What is meant by the plains? 6. Where was Carmel? 7. What machines discharge stones and darts? 8. What other persons were punished with leprosy? 9. For what was Jotham remarkable? 10. What war of his is not specified by the writer of Chronicles? CHAPTER XXVIII. REIGN OF AHAZ. The idolatry of Ahaz and its consequence, vers. 1-8; the captives of Judah released, vers. 9-15; other calamities of Ahaz and his end, vers. 16-27. Parallel to this is 2 Kings xvi. 1-8. Idolatry of Ahaz and its consequence. Ahaz appears in the Assyrian monuments as Jahukhazi=Jehoahaz. Twenty years. In some copies of the Sept. we find twenty-five years. Ver. 2. Molten images. This is a return to the superstition of the northern kingdom. Ver. 3. The valley of Ben-hinnom was south of Jerusalem. Who Hinnom was is not known. Burnt his children (see on Lev. xviii. 21). Though the Rabbis held passing through the fire to be merely a kind of lustration, yet we can scarcely doubt that Ahaz here practised the more horrid rite of giving some of his children to be burned in the worship of Moloch. Vers. 5-8. The moral consequence of his idolatry. Rezin of Aram seems to have acted separately, though in concert with Pekah. Carried away; literally, took a great capture of them. The capture and the bringing to Damascus are distinct. The second conflict is with Pekah. Hence we perceive the intensity of the struggle (see in Isa. vii.-ix.). Ver. 7. The king's son, the mayor of the palace, and the vicegerent of the king, are slain in this conflict. Ver. 8. If the 200,000 be men of the sword, the total force slain and captive amounts to 320,000, somewhat less than the whole military strength of the kingdom in the time of Uzziah (xxvi. 13). 9-15. The captives released. This is wanting in Kings. Oded was a prophet of the Lord in Samaria, where also Elijah the Tishbite, Elisha, and other prophets pursued their vocation. Went out, like Azariah, son of Oded (xv. 2), who may have been an ancestor of his. Reacheth, sin on earth crieth unto heaven (Gen. xviii. 21), where God heareth. Ver. 10. Ye purpose, say in your heart. Ver. 12. The appeal of Oded is effectual. These noble chiefs are not otherwise known. Ver. 13. Our trespass, our failing to do what was right, and thence our guilt. Ver. 15. This is a beautiful picture of primeval charity. Expressed by name, appointed for this task. Jericho was a border city of Benjamin, famous in old times for its palms. 16-27. Other calamities and end of Ahaz. At that time, after the disastrous war with Ephraim and Aram. The kings. This indicates that Ahaz had to do with more than one sovereign, either in succession or conjunction; which latter is not unusual in the East (xxx. 6, xxxii. 4). But the Sept. and other versions have the singular here, and this may be correct. Vers. 17, 18. These verses assign the reasons for sending to Asshur. The Edomites, who were reduced by Amaziah and Uzziah. Ver. 18. The Philistines were tributary to the same monarchs. Beth-shemesh (1 Chron. vi. 44) and Ajalon (1 Chron. vi. 54) were on the border. Gederoth was in the lowland. Socho (xi. 7) was near the Philistines. Timnah (Josh. xv. 10) and Gimzo bordered on Dan. Dwelt there. They did not make a raid, but held possession of the places conquered. Ver. 19. Made Judah naked, or made him unruly or refractory. Ver. 20. Tilgath-pilneser (see on 1 Chron. v. 6). He seized a considerable part of Pekah's kingdom (2 Kings xv. 29). He also took Damascus and slew Rezin (2 Kings xvi. 9). But he merely made a tributary of Ahab. The Assyrian monuments testify to this. Ver. 21. Took away a portion out of, spoiled. But the spoliation was of no avail. Ver. 22. Affliction either chastens or hardens, according to the disposition of the subject. Ver. 23. The Chronicist gives the reasoning of Ahaz without comment, as he had said before (ver. 5) that the Lord had forsaken him on account of his idolatry. Ver. 24. The work of demolition is more particularly described in 2 Kings xvi. 17, in conjunction with the preceding verses narrating the construction of an altar after the model of one seen at Damascus. Ver. 27. His burial is not honourable. 1. What is the name of Ahaz on the Assyrian monuments? 2. Where was the valley of Hinnom? 3. Whose worship was introduced there? 4. What prophet writes of the conflict with Rezin and Pekah? 5. What prophets had their sphere in the northern kingdom? 6. What tributaries rebelled against Ahaz? 7. What other version is proposed for 'he made Judah naked'? 8. How was it that Tiglath-pileser did not really help Ahaz? 9. What particular altar was erected by order of Ahaz? CHAPTER XXIX. HEZEKIAH BEGINS TO REIGN. Hezekiah's address, vers. 1-11; the cleansing of the temple, vers. 12-19; its re-consecration, vers. 20-30; and the thank-offerings consequent thereupon, vers. 31-36. Corresponding with this and the two following chapters is only 2 Kings xviii. 1-6. 1-11. Hezekiah's address. Zechariah may be the prophet mentioned in xxvi. 5. Hezekiah's mother had some influence in forming his character. Ver. 3. He began his reform at once, in the first month of the year. Ver. 4. The east street, an area east of the temple. Ver. 5. Self-sanctification fits them to sanctify the house of God. The filthiness is the stain of idolatry, so far as it appeared in the holy place. Ver. 6. Our fathers were Ahaz and his generation. Ver. 7. These were the acts of Ahaz (xxviii. 24). Ver. 8. This was seen in the invasions of Hazael and Pekah, of the Edomites and the Philistines, and of Tiglath-pileser in the reign of Ahaz. Ver. 9. Many at the time were captives among their conquerors and oppressors. Ver. 10. The purpose of Hezekiah. Ver. 11. Negligent, remiss. This agrees better with the context than 'deceived.' Burn incense; more generally, make any fire-offering. 12-19. The temple cleansed. The overseers of the work were taken two from each of the families of Levites, two from the descendants of Elizaphan (Ex. vi. 22), who was chief of the Kohathites in the time of Moses (Num. iii. 39), and two from each family of the three chiefs of song. Some of these names have occurred before, but not the persons. Ver. 15. The words of the Lord are contained in the law (Ex. xix. 22; Lev. xi. 44). Ver. 16. The priests only entered the house of the Lord. Kidron ran east of the temple mount. Ver. 17. The Passover was slain on the fourteenth of this month. There is no reason to doubt that it was celebrated at the legal time by some. Ver. 18. The articles which had not been removed are reported to have been cleansed. Ver. 19. The vessels which Ahaz had removed (xxviii. 24) are restored and sanctified. 20-30. The temple consecrated by the renewal of the sacrifices. The chief citizens are to take part in this renovation. Ver. 21. Seven is the number of covenant. It is conspicuous in this great offering for the kingdom, the sanctuary, and the nation. Ver. 22. The burnt-offering. The distinct and emphatic act here is the sprinkling of the blood upon the altar. The blood expiates. Ver. 23. The sin-offering. The laying on of the hands denoted the laying of their sins on them as the typical substitute for themselves. Ver. 24. Made reconciliation, made expiation for sin. The blood of the sin-offering (Lev. iv.) is added to that of the burnt-offering for all Israel. Ver. 25. The choirs of the Levites, according to the order of David and Gad and Nathan (1 Chron. xvi. 4, xxii., xxiii. 5, xxix. 29), raised the song of praise. Ver. 27. The burnt-offering was burnt as a whole on the altar; but only the fat of the sin-offering (Lev. iv. 19). The former was the propitiation (Lev. i. 9). This was therefore the crowning point of the offering, and with it began the song of the Lord, the clang of the trumpets, and the music of the harps and lutes. Vers. 28–30. The song of praise in the words of David and Asaph brought the solemn service to a close. 31–36. The thank-offerings. Consecrated yourselves by filling your hands with the offerings. These sacrifices were peace-offerings, in which the people communed with the Lord and with one another (Lev. viii. 11–21). The burnt-offerings were holocausts, and purely propitiatory. Ver. 33. These are the thank-offerings, which were eaten before the Lord. Ver. 34. The flaying of the victims was not properly a priestly function. It was performed at first by the worshippers (Lev. i. 6), afterwards by the Levites, and on public occasions like the present by the priests. Ver. 35. The burnt-offerings and the fat of the other offerings (Lev. iii. 3–5) were burnt on the altar by the priests. The libations are prescribed in Num. xv. This completed the restoration of the sacrificial worship. Ver. 36. The preparation of the heart is from the Lord. 1. Who was the father-in-law of Hezekiah? 2. What should precede the sanctification of the house of God? 3. What captivity was meant by Hezekiah? 4. Who were appointed to cleanse the temple? 5. What prevented the Passover being kept at the proper time this year? 6. In what way was the temple consecrated anew? 7. For what kind of sacrifice were the several groups of seven victims presented? 8. What was done with the victims in the burnt-offering, the sin-offering, and the peace-offering? 9. How did the people consecrate themselves? 10. By whom were the victims flayed? 11. In what part of Scripture are the libations prescribed? CHAPTER XXX. HEZEKIAH'S KEEPING OF THE PASSOVER. The preparations for the Passover, vers. 1–12; the celebration, vers. 13–22; and the second seven days of solemn festival, vers. 23–27. 1–12. Preparations for the Passover. Sent messengers. Besides the message to all Israel, he sent special letters to Ephraim and Manasseh, the tribes of Joseph, and leaders of the northern kingdom. Hoshea, their king, was at this time probably a prisoner of the King of Assyria (2 Kings xvii. 4). Ver. 2. It was lawful to celebrate the Passover in the second month for any who were absent or disabled by defilement at the proper time (Num. ix. 9-12). Both of these causes interfered at this time to prevent many from keeping it in the first month. Ver. 3. Other reasons are here assigned. Ver. 5. Established a decree, made an order. From Beersheba to Dan, as far as the name of Israel now extended. Of a long time, or as some think, in full numbers. Ver. 6. And Israel, the name by which the nation was usually called. That are escaped. The eastern and northern parts of the kingdom had been carried in great part to Asshur (2 Kings xv. 29), and the rest were now tributary to its kings (2 Kings xvii. 1-4). Ver. 8. Hardening the neck (Deut. x. 16) is the gesture of disobedience, as giving the hand (1 Chron. xxiv. 24) is that of submission. Ver. 9. Your children shall be an object of compassion to their captors. Returning favour follows true repentance towards God. Ver. 10. Zebulun was the extreme point of Israel, as the northern part had been subdued and nearly depopulated by Asshur. Ver. 11. The message had the usual effect of exciting the derision of some, and the repentance of others. Ver. 12. The hand of God either sanctifies and unites, as here, or corrects and punishes, as is abundantly shown in the history of the world. 18-22. The celebration of the Passover. Ver. 14. Took away the altars of idolatry erected by Ahaz. Ver. 15. Ashamed (ver. 3). This is an element of that coming to a right mind which is called repentance. Ver. 16. Their place was arranged by custom and convenience. The place of slaying was on the north of the altar (Lev. i. 11). The place of offering was on the south (Josephus, Wars, v. 5, 6). Ver. 17. The worshipper originally killed his own victim. But the uncleanness of many is here given as a reason why this work devolved on the Levites. Ver. 18. It was contrary to the law for the unclean to eat of the Passover (Num. ix. 6). Ver. 19. Every one at the end of the previous verse really belongs to this. Ver. 20. Healed, delivered them from any moral or physical consequence of the act. Ver. 21. Loud instruments; rather, instruments ascribing might to the Lord. Ver. 22. Comfortably unto, to the heart of all the Levites. Taught, or as some think, had. Did eat throughout the feast; literally, ate the feast seven days. This refers to the peace-offerings, which were of the essence of the feast, and were eaten in solemn communion by the people. Making confession, giving thanks. This is the crowning part of confession. 23-27. The second seven days. Took counsel, resolved. Ver. 24. Gave, as a heave-offering. Ver. 25. There is a universal gladness. The strangers, proselytes from Israel and in Judah. These are of the non-Israelites who dwelt among them. The Israelites are mentioned before. Ver. 26. The Passover was annually celebrated by a few. But such a national celebration had not occurred since the time of Solomon at the feast of Tabernacles (vii. 9). Ver. 27. The priests may be called Levites, in contrast with those of an impure worship. The priests were entitled to bless. The Sept. has 'the priests and the Levites.' 1. Why did Hezekiah write especially to Ephraim and Manasseh? 2. Was the celebration of the Passover in the second month lawful? 3. What rendering may be substituted in ver. 5 for 'of a long time'? 4. How is the phrase 'that are escaped' to be explained? 5. Where was the place of slaying, and where of offering? 6. Why did not the heads of houses slay the paschal lambs? 7. What is to be understood by eating throughout the feast seven days? 8. What is meant by making confession? 9. Who were the strangers? 10. What feast was kept in an extraordinary manner by Solomon? CHAPTER XXXI. HEZEKIAH'S REFORM. King Hezekiah appoints the courses and the contributions, vers. 1-10; and arranges the chambers and the officers, vers. 11-21. This has no parallel in Kings. 1-10. Appointment of the courses and contributions. All Israel that were present at the Passover in conjunction with Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii. 4). The images, statues of Baal; groves, stocks representing Asherah or Ashtoreth (xiv. 3). In Ephraim also and Manasseh. Hosea was probably still a prisoner (2 Kings xvii. 4). Utterly destroyed them all, had made an end. A clean sweep of the idols out of the whole northern kingdom need not be supposed. Ver. 2. On the courses, compare 1 Chron. xxiv.--xxvi. The tents; rather, the camp of the Lord, with reference to the order observed, and also to the state of things in the wilderness. Ver. 3. The king's portion. He is not to be exempt from the expense of the public service. The national offerings are prescribed in Num. xxviii. and xxix. The various feasts are mentioned in Lev. xxiii. Ver. 4. Having set the example, he calls upon the people to do their part as prescribed in Ex. xxiii. 19 and Num. xviii. 21. Ver. 5. The commandment is the proclamation of the king. It meets with a ready compliance. Honey is here perhaps a vegetable product obtained from the date or grape. Ver. 6. The tithe of holy things is equivalent to the heave-offerings of the holy things (Num. xviii. 8) assigned to Aaron. Ver. 7. The feast of Weeks, about the sixth of the third month, was the close of the grain harvest. After this the tithe would begin to be paid in kind. Hence the heaps. In the seventh month was the feast of ingathering, when the vintage was over. Ver. 10. It is uncertain whether this be the Azariah who was priest in the days of Uzziah (xxvi. 17). Though of the family of Zadok, he is not in the line of Jozadak. 11-21. The stores and officers for the heaps contributed. The chambers belonged to the original structure as built by Solomon (1 Kings vi. 5); but they would need repair. Ver. 12. Faithfully, as in xix. 9. The chief collector was Conaniah, and his second (1 Chron. v. 12) was Shimei. Ver. 13. Ten officers are placed under them, the names of two of whom, Jehiel and Nahath, appear in xxix. 12, 14. Over all are the king and the high priest. Ver. 14. The name of this chief of the porters comes down from Kore, grandson of Korah (1 Chron. ix. 19). Ver. 15. Under him are placed six assistants. The priests had thirteen cities assigned to them (Josh. xxi. 19). In their set office, in trust or faithfulness, as in ver. 12. Ver. 16. Beside their genealogy, or family register of males, from three years up to twenty, for all who attend in the house of the Lord. These are partakers of the provision made for those in actual attendance, and therefore need no provision in the cities of the priests. Ver. 17. The first register leads to that of those who were in actual attendance at the temple, the priests and the Levites from twenty years up. Ver. 18. This is followed by the register of the little ones (xx. 13), namely, the wives, sons, and daughters of the priests and Levites. Thus the distribution in ver. 15 is to those in the cities in general; excepted from it are those in attendance at the temple with their male children of three years and upward, who have a distribution in Jerusalem; and included in it are the wives and daughters and male children under three years. In their set office, in their faithfulness, as before in ver. 12. The distributers were conscientious in the discharge of their duty. Ver. 19. The only others included in the distribution of the priestly and Levitical cities are the priests and Levites of full age who were not in actual attendance at the temple; and these accordingly are now specified. Vers. 20, 21. The integrity and benevolence of the king are attested. The law is the written law of Moses as a whole. The commandment is any distinct precept. 1. What were the images? what the groves? 2. Where was Hosea probably at this time? 3. What are the tents of the Lord? 4. In what part of Scripture are the national offerings prescribed? 5. What is perhaps here meant by honey? 6. When was the feast of Weeks? 7. Of what family was Azariah the high priest? 8. What is meant by their genealogy? 9. What is to be substituted for 'in their set office'? 10. Distinguish law and commandment. CHAPTER XXXII. HEZEKIAH'S DELIVERANCE FROM SENNACHERIB, AND END. Hezekiah prepares to meet Sennacherib, vers. 1-8; Sennacherib's message and letter, vers. 9-19; his discomfiture and death, vers. 20-23; and the after history of Hezekiah, vers. 24-33. Parallel with this chapter are 2 Kings xviii. 13-xix., and Isa. xxxvi., xxxvii. 1-8. Preparations to meet Sennacherib. After these things, in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii. 13). And the establishment thereof; rather, this faithfulness or truth on the part of Hezekiah. Sennacherib, Sanherib (Sinahi-irib in the Assyrian monuments), son and successor of Sargon. Win them, make a breach in them. Ver. 2. He was purposed, his face was to fight against Jerusalem. According to 2 Kings xviii. 14-16, Hezekiah at first yielded, came to terms with the invader, agreeing to pay him 300 talents of silver and 30 talents of gold, and made payment at least in part. At this point, however, the negotiation broke off, we are not informed why or how; and Hezekiah took courage and prepared to stand a siege in Jerusalem. Ver. 3. To stop the waters from overflowing outside the city, by conducting them underground into it. Ver. 4. The brook, the Gihon that flowed down the middle of the city (as in the Sept.) into the valley of Hinnom. This they diverted into the city (2 Kings xx. 20). The kings, as in xxviii. 16. Ver. 5. The wall that was broken. The wall that was broken by Joash of Israel (xxv. 23) was no doubt rebuilt by Uzziah (xxvi. 9). But since his time it had gone out of repair. To the towers; rather, on the towers. He added to the height of the towers, which had been dilapidated during the last two reigns. Another wall without. This enclosed the whole or some additional part of the fore city, lying between the upper city and the temple hill (see Josephus, Wars, v. 4, 2). Millo (1 Chron. xi. 8) was in the city of David, or the southern hill of the eastern ridge (Caspari). It lay at the north-west corner of this elevation. It was a point of vantage for maintaining the connection between the western and eastern hills of the city. Darts, missiles. Ver. 6. The street, an area or open space. It is not otherwise defined. But as the other wall may have enclosed the pool of Hezekiah, a space unoccupied by buildings would naturally be found at the gate of this wall. Ver. 7. More with us, as in 2 Kings vi. 16. Ver. 8. An arm of flesh, as in Isa. xxxi. 3. 9–19. Message and letter of Sennacherib. Himself laid siege; or rather, simply lay, though he was no doubt engaged in the siege. All his power, all his kingdom, his royal state. Ver. 10. In the siege, or in the fortress. Ver. 11. Persuade, urge you to your destruction. Ver. 12. Taken away his high places (2 Kings xviii. 22). Such a misconception of the religious reform of Hezekiah is not unnatural in a heathen. Ver. 13. Know ye not (2 Kings xviii. 33–35). Many of the nations subdued are specified in Kings, and among the rest Samaria. My fathers, predecessors. Ver. 15. How much less. The King of Asshur probably measured the power of the national god by the extent of the territory and resources of the nation. Ver. 16. His servants, Tartan, Rabsaris, and Rabshakeh, of whom the last was the spokesman. Vers. 17–19. His letter (2 Kings xix. 8–14). Rabshakeh returned to his master at Libnah, who, on hearing of the approach of Tirhakah, sent messengers with this letter to Hezekiah. Letters, in the plural, referring to the characters in which it was written. The purport of the letter and of the speeches of the bearers is given at more length in Kings. 20–23. Discomfiture and death of Sennacherib. For this, on account of the threats and vaunting of the King of Asshur. The action of Isaiah is given more fully in Kings. Ver. 21. An angel, like the destroying angel that passed over Egypt, or that stood over the threshing-floor of Araunah. All the mighty men, the common soldiers, as in xvii. 14. In 2 Kings xix. 35 the number of the slain is reported to be 185,000. It is curious that Herodotus (ii. 141) records that the destruction of the host of Sennacherib was effected by a plague of mice that gnawed their quivers and bowstrings and the straps of their shields. They that came forth. Adrammelech and Sharezer his sons slew him (2 Kings xix. 37). Ver. 22. Guided or guarded, sustained, as in Gen. xlvii. 17. In the Sept. 'gave them rest' by a slight change in the text. Ver. 23. Presents, precious things, as in xxii. 3. 24–33. The remaining history of Hezekiah. His sickness is here noticed in a single verse, but is described at length in 2 Kings xx. 1–11 and in Isa. xxxviii. Ver. 25. The lifting up of his heart shown in the display of his treasures to the ambassadors of the King of Babylon is recorded in 2 Kings xx. 12-19 and in Isa. xxxix. Ver. 26. On hearing the rebuke of Isaiah, he humbled himself and acknowledged the mercy of the Lord. Ver. 27. The wealth accumulated by Hezekiah. This consisted of the precious metals and stones, works of art, abundance of vegetable and animal produce, and cities for their storage and protection. His means were diminished indeed by the fine paid to Sennacherib. But on the discomfiture of that monarch, he no doubt recovered vastly more than he had lost, and many brought gifts to him; so that in some years, with an economical expenditure, he was much richer than he was before. Ver. 28. Stalls, properly racks or mangers. Coles for flocks, flocks at the racks. Ver. 30. This is mentioned in ver. 4. He conveyed the water to the west of the city of David, either into the eastern hill to issue at length in Siloam, or into the pool in the fore city which he had enclosed with 'another wall.' This serves to show that the city of David was on the eastern ridge south of the temple mount. Ver. 31. Howbeit; literally, And thus, in consequence of his prosperity. The wonder appears to have been the going back of the shadow on the dial of Ahaz, which would attract the attention of a nation given to astrology. Vers. 32, 33. The close of his reign. In the vision of Isaiah, so called from its opening words. In the chiefest, the highest, in a place higher than the former sepulchres. 1. In what year of Hezekiah was the invasion of Sennacherib? 2. How did Hezekiah at first meet the invasion? 3. Where did the Gihon flow? 4. By whom had the wall of Jerusalem been broken down? 5. What did Hezekiah enclose by another wall? 6. Who were the servants of Sennacherib? 7. What is meant by 'letters' in the plural form? 8. What Greek author mentions the discomfiture of Sennacherib? 9. What was 'the wonder' that was done in the land? CHAPTER XXXIII. MANASSEH AND AMON. Impiety of Manasseh, vers. 1-10; his captivity and repentance, vers. 11-17; his end, vers. 18-20; Amon, vers. 21-25. Parallel to this is 2 Kings xxi. 1-10. Impiety of Manasseh. The abominations of the heathen. He appears to have surpassed all that went before him in idolatry. Ver. 3. Built again, returned to build. He resumed all the old forms of superstition. Groves, stocks representing Ashtoreth (Deut. xvi. 21). The host of heaven is added to the rest. Vers. 4, 5. He intrudes the worship of idols into the temple and its courts. Ver. 6. He makes his sons (son, 2 Kings xxi. 6) pass through the fire like Ahaz (xxviii. 3). *Observed times,* bewitched with an evil eye; *used enchantments* or charms by means of serpents; *used witchcraft,* muttered spells; *dealt with a familiar spirit,* speaking as if from beneath. He appears to have been deep in all the black arts that were practised in his days. Ver. 7. *A carved image,* the carving of the image. In 2 Kings xxi. 7 this is called the Asherah, or wooden stock of Ashtoreth. This he set up in the very temple on Zion, where the Lord had put His name. Ver. 9. *Worse than the heathen,* in the variety, intensity, and presumption of their idolatry. Ver. 10. The disregard of the expostulation of the prophet of God filled up the measure of their iniquity (2 Kings xxi. 11-16). 11-17. *His captivity* and repentance. This is not in Kings. The King of Asshur is Esarhaddon, 680 B.C.; or his son Assur-bani-pal, 667-647 B.C. *Among the thorns,* rather, with hooks. *Fetters,* chains of brass. Ver. 12. *Besought the Lord.* The prayer of Manasseh in the Apocrypha is not considered to be genuine. Ver. 13. Many fables are told in the Targum on Chronicles and elsewhere concerning the manner of his deliverance. *That the Lord He was God,* and that the idols he had served were nothing in the world. Ver. 14. *Built,* rebuilt or repaired. *A wall without.* This appears to be the wall built by Hezekiah (xxxi. 5), or a continuation of it. *On the west,* enclosing the fore city. *Of Gihon,* which flowed in the valley Tyropœon leading down to Hinnom. *The fish gate.* The wall went north and then west to the fish gate, which was near the north-west corner of the temple area. *Compassed about Ophel,* went round to Ophel. In this case the wall was continued along the north and east borders till it reached Ophel, where Jotham had built much (xxvii. 3). *A very great height.* The whole of this wall had been constructed before. The work of Manasseh was to repair and raise it to a greater height. Ver. 15. The mount of the house of the Lord is here distinguished from the city, which consisted of the two hills east and west of the valley Tyropœon and the fore city recently enclosed by the new wall. Ver. 17. The high places were prohibited, that there might be one national altar, and that idolatrous forms of worship might be prevented. 18, 19. *His end.* The prayer of Manasseh and the words of the seer, though recorded in the book of the Kings of Israel, are not given by the sacred writers. Ver. 19. The sayings of the seers, or of Hozai, as some suppose, a prophet of the time of Manasseh. Ver. 20. In his own house. In the garden of his own house, called the garden of Uzza (2 Kings xxi. 18). The reason of this is not known. 21-25. Amon. He followed the vices, but not the repentance, of his father. Ver. 24. His servants. He met the fate of Joash and Amaziah. Ver. 25. The people of the land. The executive of the government was suspended at the death of the sovereign. 1. In what respect did Manasseh surpass other idolatrous kings? 2. Whom did he follow in the worship of Moloch? 3. What are meant by the words rendered 'observed times,' 'used enchantments,' and 'used witchcraft'? 4. What was a familiar spirit? 5. By whom was Manasseh taken captive? 6. What is meant by the word rendered 'thorns'? 7. What did Manasseh learn by his captivity? 8. What did 'the wall without' enclose? 9. What was Ophel? 10. What are the parts of Jerusalem distinguished in this chapter? 11. What became of the assassins of Amon? CHAPTER XXXIV. JOSIAH BEGINS TO REIGN. Josiah makes a good beginning, vers. 1-7; purges the temple, in which is found the book of the law, vers. 8-21; consults Huldah the prophetess, and causes the law to be publicly read, vers. 22-33. Parallel to this chapter is 2 Kings xxii.-xxiii. 20. 1-7. The good beginning of Josiah. He has this peculiarity, that he declined neither to the right hand nor to the left. Ver. 3. Three stages of Josiah's reform are noted. In the eighth year of his reign he began to show decision in personal religion. In the twelfth year, being now twenty years old, he began to remove the high places, the stocks of Asherah and the carved and molten images. Shortly after this time, in the thirteenth year of his reign, Jeremiah was called to the prophetic office (Jer. i. 2). For the third stage, see ver. 8. Ver. 4. The images are the sun-statues, as in xiv. 3. Made dust. This reminds us of a similar proceeding of Moses (Ex. xxxii. 20). Ver. 5. This is more fully described in 2 Kings xxiii. 13-20. It fulfils the prediction in 1 Kings xiii. 2. Ver. 6. The cities of Manasseh. The Assyrian power was at this time either shaken or occupied with its own internal affairs. With their mattocks; rather, in their desolate places. They had been dismantled by the invader. The rendering of Gesenius, 'he proved their houses,' is not supported by the Sept. Ver. 7. And when he had broken; or, And he broke . . . and he returned to Jerusalem. This verse completes the sentence begun in the verse before. 8-21. The purging of the temple and finding of the law. The third stage of Josiah's reform took place when he was twenty-six years old. *When he had purged*; or, when he was purging. *Shaphan*, the scribe (2 Kings xxii. 3). *To repair*; literally, strengthen. Ver. 9. *And when they came*; rather, And they came. The Levitical doorkeepers were the collectors of the money. *And they returned unto Jerusalem*; rather, and of the inhabitants of Jerusalem, as in the text and the Sept. here and in xxxv. 18. Ver. 10. *The workmen that had the oversight*, the master-workers or contractors who were appointed to take charge of the work. *And they gave it*. According to the text here, the work-masters gave or employed it to mend and repair the house. Ver. 11. *For couplings*, beams that bind the house together and support joists. *And to floor*; rather, to joist the buildings of the temple. These some of the kings had destroyed by negligence. Ver. 12. *Faithfully*, as in xxxi. 12. Two Merarites and two Kohathites were appointed *to set forward*, that is, to superintend the work (1 Chron. xv. 21). Associated with them were the chiefs of song. Ver. 13. They were also over the bearers of burdens. *Scribes* appear here for the first time as a class among the Levites. They were required for the multiplication of copies of the sacred writings. *Officers* are agents, factors, or managers (Ex. v. 10). Ver. 14. *A book*, not *a* book, but the book of the law of the Lord by the hand of Moses. This is the roll containing the five books of Moses. Ver. 15. Hilkiah speaks of it as a book known to him. Plainly this was the copy kept in the most holy place (Deut. xxxi. 26). Shaphan the scribe was able to read the book (2 Kings xxii. 8). He was in fact the chief of the scribes, whose duty it was to have the book of the law re-written when necessary. If this were the very autograph of Moses or his scribe, it would not be more than 830 years old. Manuscripts exist of nearly twice this age. Ver. 16. His chief business was to report to the king concerning the work (2 Kings xxii. 9). Ver. 17. *Gathered*, emptied it out of the chest into a bag (2 Kings xxii. 9). Ver. 19. *Rent his clothes* in distress of mind, when he found the requirements of the law so different from the conduct of the nation. Ver. 20. *Ahikam* was the protector of Jeremiah and father of Gedaliah (Jer. xxvi. 24, xl. 5). *Abdon*; in 2 Kings xxii. 12, Achbor, which appears also in the Syr. See also Jer. xxvi. 22, xxxvi. 12. Ver. 21. *Poured out*; in Kings, kindled. 22-33. Josiah consults Huldah, and causes the law to be publicly read. Tikvah; in the text, Tokhath; in Kings, Tikvah. Hasrah; in Kings, Harhas. In the college; properly, in the second part, apparently the fore city enclosed by the second wall. The Targ., however, regarded it as the school of the prophets. In the emergency the nearest advice is sought. Jeremiah was probably at Anathoth, his native place. Ver. 24. All the curses. It appears from this that such passages as Lev. xxvi. and Deut. xxviii.–xxxii. had been read to the king. Ver. 25. Poured out; in Kings, and here in the Sept., kindled, which agrees with the following words, and shall not be quenched. Ver. 27. The God of mercy invariably hears the cry of penitence. Ver. 28. The calamity came in the reigns of his three sons. Ver. 29. The king does not rest in the promise made to himself, but does what he can to bring the people to repentance. Ver. 30. In place of the Levites are mentioned in 2 Kings xxiii. 2, the prophets. The one supplements the other. And he read, caused to be read. It belonged to the priests to read the law (Deut. xxxi. 9 f.). Ver. 32. The king not only renewed the covenant, but made the people stand to it. Ver. 33. He completes the purgation of the land, and is followed by the people in devotion to the Lord God of their fathers. In 2 Kings xxiii. 4–20 is a full account of the whole of his reforming work. 1. What is the peculiarity in the conduct of king Josiah? 2. What are the stages of his religious progress? 3. At what age did he become active in public religious matters? 4. When was Jeremiah called to the office of prophet? 5. Why did Asshur not prevent Josiah interfering with the northern kingdom? 6. Who were the workmen that had the oversight? 7. What new class of officials now appears among the Levites? 8. If the book found was the original copy of the law, what was its age? 9. What is the meaning of the word rendered 'college'? CHAPTER XXXV. JOSIAH'S KEEPING OF THE PASSOVER, AND HIS DEATH. Josiah's great Passover, vers. 1–19; his defeat by Necho, and his death, vers. 20–27. To this chapter corresponds 2 Kings xxiii. 21–30. 1–19. The great Passover of Josiah. The Passover was killed on the proper day (Ex. xii. 6). Ver. 2. In their charges (vii. 6), as prescribed in 1 Chron. xxiii. 32. Ver. 3. That taught all Israel (Deut. xxxiii. 10). It was the function of this tribe to teach the people. Holy, as in xxiii. 6. Put the holy ark. In repairing the house of God, the ark had been removed by the Levites; and the order is now given to restore it to its proper place. The king has been meditating on the book of the law, and like David (1 Chron. xxiii. 26) he has learned that the Levites have not to bear the ark, as when they were wandering in the wilderness. When in its place, it is to remain there. And he enjoins them to serve the Lord in their appointed courses. Ver. 4. David and Solomon had left written regulations for the public service (1 Chron. xxiii.–xxvi.). Ver. 5. A section of the Levites was to attend to every division of the families of the people. Ver. 6. The Levites were to kill the paschal lambs for the various divisions of the people. For this purpose they were to sanctify themselves and prepare their brethren, so that everything might be regular in the approaching solemnity. Vers. 7–9. The king and the princes bestow the animals for the festival. Josiah gave, as a heave-offering (Lev. vii. 14). The lambs and kids were for the Passover meal. The bullocks were for burnt-offerings (Num. xxviii. 19) and for peace-offerings. Ver. 8. The numbers offered by the princes are not mentioned, unless they be included in the following numbers in this and the next verse. Hilkiah is the high priest; Zechariah is his second; Jehiel, probably the chief of the line of Ithamar (Ezra viii. 2). Ver. 9. The names Conaniah, Shemaiah, and Jozabad here recur (xxxi. 12–15). Ver. 10. The preparation is complete according to law. Ver. 11. The priests and Levites performed their respective parts (xxix. 34). Ver. 12. Removed the burnt-offering, the part of the animals slain which was to be wholly burnt on the altar. This the Levites cut off and gave to the priests on behalf of the several worshippers. Ver. 13. The paschal lamb they roasted according to the law (Ex. xii. 9). The peace-offerings were boiled, and were eaten, not on the night of the Passover, but on the days of Unleavened Bread, especially the first and seventh, which were days of holy convocation (Lev. xxiii. 7, 8). Divided them speedily; literally, caused them to run. Ver. 15. The singers and porters were in their place like the priests. The three masters of song are here mentioned (1 Chron. vi. 33–47). The other Levites prepared for those who were at their posts. Ver. 16. The same day; rather, at that day or time (Gen. ii. 4). Ver. 18. The Passover in Hezekiah's time was great (xxx. 26); but this was greater. For it was kept on the proper day in the first month, and was not a mere supplementary Passover; it was observed with due regularity, and not by worshippers, some of whom were unclean; and if we allow thirteen persons for each lamb or kid, there were upwards of 500,000 communicants, while, so far as we know, there were only 17,000 sheep presented by Hezekiah and his princes (xxx. 24), which would not supply more than half the number of partakers. Ver. 19. This eighteenth year was the culminating point in Josiah's reform. 20-27. Defeat of Josiah by Necho. After all this renovation of the house and worship of God. The interval was about thirteen years. Necho, the successor of Psammetichus, reigned from 611 to 595 B.C. Carchemish, Circesium on the Phrat. Josiah opposed the march of Necho through his dominions. This was in itself a legitimate proceeding. The King of Asshur (2 Kings xxiii. 29), against whom Necho was marching, was Cyaxares, who, in conjunction with Nabopolassar, took Nineveh in 625 B.C. Ver. 21. Necho was a politic sovereign, and did not wish to be embarrassed by Josiah. He declares that he comes not against Josiah, but against the house with which he is at war, and that God had bidden him to make haste, or bidden to hasten him. Hence he warns Josiah to retire from God, lest He should destroy him. This was partly a delusion on the part of Necho. On his way back, he made Judah tributary for a time; and it was not an oracle of God, but his own ambition, that sent him against the already fallen Empire of Assyria. Yet he appears to have spoken a true warning to Josiah. Ver. 22. Disguised himself; rather, was eager. The Sept. has 'strengthened himself,' which implies a different reading. Megiddo is the present Lejun in the valley of Kishon. Ver. 24. Shot by an arrow, he commanded his servants to have him away; whereupon they put him in a chariot fit for flight, and carried him to Jerusalem. Ver. 25. The lament of Jeremiah for Josiah is no longer extant. We learn from this that he composed more lamentations than the five that are found in the Canon. To this day, or unto the day in which lamentations were wont to be made. The ordinance indicates a certain day, on which it was a standing custom to lament, among others, good King Josiah. Ver. 26. His goodness, acts of kindness or goodwill, according to the written law, on which he was no doubt wont to meditate. 1. Whose part was it to teach the people? 2. Why was the ark out of its place? 3. What animals were used for the paschal meal? 4. For what were the bullocks provided? 5. What is meant by removing the burnt-offering? 6. How many were the days of Unleavened Bread? 7. How did the Passover of Josiah excel that of Hezekiah? 8. How many persons might partake of one lamb? 9. How long was the defeat of Josiah by Necho after the great Passover? 10. What rendering should be preferred to 'disguised himself that he might fight'? 11. Where was Megiddo? 12. When did Josiah die? CHAPTER XXXVI. THE REMAINING KINGS OF JUDAH. This chapter contains the reigns of Jehoahaz, vers. 1-4; Jehoiakim, vers. 5-8; Jehoiachin, vers. 9, 10; and Zedekiah, vers. 11-21; and the conclusion, vers. 22, 23. Parallel is 2 Kings xxiii. 31-xxv. 1-4. Jehoahaz. He is called Shallum in Jer. xxii. 11, and was in point of age the third son of Josiah on record (1 Chron. iii. 15). Ver. 2. In the course of three months Necho appears to have returned from Carchemish and reached Riblah (2 Kings xxiii. 33), when Jehoahaz came into his hands. Ver. 3. Put him down, deposed him from the sovereignty. At Jerusalem. Necho appears either not to have visited Jerusalem or to have entered it unopposed. Condemned, fined or amerced. On the talent, compare 1 Chron. xxix. 4. Ver. 4. The change of Eliakim into Jehoiakim ('God sets up' into Jehovah sets up') indicates a deference to the feelings of the sovereign, or rather of the people over whom he was appointed, which is in keeping with the politic character of Necho. We hear no more of Jehoahaz. 5-8. Jehoiakim. He was two years older than Jehoahaz, and of a different mother (2 Kings xxiii. 31-36). Ver. 6. Nebuchadnezzar, Nabokodrosoros, agreeing nearly with Nebuchadrezzar (Jer. xliv. 28) and with the Assyrian monuments (Nebukuduri-utsur, 'Nebo, protector from misfortune'), was the son of Nabopolassar, the conqueror of Nineveh, 625 B.C. He was sent by his father against the Egyptians, defeated them at Carchemish, and on his march to the borders of Egypt, took Jerusalem. He bound Jehoiakim in chains to carry him to Babylon; but on his submission, reinstated him in the sovereignty, in which he was not a faithful vassal (2 Kings xxiv. 1). Ver. 7. These vessels are also mentioned in Dan. i. 2 and Ezra i. 7. Ver. 8. His abominations include the forms of idolatry which he practised. What was found in him comprises his treachery, cruelty, and impiety, in which he followed his predecessor Manasseh (2 Kings xxiv. 3, 4). The Chronicist does not mention his death, or whether he was buried or not (2 Kings xxiv. 6). 9, 10. Jehoiachin. Eight years. As Nebuchadnezzar carried away this king's wives (2 Kings xxiv. 15), it is plain that eight is here a slip of the transcriber for eighteen, the number found in 2 Kings xxiv. 8; and even here in the Sept. Jehoiachin is otherwise Jeconiah (1 Chron. iii. 16), and even Coniah (Jer. xxii. 24). His reign of three months and ten days can scarcely be called a reign at all, as he merely claimed the crown until he was taken away by Nebuchadnezzar. Ver. 10. When the year was expired; literally, at the return of the year, in the spring (2 Chron. xxiv. 23). The Jewish ecclesiastical year began with the new moon that was full first after the vernal equinox. He remained in bondage till the end of Nebuchadnezzar's reign, when Evil-merodach showed him some kindness (2 Kings xxv. 27–30). His brother is to be taken here in the wide sense of a kinsman, as he was his uncle. 11–21. Zedekiah. He was therefore ten years old when Jehoiakim began to reign, and consequently thirteen years younger than Jehoahaz, who was of the same mother. Ver. 12. The history of Zedekiah (otherwise Mattaniah) is interwoven with the prophetic writings of Jeremiah (Jer. xxi.–li.). Ver. 13. The violation of this oath is censured in Ezek. xvii. 13. Ver. 14. Idolatry is added to his other sins. The chiefs of the priests are the heads of the twenty-four courses (1 Chron. xxiv.), who with the high priest make the twenty-five men of Ezek. viii. 18. Ver. 15. His messengers, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and many other prophets named and unnamed in the history of His people. Ver. 16. The recapitulations of the Chronist often refer to these mockings and insults. Ver. 17. Who slew; literally, and slew. The reference is to God, who caused all their disasters to fall upon them for their sins. The sword is the sword of the Chaldeans, the agents of his judgments. Him that stooped for age, hoary. Ver. 18. This is a more sweeping pillage than that in the days of Jehoiakim. Ver. 19. The catastrophe described in 2 Kings xxv. 1–10 and Jer xxxix. 1–8, is here summed up in a single verse. Ver. 20. The exile continued till the accession of the Persian king. Ver. 21. The word of the Lord in Jer. xxv. 11 and xxix. 10. Enjoyed her Sabbaths (Lev. xxvi. 34, 35). The seventy years are to be counted from the first taking of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in the fourth year of Jehoiakim, 606 B.C. 22, 23. The conclusion. This is peculiar to Chronicles. An interval of fifty years is passed over in silence. In the first year of Cyrus as sovereign of the second monarchy of Daniel. The Hebrew Koresh is on the monuments Kurus or Kuru, cognate with the Indian princely title Kuru. Its reference to the sun is doubtful. The Lord stirred up the spirit. The mode of doing this is not here indicated. But the prophecy of Isa. xliv. 28 and xlv. 1 may have been shown to him by Daniel, who must himself have exercised a powerful influence on this monarch's mind. Ver. 23. The Lord God of heaven is acknowledged freely by Cyrus as the Supreme God by His Hebrew name. This intimates an acquaintance through Daniel and otherwise with the handwriting on the wall of Belshazzar's palace, as well as with the prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel, from which it appears that he was the predestined agent of God for the overthrow of the Babylonish Empire. and the restoration of the Jewish nation. But it does not imply that he was an intelligent and thoroughgoing adherent of the true God. It carries him, however, so far that he considers himself charged with the building of a house to God in Jerusalem, and accordingly permits and invites his exiled people to return free. 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Data Structure: A way of organizing data that allows efficient access, modification, and manipulation. 3. Database: An organized collection of data stored in a computer system. 4. Database Management System (DBMS): Software that manages databases and provides an interface for users to interact with them. 5. Encryption: The process of converting information into a coded form so that it can be securely transmitted or stored. 6. Hashing: A technique for mapping data of arbitrary size to fixed-size values. 7. Interface: A way for two systems to communicate with each other. 8. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A programming paradigm that emphasizes the use of objects to represent real-world entities and their interactions. 9. Protocol: A set of rules that govern how data is transmitted between two systems. 10. Query: A request for information from a database. 11. Security: The protection of data and systems from unauthorized access, modification, or destruction. 12. Software: A set of instructions that tell a computer what to do. 13. System: A collection of hardware and software components that work together to perform a specific task. 14. User Interface (UI): The part of a computer program that interacts with the user. 15. Virtual Machine (VM): A software implementation of a computer system that runs on top of another computer system. 16. Web Application: A software application that runs on a web server and is accessed through a web browser. 17. XML: eXtensible Markup Language, a markup language used to structure and organize data in a web application. 18. API: Application Programming Interface, a set of rules and protocols that allow different software applications to communicate with each other. 19. Cloud Computing: The delivery of computing resources over the internet, allowing users to access and use these resources without having to install and maintain the underlying infrastructure. 20. Big Data: Large volumes of data that require specialized techniques and tools for analysis and management.
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We thought parents and family members might like to hear about some of the many ways we teach Catholic Social Teaching through the work we do in school. This leaflet shows just a few of the things we have done this year. CATHOLIC SOCIAL TEACHING COMMON GOOD Our dedicated staff share their time and talents with other schools across our Trust and the North East, delivering training and sharing their talents for curriculum planning. This is because we believe every child has the right to a quality education and to achieve that our experienced teachers share their knowledge with staff from other schools through the research school, Archimedes Maths hub, Carmel Teacher training programme and the Science Learning Partnership. HUMAN DIGNITY We feel it is so important that our pupils learn to treat everyone with the dignity they deserve as a fellow brother or sister made in God’s image. This year some of our older pupils have trained as dementia friends to understand some of the older members of our community better and to enable them to demonstrate their care for others. OPTION FOR THE POOR Classes have fundraised to purchase some ‘World Gifts’ for communities less fortunate than ourselves. We have bought some mosquito nets to go above children’s beds and reduce their risk of contracting malaria and some chickens for a community in Peru. PARTICIPATION Pupils in Year 6 participate in the Faith in Action Award each year. They do acts of service to our community and the wider world throughout the year. Some of the things we did last year were: organise a Macmillan coffee morning, go on a litter pick in our local area, sent gift boxes to a school in Malawi, collect for our local foodbank and visited the Dementia Café. PEACE We continue to pray for peace throughout our world at this troubled time. RIGHTS & RESPONSIBILITIES Each year all of our classes design a shared code of conduct for their class to agree to. This way we all follow the classroom rules we’ve agreed to and are Ready, Respectful and Safe throughout the year. We all have the right to a vote, to elect our school councillors for that year. SOLIDARITY Each year we learn about Fairtrade and how workers around the world deserve a fair price for their produce. STEWARDSHIP We have been learning about ‘Laudato Si’, Pope Francis’s letter to the world to plead with us to look after our common home. We have been thinking throughout school about ways we can do this. SUBSIDIARITY The principle of subsidiarity is that everyone should have a voice and that problems should be sorted at a local level wherever possible. Our local MP Peter Gibson came into school to answer pupils’ questions on a range of local issues including what he will do about litter in our local area.
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Color Me Safe When I Wear My Helmet mercy.net/injuryprevention | safekidsspringfield.org | Check us out on Facebook Mercy is a proud leader of SAFE KIDS SPRINGFIELD THIS BOOK BELONGS TO: ________________________________________ PRINT YOUR NAME HERE. THIS BOOK WAS ASSEMBLED BY DR. SAMI KHOSHYOMN AND YOUR FRIENDS AT MERCY CLINIC PEDIATRIC NEUROSURGERY PART OF THE MERCY CHILDREN’S HOSPITAL. WE HOPE THIS WILL HELP YOU KNOW THE BENEFITS OF SAFE BIKING PRACTICES AND WEARING A HELMET. WRITTEN BY: ROSE NELSON COVER ILLUSTRATION BY: BAILEY STEELE ILLUSTRATED BY: CHUCK CLORE HAVE FUN COLORING! Ben and Mary go outside to ride their bikes. Mary puts on her helmet. Ben does not. Ben laughs at Mary. Ben thinks Mary looks silly in her helmet. It is a beautiful day for a fun bike ride, but suddenly... ...Yikes! Ben’s bike tire slips and he falls off his bike. Ben hits his head on the ground. Mary goes to get help. Mary’s mom calls 911. Ben has to go to the hospital in an ambulance. Dr. Sami meets Ben at the hospital. Dr. Sami takes good care of Ben. Ben has an x-ray taken of his head and stays all night in the hospital so Dr. Sami can see if Ben hurt his brain. Ben injured his head and had to have stitches. He gets to go home from the hospital. Thanks to Dr. Sami, Ben knows to ALWAYS wear his helmet. It is the safe and right thing to do. Remember: Bike wrecks can happen on your sidewalk, driveway, bike path, street or in your park. Every time you get on your bike, you must wear your helmet. Protect your Head and Wear a Helmet! Here are some other activities where you must always wear a helmet. What is wrong in this picture? Right! Even grown-ups need to wear helmets! Connect these words and pictures together and find Dr. Sami’s secret phrase! THIS BIKE & HELMET BELONG TO ___________________________ PRINT YOUR NAME HERE. Place a picture of your bicycle here. Place a picture of your helmet here. Hi Kids! My name is Dr. Sami Khoshyomn. Please call me Dr. Sami. I work at Mercy and I am the area’s only pediatric neurosurgeon. What is a pediatric neurosurgeon? A neurosurgeon works with people that have problems with their brain or spine. Pediatric means that I like working with kids like you. I see many children in the emergency room that have a head injury from not wearing a helmet while playing sports, riding a bike or an ATV. Some of the kids are hurt more than others and it is my job to help them get better. Most of these injuries don’t have to happen. I am asking you and your parents to help protect your head. Please make sure you always wear your helmet when playing sports and riding bikes or ATV’s. Some kids may think it’s silly to wear their helmet but that is not true. A helmet can save your life. If you or your parents have questions, please call me anytime at my office. My number is 417-820-5150. I help all kids even if they don’t have the money to pay. And kids and parents should always remember, Protect your head, and wear a helmet. Mercy Injury Prevention Center 1570 Battlefield, Suite 110 | Springfield, MO 65807 | 417-820-7233 mercy.net/injuryprevention Mercy is a proud leader of SAFE KIDS SPRINGFIELD
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JENISON AUTISM JOURNAL Formerly THE MORNING NEWS Creative Ideas in Practice Jenison Public Schools, Jenison, MI Vol 15 #1 Loss & Children with ASD Childhood Losses & Learning Appreciating the Differences CHILDREN AND DEATH Complete in this issue: Gray’s Guide to Loss, Learning & Children with ASD This issue of the Jenison Autism Journal is affectionately dedicated in memory of Mr. Terry Arnold. TABLE OF CONTENTS Welcome to the Spring 2003 Issue ................................................................. 1 Gray’s Guide to Loss, Learning & Children with ASD - Carol Gray ▪ Introduction .................................................................................. 2 ▪ Childhood Losses & Learning ...................................................... 3 ▪ Children & Death ........................................................................... 4 ▪ Loss & Children with ASD ............................................................ 7 ▪ Appreciating the Differences ....................................................... 12 ▪ Guiding Children with ASD through Loss ..................................... 14 ▪ Summary ..................................................................................... 20 ▪ Appendix A: Related Resources for Children ............................. 30 ▪ Appendix B: Social Stories and Loss .......................................... 34 ▪ Appendix C: Other Ideas............................................................... 41 Jenison Autism Journal Pen Pal Registry is not included in this issue, but returns in the summer ’03 Jenison Autism Journal The Gray Center SLU Conference Announcement................................. 43 The Gray Center Presentations & Workshops List ............................. 44 Subscription forms: ▪ USA and all countries except the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand ......................................................... 44 ▪ Australia, New Zealand & UK .............. (inside back cover) Cover design by Grandville Printing Company, Grandville, MI. Illustrations by Art Explosion (1995-98). Calabasas, CA: Nova Development Corporation. Jenison Public Schools publishes the Jenison Autism Journal as a public service to encourage the free exchange of information and ideas. Articles appearing in Jenison Autism Journal do not necessarily reflect the official position of Jenison Public Schools and their publication does not constitute an endorsement of views which may be expressed. Editor: Carol Gray Design Editor: Sue Jonker Pen Pal Registry Editor: Karen Lind Logo: Janet Williams © Carol Gray, 2003. All rights reserved. May not be duplicated or transmitted via any means without prior written authorization. Restricted permission is hereby granted to copy, re-write, and/or revise the Social Stories appearing in Appendix B for non-profit use with persons with ASD. In return, we’d love to hear of your experiences using them. Welcome to the spring 2003 issue of the *Jenison Autism Journal*, and the third *Gray’s Guide*. Recently, I was asked why some of my articles are titled as *Gray’s Guides* and others are not. Actually, the Gray’s Guides share a few common characteristics. Each tackles an important but uncharted topic. For example, *Gray’s Guide to Compliments* was the first social workbook for adults, and *Gray’s Guide to Bullying* was among the first articles on peer violence and children with ASD. *Gray’s Guides* are a search for practical answers to tough questions that “keep cropping up” in my work. They are a chance for me to blend research with experience – both mine and yours – to uncover new solutions. In this Guide, we discuss loss, learning and children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), to help them “move through” and learn from life’s setbacks. In the midst of writing this article, I received a call from the United Kingdom informing me that a dear friend of mine, Terry Arnold, had died. I am saddened by his passing, but very happy that he was my friend. I met Terry and his wife, Eileen, a few years ago on my first trip to the United Kingdom. A little apprehensive about what’s what in England, Terry and Eileen graciously introduced me to great pubs and little-known but fascinating sights. It didn’t take people long to get to know Terry – or the other way around. Terry had a calm, unassuming quality that made every minute important. He was a wonderful listener and gentle individual; definitely one of the world’s unsung heroes in his work on behalf of children. As I get ready to head back to the United Kingdom this June, I know it will be difficult to pack the suitcase knowing Terry will not be there. While it can’t be the same as it was before, if I remember all that he taught those of us who had the privilege to know and love him, the difference will be easier to negotiate. Terry was always on time, always where we needed him, always looking out for children. We should all do as well. For these and many other reasons, this issue of the *Jenison Autism Journal* is dedicated to my friend, Terry Arnold. Working on this article caused me to re-visit losses in my own life, and what I have learned from them. My mother died a little over a year ago; she was my best teacher. I wrote a tribute that was read at her funeral, describing an indelible childhood memory. My mother was an amateur photographer, and would develop her photographs in a “darkroom” in our home. It was here that I learned my earliest life lessons. In order to be allowed to stay with Mom in the darkroom, I had to be absolutely still – quite a task for me! What follows is an excerpt from my tribute to her: *If you are to make the most of life, you have to understand time, patience, and their relationship to one another. There was no more unique teacher as to the lessons of time and patience than Mom. For me at the age of four through seven years, the most coveted seat in our home was the metal stool with the red seat in the darkroom, where mom developed her photographs. This seat had rules: sit very quietly, don’t distract mom, and keep the darn door closed. Unwanted light was the enemy.* *In a darkroom, time and sequence are governing principles. All steps of developing a picture had to be completed, and in the right order. To rush would ruin the outcome; to skip a step would prevent a photo from appearing altogether. In the black of that darkroom, with light enough to make interesting shadows while protecting new images, I would listen to my mom count. One thousand one, one thousand two, one thousand three… In a place where for me time stood still…mom counted its passing with deliberate care. No matter how many times I watched, the darkroom routines and rules held me in awe. Definitely more than worth the effort of keeping a young mouth closed and a small body still.* The final revisions in this issue were made on Mother’s Day, 2003. Personally, it was a day I have been dreading a bit, saddened that this would be the first Mother’s Day that Mom is not here and I am unable to say “thank you” as in years past. At least, that’s what I thought. I went to the store, purchased a helium-filled “Happy Mother’s Day” balloon, tied a note of thanks to the string, and released it outdoors. I wish I could take credit for this ingenious way to send messages to my Mom in Heaven, but, it’s not mine – as you will discover in this article. As I mentioned, characteristic of all *Gray’s Guides* there are other ideas that are not mine on these pages. This article contains ideas contributed by people all over the world, with draft reviews by several patient friends, and the unfaltering support of my husband, Brian. I had hoped to list each name, but space simply does not permit. Websites are different, though – there’s *always* room there. Please go to our website, [www.TheGrayCenter.org](http://www.TheGrayCenter.org) where I have taken the opportunity to thank everyone personally. My only fear is that I may have mistakenly forgotten someone. If so, please let us know at [firstname.lastname@example.org](mailto:email@example.com) and we will immediately correct the error! Welcome to the spring 2003 issue of the Jenison Autism Journal. Look what we discovered this time! Imagine your life as a suitcase. On the outside are several decals (like those used years ago to indicate hotels and ports of call), each representing an important “destination” in your life. Some denote achievements: earning a degree, starting a family, or establishing a career. Others represent losses that have been placed randomly *without* your permission: misplacing a family heirloom, losing a competition, or the death of a loved one. Safely stored in your suitcase is what you have discovered and learned at each and every one of these “destinations”. Many people believe that we learn far more from our losses than our achievements. How we respond to life’s setbacks has a dramatic influence on our lives and ultimately leads to new wisdom; your suitcase contains elements of an important and often overlooked curriculum of life and its losses. Whether you are a parent or a professional, what you *are* aware of is the challenge of sharing what you’ve learned with a child with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This article supports your efforts to guide a child with ASD through the unexpected twists and turns of each day, as well as life’s “larger” unplanned losses, like critical illness and death. At a practical level, the goal is to prepare children with ASD for, and guide them *through*, unanticipated events - whether it is the loss of a bottle cap or a loved one. Over time, this translates into an effort to teach children with ASD to tie their experiences together to learn from them, to effectively handle life’s unexpected destinations. As a consultant to students with autism spectrum disorders, I began research for this article in response to several requests for help in explaining terminal illness and death to children with ASD. My initial research included a review of related articles and books. In addition, I collected anecdotes from parents and professionals - information that subsequently led to a broader topic for this article. Not only are we uncertain about how to guide a child with ASD through the terminal illness or death of a family member, classmate, or friend, we are also overwhelmed by the reactions of children with ASD - frequently of equal *or greater* intensity - to life’s “smaller” day-to-day losses. A children’s book written by a rabbi and a priest, Rabbi Marc Gellman and Monsignor Thomas Hartman, titled *Lost & Found* (1999), emphasizes the learning opportunity inherent in *all* of life’s losses. Unfortunately, aside from the work of Rabbi Gellman and Monsignor Hartman, very little has been written about typical children and their day-to-day losses. There is, however, research about how children understand *death* as they grow and this provides our “point of departure” for an exploration of *all of life’s losses* and children with ASD. Using *traveling through and learning from* life’s losses as a theme, this article is divided into six sections, each identified with its own “destination decal”: 1. **Childhood Losses and Learning** discusses loss and its relationship to learning, setting the stage to help children with ASD grow through their losses; 2. **Children & Death** provides a frame of reference for our discussion of loss and children with ASD - describing the responses of typical children to death and suggestions for adults; 3. **Loss & Children with ASD** explores how children with ASD experience day-to-day losses *and* death; 4. **Appreciating the Differences** explains why children with ASD sometimes have intense and/or unique responses to loss and the implications this holds for those who work on their behalf; 5. **Guiding Children with ASD through Loss** shares five guidelines and several ideas to assist children with ASD with losses ranging from a misplaced Lego™ block, to the loss of a friendship, to death; and 6. **Appendixes**, including: *Resources for Adults & Children* (Appendix A), *Social Stories & Loss* (Appendix B), and *Additional Ideas* (Appendix C). *From page 14 of Lost & Found: A Kid’s Book for Living Through Loss* by Rabbi Marc Gellman and Monsignor Thomas Hartman (1999). Childhood Losses & Learning *Nobody wins every game. Nobody aces every test. Nobody wins every day. Life is really more about losing than winning.* **Childhood Losses** Loss in childhood cannot be outrun by even the fastest sneakers; all children experience loss. For the purposes of our discussion, we’ll consider childhood losses in two categories: *Day-to-Day Losses* and those that result from *Death & Dying*. Each is briefly defined in this section. *Day-to-Day Losses* are common setbacks ranging from a misplaced crayon stub to a friend moving out of town; in other words, all losses *except* loss of life. Unwelcome and usually unexpected, day-to-day losses in childhood may include but are certainly not limited to (categories may overlap!): 1. *Lost Stuff* (i.e. mittens, socks, toys, trading cards, lunch money, notes, school bags, mittens, crayons); 2. *Performance & Competitive Losses* (i.e. tests and assignments, playground games, talent competitions); 3. *Loss of Control* (i.e. place in line, unexpected circumstances, losing control of one’s emotions); 4. *Loss via Sharing* (i.e. dividing a candy bar, taking turns on the swings, including a newcomer to an activity); 5. *Loss of Information* (i.e. homework, directions, computer files & discs, phone number of a friend); 6. *Lost Opportunity* (cancelled play date, rained-out ball game, loss of privilege due to reprimand); 7. *Loss of Routine* (i.e. substitute or supply teacher, temporarily leaving work on an assignment, holidays); 8. *Loss of Health or Ability* (i.e. flu, cancer, broken bones, loss of sight or hearing, amputation); 9. *Social Losses* (i.e. friendships, playmate moving out of town, loss of contact with a teacher at the conclusion of a school year, divorce and remarriage, older siblings moving away, missed meanings in communication); 10. *Emotional Losses* (i.e. loss of: patience, confidence, comfort, trust, security, respect, hope, humor). Regardless of their severity, size, or form, losses come wrapped in *change* and require some form of *accommodation*, *adaptation* or *resolution* to get around, over, or - most importantly - through them. *Death* is loss of life. As defined by Edgar Schneider, an adult diagnosed with high-functioning autism, death is “…when the laws of biology and chemistry come together to cause cessation of all functions of the body.” (*Discovering My Autism*, p. 53). Our perception of death changes as we grow - infants, toddlers, school-age children, adolescents, and adults perceive and respond to death differently. People who have lost a loved one as a child and also as an adult, know in detail the contrasts of those memories. Most of us revisit important questions about our faith and relationship to others every time someone close to us dies, arriving at answers that reflect our advancing maturity, experience, and increasing wisdom. At any age death is a *non-negotiable* change. Due to the value we place on life and its social and emotional impact, death is regarded as a very serious loss in a category of its own. **Loss & Learning** *Lost & Found*, mentioned earlier, is a resource that expands our thinking and provides a philosophical framework for our discussion of loss. The authors guide children ages 8 through 12 through many of life’s losses - beginning with “smaller” setbacks and gradually proceeding through loss of health to terminal illness and death - while providing support and reassuring insights each step of the way. In their opening comments for parents, they stress their belief that “…loss is an opportunity for learning…” that requires patience, builds confidence and skills, and teaches compassion. Three valuable themes are continually emphasized through the varied topics of each chapter: *From page 30 of *Lost & Found: A Kid’s Book for Living through Loss* by Rabbi Marc Gellman and Monsignor Thomas Hartman (1999).* 1. **All childhood losses are important.** In the midst of handling adult concerns, a child's losses can seem relatively insignificant; hanging up the phone after consoling a friend recently laid off work, it may be difficult to appreciate the significance of a child's "smaller" setbacks. The distraught child who loses an action figure and recruits help from an adult (via words or behavior), is *not* seeking an estimation of the actual retail value of the missing object, or a monologue regarding the convenience of his/her current distress. The child is seeking something *else*, and, with help from an adult, has the potential of discovering more than just the lost action figure. 2. **Loss is an opportunity for learning.** At the very least, most losses are uncomfortable or confusing; at their worst they are serious life-altering events. By working through them we learn to try harder, practice longer, or to think things through, ultimately discovering that we may be stronger than we think; capable of handling events that initially seem overwhelming. Beyond the wrappings of change and the requirement of resolution, within each loss there lies an opportunity for learning. 3. **Losses can form a personally tailored life-long curriculum.** Despite their potential for learning, viewed through the wrong binoculars, losses are isolated despair-riddled destinations with no relationship to one another. Some childhood losses are predictable and universal, others are unique to an individual. In each lifetime, these generic and personal losses fall into a unique never-to-be-repeated sequence of events. For those who can appreciate their value, losses are an opportunity to learn via the world's most personally tailored curriculum. In summary, childhood losses are critical learning opportunities that form a unique life-long curriculum. For each destination, there is something of value - a concept, a skill, an idea - to take along for use later down the road. **Children & Death** *And nothing except death is forever. Life is not forever. Being a kid is not forever. ... Death is really the only forever thing we face in life. ...But most religious people believe that death is not exactly forever.* In the last century, two books by Elizabeth Kübler-Ross initiated a shift in attitudes toward death and dying. Whereas parents prior to 1969 wondered *whether* to inform a child of a death and/or involve him/her in the funeral, by the late 1900's the question reverted to *how* to involve even very young children. In her first book, *On Death and Dying*, Kübler-Ross noted that: ...children who are allowed to stay at home where a fatality has stricken and are included in the talk, discussions, and fears gives them the feeling that they are not alone in the grief and gives them the comfort of shared responsibility and shared mourning. It prepares them gradually and helps them view death as part of life.... (1969, p. 20). Grief in children assumes a variety of profiles that are dependent upon age, ability, and personality. For those of us who work with children with ASD, knowledge of what is "age-appropriate" can help us recognize the elements of a child's response that are *typical* of his or her chronological development. This section outlines how a child's perception of death changes with advancing years, and provides ideas for adults. In addition, it forms a frame of reference for guiding a child with ASD through loss – whether the death of a loved one or a day-to-day loss that the child *regards* as traumatic. *From page 98 of Lost & Found: A Kid's Book for Living through Loss by Rabbi Marc Gellman and Monsignor Thomas Hartman (1999).* Infants, Toddlers, and Death Little has been written about how infants respond to death. From birth to about ten months of age, it is believed that infants perceive death as an absence and a significant change in routine. An infant will be most impacted by the death of his or her central caregiver, responding to the new faces and changes with tears, loss of appetite, irritability, and difficulty sleeping. Following the death of a family member, those caring for an infant are advised to maintain the daily routine while minimizing the number of new faces, sounds, and events. Beginning within a few months of the first birthday through two years, a toddler’s response to death is different from that of an infant, and he or she will need adults to respond accordingly. By age two, children have an improved memory and a growing command of language, and readily sense and respond to the emotions of others. Despite these emerging skills, toddlers cannot conceptualize death or understand it. They often perceive the absence as temporary. As is the case with infants, adults can support toddlers by preserving and returning to the daily routine* and minimizing contacts with unfamiliar people. To explain death to a toddler, using direct and literally accurate phrases is recommended; for example, “Daddy no more.” Early Childhood and Death For a child ages three to seven, the death of a loved one is potentially a very confusing “destination,” eased by the thoughtful guidance of adults. No longer very little people with diapers and undefined personalities, young children are egocentric, curious, and literal in their interpretations. They can express a wide variety of feelings (love, anger, sorrow, grief-through-play). The perception that death is temporary is still a predominant theme. At this age a child’s mind begins to separate reality from fantasy, though may not yet be confident of the distinction. It is important for adults to describe their own feelings - this helps a young child learn via grownup example that it is okay to share negative information and emotions. To explain death to a young child, experts advise adults to use clear, honest, literally-accurate information coupled with finely-tuned listening to keep track of a young child’s level of understanding. It’s important to dispel any perception that death is temporary. As described in the book, *Helping Children Cope with the Death of a Loved One* (Kroen, 1996), a child may be told that that the person’s body has totally stopped - no longer able to breathe, walk, eat, or sleep again - incorporating carefully selected vocabulary that supports a child’s comprehension. For example, using the word very many times can reassure a child and help to give his/her fears some perspective: ...Tell them that people or animals usually die “when they are very, very, very, very old. Using multiple “very’s” implies that most humans have a long life and live to an old age. Saying that people or animals usually die “when they are old” – without the “very’s”- may be misleading. For preschoolers, a teenager is “old” and their parents and teachers are “very old.” (p. 15) Multiple “verys” are also helpful when distinguishing between someone who has died after being very, very, very, very sick, versus a classmate who is sick with a cold, compared to a friend who is very sick with the flu. Young children characteristically ask questions - and learning of a death is no exception. Their inquiries are direct and to the point, lacking the social and emotional finesse of older children. In fact, beginning in early childhood (up to the age of nine) it is normal for a child to repeatedly ask the same questions about death (Kroen, p. 20). The book, *Your Grieving Child: Answers to Questions on Death and Dying* (Dodds, 2001), provides answers to frequently asked questions, making it a good resource for adults. Each child is unique, as is his/her ability to benefit from the *At any age, returning to routines as soon as possible provides continuity between life before and after the death of a loved one.* information. Answers are only helpful when a child understands their content. For this reason, adults are advised to use unassuming questions to check for comprehension, for example, “What do you think about that?” Beginning in early childhood, understanding of the following concepts increases: 1) death is forever; 2) death could happen to someone I know; 3) death could happen to me; 4) death means change; and 5) death means new feelings (Kroen, p. 18). Children add detail and improved understanding to these concepts as they mature. **Mid to Late Childhood and Death** As children mature from ages eight through twelve, their ability to appreciate the finality of death dramatically improves, as does their need to be actively involved in information and events. Equipped with significant cognition and social/emotional maturity, at this age a child knows his/her role within the family and can distinguish between fantasy and reality. Thus, the struggle is often *not* with understanding what death *is*, but with *acceptance* of the fact that a loved one has died. Grief may come and go in cycles, with the most difficult times coinciding with holidays and birthdays. Searching for the person who has died – often room to room – is normal at this age. Uncertain about what to do or say, peers often avoid a recently bereaved classmate, who in turn may try to hide his or her feelings. This can lead to feelings of anger as the bereaved child blames the deceased for suddenly branding him as “different” among his peers. In an effort to “hold off” these and other feelings, children in this age group may be misinterpreted as cold or unmoved by the recent death in the family. The death of a pet can be very traumatic for children. It is not unusual for a child to be far more distressed over the loss of a pet than that of an aunt, uncle, or grandparent. A child often has direct responsibility for the care and feeding of a pet, in other words, control of its well-being. In many cases, the child has had the opportunity to observe first-hand the entire life-span of the animal. When the pet dies, the inability to save that life, coupled with the loss of unconditional companionship that the pet provided, can be emotionally very difficult. Experts advise informing (as soon as possible) and involving children in mid to late childhood when a death occurs. There are several resources that provide practical guidance. In general, an honest and supportive approach is best, with affirmation and acceptance of a child’s feelings. Experts suggest giving choices, while encouraging expression of emotions through avenues that are comfortable and meaningful - whether the arts, a support group, or exploration of websites for bereaved children. The creative abilities and abstract thinking skills of children ages eight through twelve allow them to express their feelings through art; reviving and giving permanence to important memories. In addition, many children participate in support groups that provide the opportunity to meet other children in the same situation, and perhaps opportunities for new friendships. As is the case throughout a child’s life, when adults share their own feelings it models an attitude that – though the child may wish to hide his or her feelings “in public” – it is safe to explore them at home. **Adolescence and Death** Adolescents have an understanding of death that is similar to adults; though emotionally they require careful guidance to accept a significant death and its implications as they work toward their own future as an adult. Able to think in abstract terms, with a detailed understanding of personal strengths and weaknesses, an adolescent still receives much of his emotional support from others – adults and peers alike. An adolescent may experience sharp emotional contrasts, and fear the impact of the death on their plans to pursue their dreams and future plans. In contrast to children who may search their homes for the deceased, bereaved adolescents often search for the loved one outside of the home, usually in large crowds. Experts encourage adults to inform and include the adolescent in decisions surrounding a terminal illness and death, while at the right time and place, including discussions of how the death will affect him or her personally. If an adolescent is not comfortable talking with parents, it is important to encourage contact with other adults, professionals, and/or peers who can provide support. As with infants, toddlers, school-age children, and adults, returning to typical routines, events, and social contacts with friends as soon as possible is important to working through a significant death. Understanding grief in childhood is important for adults who work on behalf of children with ASD. As described in this section, typical children often exhibit responses to the loss of a loved one that are reminiscent of behaviors often attributed solely to autism: - following a death in the family, a toddler may have a significant reaction to the changes in routine; - a young child is likely to be literal in his/her interpretation of explanations of death; - a bereaved child may repeatedly ask the same questions; - a child may be more upset over the loss of a pet than an extended family member; and - a grieving adolescent may be appear self-absorbed or selfish, concerned about the impact the death will have on his/her plans. In summary, understanding typical responses to grief helps parents and professionals accurately interpret what they observe in a child with ASD who loses a loved one, and places them in contact with new ideas (for example, using multiple “verys” to accommodate for a child’s literal perspective). This information “grounds” our discussion as the focus of this article expands in the following section to an exploration of the profile of loss - all losses - in children with ASD. **Loss and Children with ASD** “You can’t decide to win, but you can decide to try to win. You can’t be sure that you’ll win, but you can be sure that you’ll never give up.” Children with ASD face a myriad of challenges as they encounter life’s disappointments, and *loss* is at the center of many struggles. Sometimes, a loss is perceived *similar* to other children. For example, upon hearing that outdoor recess is cancelled due to rain, the child with ASD sighs in disappointment. Frequently, though, the child with ASD demonstrates a response that is similar in content to that of his peers - but different in its intensity; on other occasions his response may be *opposite* or genuinely *unique*. This section describes the typical, intense, and unique responses of children with ASD to loss. **Typical Responses to Loss** Adults are keenly aware of the potential impact of life’s setbacks on a child with ASD. The distress that results from a subtle change in routine can cause parents to avoid activities that hold even the slightest potential for a tantrum, just as it can cause a creative teacher to become a defender of structure and predictability. In their efforts to “pave the way” to avoid intense collisions with loss, adults may prevent important opportunities for discovery and learning. In addition, a child’s frequent and/or severe reactions to loss may be so pervasive that his or her *typical reactions* pass unnoticed by adults. *From page 31 of *Lost & Found: A Kid’s Book for Living Through Loss* by Rabbi Marc Gellman and Monsignor Thomas Hartman (1999).* **Typical Responses to Day-to-Day Losses** Children with ASD are, most of all, children with personalities, talents, and abilities. In their repertoire are typical reactions to loss. Harrison is eight years old, diagnosed with ASD. There was a Yo-Yo™ demonstration and assembly at his school followed by a predictably popular Yo-Yo sale. Like many of the other students, Harrison was excited about purchasing a Yo-Yo, but unfortunately they sold out. This required some students to wait until more arrived. Harrison was disappointed, but cooperated with the plan. He is not the only student to demonstrate a typical response to a day-to-day loss. In the words of children with ASD: - *Changing from public to home schooling, I lost a great teacher and a chance to see if I can make friends.* - *I hate losing at board games, but I try not to throw the cards and everything.* - *I really would rather win. It just feels better.* - *It confused me when my friend started sitting with other kids at lunch.* **Typical Responses to Death & Dying** Little has been written about grief and children with ASD. Diane C. Rawlings (2000) studied 16 bereaved adults with ASD in residential settings in the United Kingdom, and concluded that some clients demonstrated a range of typical grief reactions in response to the death of a family member or close associate. This is consistent with many of the email messages that I received from parents and professionals, indicating that bereaved children with ASD often have responses to death that are typical of the curiosity, concern, and compassion demonstrated by their peers. Consider the typical elements of the following accounts: - *My son is 4 years old. He had a lot of questions that I was not expecting: What color are you when you die? Why do they bury you? Won’t you get dirty? When I am dead, will you miss me?* - *After Aunt Grace died, Blake asked the same questions over and over.* - *In response to learning that his step-grandfather had died of cancer that morning, my son Jerrad, age eight, said, “Mom, I will take care of you.”* - *When Jesse died of leukemia, we told Andrew, at age 8, right away. Andrew searched room by room. I thought he didn’t understand, but he did - returning to me very upset.* - *Upon hearing of his grandfather’s death, Daren, age 17, said, “I just lost my best friend.”* By documenting the curiosity of children like Blake, the concern demonstrated by Jesse, and the compassion of Jerrad (“Mom, I will take care of you.”) we are reminded of the typical responses to death that children with ASD can demonstrate. Could it be that the *typical* element of a child’s response may be overshadowed by its *atypical qualities*? For example, Andrea is 10 years old and has Asperger’s Syndrome. Her sister, Bobbie, was killed in a car accident. Upon hearing the news, Andrea said, “No, that can’t be,” and returned to reading her book. Her words were “emotionally flat.” What Andrea *said* reflects the struggle with acceptance often demonstrated by many children her age. The absence of tears or any noticeable distress misled her parents to conclude that, “Well…Andrea is all set;” as they turned their focus to their own grief and funeral arrangements. A few weeks later Andrea was assigned an essay at school. She wrote about her sister’s death. The content of Andrea’s essay took her parents by surprise. Andrea expressed genuine feelings of loss and confusion. To acknowledge and respond to the typical elements of the response of a child with ASD - even those that may come disguised in part as “autistic behaviors” - is to recognize an opportunity to be an important part of a child’s healing, learning, and emotional growth. **Intense Responses to Loss** Children with ASD often react to life’s experiences in a typical manner, but their responses may be magnified in intensity or frequency. **Intense Responses to Day-to-Day Losses** There is often a sharp contrast between the reaction of a child with ASD to a day-to-day loss and that of his or her peers. The missing puzzle piece that elicits frustration and a few tears from a typical child may throw a child with ASD into inconsolable despair. The lost stuffed animal that causes a typical six year old child to “hold back tears” while launching a focused search of the play room, could result in the full retreat of the child with ASD to a world of solitary sorrow. Being a member of the losing soccer team is disappointing to a typical third grader, but may be an intolerable outcome capable of “de-railing” the rest of the day for a child with ASD. Parents and professionals have shared other examples of intense responses to day-to-day losses demonstrated by children with ASD, including: - My son Max (3 years old) gets intensely emotional about balloons that he has released and are now stuck in the trees our yard. EVERY time we pull into the driveway, he points to the balloons stuck in the tree and cries “Balloon, Balloon.” He is very upset at the trapped balloons, yet he still releases them. - When Christopher, age 7, loses anything – scissors, papers, a marker – he needs to find it immediately or he panics. If I tell him to wait a second, he just can’t. - Tiffany, age 8, and her brothers and sisters love Cara, their babysitter of several years. However, to this day Tiffany cries inconsolably for several minutes when her parents leave to go out for the evening. Within fifteen minutes, Tiffany is calm once again. **Intense Responses to Death & Dying** Children with ASD may demonstrate responses to death that are exaggerated in comparison to their peers. Their responses, though typical in topic or format, may be characterized by an increased or decreased intensity of emotion, endless repetition, and/or seemingly timeless duration. One striking example of an intense response to bereavement is described by Rita Jordan and Stuart Powell in the chapter *Emotional Aspects of Development*, in *Understanding and Teaching Children with Autism* (1995). At 10 years of age, Frank, a boy with autism, communicated largely with a signed vocabulary of 150 words. Aside from “rough and tumble” sessions with his father after school each day, Frank stayed to himself during free time. One day while Frank was at school his father died of a heart attack. Frank was placed in respite care. Frank was told of his father’s death when he returned home after the funeral. It was unclear how much Frank understood. A little later, as the time for the daily rough and tumble session passed, Frank became distressed, kicking and banging amidst signing for his father. Frank ran to his father’s closet (wardrobe), only to discover all of his father’s clothes had been cleared away: > He then cried inconsolably as he swung the wardrobe door to and fro. This behaviour lasted for some hours and it was only with some difficulty that Frank was persuaded to have something to eat and go to bed. On waking in the morning, his first action was to return to his father’s wardrobe and continue his wailing and swinging on the door. He could not be persuaded to go to school in the taxi and in desperation his mother phoned the school for help (p. 48). Explanations of his father’s death seemed to have little impact. Each day as the time for rough and tumble play passed, Frank would return to his father’s wardrobe and repeat the behaviors. The situation was resolved when a school social worker engaged Frank in rough and tumble play for a few weeks, “filling” the void of loss that was the most meaningful for Frank. This approach is described in the article by Rawlings (2000), mentioned earlier: > It is likely that the loss of a significant person through death creates anxieties and difficulties for the person with autism because of the loss of the functions that the deceased person performed for them. Finding others to replace the deceased in terms of the activities that were shared and the needs that the deceased met might be a way of addressing the loss (p. 26) For Frank, the rough-housing each afternoon with the social worker - initially at home, and later at school toward the end of the school day - helped to fill an initial void as Frank learned to adjust to the death and absence of his father. Parents and professionals working on behalf of children with ASD share anecdotes of other intense reactions to the death of a loved one: - My son gets obsessed with the process of death and violent acts. When I try to explain death to him, he becomes so obsessed with it that it is the only thing he will talk about. …Once he starts talking about the subject, he just will not quit! Maybe he takes some kind of comfort in knowing exactly what our answers will be, but it is really annoying. - Dustin’s father passed away six years ago. Since then, he’s been playing funeral procession - cars lined up perfectly, Dad’s in the car in the front. He’s 10 now; the funeral procession is repositioned each day. - My husband’s friend died very unexpectedly a few months ago. My son constantly still asks questions about it. He seems to be trying to hurt his daddy’s feelings. Although it is typical for a child to ask questions, initially refuse death’s finality, and/or use play to re-enact events surrounding a death, the intense and/or persistent quality of these responses can place additional pressure on those who are seeking to “move on” after the death of a family member or friend. Increasingly, other family members are irritated or frustrated by the unending repetition or unfaltering themes. As one widow concluded, “We live on a farm. I used to wish my son would develop some interest other than Thomas the Tank Engine™. That is, until my husband was killed in a harvesting accident. William’s interest turned to farming machinery. I try to be patient, but it’s emotionally difficult for me to keep answering Will’s endless questions about tractors and cultivators.” **Unique Responses to Loss** There are occasions where the responses of the child with ASD are *unique* in contrast to our own experience. For example, as brothers and sisters are delighted at the announcement of the cancellation of school due to a “snow day”, the child with ASD may be simultaneously thrust into the grips of despair over the loss of the daily routine. Then there are the concepts, like *sharing and turn-taking* - that hold inherent valuable returns and social *gains* for most of us - that can represent absolute loss to the child with ASD. At other times, a child with ASD may demonstrate a reaction that is disarmingly out of context, for example, displaying no emotion in response to the news of loss of a loved one or laughing at a funeral. All of this makes *Unique Responses to Loss* a category with extensive variety and plenty of anecdotes that reflect the many individual profiles of children with ASD. **Unique Responses to Day-to-Day Losses** Ask any parent of a child with ASD to describe their child’s unique responses to day-to-day losses and their stories will fill an afternoon. Speech and language pathologists, psychologists, teachers, and assistants also have anecdotes to share. From the files of parents and professionals, we pull these examples of unique responses to day-to-day losses observed in children with ASD: - While other students on his spelling bee team rejoiced over their win, my student, Adam, was thrust into the grips of despair because the final contestant – for some unknown reason - chose not to stand as she spelled the winning word. - Walking with the family under a footbridge on a sunny day, our daughter, Jenna, began to cry inconsolably over the disappearance of her shadow, despite our efforts to explain what had happened. She simply would not move. Once she calmed down, we emerged into the sunlight on the other side. Upon being reunited with her shadow, Jenna jumped and bolted frantically in an attempt to detach from it. Later, she told us that she wanted to just “…keep it under the bridge” so she would not lose it again. - Parker is seven. He told his teacher he wanted to be an airline pilot. When she inquired as to why, he said, “So I can retrieve my kite.” It’s a paper kite that he lost over two years ago. Information can bring understanding to that which seems confusing and unique. After a discussion of some of the unique responses to death and dying, we’ll look at theories that may help to explain the statements and behaviors that take us by surprise. **Unique Responses to Death & Dying** The unique responses to death and dying that we see in children with ASD are highly varied - with some common threads. Dr. Tony Attwood, a noted international expert on autism spectrum disorders, has shared that children with ASD may not experience death like the rest of the family or his/her peers (Attwood, 2002). The intensity of their responses may be more or less than others, or unique and unexpected. Though the focus of this article is on loss and children with ASD, it is adults with ASD who are able to provide us with the most accurate insights into their perceptions of the events and emotions surrounding a death. The contrasts in their experiences – from those who report extreme sorrow and grief to those who feel “nothing” - define the opposite ends of a spectrum of grief reactions. Regardless of the presence or absence of feelings of loss or sorrow, a common thread of confusion is a prevailing theme that runs through their experiences. Jennifer, a young woman with Asperger’s Syndrome, describes how she was overcome with emotion when her mother died. The planning of the funeral rested largely on her shoulders, and this added to her emotional turmoil. She was upset to learn after the fact that some of her decisions had shocked her family and friends. Apparently, for some funeral arrangements like the acceptance of flowers or memorial contributions, it was most important to consider the wishes of the person who died; whereas other decisions seemed to ride on arbitrary, unspoken, but nonetheless critically important expectations. How was Jennifer to know whose wishes prevailed with each decision? Jennifer also had difficulty expressing her grief, and friends and family had an equal challenge recognizing it. The misunderstandings that ensued caused others to mistakenly conclude that Jennifer was largely insensitive and uncaring toward her mother’s death. They could not have been more wrong. Other adults with ASD share that they do not feel grief. Their perspective is dominated by logic and face-value assessments. This is evident in the following excerpt, written by a man with Asperger’s Syndrome, 58 years of age: I am more attentive to the deterioration of my parents than are my siblings, to the extent of personally caring for their personal and physical needs in my home. When they pass, I experience NO sense of loss. …It’s right for me to care for the ones who raised me. What evokes the indignation of others is my stoicism about death. It’s not emotional. When they are gone (father already, mother soon), I’ll go on as before with no sense of loss. What’s the big deal? Similarly, Edgar Schneider, who has autism and is the author of Discovering My Autism (1999), writes that “Never in my life have I ever felt grief, or even a sense of loss” (p. 51). His mother passed away prior to his diagnosis of autism, while everyone else in the family expressed grief and sorrow: I felt nothing. I also felt that there was something wrong there. Somewhat sardonically, I said to my pastor (who had been a psychologist before becoming a priest), “There are all kinds of support groups for people who grieve, but nothing for people who should be grieving but don’t” (p. 51). Whether severely impacted by the loss of a loved one, or absent of sorrow or grief, the comments of these adults with ASD reflect apprehension in socially “getting it right” or understanding the comments, reactions, and emotions of others. Edgar Schneider felt this confusion as a child: Someone in my family, quite elderly, had just died. I found the ensuing consternation on everyone’s part very discomforting. That was, mostly, because I did not know what caused this climate of great agitation (Remember… uncertainty was my biggest source of fear.) (p. 53). Following the death of a loved one, parents and professionals may also be confused by the seemingly “odd” or unexpected comments and behaviors of children with ASD. When there is a death, adults are at the height of their own emotions - at a point where they may be unprepared or ill-equipped to effectively handle the unique interactions that take them by surprise. In the following example, a child’s confusion matter-of-factly runs head on into the emotional status of his surroundings, subsequently overwhelming his parents: A close personal friend to both my husband and I died of a heart attack. We decided to include Davis, our son with Asperger’s Syndrome, in the experience of the funeral home visitation. At the funeral home, several people were gathered around the casket. One woman commented, “What a terrible shock this is.” Davis announced, “SHOCKED? Why are you shocked? Lots of people who smoke die of heart attacks.” The group exchanged awkward glances. I quickly escorted Davis to the lobby. He thought the adults were astoundingly uninformed as to the risks of smoking cigarettes. Overwhelmed by the loss of our personal friend, Davis’ comments added pressure to a situation that already was difficult. In summary, children with ASD may demonstrate responses to loss that are similar to their peers, intense in comparison, or unique. Sometimes, one element of a child’s reaction may be typical for his or her chronological age – but the intended meaning may be overshadowed by unique factors. In other instances, a child’s response may seem to occur “out-of-the-blue” and/or out of proportion in intensity to the problem at hand. Why the difference? Appreciating the Differences "We believe that overcoming loss is possible for everyone, but it is not possible for everyone at the same speed." What accounts for the intense - and sometimes unique - responses of a child with ASD to loss? Many of the stories and anecdotes in this article reflect the importance of quickly and accurately assessing a social event: recalling a past experience or experiences that may be currently helpful; sequencing that information in terms of importance and priority; determining what other people know or feel in that context and putting it all together to know what to say and do next. **A typical person can accomplish this almost "without thinking."** Most of us have lost keys, competitions, mittens, games, and tickets. These experiences are cataloged and filed for later reference. The ability to pull up relevant experience and information, sequence it in terms of time, place, and feasibility, or identify those that can help us if we fail, plays a big part in finding a lost item, or processing the loss of a pet or person. To a child who struggles with the identification and organization of relevant information, lost items present themselves not as irritating - and somewhat anticipated events, but instead as sharp and permanent assaults on an otherwise perfect present tense. Thus, the difference in the response of a typical person to loss, and that of a person with ASD, plays out on different social landscapes. People who are typical have the ability to rapidly assess and interpret social context. Context is not simply an understanding of "where;" it is, in fact, the ability "get the gist" via the simultaneous identification, collection, interpretation and application of a multitude of factors that include but are not limited to place, age, emotion, gender, objects, time, and season. This is what Uta Frith calls central coherence (Happe', 1995). In this case, central may be an understatement. In terms of social-communication, context is "central" as the sun is to the planets; the spindle in social-communication around which meaning revolves. And it is here that the resulting intent, purpose, and social insight of human communication - often the entire meaning - can elude the person with ASD. Day-to-day losses rarely take us by surprise - in a way, we expect to lose the keys to the car. We base that expectation on the 150 times before when we've misplaced the car keys or similar items, in similar situations. Noticing that the keys are missing, we're a little confused but definitely not shocked. In a flash we've retrieved and sequenced all that we've learned from missing keys before. We know that sometimes things get lost and, before we even move, our mind has narrowed the search to "...the last time I used them" and consequently "...the first place I might look." Referred to as Executive Function (Russell, 1997), we have an efficient "cognitive team" that pulls the file folders we need and selects and prioritizes the most probable routes to a solution. We go to the one person most likely to have information - or the temperament! - to effectively assist us. Enter Theory of Mind. Theory of Mind (Baron-Cohen, Tager-Flusberg, & Cohen, 1993) is our ability to make very accurate guesses about what the people around us know, feel, or believe. In a search for lost keys, we "automatically" know who may have seen our keys (for example, that person who cleaned the house yesterday, or was with us the last time we used them). If we were alone when we misplaced them, we recruit help from the most intelligent or emotionally calm person that is available. Theory of Mind is also critically important when someone has died: we know who may not *From A Word to Adults about this Book, in Lost & Found: A Kid's Book for Living Through Loss by Rabbi Marc Gellman and Monsignor Thomas Hartman (1999). *In the last decade, a wealth of new information has helped us appreciate the cognitive differences of children with ASD. Beyond the reach of this article, the reader is encouraged to learn more from the wide variety of resources that are available. have had access to information about the death; who to go to for assistance with funeral arrangements; and who to seek out for emotional support. Knowing what other people know, and the ability to recall the past emotional and social experiences that are relevant to the current circumstances, helps us quickly and efficiently share information, while placing us in contact with those who can support and assist us. From a typical social perspective it is all so obvious and easy - largely because central coherence, executive function, and theory of mind are the ultimate in team players. Their efforts may overlap, but they never override one another. In contrast, a child with ASD may react to a loss with the shock of an unexpected assault. With impairments in central coherence, executive function, and theory of mind, a loss potentially *is* a shock which the child is unequipped to handle on his own. We begin to walk to “the last place I saw those keys” while the child with ASD is under siege, stuck in the grip of *The Keys Are Gone*. Unable to independently retrieve relevant information, there is little to ease his loss or temper his mood. Severely challenged in launching searches of his own, the child is unable to imagine that others *know* how to find things or have these skills. From his perspective, our reassurances to relax because, “*The lost keys will probably be found*…” holds little truth, just as there is no reasonable explanation for our relative calm. The car keys have vanished - we’re moving toward a solution and the child with ASD is stopped in his tracks. Period. In terms of a terminal illness or death, the challenge is similar, but coupled with unfamiliar events and emotions that are likely to be overwhelming. The foreign contexts, faces, rules and routines exponentially increase the likelihood for social mistakes. A child’s comments - or literal interpretations of the explanations of adults - may reflect his or her challenges in identifying the intent, purpose, or “gist” of a conversation or social setting. The social and emotional errors may upset those who do not understand autism, while simultaneously making those who *do* know about autism very proud of what the child *gets right* in spite of the difficult circumstances. Work on this article has led to a theory that a child with ASD may perceive and experience traumatic losses far more frequently than his or her typical peers, and a question as to how this may impact his or her social and emotional development. Children with ASD often encounter surroundings where people come and go without reason and objects disappear without hope of retrieval. In the midst of their confusion, the adults that surround them come to the totally out-of-context conclusion that “…there is nothing to be upset about.” Where is it that a child with ASD will learn trust and discover the value of social connections? Like any theory, this one raises additional questions: - Is it possible to be sensitive to the perspective of those with ASD without losing our own routines and need for peace and predictability in the process? - If we can’t determine why the child is so upset, is there any way to console or help him regain the calm that enables problem-solving? - With all the possible losses that arise in the life of a child with ASD - with some of them centering around topics that challenge our own ideas of what is important and what is not – is it possible to negotiate a reasonable route to a solution that enables parents and children to work together, comfortably, toward a solution? There are no easy answers to these questions, but for every travel destination there’s a guide book. When it comes to teaching a child with ASD about loss, a “guide book” includes all that brings *meaning* to the efforts and explanations of parents and professionals. It translates abstract concepts into their tangible counterparts - giving elusive ideas a workable frame, lining up isolated events so they may be logically linked, affirming emotions without assuming what they should be - to guide children with ASD toward practical and positive control of their own experience. The last decade has seen the development of a wealth of creative, visually-based materials and strategies (Aitwood, 1998; Faherty, 2000; Gray, 2000, Hodgdon, 1995; McAfee, 2002; Prizant et.al., 2002; Scopler & Mesibov, 1995; Sussman, 1999; Quill, 1995; Winner, 2002). These resources make the necessary accommodations to support learning. In addition, they share a commitment to patient and positive one-step-at-a-time instruction. The final “destination” of this article follows suit with new guidelines to help children with ASD learn from loss. Guiding Children with ASD through Loss *Patience with grief and loss is essential to realizing wisdom and compassion. As a parent or professional, you probably recognize aspects of your own experience in many of the anecdotes in the previous sections. What is challenging about loss and children with ASD is that it can take us on a journey of unanticipated on-the-run decisions and emotionally uncomfortable destinations. If losses would announce themselves in advance, we’d be ready for them. Unfortunately, this is not the case. It requires us to “expect the unexpected” in even the most ordinary circumstances. Since each child with ASD responds to loss from his or her individual and sometimes unique point of view, a “recipe” approach to intervention is likely to be ineffective. Instead, guidelines can help us turn life’s losses into learning opportunities. Toward that end, the following Guidelines to Teaching Children with ASD About Loss are submitted: 1. **Abandon Assumptions** in favor of respecting the child’s perspective and following his or her lead, while making an effort to provide… 2. **Advance Notice** that includes information a child may be missing, adding meaning with… 3. **Accommodations and Analogies** that build concepts and… 4. **Affirm Feelings**, to make meaningful and effective… 5. **Associations** between related past, present, and future experiences. Collectively these guidelines help children “move through” uncomfortable destinations, to view them as temporary circumstances and learning opportunities. This section describes the practical application of each of these guidelines. **Abandon Assumptions** To Abandon Assumptions is to “start from social scratch” - replacing our confidence in interpreting the behavior of a child with ASD with respect for the differences. It’s the practical application of considering an event alongside what we know about how that child perceives the social world. Specifically looking at loss, we have preconceived notions of what should, and should not, be considered a loss. Abandoning assumptions to regard losses from a broader perspective helps us respond to what a child needs. It pulls our attention away from the (sometimes seemingly insignificant!) topic of a loss, to the emotions that surround it. Many people mistakenly believe that all children are work from the same set of social information. From this point of view, a child’s intense response to the loss of a toy is viewed simply as inappropriate behavior, or in the case of the death of a loved one, a child’s stoic exterior is hastily interpreted as disinterest or a lack of compassion. This may or may not be the case. Faced with an adult firmly planted in this type of social belief system, the assumptions that surround him or her are tight and restricting, like shadows cast at high noon. Consider the following statements, with their possible underlying assumptions listed in parentheses: - “Shhhhhhh. There’s no reason to be upset.” (You are wrong or in error to be upset.) - “You’re just missing a little red Lego™ block? Use that white one instead!” (Your product or your preference is not important.) - “Edith doesn’t seem upset at Grandpa’s death.” (Edith’s reaction is wrong, she does not care.) *From A Word to Adults about this Book, in Lost & Found: A Kid’s Book for Living Through Loss by Rabbi Marc Gellman and Monsignor Thomas Hartman (1999).* Parents and professionals who learn to abandon assumptions, also notice a marked decrease in the inappropriate behaviors of children with autism. Those behaviors may still occur, but they are less frequently *inappropriate* when viewed with respect for the child’s point of view. The result is a new - more careful - *Search for Inappropriate Behavior* that is less frequently successful because - according to the dictionary - to be considered *inappropriate* a behavior has to be “not suitable” or “not proper” (Oxford University Press, 1999). If a child is missing social information that others have access to (theory of mind, central coherence), and/or is responding according to his perception of an event, at times she or he *may not be aware of what is or is not socially suitable or proper*. How can one possibly conclude a behavior is inappropriate, without looking further to our responsibility in sharing information that would make new, more effective responses logical? **Abandoning Assumptions Regarding Day-to-Day Losses** In practice among day-to-day losses, to abandon assumptions requires adults to look from a broader, bigger-than-the-inconvenience-of-the-moment perspective. According to the authors of Lost & Found, losing a block or another toy is important to any child, and: *It's okay to be upset about losing stuff. Some people may tell you that things don't matter. They may tell you that it's wrong to be so attached to your stuff, and that if you lose it, it's no big deal. We don't think that's true. Some things matter because they are tools. ...When you lose your tools, life gets harder and definitely less fun* (Gellman & Hartman, 1999, pp 20-21). Admittedly, it’s difficult for a parent to abandon the task of making dinner when drafted into a child’s search of the play room for one tiny block; lost blocks come and go attached to incredible waves of inconvenience. If this is *just a lost block*, the goal is only to find it so the day can continue. But looking beyond that assumption a lost block can become a learning opportunity. The goal is to teach the child, one step and loss at a time, to develop strategies to find life’s “blocks” in the future. The value lies not in the dollars and cents or physical size of the block, but in learning to work through loss and discovering alternate solutions. Abandoning assumptions, it is so much easier to leave the task of making dinner in the kitchen for a learning opportunity, than it is to simply recover that which is lost. **Abandoning Assumptions Related to Death & Dying** To abandon assumptions when a death occurs requires us to be alert to the pitfalls that may cloud an accurate interpretation of the child’s reaction. Instead of harboring a preconceived notion of what his or her response *should be*, the focus is on helping the child identify and work through his or her own perceptions and feelings. As we’ve discovered, some children with ASD may respond to the death of a family member with comments that are disarmingly factual and/or emotionally out of context. For others, death is the ultimate change; not solely the loss of a loved one, but much more. Some aspects of a child’s response may be entirely typical, within age norms, or the meaning of a child’s words may be hidden by his or her difficulty matching them to the expected or typical feelings and pragmatics. Considering the emotional status of other family members and friends, it isn’t easy to abandon assumptions when a loved one has died. The tendency may be to try to “coach” a traditional response that the child may not be able to relate to, or understand, which could add to his or her confusion. Indeed, the child with ASD may not understand the feelings of others, and this may require as much - or more - explanation than that of the illness and death itself. If a child does not feel emotions that are in sync with friends or other members of the family, he or she will need information about why everyone’s behavior is suddenly so different and when - and how - things will return to “normal”. Replacing our assumptions with an accurate understanding of typical behavior - and an appreciation of the exponentially increased challenges that a child with ASD may encounter following a death - makes the rest of our role as parents and professionals in these difficult situations a little easier. *Interestingly, inappropriate follows the words approachable (friendly, easy to talk to) and approbation (approval) in the dictionary.* With social assumptions out of the way, the subsequent steps of providing advance notice, making accommodations, and affirming a child’s experience, while building associations among past, present, and future experiences becomes so much easier and actually quite logical. A final word of caution, though: respecting and affirming a child’s point of view does not grant him or her permission to call all of the shots throughout the day, rearrange the living room furniture linearly, or assume possession of the deed to the family home and the life of all those within it. It will, however, build meaning into more interactions, visually enhance additional concepts, demonstrate effective conflict resolution skills, and place a value on learning in place of the avoidance - or disdain for - the losses encountered by a child with ASD. **Advance Notice** *Advance Notice* is having information before it is needed. For those of us working with children with ASD - where we expect the unexpected - we’ve discovered the value of being prepared for future issues. Children with ASD also benefit from advance notice. Over the last decade Social Stories™ have provided them with a wealth of social information. Thus, *Advance Notice* applies to all of us; as one team. In this matter of loss, we can gather the background information we will need, use Social Stories to share what we’ve learned with the children in our care, and incorporate other ideas and activities that collectively work to provide the benefit of knowledge, and knowing what to do ahead of time. **Books for Adults and Children** Some people say that knowledge is power; I think it’s an unsung hero. In my career I have observed knowledge at work first-hand many times, and it’s a striking comparison to those times when it doesn’t seem to be present. There are wonderful books for adults *and* children that can build our confidence regarding what to say or do when loss is part of the picture. *Lost & Found*, mentioned and quoted throughout this article, is helpful for both adults and children. For adults, it will increase our awareness of the many kinds of loss that children encounter each day, increasing the number of opportunities to teach children to work through them. Or, should the phone ring with news that Grandpa has died, we can have a book on the shelf to guide us. For children in mid-to-late elementary grades, *Lost & Found* is an informative and unassuming friend, a practical source of winning attitudes and problem-solving strategies. There are numerous other books, too. Many are reviewed and listed in Appendix A: Related Resources for Adults & Children. Knowledge - or just knowing *where* the knowledge we need *is located* - is a great place to start. **Social Stories and Loss** Just as books provide a wonderful base of information, *Social Stories™* can personalize information and focus on topics addressed nowhere else in children’s literature. A Social Story is a short story, written in a special style and format consistent with the learning characteristics of children with ASD, that describes a concept, skill, or activity. Social Stories inform, describe, and reassure with an overall patient and unassuming quality, making them welcome as messengers for over a decade. They are perhaps at their best when presented *in advance* of new or potentially troublesome events. Social Stories can play a big role in sharing information about loss. Social Stories about loss are likely to be difficult to write. As we sit down to write Social Stories about loss we may get... *STUCK*. Equipped with paper and pencil, the pencil doesn’t move. Using the computer doesn’t help because words don’t appear on the screen either. Even those of us with plenty of experience are likely to be overwhelmed. *Lost & Found* may be difficult to find. A limited number of copies are available from The Gray Center for Social Learning and Understanding, www.TheGrayCenter.org. There are so many possible topics and so many abstract concepts! For example, when it comes to death and dying, there are many activities to introduce, perspectives to consider, and feelings to describe. Sometimes, simple modifications in format, content, and/or selection of vocabulary can make Social Stories about loss easier for adults to write and easier for children to understand. Before sitting down to write a Social Story about loss, you may want to refer to Appendix B: Social Stories & Loss / Writing Social Stories about Loss. There you will find a few hints and ideas to help get the words on the paper. Advance Notice about Day-to-Day Losses In a way, having information about loss - and consequently an increased awareness of its potential - may add to our confusion. In terms of the numerous day-to-day losses, how is it possible to prepare children in advance for every loss they may encounter? Even if it were possible to set the stage ahead of time, considering the rather long list of losses that may occur, a child may decide to stay put or return to bed. Similarly, if a teacher were to preface each assignment with a forewarning of looming educational doom: "Now, remember class, you may fail as you attempt to complete this - but, just remember, losing is a learning opportunity!" students may be more discouraged than encouraged. The goal is not to anticipate each and every loss - it is to maximize the learning opportunity of a few, by identifying those that are most likely or important, providing information about the possibility of one of two outcomes (success now or possibly next time), and effectively harnessing their educational potential. In the past, the phrase "teachable moment" has been used to refer to potential lessons that arise in the course of other daily activities. The problem with the phrase, "teachable moment" is that it places emphasis on half of the educational equation, the teacher, who is presented with more things that he or she can teach. For our purposes here, the emphasis is on the learner, and teachable moments will be referred to as learning opportunities. Specifically in terms of loss and children with ASD, a learning opportunity is a setback which arises unexpectedly; is recognized by an adult, and creatively harnessed to lead to a new discovery; or an activity sensitively engineered to teach a child about loss and learning within a comfortable one-step-at-a-time structure. Here are a few examples: - Board games based on luck, with adults modeling good sportsmanship and positive responses to loss. - Pre-arranging cards in childhood board games, like Candy Land™ (Hasbro, 2001) to create situations and control their frequency, with the adult "going first" to model effective responses (adult is initially behind, then child is behind; adult gets sent back to a square at the beginning, child gets sent back similarly; adult is winning, child is winning; etc.). This can be tailored to game situations which are difficult for an individual child and controlled in line with his/her emotion regulation abilities and weaknesses. - Frequent mention of adult mistakes and losses at home and on the job, the feelings associated with them, the steps used to resolve them, and new ideas discovered in the process. - Recruiting the assistance of a child with ASD in looking for a lost item belonging to another member of the family, explaining the logic behind the search and assigning a specific task to the child with a defined ending, "Please look to see if the lost black shoe is in the bottom of the front closet, then report to me." - Engaging in an activity that is easy for the child with ASD and difficult for mom and/or dad, who model strategies for handling their limited skills and the frustration or feelings of inadequacy that result. This may revolve around a child's area of interest, making it fun for a child to have others join his or her "agenda." Advance Notice about Death and Dying Though we may hesitate to inform a child about the death of a pet or a person, chances are he or she has experienced death already. Whether the child learned anything about death from those experiences is up to us. Dying, and death, is part of a life cycle, and in that way it is somewhat predictable. From a very young age, children have a series of first-hand experiences with life and death, often with lives entrusted to their immediate care: a bean plant in preschool; insects in jars with mesh lids; fish in bowls; a hamster. The bean plant, the bugs, the fish, and the hamster are real-world warehouses of important learning opportunities. While the bean plant is alive and thriving, we can mention how it drinks water, eats plant food, breathes air, grows and moves - laying the groundwork for a future explanation of how the *dead* bean plant does *not* drink, eat, grow, breathe, or move anymore. When the fish is alive and thriving, we can mention how it drinks, eats, breathes, and moves - laying the groundwork for a future explanation of how the *dead* fish does *not* drink, eat, grow, breathe, or move anymore. The hamster and all the pets to follow in succession hold the same, predictable, repetitive lesson - with the observable addition of sleeping – paving the way for our explanation that Grandpa or Grandma has died, and will not be able to drink, eat, breathe, grow, move, or *sleep* anymore. Advance notice also applies to human illnesses and death. Experts advise that soon after learning of a serious illness, accident, or death, children – even those who are very young - should be told. A serious illness brings big changes to the daily and weekly routine, and to members of the family and their feelings. New people arrive, familiar people leave. Suddenly, Mom may be gone each weekend or Dad might seem unusually serious or preoccupied. There could be visitations to the hospital or funeral home, or attendance at a wake or a funeral. Explaining the emotions of others, providing structured opportunities for a child to help, and emphasizing the temporary nature of these changes compliments a child’s intelligence, confirms the many changes, and provides some predictability to a potentially overwhelming situation. Abandoning assumptions and providing advance notice can minimize the jolt of a daily loss, and explain and support a child’s understanding and role in the death of a family member or friend, but only if the information has meaning for the child with ASD. Blending information with a *meaningful delivery* can improve the odds that the child will find a purpose or practical application for it. For a child with ASD, accommodating his/her cognitive strengths and weaknesses can translate an irritating interaction into a comprehensible conversation. Accommodations tie meaning to spoken words and text and minimize misunderstanding or unfortunate (though memorable!) social mistakes. In the same way, an effective analogy can provide a shortcut to genuine understanding. The following section, *Accommodations and Analogies* shares strategies to help us meaningfully guide children with ASD through loss, toward learning. **Accommodations in Vocabulary and Analogies** The use of accommodations and analogies to support learning is a *continual process* that involves a practical understanding of the information to be shared, coupled with an appreciation of the eyes, ears, and mind that are to receive it. The art of teaching children with ASD- *especially abstract concepts like those surrounding loss* - lies in the individually tailored use of materials and strategies to infuse meaning into instruction. All children learn best when they feel comfortable in an environment and capable of succeeding with the task at hand. Additionally, children with ASD benefit when: 1) activities and their role within them are structured; 2) visual materials are used to enhance meaning; and 3) instruction is related to personal experiences or interests. Many of us routinely make these accommodations. This section explores two additional accommodations that are very important, *especially* in light of the concepts and skills related to loss. They are 1) careful selection of vocabulary and 2) the use of analogies to help us translate abstract concepts into their tangible counterparts. Selection of Clear Vocabulary For a child who interprets words literally, at face value without the benefit of their intended meanings, the risk of expressive and receptive misunderstanding runs high. Where loss is concerned, it is exceptionally important for us to make a concerted effort to carefully choose our vocabulary and be extra cautious of all literal interpretations. The result is that we have to be more sincere than we typically are, making sure that our words match our intended meaning, our pragmatics, and the current context. The challenge also goes a step further. Some words have meanings based on observable, concrete information and also meanings that are rooted in cognitive theories (like our ability to take the perspective of others, theory of mind, and/or central coherence). Naturally, children with ASD are likely to gravitate toward those meanings that are observable and concrete over those requiring an understanding of how people think or feel. Unfortunately, much of our social information - and many of our social solutions - lie in the more “socially-based” meanings of words. This is true as we consider the word, lose, and other words related to loss, and the implications of the meanings we choose to emphasize when we are interacting with a child with ASD. Vocabulary and Day-to-Day Losses The word lose has several meanings, some of them far more “concrete” than others. When we refer to an item as lost (past tense of lose), our emphasis is placed on the item. In the dictionary, the definition of lose begins with this meaning: “…1) …to be deprived of or cease to have, esp. by negligence or misadventure” (Oxford University Press, 1999). These are rather harsh words with an irreversible tone. No wonder the child is upset! Our mistake is that we use this meaning to describe Winnie the Pooh™ when he is under the bed behind the socks to the left of the baseball mitt. In practice, unless a thing has the ability to dissolve into air or water (steam, bubbles, gases, coffee, Alka Seltzer™), the accurate information is that it is somewhere and it will probably be found. Farther down in the definition of lose in the dictionary is another meaning that is more practical for our purposes: “3) …become unable to find; fail to keep in sight or mentally follow…” or “4) …let or have pass from one’s control or reach” (Oxford University Press, 1999). It’s not that we have ceased to have or own this item, it’s that we have no current knowledge as to its whereabouts. Our ability to recall, prioritize, mentally sequence, and problem solve holds all of the keys that will ultimately change the status of the item from “lost” to found. We try to remember where we saw it last or who may know where the item is, prioritize the likelihood of where it may be and sequence those locations into a search plan. Winnie the Pooh™ is not lost; he is unable to move on his own and stuck in his current location until people figure things out. This is good news for a child who, without knowledge of cognitive processes, may be likely to interpret loss exclusively and literally as “…cease to have.” When a child reports a lost item, we can emphasize that it is somewhere, still belonging to the child, and share the strategies that may revert its status to found. We can model what lose means in practice. Saying, “The keys are lost,” may likely elicit a child’s anxiety and impede problem solving. Instead, we can say, “I have lost track of the keys…” or “I have to find the keys…”. By thinking out loud we can identify our steps toward a solution, calmly involving the child. “Let’s see, Dad may know. He moved my car out of the garage yesterday. Let’s go ask Dad about my keys, okay?” Sometimes, our vocabulary related to loss can be clarified with the addition of a few key words. For example, day-to-day losses include competitive sports and academic tasks, where the meaning of lose is to: “5) …be defeated in (a game, race, lawsuit, battle, etc.” (Oxford University Press, 1999). This is a “cut and dried” face-value description of loss that a child with ASD may readily ascribe to, as in, “I lost the game…”. Literally interpreted, the game is an isolated and thus exponentially important defeat. Other children benefit from the consideration of past and future events alongside the current activity, leading them to ultimately (if not immediately!) conclude, “I lost this game, this time.” This game and this time represent important concepts: the temporary status of the situation and its continual and inherent connection to other games and opportunities, both past and present. The same thing is true of a disappointing outcome on a school assignment or test. The consistent addition of a few words, like "...this time" can gradually work to "ground" the profile of the current situation, with an emphasis on its relationship to other opportunities. **Vocabulary and Death and Dying** The vocabulary that parents and professionals choose is rarely more critical than in a situation where a loved one has died. The challenge is that emotions are more intense, demands on time are increased, and those directly involved are understandably tired. By remembering a few suggestions regarding vocabulary – though it may take some additional concentration or investment of time initially – a parent can save time and stress in the long run. These suggestions are: 1) Increase awareness of the risks and enduring implications of literally interpreted words, phrases, or statements used to refer to those who are terminally ill or deceased, or the events surrounding a death, 2) pre-think explanations with exceptional care and encourage others to follow suit with the use of the same vocabulary and phrases, and 3) equipped with these considerations follow your own good judgment and faith to make a final decision regarding how, and what, to share with the child in light of your current situation. The selection of vocabulary related to death and the events that surround it has been briefly mentioned throughout this article, but it is worth emphasizing here. First, vocabulary related to death and dying can be established early in a child's life and developed as a continuing process, i.e. in references to the dead bean plant that no longer can drink, eat, breathe, or grow; the dead fish, mouse, and hamster that can no longer drink, eat, breathe, move, or grow; and Grandpa, who has died and no longer drinks, eats, breathes, sleeps, moves, or grows. The verb feels also becomes important as curiosity/concern/questions related to the closing of the casket or placement of the casket in the ground arise. Ensure that the child understands the negated form of the verbs (drink, eat, grow, move, and sleep) prior to beginning these explanations. The word very can reinforce the distinction between having a cold (sick), having the flu (very sick), having a terminal illness (very, very, very sick) and being so very, very, very, very, very sick that the person could no longer drink, eat, or breathe anymore. That's why the body is so still in the casket, that's why it's okay to close the casket and place the person in the ground or cremate the body. Working in haste or without preparation, a parent or even professional may mistakenly use terms like "asleep" or "away" to refer to the deceased. This vocabulary, if interpreted without the benefit of their intended meaning, may have enduring consequences (a child refusing to go to bed to "sleep;" a child bursting into tears because mom is picking up the keys to the car to go "away" to the funeral home). Diane Rawlings' (2000) study of bereavement and adults with ASD reinforces the point that vocabulary can be easily misinterpreted with potentially serious results: *In relation to information about death, I am continually reminded of a situation where for one individual, his own death appeared to him to be the easiest solution to the problems he was facing in his life at that time. The explicit duty of care toward all clients should direct services towards a close examination of what and how staff communicate to clients. Statements such as, 'It is sad that X died, still never mind, he has gone to a better place,' may be taken literally and lead to unfortunate consequences* (p. 26). Family and friends can benefit from having a little information, too. Despite efforts to prepare a child in advance, he or she may react in unexpected ways during a visitation or funeral. Without background information, others may be offended, make erroneous judgments, or avoid interacting with a child for fear of saying or doing something "wrong." Assigning someone in the family with the role of briefly sharing this information, or distributing a slip of paper to key individuals that briefly lists a child's current understanding of the death, his or her most frequently asked questions and suggested answers, as well as suggested vocabulary, can relieve some of the stress for the child with ASD, members of the immediate family, and those attending a funeral. The final decision regarding vocabulary and explanation lies with a child's parents or caregiver. As a poignant case in point, I am reminded of the young mother of a child with autism who approached me during a break at one of my Social Story™ workshops. She shared with me that she had terminal cancer, and that it was likely she would live only for a few more months. She wanted to know what she could do to help her daughter, Angie - now, when she died, and in the years to come. Together we worked out a plan addressing each of these stages. Enthusiastically, she developed plans for a trunk for Angie to explore as she matured. Mom knew exactly what she wanted to say. To get Mom started, we carefully selected key vocabulary and wrote a few Social Stories. Mom decided to gather her favorite photos of the family, and her times with Angie, and write a short description of each. We also made plans for "surprise packages" containing important maternal wisdom, to be opened by Angie, one each year until she reached eighteen years of age. In the process of developing "Angie's Trunk," we laughed ...and cried. I often think of this young mother's courage in facing her own mortality, and her unshakable devotion to her role as a mother then - and always. Now, she reminds me that how we frame information about death is ultimately each family's decision. **Analogies** An analogy is that which establishes a correspondence or similarity. For many children with ASD, an analogy can serve as a bridge between a concept and comprehension. The use of analogies with children with ASD is not a new idea, as seen below: - The statements and writings of many children and adults with ASD contain analogies - often of high personal interest - to help describe concepts and emotions. One mother writes: *After the death of his grandfather, Christopher had “good days” (described as the Titanic before it hit the iceberg) and “bad” (the Titanic after it hit the iceberg). Christopher is very interested in the Titanic, but grandpa’s death was the first time he used it as an analogy for his feelings.* - Children often contribute their own analogies to a Social Story to help them remember the information that it contains. After reviewing a Social Story describing what people mean when they say, “I changed my mind,” seven-year-old Scott developed his own sentence, which was added to the Story: *When someone says, ‘I changed my mind,’ I can think of an idea becoming better... like a caterpillar changing into a butterfly.* - Dr. Tony Attwood has used analogies extensively in his social understanding groups for children with Asperger’s Syndrome to help them understand fairness (the Scales of Justice) and to develop strategies to manage their feelings (The Emotional Toolbox, Attwood, 2002). In addition, children in his groups have used road signs to represent the social concepts and skills they have learned. - An analogy was used to help children with ASD benefit from Dr. Kenneth Rubin’s research identifying the four steps typical children follow to enter an existing play activity (as described in *The Friendship Factor*, 2002). Drawing from Dr. Attwood’s use of road signs with his social understanding groups, road signs were used to translate the four steps of group entry into a Social Story titled, *Watch, Listen, Move Closer, Ease In* (Gray, 2002, based on the work of Rubin, 2002). - Comic Strip Conversations (Gray,1994; 1998a), use colors as an analogy to help students identify the motivation, feelings, and intended meanings of others. Each child creates his or her own chart of colors and associated meanings. Taking a variety of forms, and serving an even wider variety of functions, in creative hands analogies can add interest and fun to our efforts to introduce concepts that otherwise may be beyond a child’s reach. Some children with ASD may not yet be ready to understand and apply analogies. Because an analogy requires a child to understand representation and consider two lines of information simultaneously, analogies may be beyond their current grasp. That being said, they are a wonderful tool to keep “on the strategies shelf.” As a child grows, so, too, will his or her ability to benefit from instructional ideas, like analogies, that may not have worked in the past. **Analogies and Day-to-Day Losses** If they are carefully explained, analogies can help children understand that loss is a temporary setback and an opportunity for learning. Educationally, the best analogies are those that are highly interesting with the potential for *several* “connections” to different concepts within a given topic. Dr. Jerry Mulder, a social worker for Jenison Public Schools, uses golf to teach the importance of attempting difficult tasks, the benefits of practice, and strategies to handle life’s “sand traps.” Students actually practice putting and other skills related to golf, alongside corresponding social and emotional concepts. Another example: A recently piloted curriculum to teach problem-solving skills to adolescents is based on an analogy of a “life suitcase,” with experiences represented by destination decals (Gray, Wallis, & VanHouzen, 2003). Each lesson: 1) begins with an identical opening; 2) continues with a PowerPoint presentation to illustrate the lecture and guide the following discussion; and 3) builds skills one step at a time with systematic review of previous material. Concepts reinforced continually throughout the program and applied to various situations include: 1) problems are temporary; 2) setbacks and losses are opportunities for learning; 3) the basic steps to problem-solving steps, and 4) the importance of “moving through” uncomfortable destinations. The program is described in more detail in Appendix C: Additional Ideas / *The Suitcase Curriculum: Traveling through Life*. In this way, a great analogy can serve as a theme, a meaningful backdrop for a variety of lessons. In an environment where adults consistently model the use of analogies in their explanations, a child may even develop ideas of his/her own. Such is the case with Benjamin Hoekman, age eight (Hoekman, 2003). Upon learning that ideas to handle loss were being gathered for this article, he submitted a letter to me describing the use of a “worry cup”. Children can literally “leave their worries” in a cup by the door to their home, to be discussed and resolved later or simply discarded if no longer a problem. Ben describes the use of a worry cup far more effectively than I do, which is why his original letter appears in its entirety in Appendix C: Additional Ideas / *The Worry Cup*. **Analogies and Death and Dying.** As mentioned earlier, *Lost & Found* contains many analogies to help children understand concepts that may otherwise be too difficult. In creative hands, many of the analogies within the book may be translated into activities to enhance important concepts. For example, in this excerpt from the chapter, *The Ones We Lose*, the authors use an analogy of a board, nails, and a rubber band in their discussion of losing a mom or a dad: > Families are like a board with nails pounded in it and rubber bands stretched over the nails. Those rubber bands make a pattern. If you pull out one of the nails, the pattern of the rubber bands is suddenly different. It's the same when your mom or dad dies. Your parent was one of the nails of your family, and without that person, your family has a new shape. But you're one of the nails left in the board, and doing your best to help everybody learn to live with the new shape of the family is a very great thing to do" (p. 151). Among the stress of a terminal illness or death, a creative analogy may seem out of place. The emails submitted to me during the development of this article, however, proved how analogies can retrieve the first smiles - for everyone - from among the confusion, frustration, and/or tears that follow a death. Nathaniel’s father died as the result of an accident. The concept of death was difficult for Nathaniel to understand; he kept insisting that he needed to talk to Dad. Nathaniel’s mother tried to encourage him to “…talk to Dad in your mind and prayers.” “Okay,” Nathaniel would respond, only to add, “Can I talk to Dad, please?” This cyclic conversation was increasingly frustrating to Nathaniel and his mother. The situation was resolved by an ingenious idea. Mom used a Social Story to describe how Nathaniel could *write a letter* to Dad (at the same time letting Nathaniel know it wouldn’t be possible for Dad to *write* back). Nathaniel wrote a letter, clearly addressed to *DAD: HEAVEN* which was tied to a helium balloon and released outdoors (clear of all trees and obstacles!). Nathaniel’s requests to talk to dad diminished, replaced by several subsequent letters mailed via balloons. Over time, the frequency of Nathaniel’s letters decreased, but did not disappear entirely. Several years after his father’s death, Nathaniel still writes to his dad to relay important events, thoughts, and feelings - including one memorable letter that described the helpful properties of helium! In summary, we have many accommodations within our reach that can “work both ways” to improve our communication with people with ASD. In addition to enhancing meaning with the use of visual supports, when it comes to loss and learning, our most important accommodations may involve vocabulary and the use of analogies. Children with ASD frequently express and interpret inform at face value; in return, we can clarify our communication by harnessing a little extra caution. This, coupled with an effort to teach the intended meanings of words, can translate a disaster of missed meaning into a learning opportunity. Though they may not be effective with some children, analogies can incorporate interesting activities and objects that recruit and hold a child’s attention. Especially when applied to situations where emotions run high - as they do surrounding the death of a loved one - an analogy will be long remembered and may help not only the child with ASD, but others working on his or her behalf. With thoughtful application, our careful choice of vocabulary and creative use of analogies can build the bridge between concept and comprehension - leading to new learning opportunities on the opposite shore. **Affirm Feelings** Often the most difficult aspect of working with a child with ASD are those times when it seems impossible to determine what exactly is causing the child such distress. What is he thinking? What is she feeling? This can leave us frustrated in our efforts as we try to understand, struggling to be *sympathetic* or *empathetic*. It may not be possible for us to feel sympathy *or* empathy, and that may be where part of our exasperation arises. The root words, *sympathy* and *empathy* are nouns that by definition *require* an *accurate appreciation of another person’s point of view*. Sometimes, we don’t have access to that information, placing sympathy and empathy out of our emotional reach. It’s just not possible. *Affirm*, in contrast to sympathy and empathy, is *always* a verb. It is *acknowledgement* of the *validity and importance* of another person’s feelings without the requirement of knowing what that person is thinking or feeling. Affirmation says, “I know you and I are currently in very different emotional places, and that’s okay. I am on your team and we are in this together.” This is not to “give-up-the-ship,” but to support the child until a solution that is workable to all parties is discovered. In those instances where the source of distress is difficult to identify or the events leading up to it are hard to trace with any certainty, affirmation plays a large and helpful role. This section describes affirmation in action, at work among day-to-day losses and those resulting from terminal illness and death. Children with ASD frequently do not have the fluent command of tone of voice, facial expressions, and body movements that provide us with important clues as to what someone *means* or feels. For example, monitoring a young boy with ASD in the classroom whose facial expression and tone of voice have remained absolutely neutral and “flat” for an extended period of time, we may not “pick up on” his increasing frustration with the current activity. Thus, we are surprised at his outburst moments later. Subsequently, we may refer to his tantrum as occurring “totally out of the blue” and “for no apparent reason.” Increasingly, the creative use of visual materials and supports are helping children with ASD identify and express their feelings. Comic Strip Conversations, feeling thermometers (Attwood, 1998), and other emotion gauges (Prizant et.al., 2003) support the exchange of information between child and parent or professional. For example, as a child *begins* to feel uncomfortable, he can let his parents or teacher know by indicating what he is feeling, and the intensity of that feeling, on a representative scale. Knowing what a child is feeling, sooner, we can teach emotion regulation skills before a child’s loses control. Over time, the systematic use of visual supports lays important groundwork for their use in situations where a child’s feelings are more intense. Affirmation and Day-to-Day Losses Each day provides a wealth of opportunities to affirm a child’s emotions, positive and negative, on-the-spot and in retrospect. When it comes to the feelings that loss can elicit, active affirmation can catch a feeling before it explodes with nowhere to go - even in the course of the fast sequence of activities in a busy day at school or home, as this teacher describes: I was out and my assistant was at lunch when the bus arrived, so my substitute met the bus. Eddie, age 3, looked at the unfamiliar lady, froze, and grabbed the bus driver’s hand. Eddie’s bus driver is a kind and understanding man. Sensing Eddie’s confusion in response to an unfamiliar staff member, the bus driver went with Eddie to his classroom. Once in the familiarity of the classroom, Eddie relaxed and the bus driver was able to continue his duties. A day’s events can develop quickly; so, too, the feelings that follow. Advance planning can help to ensure that visual supports, like picture icons, are available when needed. The simple act of making sure they are at hand is evidence that adults recognize and affirm the challenge of having ASD. John, age 3, walked to his bus at the end of the school day. He put one foot on the bottom step, looked up, and stopped in his tracks because his usual bus driver was not there. He began yelling, “NO!”, cried, and refused to board the bus. His teacher patiently took him off the bus, showed him that the number of the bus was correct, handed him a “home” icon to carry with him, and went with him as he successfully boarded the bus. Considering John’s distress upon entering the bus, and that heightened emotions can interfere with a child’s availability for explanation or reason, it is likely the picture icon took the direct route (though John’s confusion and anxiety) to comprehension. In contrast, without the picture icon, the unassisted words of John’s teacher would have likely become either entangled in his confusion or quickly placed on a detour past comprehension, adding to the already heavy traffic headed for increased distress. Whereas some events in a day develop quickly, others arrive like an airplane landing on a crowded expressway. The sun is out, the sky is blue, and the gas tank is full. The children are happy. We’re on the right road and ahead of schedule. All is well except for - what’s that coming straight toward the yellow car in front of us? Flight #4892 bound for Chicago… and landing on I-94 west? Somehow, we weren’t expecting that. Similarly, children with ASD encounter sudden insults to their day and expectations, assaults on their understanding of how things are supposed to go. For example, while his sister quietly read a book in the back seat, Ralph, age 3, cried, screamed and kicked as their car approached a barricade in the road and had to take an alternate route to school. Ralph’s mom did the best she could to console him and share information. She returned home and wrote a Social Story titled, *The Driver Knows the Way so We’re Okay*. Encountering the barricade the following day, the back seat remained calm and quiet. More importantly, as the school year ended and summer road work cropped up everywhere – along with more barricades and detours – Ralph stayed calm, but did inquire each time, “The driver knows the way so we’re okay?” In situations like Ralph’s, much of our affirmation is in retrospect. Unable to predict the pitfalls, we reflect on what may have caused them and write a Social Story to share information with the hope that similar events in the future will go more smoothly. A case example of “in retrospect” Social Stories that affirm - and inform! - occurred in my own school district early this past fall. One of my early elementary students, David, was having difficulty on several fronts. A question as to whether his placement in a general education classroom was advisable for this year was posed to me by his parents, principal, and teacher. David had several emotional outbursts in the first few weeks of school, many resulting from day-to-day losses. He frequently made literal interpretations of the comments and directives (Social Losses / missed meanings); found mistakes on spelling tests intolerable (Performance Losses), and had difficulty leaving assigned tasks to complete at a later time (Loss of Routine). Faced with the frustration that these situations caused, David often responded to the supportive efforts of the principal, teachers, and his instructional assistant in a disrespectful or insulting tone of voice (Loss of Control). A Social Story topic was identified, developed, and implemented for each of these issues. As a team we have continued to identify topics and Stories throughout the year. Several other Social Stories for David have praised skills that he has mastered and activities he does well, and applauded his friendly gestures to others. At this writing, David’s “placement prognosis” is excellent and he is completing a very successful year. We are all very proud of his genuine accomplishments – academically, on the social front, and especially in his ability to turn loss into learning. (Many of David’s Stories are in Appendix B: Social Stories & Loss / David’s Stories) **Affirmation and Death** There are few better uses for affirmation than as we approach the task of sharing the news of the death of a loved one with child with ASD and support him/her in the days that follow. There is the possibility that we may never know for sure how the child feels, ruling out any chance we may have to be empathetic or sympathetic to his or her experience. For all children with ASD, the new and unfamiliar activities and the feelings of others are likely to be difficult to appreciate. Among the many unique profiles described earlier that we may observe among children with ASD in response to a death, we can count on three practical implications: 1) each will present a unique mixture of many individual factors; 2) confusion is likely to play a central role as a child observes and responds to the situation as it unfolds, and 3) **tangible affirmation** may be our best and most effective response option. Each is explored in this section. *Each child with ASD is unique.* This, coupled with the relative infrequency of the events and emotions that surround the death of a loved one, makes it especially difficult for adults to accurately anticipate a child’s response. How are we to know what a child may say or do, or what that child may need, if this is his first exposure to the death of a person? The dad who rehearses and re-rehearses how to share the news that mom has died, can prepare himself for only half of what may ultimately occur. Anything can happen, and this adds uncertainty to his already stressful situation. His son may be severely distressed or disarmingly practical with questions about who will make dinner, pack lunches, and wash the clothes. The genuine art lies in respecting the differences that may become apparent after his son hears that “Mom died...”. Regarding his reaction without interfering judgments, in light of individual abilities and challenges, dad is free to take his next step: to provide the support and/or the information that his son needs. *Children with ASD are likely to be confused by the death of a loved one.* The information a child currently understands about death will be reflected in his or her behaviors, statements, and if we’re lucky, direct questions. We can use our understanding of how typical children view death at different ages as a frame of reference as we watch, and listen, for clues as to our next step with *this* child. In addition, children’s literature may be helpful, and there are many that address specific situations, for example, the loss of a family pet, mother, father, or sibling. Also, many funeral homes have children’s libraries, so that bereaved families can benefit from these resources without having to purchase them (see Appendix A: Resources for Adults & Children / Resources for Children). Finally, we can *meaningfully affirm* a child’s experience by responding with *tangible vehicles* for the identification and expression of their feelings related to the death of a loved one. Similar to the mom who used a helium-filled balloon to enable her son to communicate with his deceased father, here are other ideas: - *Continuing use of strategies already in place*: emotion thermometers, Comic Strip Conversations, etc., that without a concerted effort may slip from routine use. - *Children’s literature* and activity books (See Appendix A: Related Resources for Adults & Children / Resources for Children). - *This Will Stay the Same* list: A child’s list of daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly events that have occurred prior to the death, that will occur once again. A child can discover new items to add to this list as time progresses. - *A Calendar*: Though it may seem out of context in light of the emotions of others, a calendar identifying when routine events are to re-start, and a corresponding Social Story that emphasizes the data surrounding the return to the familiar (identifying dates and times that Dad returns to work or dance classes for Susie resume) can be reassuring for a child whose sense of social predictability and order is based on those events. Similarly, a “paper chain” (with a representative photo at the top) for a younger child to count down the days until returning to his home town and preschool, can help a child realize time *is* passing and he will be resuming his usual routines very soon. In summary, affirmation is empathy and sympathy without the benefit of accurate guesses regarding another person’s experience. Affirmation starts from social scratch, taking its cues from a child’s responses and respecting the unique elements within them. In terms of day-to-day losses, affirmation ensures that supports that clarify communication are in place and always readily available, or works in retrospect to pave future roads with “concrete” and accurate information. Understandably, in terms of death and dying, confusion may be one feeling shared by many children with ASD as they learn of the death of a loved one, try to make sense of the sudden changes or variety of feelings that surround them, and attempt to figure out what is expected of them. Recruiting information from experts in grief in childhood, and providing tangible resources to help children identify, add detail to, and express their feelings and memories, can help us as parents and professionals structure our own supportive role with a child with ASD following the death of a friend or family member. **Associations** As mentioned earlier, a child with ASD is likely to need assistance to make “connections” between past and present experiences, to retrieve information relevant to his/her current experience. Relevant information in this case includes recall of 1) how a similar problem was solved in the past (*Last time I lost a block it was under the bed…*), or 2) that reassuring inner-voice of emotional self-support that can carry a child through an uncomfortable current experience (i.e. *I don’t like being in this dentist chair, but, I do get that toy at the end… and this will end soon*). Whereas children with ASD often associate loss with negative emotion, or may mistakenly make a connection between two simultaneous but unrelated cues, our goal is to encourage them to identify the accurate links of their past, present, and future experiences; to use strategies that gradually, step-by-step, lead to cumulative learning and positive feelings of accomplishment. **Associations and Day-to-Day Losses** The list of ten categories of day-to-day losses on page 3 of this article is incomplete; there are a host of others. Within each category, a child will have experiences that in one way or another hold a similarity to a past encounter, or a lesson that can be applied in the future. Just as we have learned strategies to enhance the meaning of information we share in the present tense, we can demonstrate the cumulative links among human experience in the same way. It may, in fact, require only a *simple expansion* of our current visual supports. Considering the wealth of categories of losses we can work from, the possibilities for creating links - in a meaningful way - vastly exceed the reach of this article. For that reason, in this section we will use two examples, the first from the category of *Lost Stuff*, the second from *Loss of Routine*, as a focus for our discussion. Lost items can be documented, and their relationship to one another demonstrated, in a *Solutions Notebook*. Children with ASD often have focused interests, and their free time tools revolve around fewer activities than their typical peers. Chances are we can readily identify the items a child is likely to lose. This makes it easier to develop a plan to demonstrate the lessons within those losses. The first page of a Solutions Notebook has a picture schedule that identifies the basic steps to find a lost item, and an accompanying Social Story (described in detail in Appendix B: Social Stories & Loss / Writing Social Stories about Loss). On the following page is a Finding Form, that structures the search for a specific item. It includes questions about where the item was last seen, who was with the child, who may have information, etc. Subsequent pages of the Solutions Notebook record where lost items have been recovered in the past, one item per page. For example, Sam frequently loses blocks, so he has a page for blocks. A picture of a block is at the top of the page. Whenever a block is misplaced, and then found, its location is recorded. The next time a block is lost, Sam follows the list, looking in those locations where blocks have been found in the past. Meanwhile, his father launches a search of the immediate area. The cumulative result is a reference of the steps to follow to recover lost things, and a notebook to replace a child’s distress with the recording of valuable discoveries. We may not always need to create a notebook or develop something new to help a child tie related experiences together; the resource we need may already be on the shelf in photo albums. Each year the holidays arrive with an array of events and activities that – while they may be repeated in form and sequence - occur far more infrequently than, let’s say, brushing our teeth. While typical children recall the events of last Christmas or Hanukkah, the child with ASD may be distracted by the many changes to the daily routine and the anxiety that causes. A review of last year’s photographs, perhaps incorporated as illustrations for a Social Story that describes the similarities to the family’s plans this year, may be very helpful. Some things will change, of course. John may not get pajamas this year, we may make sugar cookies in place of gingerbread men. We’ll get back to school and our typical routine this year on January 5, last year it was January 3. By noting in writing the similarities, differences, and expectations within each activity, a child has the benefit of advance notice coupled with important references to his or her past experiences. Listening carefully, we may also discover some accommodations that may make this year’s holidays easier than those in the past. The more similar experiences are documented and organized for future reference, the greater the amount of recorded and indisputable evidence that lost items are often found, other people have helpful ideas, problems are temporary, and resolutions of problems hold valuable lessons: small, cumulative lessons to prepare our children to handle life’s larger losses. **Associations and Death and Dying** Making associations between what is learned about the life cycle from bean plants and hamsters may seem a long and vicarious leap from the death of a loved one. Still, they hold some important similarities, and for a child with ASD, a valuable reference to frame his or her current experience with death. The genuine art lies in helping children understand the common ties among all living, dying, and deceased plants, animals, and humans; as well as showing a child with ASD how recalling events and sharing feelings helps people move through grief – to ultimately remember their own personal collection of past people. Similar in concept to the Solutions Notebook, a Life Scrapbook can document a child’s experiences with both life and death, laying the groundwork for the day when a loved one dies. Opening with a simple Social Story describing the life cycle, the following pages are a child’s personal record of that same information. A page is entered for each life placed in a child’s care or home, with notes recording the important dates and events of each. Beginning with the package of bean seeds on the first page, and followed by pet photos, drawings and observations on subsequent pages, a Life Scrapbook is a child’s personal, cumulative documentation that life takes many forms with a variety of beginnings and endings. This book may be referred to in the process of sharing with a child that a loved one has died, whose life may subsequently be recorded on the next page entered into the Life Scrapbook. When a loved one dies, inevitably people recall - and are comforted by - experiences they have had with the deceased in the past. Recalling the last time they talked or worked together, gradually helps them to accept that it *is* and *always will be* the last time; the person is no longer alive. While gaining acceptance of a death, memories gain a heightened status, as the keepers of what is now even more valuable than it was yesterday, when the person was alive. Memories, unlike the person who has died, can be visited again and again, any time. Memory is also a cognitive theory that can be represented for the child with ASD with visual strategies and tangible - perhaps ongoing - activities, for example: - **I Remember Poster:** A simple stick figure face and very large thought symbol is drawn on a piece of poster board, and mounted in an accessible location. As a child recalls things the deceased said or did, they are recorded in the thought symbol. There may be a photo that can illustrate his or her thoughts. To make it easier to “keep up”, a pencil can be attached to welcome a child to make additions on his own if he/she is able. The poster may be displayed at the funeral home, providing a tangible source of AOK topics for the child’s conversations there, with additions to the poster encouraged long past the funeral. - **Memory Boxes:** A Memory Box is a personal collection of photos and/or drawings of the deceased, notes that preserve past experiences, and video tapes, etc. A child can be assigned responsibility for a *collective* memory box, where the thoughts and feelings of others are also included. - **Memory Boxes without a Box:** These activities include memorial websites, the development of a memorial newspaper, a collection of poetry or a journal devoted to topics and feelings related to the death; or a “memory table” for a limited time at the funeral home (which may provide photos and accomplishments of the deceased to structure a child’s conversation). In summary, adults can play a critical role in helping children with ASD tie similar experiences together, part of an ongoing effort to help them regard setbacks as temporary destinations with opportunities for learning en route. Day-to-day losses often arrive unexpectedly; documenting their resolution provides reassuring data that setbacks are temporary and matched by an equal number - *or almost an equal number!* - of solutions. Childhood experiences with the lives of plants and pets hold within them an important curriculum of life and death, that prepares them for the loss of loved ones later down the road. The art lies in continually harnessing this valuable curriculum to benefit children with ASD. Otherwise, due to its temporary nature, it will pass us by each and every time. **Summary** Loss arrives as an uninvited destination in life - and presents an opportunity to translate experience into wisdom. To those who can eventually see through its disguise as a misplaced item, forfeited opportunity, or passing of a friend or loved one, loss leads to new beginnings, creative ideas, and the discovery of emotional strength. As we grow, each setback ultimately prepares us to work through the next - an incredible system that applies relevant past experience to current tasks and future applications. On their own, children with ASD find this task to be incomprehensible. With the creative support of parents and professionals, children with ASD can also learn to organize their own unexpected destinations to discover the personalized lessons that they hold. Five “destinations” in this article identify its main sub-topics: 1. **Childhood Losses & Learning:** Loss is an important learning opportunity, a unique curriculum based on personal experience. 2. **Children and Death:** The profile of grief changes as a child grows, and serves as a frame of reference for understanding loss and children with ASD. 3. **Loss and Children with ASD:** Children with ASD may respond to loss in a way that is very similar to their peers, but often their responses are more intense, unique or opposite in comparison. 4. **Appreciating the Differences:** Challenging responses to loss may be due to differences in a child’s perception of events and information. 5. **Guiding Children with ASD through Loss:** Introduces new guidelines to help children with ASD learn from all losses. Through their own struggle to effectively perceive and respond to the events and interactions that surround them, children with ASD always end up teaching us to be better people than we were the day before. It's interesting that regardless of the specific topic, every article that improves our understanding of children with ASD ultimately improves our understanding of all people. It is not surprising, then, that in the search for effective strategies to bridge the gap between typical people and those with ASD we uncover philosophies and attitudes that are applicable to all human experience. If "social understanding" is a shared destination for people with ASD and those who work on their behalf, it is this author's sincere hope that through this article we have traveled a little closer toward that goal. References Adler, D. A. (1996). *A picture book of Thomas Alva Edison*. New York: Holiday House. Attwood, A. (2002). December workshop series. Attwood, A. (1998). *Asperger's Syndrome: A guide for parents and professionals*. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Baron-Cohen, S., Tager-Flusberg, H., and Cohen, D.J. (Eds). (1993). *Understanding other minds: Perspectives from autism*. Oxford: Oxford Medical Publications. Bentley, W.A. & Humphreys, J.W. (1991). Blatte, P. (1997). *My pet died*. Berkeley, CA: Tricycle Press. Brown, L. K. & Brown, M. (1996). *When dinosaurs die: A guide to understanding death*. Little, Brown, & Company. Briggs-Meyer, J. (1998). *Snowflake Bentley*. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Cousins, M. (1985). *The story of Thomas Alva Edison*. New York, N.Y: Random House. Dodds, B. (2001). *Your grieving child*. Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division. Eldon, A. (2002). *Angel catcher for kids: A journal to help you remember the person you love who died*. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. Emigh, K. (2003). *Who took my shoe?* Arlington, TX: Future Horizons. Faherty, C. (2000). *Asperger's... 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(1993). Social Stories: Improving responses of individuals with autism with accurate social information. *Focus on Autistic Behavior*, 8, 1-11. Gray, C., Wallis, W., & VanHouzen, M. (2003). *The suitcase curriculum*. Unpublished. Happe', F. (1995). *Autism: An introduction to psychological theory*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Harris, R. H. (2001). *Goodbye Mousie*. New York, N. Y: Simon & Schuster Children's Publishing Division. Hasbro (2001). *Candy Land*. Pawtucket, R.I. www.hasbro.com. Hodgdon, L. (1995). *Visual strategies for improving communication*. Troy, MI: QuirkRoberts Publishing. Hoekman, B. (2003). *The worry cup*. Unpublished document, that is, until now. Jordan, K. & Powell, S. Kubler-Ross, E. (1983). *On children and death*. New York, N.Y: Touchstone/Simon & Schuster. Kubler-Ross, E. (1969). *On death & dying*. New York, N.Y: Touchstone/Simon & Schuster. Kroen, W. C. (1996). *Helping children cope with the loss of a loved one*. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Publishing. Melonnie, B. & Ingpen, R. (1983). *Lifelines*. New York, N.Y: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc. Ozonoff, S., Dawson, G., McPartland, J. (2002). *A parent's guide to Asperger Syndrome & High Functioning Autism: How to meet the challenges and help your child thrive*. New York, N.Y: The Guilford Press. Prizant, B.M., Wetherby, A.M., Rubin, E., Laurent, A.C., & Rydell, P. *The S.C.E.R.T.S. model*. *Jenison Autism Journal* 14 (4), 2-19. Quill, K. (1995). *Teaching children with autism: Strategies to enhance communication and socialization*. New York, N.Y: Delmar Publishers. Rogers, F. (1968). *When a pet dies*. New York, N.Y: The Putnam & Grosset Group. Rosenblum, I. (1999). *How can I do yoga when someone dies?* Minneapolis: Free Spirit Publishing. Rawlings, D. (2000). Bereavement and adults with autism in a residential setting. *Good Autism Practice* 1:1. Rubin, K. (2002). *The friendship fairy*. New York: Viking Press. Russell, J. (Ed.) (1987). *Autism as an executive disorder*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Schopler, E. & Mesibov, G. (1995). *Learning and cognition in autism*. New York, N.Y: Plenum Press. Schneider, E. (1999). *Discovering my autism*. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Silverman, J. (1999) *Help me say goodbye*. Minneapolis: Fairview Press. Stickney, D. (1970). *Water bugs & dragonflies*. Cleveland, OH: United Church Press. Sussman, F. (1999). *More than words: Helping parents promote communication and social skills in children with autism spectrum disorder*. Toronto: The Hanen Centre. The Dougy Center. (1999). *35 ways to help a grieving child*. Portland, Oregon: The Dougy Center. The Dougy Center. (1999). *Helping teens cope with death*. Portland, Oregon: The Dougy Center. Viorst, J. (1971). *The tenth good thing about Barney*. New York: Simon & Schuster. White Pelligrino, M. (1999). *I don't have an Uncle Phil anymore*. Washington, D.C: Magination Press. Winner, M. (2002). *Thinking about you, Thinking about me*. San Jose, CA: Michelle Garcia Winner. Gray’s Guide to Loss, Learning, and Children with ASD Appendices A, B, & C contain resources and additional information mentioned in the article, *Gray’s Guide to Loss, Learning, and Children with ASD*. APPENDIX A: Resources for Adults and Children Appendix A reviews and lists some resources about loss in childhood that have the greatest potential for practical application on behalf of children with ASD. **Resources for Adults** Bookstore and library shelves contain many more books about bereavement in childhood than the day-to-day setbacks children encounter. Consequently, one book, *The Friendship Factor*, by Dr. Kenneth H. Rubin (2002) is a rare find. It explores friendship in childhood, addressing the social setbacks that typical children encounter as they grow. Summarizing over twenty years of study of the social connections of childhood, the book explores the specific concepts and skills that largely determine social and emotional success, or exclusion from peers. Released in paperback on May 1, 2003, the book describes the social errors that children make, and *what to do to help them succeed*. Dr. Rubin’s book contains important advice for anyone who works on behalf of children, including children with ASD. (Dr. Rubin is sharing a workshop day with Carol Gray at *Making Social Connections*, the third annual conference of The Gray Center for Social Learning and Understanding on October 14, 2003. See page 43 of this issue for more information.) There are many books to help parents and professionals guide children through the death of a parent, sibling, relative, or friend. Though they do not directly address the unique twists and turns that we encounter with children with ASD, they contain many ideas that are very applicable. The following books meet the criteria as sensitive, practical, and reader-friendly with plenty of usable information: - **35 Ways to Help a Grieving Child** (The Dougy Center, 1999). This book is a wonderful guide that shares ideas to support a grieving child, with much of the advice applicable to children with special needs. In reference to the desire to protect children from the harsh realities surrounding a death, the author explains “…whether we tell them directly or not, children usually learn the facts in one way or another, either by overhearing adults or other kids talking, or in some cases, from television or newspapers. It only complicates a child’s grief when someone close to her lies about the cause of death and the deceased…” (p. 5) - **Helping Children Cope with the Loss of a Loved One** (Kroen, 1996) is another great resource for parents and professionals to have ready on the home bookshelf. The idea of using multiple “verys”, mentioned in the article (p. 5), comes from this text, along with ideas for using art to help children work through feelings, strategies for moving on after a funeral, and reminders to parents to also take care of themselves. This helpful guide translates background information into “what to do” recommendations. *The Friendship Factor is now available in paperback from The Gray Center for Social Learning and Understanding www.TheGrayCenter.org.* - *Your Grieving Child: Answers to Questions on Death and Dying* (Dodds, 2001). Some children with ASD are highly inquisitive, and the death of a loved one may trigger a series of disarming questions. Providing a good answer for a child can be a challenge. This book comes to the rescue with answers to questions like, “Is she a ghost now?” (p. 17) or “Am I bad because I kind of feel glad he’s dead?” (p. 38) - *Helping Teens Cope with Death* (The Dougy Center, 1999). There are few books that focus on death and adolescence, and this one is packed full of information, first-hand insights, and practical guides for parents and professionals. **Resources for Children** Children’s literature is becoming a great resource for books about loss. Though there are many more children’s books about death and dying than day-to-day losses, the number of books addressing life’s smaller setbacks are gradually appearing on the shelves. Plus, we can look to children’s literature for interesting, real-life role models: historical figures who encountered great setbacks and losses, only to emerge to make significant contributions. To help children ages 8 - 12 work through day-to-day losses and those that result from lost friendships, moving away, divorce, death or dying, there’s *Lost and Found*. For younger children, a recently released book, *Who Took My Shoe* (Emigh, 2003), guides young children with ASD through the steps of recovering lost things. Brett has lost his shoe, and along with his dog, Herman, launches an investigation to find it. He explores the possibilities: who may have his shoe, what may have happened to it, where may he have left it, when he could have lost it, why it happened, and how to find it: *Should I dig for it in the back yard? No.* *Should I do a “find your shoe dance”? No.* *Should I call the police?* *No. It’s not an emergency.* *Then, how will I find my shoe?* (p. 12) The shoe is recovered, and Herman holds many important clues. The repetition throughout the story, predictable format, simple text, along with bright, colorful illustrations and humor, make this a book with plenty of instructional potential. There are other children’s books that reinforce the concept that a loss is a temporary setback that can lead to new discoveries. These include: - Autobiographies of Thomas Alva Edison (Adler, 1996; Cousins, 1965). - Autobiography of W. A. Bentley, *Snowflake Bentley* by (Briggs-Martin, 1998), and their photographic collection of snowflakes, *Snow Crystals*, by W. A. Bentley and J. W. Humphreys (1931). - Life stories of other people who made significant discoveries as the result of serious personal setbacks, for example, Helen Keller and Louis Braille; or leaders in a child’s interest area who have learned and succeeded in response to loss. Children’s books can share concepts related to the life cycle, before the death of a loved one, as well as helping children understand death and dying. For example, *Lifetimes* (Mellonie & Ingpen, 1983) explains life cycles through a simple and straight-forward discussion of how life begins, ends, and what happens in between, using a wide range of examples from plants, to ants, to people. *When a Pet Dies* (Rogers, 1988) picks up where *Lifetimes* leaves off, exploring the experience of owning a pet and the variety of feelings that a young child may have when he or she dies. There are many books to support children when a mom, dad, or sibling is terminally ill or has died. *What on Earth Do You Do When Someone Dies?* (Romain, 1999) is a straightforward book for children that patiently answers basic questions about death, describes several possible feelings related to the loss of a loved one, and reassuringly coaches a child regarding what to say and do one step at a time: *Some families hold a ceremony called a funeral. This type of service often takes place in a house of worship or a building called a funeral home. ...At these services, family and friends talk about the loved one, sing, pray, or play music. This is how they mourn the loss of the loved one or express their grief. ...Funerals, memorial services, and other ceremonies like this are important. But your parents may not want you to go. They may think you’ll be too sad or frightened* (pp. 48-49). In addition, *Help Me Say Goodbye* (Silverman, 1999), is a great “match” for a child who loves to draw. Each page contains brief text and plenty of room for a child and/or parent to write or draw. For example, “If you could bring something to the funeral for you and your special person, what would it be? Draw or write your suggestions” (p. 10). A word of caution to adults: beware of literal interpretations. Some text may be misleading to a child with ASD, or lead to unwarranted or premature fears. The children’s books listed below and on the following page were selected for their practical value for children with ASD. Reviewing each with consideration of a child’s ability, and the possibility of literal interpretations, will help you select the best books for the child in your care. Ages are approximate; modifications in vocabulary, format, or presentation may be required to help a child relate the text to his or her personal experience. The titles are organized into three main color-coded categories: *Activity Books, Story Books, and Chapter Books.* **Activity Books** *Biale, Rachel & ___________ (children using the book)* (1997). *My Pet Died* (4-8 years) 32 pages with plenty of blank spaces for writing, artwork. Tricycle Press, P.O. Box 7123, Berkeley, California 94707 ISBN 1-883672-51-1 *Silverman, Janis* (1999). *Help Me Say Goodbye: Activities for Helping Kids Cope When a Special Person Dies* (6-9 years) 32 black and white activity pages for children to complete. Fairview Press, 2450 Riverside Avenue, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55454 ISBN 1-57749-085-1 Website: www.fairviewpress.org *Eldon, Amy* (2002). *Angel Catcher for Kids: A Journal to Help You Remember the Person You Love Who Died* (9-14 years) 62 color journal-completion pages. For more information about the work of Kathy and Amy Eldon: www.creativevisions.org Published in China. Distributed in the United States by Chronicle Books LLC, 85 Second Street, San Francisco, CA 94105 Website: www.chroniclebooks.com; distributed in Canada by Raincoast Books, 9050 Shaughnessy Street, Vancouver, B.C. V6P 6E5 ISBN 0-8118-3443-3 **Story Books** *Rogers, Fred* (1988). *When a Pet Dies* (3-7 years) 27 pages with simple text and photographs. The Putnam & Grosset Group, 200 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 ISBN 0-698-11666-6 Mellonie, Bryan & Ingpen, Robert (1983). *Lifetimes: A beautiful way to explain death to children* (4-7 years) 37 pages with simple text and color illustrations. A Bantam Book published by Kyodo Printing Co (S'pore) Pte Ltd **ISBN 0-553-34402-1** Harris, Robie H. (2001). *Goodbye Mousie* (4-7 years) 24 pages with color illustrations. Published by Margaret K McElderry Books, an imprint of Simon & Schuster Children's Publishing Division, Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020 **ISBN 0-689-83217-6** Stickney, Doris (1970). *Water Bugs & Dragonflies* (5-9 years) 26 pages with color illustrations. Published by United Church Press in 1970. Subsequently published by The Pilgrim Press, in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1982 & 1997. **ISBN 0-8298-1180-X** White Pellegrino, Marjorie (1999). *I Don't Have an Uncle Phil Anymore* (4-10 years) 27 pages with pastel illustrations. Published by Magination Press, American Psychological Association, 750 First Street NE, Washington, DC 20002 Web site: [www.maginationpress.com](http://www.maginationpress.com) **ISBN 1-55798-559-6** Viorst, Judith (1971). *The Tenth Good Thing about Barney* 25 pages with black and white sketched illustrations. Published by Aladdin Paperbacks, Simon & Schuster, Children's Publishing Division, 1230 Avenue of the Americas, New York, New York 10020. **ISBN 0-689-71203-0** Brown, Laurie Krasny & Brown, Marc (1996). *When Dinosaurs Die: A Guide to Understanding Death* (6-10 years) 32 pages with color illustrations. Published by Little, Brown and Company **ISBN 0-316-11955-5** Chapter Books Gellman, Marc & Hartman, Thomas (1999). *Lost & Found* (8-12 years) Published by Morrow Junior Books, a division of William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1350 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10019 web page: [www.williammorrow.com](http://www.williammorrow.com) **ISBN 0-688-15752-1** *Kids Write Through It* (8-12 years). A collection of essays by children. 124 pages. Published by Fairview Press, 2450 Riverside Avenue South, Minneapolis, MN 55454 **ISBN 1-57749-081-9** Romain, Trevor (1999). *What on Earth Do You Do When Someone Dies?* (8-12 years) Pocket-size 72 page book with black and white sketched illustrations. Published by Free Spirit Publishing, Inc., 217 Fifth Avenue North - Suite 2000, Minneapolis, MN 55401-1299 [firstname.lastname@example.org](mailto:email@example.com) **ISBN 1-57542-044-4** Appendix B: Social Stories & Loss Writing Social Stories about Loss Writing a Social Story about loss can be difficult due to the wide variety of possible topics and the abstract concepts within each and every one! The following background information and writing hints can simplify the process and improve the final product. Social Stories can provide advance notice regarding day-to-day losses on several fronts. Using the list of categories of day-to-day losses on page 3 of this article, what follows are examples of general topics (stated as Story titles) to get you started: 1. Lost Stuff: *My Team for Finding Things, Steps to Remembering “Where It Is,” Our Finding Plan.* 2. Performance & Competitive Losses: *What it Means if I Win / Lose, What Children Learn when They Lose.* 3. Loss of Control: *Unexpected Noises; Steps to Staying Calm; What Just Happened? Adults who Know.* 4. Loss via Sharing: *One Candy Bar and Two Children, What Sharing Time Really Means.* 5. Loss of Information: *How to Use My Planner, Why People Write Things Down, Steps to Finding Information.* 6. Lost Opportunity: *Not Today but Someday, What “Rained Out” Really Means.* 7. Loss of Routine: *Many Great Ways to Finish My Work, Substitute (Supply) Teachers Know What to Do, Why Children Act Different with a Substitute (Supply) Teacher.* 8. Loss of Health or Ability: *What I Still Can Do, In Seven Days I’ll be Healthy, My Getting Back in Action Plan.* 9. Social Losses: *What Divorce Means, As Children Grow their Friends May Change, How to “Talk” to Ben after he Moves to Kansas.* 10. Emotional Losses: *My Steps to Feeling Better, How to Use My Feeling Thermometer, Steps to Keep My Patience Longer.* Social Stories™ also have a special role in explaining death and dying to a child with ASD. Long before anyone dies, Social Stories can relate a child’s personal experiences to the life cycle, and answer a child’s questions about death. Or, when someone has died, a Social Story can help parents find the right words, and describe the details and expectations of events surrounding a funeral and burial. Concepts that may be addressed include: - Characteristics that living things and/or beings share (the ability to drink, eat, move, breathe, and sleep); - Dead plants, animals, and people cannot/do not drink, eat, breathe, move, or sleep; - Sometimes, pets and people die after becoming very, very, very, very, very, very, sick or old; - Some routines temporarily change when someone is very, very, very ill or there is an accident or emergency, or when someone dies; - Many things stay the same when there is an illness, emergency, or death (love, having a home, having meals and a place to sleep, taking baths, being cared for, etc.); - Description of a child’s role and how he or she can help; - Funeral Rules (there are some!); - Good topics for children at a funeral home, funeral, or wake; - Beliefs related to a child’s faith or religion; - Beliefs related to another person’s faith or religion; - Doctors and nurses help people stay healthy and care for those who are sick or injured (not necessarily making people completely well again); - Sometimes *healthy* people go to hospitals to visit others, or for check-ups or tests; and - Mom and Dad are very, very, very young and most of the time they are healthy. They can easily drink, eat, breathe, move, and sleep and will probably be able to for many years. Harnessing learning opportunities and sharing important information with Social Stories can pave the road for a child with ASD, minimizing the surprise element involved in navigating through each day or the death of a loved one. As Social Stories tackle loss, *Split Section Social Stories* may frequently be helpful. A *Split Section Social Story* (described in detail in *The Advanced Social Story Workbook*, Gray, 1998b) uses a modified format to address issues surrounding *simultaneous topics*: two or more events, activities, or responses that occur at the same time. For example, a child has difficulty understanding that he can choose only *one* of three possible activities this Saturday afternoon: a movie, a visit to the zoo, or the beach. For a child who cannot conceptualize that others “*do still exist*” when they are out of view, a Split Section Social Story can help. Some pages are cut horizontally to describe and demonstrate individual experiences that occur at the same time. Solid pages describe when everyone will be together: - Mom and I will eat breakfast together (solid page). Then, Mom goes to work while I am at preschool (page split in half). At dinner we will eat together at home (solid page). - On Tuesday we all fly to Boston (solid page). After we land, Mom will go to the funeral home, Dad will run three errands, and I will stay with Aunt Margaret (page split into three equal sections). We eat dinner at Aunt Margaret’s tonight (solid page). - Dad tucks me into bed each night (solid page). On most nights when I sleep, Dad stays home. He usually reads a book or watches television until about 11:00 (page split in half). In the morning, we have breakfast at the kitchen table (solid page). For children who are more advanced, a split section Social Story can also describe varied responses to a single event. For example, Uncle Henry died (described on the opening solid page). Dad is Henry’s brother. Dad has known Henry all his life. Dad feels very, very, very, very sad; Mom has known Henry 20 years, and she is very, very, sad; I never met Henry because he lives in Germany, so that may be why I feel okay (page split three ways). In a while, everyone in my family will feel okay again (solid page). The format of a Social Story can also help to illustrate two important concepts related to loss: 1) people move through losses, and 2) the discomfort of a loss is temporary. To do that, the Story is illustrated with a picture schedule “with a twist”: the addition of icons that represent movement through the sequence. For example, a picture schedule is developed to illustrate four steps to follow when something is lost; each step represented by one square. A symbol or icon is placed on the vertical lines that separate the steps to indicate moving from one to the next. It may be something as simple as an arrow, or as interesting as a truck, or both! A corresponding Social Story provides additional information, describing each of the steps on the schedule. The icon used in the picture schedule is also placed in the lower right hand corner of each page of the Story, indicating to the child to keep moving - *turn the page* - to the next step. The Story makes frequent reference to “…traveling or (moving on to) the next step.” This reinforces the importance of not getting stuck and the promise of more comfortable destinations in the near future: “The childhood perception that people who leave from view have “disappeared forever” has been described by Gunilla Garland, an adult with autism, in her book, *A Real Person: Life on the Outside* (1996, translation into English, 1997). In addition to modifying the format of a Social Story, some topics may benefit from the use of fictional characters. Fictional characters are not new to Social Stories. The Story, *Watch, Listen, Move Closer, Ease In* (Gray, 2002), used a fictional character, David, to describe the four steps that children follow to enter an existing play activity. In the Social Workbook, *Gray’s Guide to Compliments* (Gray, 1999), fictional characters were used extensively to demonstrate the concepts and skills that surround an effective compliment. Fictional characters can “go first” to demonstrate how social concepts or skills can be used. In terms of the topics related to loss, a fictional character can serve as a guide to a new situation, for example, visiting a funeral home. In situations where feelings are difficult to identify and express, a fictional character can explore the possibilities. However, if a child is not yet able to relate the experience of a fictional character to his or her own situation, the meaning may be lost. Rarely is vocabulary more critical than in Stories that are about loss. The words we select can make the difference between clarity and confusion. Considering the feelings that loss-related topics can elicit in children with ASD, misleading vocabulary may be all it takes to derail our best effort to share information. Even with caution regarding literal interpretations, a child may get caught in subtle variations in meanings that escape our attention. In addition, recognizing that many children with ASD put more *meaning* to written vs. spoken communication, an author should use extra care. All of the considerations related to our spoken vocabulary (pp 19-21), apply to written text. **David’s Stories** Within the first few weeks of September, David’s placement in a second grade classroom was tenuous. Day-to-day losses in several categories (listed on page 3) were causing the most difficulty (*Social Losses* due to missed meanings; *Performance Losses* related to test taking; *Loss of Control* evidenced by disrespectful responses; and *Loss of Routine* when completing an interrupted assignment). A few loss-related Stories were developed to address these concerns, each matched by a Social Story praising one of David’s talents and/or accomplishments and introduced based on the judgment of the educational team. I have altered the format of David’s Stories for this appendix, reducing the size of the text and changing a few illustrations. Restricted permission to copy or revise the Stories in this section for non-profit use is hereby granted. **The Blue Words and the Green Words (Social Losses / missed meanings)** *Author’s Notes:* In the course of the school day, David often made literal interpretations of statements made by others. That being the case, school staff often seemed dishonest and insincere. For example, the first week of music class the students were assigned seats. The following week, the teacher indicated that the students could choose their own seats. All went well, until a student began to misbehave. To remove the distractions that were causing the difficulty, the teacher decided to change his seat. Immediately, David insisted that the music teacher had lied. From David’s perspective, the original promise to “choose your own seats” had now been broken. David became very upset and was ultimately removed from class. *The Blue Words and the Green Words* was developed to address David’s literal interpretations in general. Using logic and mathematics, the Story described why teachers sometimes say less than they mean and introduced the concept of guessing what others mean alongside their statements. The Story closed with the introduction of an activity to generalize what David was learning – an ongoing collection of words and phrases and their intended meanings. In addition, David’s teachers were encouraged to try to “say what they mean” and consider that David may occasionally interpret their statements at face value. Considering idioms are a part of the second grade curriculum, the Story was right in line with other classroom activities. **The Blue Words and the Green Words** My name is David. I go to Lincoln School. Sometimes, adults and children may *say* something that is different than what they *mean*. Here are some examples: A teacher might *say*, “*Please sit down.*” What the teacher *means* is, “*Please sit down in your chair.*” The principal might say, “**Have a good day!**” What Mr. Smith really means is, “I hope you enjoy working and playing today, and that you are safe and comfortable.” The music teacher may say, “You may sit down wherever you like today.” What the music teacher really means is, “As long as you are listening and working and following my directions, you may choose your seat. Otherwise, maybe later during the class, as the adult in charge, I have to choose your seat. If another child needs a new seat to help him or her remember to listen, work, and follow directions, I will need to choose his or her seat.” So, it would seem that adults should always **say** what they **mean**. Teachers and principals are honest people, so why would they say one thing but mean another? The reason adults do this is to save words. They want the children to stay interested, and if they say too many words, some children become bored. We can count the green words in this Story. These are the words that people say. Then, we can count the blue words in this Story. These are the words that the adults **mean**. We will try to go back and count the green words and the blue words. There are more **blue words** than **green ones**. Adults are taking a short cut when they **mean** more than they **say**. For that reason, children try to make guesses about what adults **mean**. If they don’t know, they can ask the adult, “What did you **mean** when you **said**…” The adult will be happy to tell them. That’s because the adults at Lincoln want children to know what they **mean**. That is as important as knowing what the teacher **said**. On the following pages is my collection of what people **say**, and what they really **mean**. When we **hear** what people **say**, we can write them down in the **talk symbol**. Then we can guess what people **mean** by writing down our guess in the **thought symbol**. This is work for a team that includes intelligent second graders, like me! --- **Smart People Make Mistakes (Performance Losses / test taking)** **Author’s notes:** Some children with ASD become upset when they make a mistake and/or may also be intolerant of the mistakes of others. Rarely is a mistake a planned or predictable event; mistakes upset the routine and proper order of things. They are an announcement that something is not right. Mistakes often arrive with the expectation to re-do, a real inconvenience to a child who may have been planning to engage in a more pleasurable activity. Spelling tests, then, can be a weekly nightmare - the anxiety of trying to spell every word perfectly coupled with the apprehension of potential error. There are often pre-tests in spelling, and there may be assignments- or even the final spelling test - that do not need to be completed if a student earns 100%. The stakes are high. Spelling is one subject where understanding the meaning of a word is very important; many words sound the same but – there are clues to which spelling is correct based on the way it is used in a sentence. For a child with ASD, spelling is a subject where the rewards for perfection can be high, and the potential for errors, too. Thus, spelling is often not a favorite area of study for many of my students. For this reason, Smart People Make Mistakes is a Story that I have used more than once. --- **Smart People Make Mistakes** My name is David. I go to Lincoln School. Sometimes, I take spelling tests. A spelling test is one way for children to learn which words they know how to spell now, and which words they will know how to spell with more practice. Very smart people like Thomas Edison (and like me, too) make mistakes. They learn and discover new ideas when they make mistakes. Thomas Edison invented the light bulb, and many other things, too – like toasters and chewing gum. When he was trying to make the light bulb, he made over 600 mistakes. Each time he made a mistake, he learned what would not work – and got closer to inventing a light bulb that did work. The more mistakes people make, and the more they learn from their mistakes, the smarter they become! Thomas Edison knew this, so when he made mistakes he tried to stay calm so he could learn. Staying calm after making a mistake is an intelligent thing to do. It’s a smart idea to take a spelling test. That way, I can discover all the words I know how to spell now, and those I will know how to spell with more practice. I get smarter each time I master a new spelling word – especially those that are difficult to spell and take longer to learn! **Restating with Respect (Loss of Control / speaking disrespectfully)** *Author’s Notes:* Often, children with ASD respond with words or a tone of voice that is interpreted as disrespectful by others. The concept of respect requires the simultaneous use of many social-cognitive-emotional skills, for example: 1. Feeling frustrated, sad, disappointed, etc. about a situation; while 2. retrieving positive past experiences with the person to whom the statements are directed; with 3. simultaneous consideration of those experiences to temper the choice of words; so that 4. a respectful tone of voice and choice of words is maintained; and 5. this is just a **basic** outline! Therefore, adults working with children with ASD need to recognize that the child’s challenge to “pull this all off” is significantly greater than his classmates. Characteristically, children with ASD often have difficulty: 1. Identifying emotions. Basic emotions, like happy and sad, are mastered easily by some; but others, like frustration and disappointment, require direct instruction and practice. 2. Maintaining control of both negative and positive emotions. 3. Understanding the impact of their statements on others. Teaching a child to respond respectfully is a process, necessitating that adults remain calm and keep their feelings in control - viewing their role as instructional - in this case, teaching “social.” This requires an active understanding of the child’s point of view. Therefore, to teach respect to a child with ASD requires those working on his/her behalf to model the same regard. In the face of a disagreement or misunderstanding, a child cannot be asked to maintain a tone and words that are calm and controlled if the adults who surround him are unable to “pull it off” themselves. For this Story, the adults on David’s team were asked to do the following in response to a disrespectful statement: 1. Cower or flinch and quietly say/or demonstrate “Ouch.” 2. Provide an opportunity to correct, beginning with the child’s name and “please,” as in “David, please restate with respect.” 3. Draw concrete attention (Respect Board, Respect Box) respectful deeds, statements, etc. by posting them (Respect Board) or collecting them in the Story or writing them down to place in the Respect Box. **Restating with Respect** This is an article about talking with respect. Talking with respect is using a calm, controlled tone of voice with cooperative words. When working and playing with adults, classmates, and friends, talking with respect is very important. That way, everyone feels comfortable. Adults in charge of me at school notice those situations where I have talked with respect. Once I had to wait for a while before getting a YoYo, and I listened to the adult and answered her respectfully, even though I may have been a little disappointed. At a book fair, I had to put a book back. I listened to the adult volunteer and answered respectfully, and left with two books instead of three. Keeping my emotions under my control is a smart and friendly thing to do. Here are other respectful things I have said and done at Lincoln: 1. 2. 3. Sometimes, all children need an adult to help them restate their words and feelings with respect. They may tell others what they are thinking and feeling, which is okay, but they use a tone of voice or words that hurt or insult. This is a mistake. Then that person may feel hurt, insulted, or uncomfortable. To help children know for sure when this has happened, they may cringe and say “OUCH!”, or they may say respectfully, “Please restate for respect.” Sometimes, it is easy to speak respectfully. Usually, it is easier for children to speak with respect when they are feeling happy, calm, or comfortable. Most children find it is a little more difficult to speak with respect when they are feeling frustrated, sad, or uncomfortable. These feelings are okay. It is also okay to let others know about these thoughts and feelings. As children grow older, though, it’s important to learn how to share these thoughts and feelings by choosing respectful words and tone of voice. All children make mistakes with respect sometimes. This is called “being disrespectful.” Children learn to apologize, and how to re-state their thoughts and feelings. In this case, restate means saying it again, with respect. Sometimes, they can just repeat what they just said, but with an in-control voice. Sometimes, they can choose other words, too. Adults at Lincoln are so impressed with those times that I have used respect with my friends, classmates, and adults. It’s important to be respectful throughout the school day. It’s also important to let others know what I am thinking or feeling. The adults at Lincoln will work with me as a team to learn to restate for respect. That way, everyone will be comfortable working and learning together. We can collect the respectful things that I say and do in this list. Or, we can write them on another piece of paper and put them in my Respect Box. It is my choice: 1. 2. 3. Adults in charge of me will be watching for those times when, even though it may be a challenge, I choose respectful words and tone of voice. They may decide to fill out a Respect Others form like the one on the following page. Here’s how it works: 1. I say or do something that shows respect to others. 2. An adult in charge of me decides to let others know about it. 3. The adult fills out the Respect Others form, describing what I said or did. 4. I can show the form to Mr. Smith. He feels happy and makes a copy that he can keep, and one for my mom and dad. 5. Then, Mr. Smith puts it up on the Respect Board for all to see! **AOK Ways to Finish My Work at Lincoln School** (Loss of Routine / completing interrupted work) *Author’s Notes:* David is not the first child I have encountered who prefers to finish one task before proceeding to the next. To leave an activity requires re-sequencing; a spelling assignment may be interrupted, and, not only that, completed during a time usually set aside for mathematics. Suddenly, everything is out of its natural order. Add to that the frustration of the given assignment if it is one that is difficult, and emotions can quickly escalate. The original copy of AOK Ways to Finish My Work at Lincoln School appears on the following page. I have only added the arrows in the accompanying illustration, to further emphasize the process of moving through what may be a very challenging situation. A.O.K. Ways to Finish My Work at Lincoln School My name is David. I am an awesome student at Lincoln School. Most of the time, it is important that children finish their work. One Way: One way to finish my work is to finish it all at one time. This means that I start it, work on it, and finish it. Then, I go to another activity. Another Way: The other way to finish my work at Lincoln School is just as good as the first. Here’s what you do: 1. START WORKING and then... 2. GO DO SOMETHING ELSE and then... 3. COME BACK TO THE WORK, AND WORK SOME MORE and keep doing that until the work is finished! Second graders often have to do their work ANOTHER WAY because they are older, busier, and have many things to do. Adults tell children if it is AOK to do work ANOTHER WAY. Appendix C contains two new ideas to help students with ASD learn from their losses as they encounter life’s setbacks, *The Suitcase Curriculum: Traveling through Life* and *The Worry Cup*. **The Suitcase Curriculum:** *Traveling through Life* - Carol Gray, Wilma Wallis, & Mary Ann VanHouzen Each year, students ages 12 - 18 with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in the Ottawa Area Intermediate School District (OAISD) in Michigan have the opportunity to attend a social understanding group. The OAISD is an area encompassing many school districts. The annual program was initiated several years ago to meet the needs of secondary students who had limited opportunity to meet peers with similar talents, interests, and challenges within their home school districts. This year 32 students attended. Meeting for five weeks, the program gave students an opportunity to share experiences, participate in a program to build social concepts and skills, and have fun. Instructors for the program included three consultants to students with ASD and a social worker, with support from several instructional assistants. There is a challenge each year to find a curriculum that will address relevant topics in an interesting and personally meaningful way, especially within the restrictions of available time. Prior to the first class, the instructors, parents, and a few students met to identify topics for the program, among them, emotion regulation and social problem-solving skills. These ideas were built into a curriculum based on a vintage suitcase with destination decals (above). Travel was used as an analogy throughout the program, emphasizing how to “move through” uncomfortable life destinations. There was a “topic destination” each week that identified one of five steps to effectively work through life’s unexpected setbacks: Week 1: *Know the People on My Team*; Week 2: *Make a Plan*; Week 3: *Look for and Provide Relevant Clues*; Week 4: *Coping Mechanisms*; and Week 5: *Pack Well - Put it All Together*. An instructor opened each class with a predictable dialogue: *This is my suitcase. It is vintage; it is over fifty years old. It is covered with destination decals; places it has traveled through for a short period of time. I am vintage. I am over fifty years old. In my life I have traveled through many destinations. I have visited places. I have had social destinations, like a birthday party. I have had emotional destinations, times when I have been happy or sad. What other kinds of destinations are there in life?* Students contributed more ideas each week in response to this question, including: thinking destinations (imagination), spiritual destinations, and destinations on the Internet. Provided with an interesting frame of reference, they responded with insights well beyond their years. Visual strategies and personalized materials kept things interesting. The curriculum was enhanced by a PowerPoint presentation that added color and movement. Each student had their own “suitcase,” a box with an attached lid. Related activities were completed each week - with notes packed inside the suitcase - along with a list of personal strengths and talents for future reference. To give each course destination personal practicality, students created a “destination decal” and pasted it to their box. At the close of the course, each student left with a life suitcase, decorated with personal decals to recall in tough times and packed with information to use to get through them. **The Worry Cup** - Ben Hoekman Ben Hoekman is a young man with lots of talent and great ideas, as evidenced by his strategy for staying calm and keeping in control, *The Worry Cup*. His original article appears on the following page. The worry cup The worry cup we used for worrying about things. Most of the things I used it for was fire drills, (which I still don't like!) We prayed about them, and after school we pulled them out and talked about them. If we had any we didn't need, then we'd throw them away. If you'd like to, you or your children can pick a special cup they like. Write the worries on pieces of paper, and put them in the worry cup. You can even pray about them. When you or your children get home from work or school, then talk about them. And if there are any that you don't need, then throw them away. I kept my worry cup by the door and before school, I'd put my worries in the cup. You or your children can find a place for the cup. Follow all these directions, and you and your children should find that you don't have to be worried about things. The End By: Ben Hoekman, age 8.
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RECOMMENDED ACTION AND JUSTIFICATION: Authorize the Fire Chief to apply for three grants from the California Department of Homeland Security. The grants are reimbursable and do not require a match. The equipment which is 95% of the grant is specified by the granting agency and must meet the test of interoperability. The review process for these grants required input from the Sheriff, Dr. Mosher, MPUD and County Fire. The grant also includes reimbursement for exercises and some training. An executive summary detailing the allocated amounts is contained within this document. BACKGROUND AND HISTORY OF BOARD ACTIONS: The Board has approved WMD grants in the past. ALTERNATIVES AND CONSEQUENCES OF NEGATIVE ACTION: Forgo this opportunity to acquire interoperable equipment and meet the Homeland Security goals. Financial Impact? ( ) Yes (x) No Current FY Cost: $ Annual Recurring Cost: $ Budgeted In Current FY? ( ) Yes ( ) No ( ) Partially Funded Amount in Budget: $_________________________ Additional Funding Needed: $-0- Source: Internal Transfer Unanticipated Revenue _______ 4/5’s vote Transfer Between Funds _______ 4/5’s vote Contingency _______ 4/5’s vote ( ) General ( ) Other List Attachments, number pages consecutively Exec Summary [1-2] Equipment Summary [3] Governing Body Resolution [4] 2002 Application [5-8] 2003 Application [9-20] 2003 Supplemental [21-25] CLERK’S USE ONLY: Res. No. 03-110 Ord. No. ______ Vote – Ayes: 5______ Noes: ______ Absent: ______ Approved ( ) Minute Order Attached ( ) No Action Necessary COUNTY ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICER: Requested Action Recommended No Opinion Comments: The foregoing instrument is a correct copy of the original on file in this office. Date: ________________________________ Attest: MARGIE WILLIAMS, Clerk of the Board County of Mariposa, State of California By: _________________________________ Deputy CAO: _______________________________ The following is a list of the most common types of software that are used in the field of computer science: 1. **Operating Systems**: These are the programs that manage the hardware and software resources of a computer system, allowing other applications to run on top of them. 2. **Application Software**: This includes all the programs that perform specific tasks for users, such as word processors, spreadsheets, and databases. 3. **System Software**: This category includes software that supports the operation of the computer system itself, such as compilers, interpreters, and debuggers. 4. **Programming Languages**: These are the languages used to write software, including high-level languages like Python and Java, and low-level languages like assembly language. 5. **Database Management Systems (DBMS)**: These are software systems that store, retrieve, and manage data in a structured format. 6. **Web Development Tools**: These include software used to create and manage websites, such as web browsers, content management systems, and web development frameworks. 7. **Graphics and Multimedia Software**: This includes software used to create and edit images, videos, and audio, such as photo editors and video editing software. 8. **Security Software**: This includes antivirus programs, firewalls, and other tools designed to protect computers from malware and unauthorized access. 9. **Educational Software**: This includes software designed to teach and learn various subjects, such as educational games and interactive learning tools. 10. **Simulation Software**: This includes software used to simulate real-world scenarios, such as flight simulators and medical simulation software. These are just a few examples of the many types of software that exist today. As technology continues to evolve, new types of software will be developed to meet the changing needs of users. BE IT RESOLVED BY THE BOARD OF SUPERVISORS (Governing Body) OF THE COUNTY OF MARIPOSA (Name of Applicant) THAT Blaine Shultz, Fire Chief, OR (Name or Title of Authorized Agent) Rich Inman, County Administrative Officer, OR (Name or Title of Authorized Agent) is hereby authorized to execute for and on behalf of the named applicant, a public entity established under the laws of the State of California, any actions necessary for the purpose of obtaining federal financial assistance under the State Homeland Security Grant Program. Passed and approved this 27th day of May, 2003. Certification I, Margie Williams, duly appointed and Clerk of the Board of the County of Mariposa do hereby certify that the above is a true and correct copy of a resolution passed and approved by the Board of Supervisors of the County of Mariposa on the 27th day of May, 2003. Margie Williams Clerk of the Board 6-4-03 The State of California Office of Emergency Services is managing the distribution of funds for the Domestic Preparedness program. Funds are allocated per capita by County. This cycle we are to receive $241,995. No match is required. The FY 2003 grant requires a committee which includes Law, Fire EMS and District input and approval. Those items selected were approved by the committee. The Sheriff and Fire completed the review on the FFY Supplemental. Further, we compared an inventory of materials and equipment held by each department to determine the total quantity of resources available to the County should an event occur. A second criteria was that of interoperability. With a few exceptions, most of the equipment can be used throughout the departments and in particular, can offset future capital requests. For example, spare SCBA bottles at $800 a piece can be used within the fire department. With support from the budget process and these grants we have been able to gain on the total bottle requirements for the department. The Federal Government is pressing the States and local governments to expedite these requests in order to meet an increased preparedness level. The total time allocated for this cycle was 60 days from time of request to your approval. Funding breakdown includes, equipment, training planning, exercise and administrative costs. | FISCAL YEAR | EQUIPMENT ALLOCATION | TRAINING ALLOCATION | EXERCISE ALLOCATION | PLANNING ALLOCATION | ADMIN ALLOCATION | TOTAL ALLOCATION | |-------------|----------------------|---------------------|---------------------|---------------------|-----------------|-----------------| | FY 2002 | 125920 | | 4369 | | 3257 | 130289 | | FY 2003 | 17301 | 933 | 3112 | 1244 | | 22590 | | FY 2003-II | 86443 | | | | 2673 | 89116 | | | 229664 | 933 | 7481 | 1244 | 5930 | 241995 | The following is a list of the most common types of medical malpractice cases: - **Surgical Errors**: This includes mistakes made during surgery, such as operating on the wrong body part or leaving surgical instruments inside the patient. - **Misdiagnosis**: A misdiagnosis occurs when a doctor fails to correctly identify a patient’s condition, leading to incorrect treatment. - **Negligence**: This type of medical malpractice involves a doctor failing to provide the standard of care expected in their profession, resulting in harm to the patient. - **Birth Injuries**: These injuries occur during childbirth and can be caused by negligence, such as failure to monitor the mother and baby closely enough. - **Hospital Infections**: Patients can contract infections while in the hospital, which may be due to negligence in cleaning and disinfecting equipment and surfaces. - **Anesthesia Errors**: Problems with anesthesia can lead to serious complications, including death, if not properly administered. - **Failure to Diagnose**: This occurs when a doctor fails to diagnose a patient’s condition, leading to delayed treatment and worsening of the patient’s health. - **Wrongful Death**: This is a claim made when a patient dies as a result of medical negligence, and the family seeks compensation for the loss. - **Medical Negligence**: This is a broad category that encompasses any form of medical error that results in harm to a patient. Each of these cases requires careful investigation and legal expertise to determine whether medical negligence occurred and to seek appropriate compensation for the patient and their family. In the original budget application submitted to Administration, we submitted a figure of $152,000 based on incomplete information. The summary of equipment to be purchased as well as the allocation between fixed assets, items under $1000, small tools and GIS software are attached. | Category | Amount | |-------------------|------------| | Fixed Asset | $141,675 | | Items under $1K | $ 43,333 | | Small Tools | $ 539 | | Software | $ 43,089 | Specific items are listed on the attachment. While the Sheriff, County Fire and MPUD Fire will have physical custody of some of the items, County Fire will remain the custodian of record for the grant and will meet all of the reporting requirements. | Major Category | Item No. | Description | Unit | QTY | Total Cost | 2002 | 2003 | 2003-2 | Acct | Fxd | Under $1K | Tools | Soft | |---------------------|----------|--------------------------------------------------|------|-----|------------|------|------|--------|------|-----|-----------|-------|------| | PPE, Level A | 1 | 1 Suit Level A, NFPA | | | | | | | | | | | | | PPE, Level C | 34 | 2 PPE Kit, Level C | | | | | | | | | | | | | Detection, Chemical | 48 | 3 Monitor, Four Gas w/pump | | | | | | | | | | | | | Detection, Chemical | 48 | 3 Monitor, Four Gas Cal Kit | | | | | | | | | | | | | Explosive Device Mit & Rmd | 130 | 4 Viewer, Search, Fibre Optic | | | | | | | | | | | | | PPE, Level A | 210 | 5 Airline System, 2 Bottle | | | | | | | | | | | | | PPE, Level A | 210 | 5 Cylinder, Airline 60 minute | | | | | | | | | | | | | PPE, Level D | 37 | 5 Escape Pack w/mask | | | | | | | | | | | | | Tech Rescue | 134 | 6 Maverick Tool | | | | | | | | | | | | | Tech Rescue | 134 | 6 Power Unit | | | | | | | | | | | | | Tech Rescue | 134 | 6 Hoses | | | | | | | | | | | | | Tech Rescue | 133 | 7 Thermal Imaging camera | | | | | | | | | | | | | Comm Equip | 86 | 8 Generator, Honda, 4500W | | | | | | | | | | | | | Category 9, CHSFP | 280 | 9 Cylinders 2", ASME, 5000# | | | | | | | | | | | | | Category 9, CHSFP | 290 | 9 Cylinder, setup kit | | | | | | | | | | | | | PPE, Level B | 17 | 10 Suit, Level B | | | | | | | | | | | | | PPE, Level B | 19 | 11 SCBA Wheeled Up Display | | | | | | | | | | | | | PPE, Level B | 20 | 12 SCBA Spare Jolies | | | | | | | | | | | | | PPE, Level D | 37 | 13 Defendair Escape Hoods | | | | | | | | | | | | | Category 9, CHSFP | 86 | 14 PASS System, Radio Base | | | | | | | | | | | | | Category 9, CHSFP | 136 | 14 PASS System, Personnel | | | | | | | | | | | | | Category 9, CHSFP | 136 | 14 PASS System, Personnel | | | | | | | | | | | | | Comm Equip | 86 | 15 Portable Repeater | | | | | | | | | | | | | Comm Equip | 86 | 16 HandiTalkie EK | | | | | | | | | | | | | Comm Equip | 88 | 17 Fire View Software | | | | | | | | | | | | | Comm Equip | 88 | 17 Crime View Software | | | | | | | | | | | | | Actual Grant Expenditures | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Target | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Total by accounting distribution: The following is a list of the most common types of software that are used in the field of computer science: 1. Operating Systems: These are the programs that manage the hardware and software resources of a computer system. 2. Programming Languages: These are the languages used to write computer programs. 3. Database Management Systems: These are the programs that manage the storage, retrieval, and manipulation of data. 4. Web Development Tools: These are the tools used to create websites and web applications. 5. Graphics Software: These are the programs used to create and edit digital images. 6. Video Editing Software: These are the programs used to edit video footage. 7. Audio Editing Software: These are the programs used to edit audio recordings. 8. CAD (Computer-Aided Design) Software: These are the programs used to create technical drawings and designs. 9. Animation Software: These are the programs used to create animated graphics and videos. 10. Game Development Tools: These are the tools used to create video games. 11. Data Analysis Software: These are the programs used to analyze large amounts of data. 12. Project Management Software: These are the programs used to manage projects and tasks. 13. Collaboration Software: These are the programs used to collaborate with others on projects and tasks. 14. Security Software: These are the programs used to protect computers from viruses and other threats. 15. Virtual Reality Software: These are the programs used to create virtual environments for gaming and other purposes. Department of Justice, Office for Domestic Preparedness, State Domestic Preparedness Program - Application for Assistance Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance # 16.007 Award # 2002-TE-CX-0133 Project Budget Period: Date of OES Notification of Approval to March 31, 2004 Maximum Amount Authorized (from Appendix A) $ 130,289 Equipment Amount Requested $ 125,920 Exercise Amount Requested $ 4,369 Administrative Costs Requested $ 3,257 Total Amount Requested $ 130,289 Applicant: Mariposa County P. O. Box 162 Authorized Agent Mailing Address Mariposa, CA 95338 City, State, Zip Code Contact Information: Blaine Shultz, Fire Chief Name/Title (209) 966-4330 Area Code/Office Telephone Number firstname.lastname@example.org E-Mail Address Application Checklist – The following items must be included with this grant application package: - [X] Program Narrative and Budget Detail Worksheet - Equipment - [X] Program Narrative and Budget Detail Worksheet - Exercises - [X] Governing Body Resolution (if needed) Certification and Signature or Authorized Agent I hereby certify that the attached application represents the Operational Area consensus on terrorism equipment needs to improve the Operational Area’s capability to respond to terrorism incidents. Signature of Authorized Agent Fire Chief Blaine Shultz Printed Name Date | Region Administrator | HQ Disbursement Authorization | Accounting | |----------------------|------------------------------|------------| | Application reviewed/approved by: | Payment authorized by: | | | Date: | Date: | | | | Amount approved for payment: $ | | | | PCA/Index: | | Program Narrative - Equipment Please submit your narrative in the format below. Supporting information from cities, special districts and county agencies should be attached, if appropriate. PROBLEM STATEMENT Provide narrative of how the equipment purchases fit with your overall Operational Area needs, as reflected in the previous ODP Needs Assessment. (If your needs have changed since the previous assessment, please explain the changes.) The narrative should also include: - which threat is the most likely (based upon needs assessment) - what equipment is needed to address the threat - a description of how the cities, special districts, and county agencies were involved in the OA's decision-making process. PRIORITIES Provide narrative describing the equipment purchase priorities and how were they determined. The narrative should also include: - an explanation of how the equipment prioritization was developed (i.e., describe how the terrorism working group decided the priorities) - the selection criteria for the disciplines, cities, and special districts included in the plan OVERVIEW OF JURISDICTIONS’ CAPABILITY Provide narrative describing: - current capabilities - how equipment purchases will increase the OA's capabilities to respond to WMD events. - how the equipment purchases support Mutual Aid EQUIPMENT PROCUREMENT AND DISTRIBUTION PLAN Provide narrative describing the OA's procurement and distribution plan, and what selection criteria was used. The selection criteria should support the following details identified on the OA's budget detail worksheet: - funding amounts subgranted to specific jurisdictions - equipment being purchased and retained by the OA - equipment being purchased by the OA and distributed to specific jurisdictions MEASURABLE PROGRAM OBJECTIVES Provide a narrative that contains measurable program outcomes/goals, objectives and evaluation methods for the equipment allocation. An example of a measurable program objective is: Goal: Address first responder equipment shortfalls identified in the Needs Assessment. Objective: Purchase all required equipment by the end of the grant award period. Distribute required equipment to all OA jurisdictions by the end of the grant award period. Evaluation Measure: Was the required equipment ordered by the end of the grant award period? Was the required equipment distributed by the end of the grant award period? NARRATIVE PROBLEM STATEMENT The Mariposa County Operational is unincorporated. The primary industry is tourism to Yosemite National park as well as the numerous recreational sites along the Merced River and various lakes. The Mariposa County Operational area is confronted with many threats associated with weapons of mass destruction. The potential for large loss of life associated with Yosemite National Park and the recreational areas is significant. Traffic and visitation corridors and sites create numerous situations where a large numbers of visitors are vulnerable. Another issue exists with drinking water supplies impounded in the reservoirs within the County. The Mariposa County Sheriff provides law enforcement functions to all areas within the County and in-holdings within the Park. The Mariposa County Fire Department provides fire and first responder emergency medical services to these same areas. Mercy Medical transport, a private ambulance provider, serves the transport requirements to all areas of the County. The Mariposa County Department of Public health provides oversight for hazardous materials with first response from the County Fire Department and Merced County Hazmat and Decontamination Teams. Budget constrains the expansion of local Hazmat capabilities. PRIORITY SETTING FOR THE OPERATIONAL AREA In reviewing the potential methods possible to terrorists, the highest priority fell to anti-personnel potential. The sheer numbers of people within the valley of Yosemite National Park would seem to indicate a chemical or biological weapon target. EQUIPMENT The Budget Worksheet included addresses the location of each of the units. The Fire Department has elected to maintain a trailer to store the specialized material. Radios and SCBA bottles are available at the air station or in the duty vehicle. In either case, all the equipment listed will be available to mutual aid within the immediate response classification. The following is a list of the most common types of business entities and their characteristics: 1. **Sole Proprietorship** - **Definition**: A business owned by one person. - **Advantages**: - Simple to form and manage. - Tax benefits (pass-through taxation). - **Disadvantages**: -无限个人责任 (Unlimited personal liability). 2. **Partnership** - **Definition**: A business owned by two or more people. - **Advantages**: - Shared management and decision-making. - Tax benefits (pass-through taxation). - **Disadvantages**: - Limited life span (unless a limited partnership is formed). -无限个人责任 (Unlimited personal liability). 3. **Corporation** - **Definition**: A business entity that is separate from its owners. - **Advantages**: - Limited liability for shareholders. - Easier to raise capital through stock issuance. - Longer life span than partnerships or sole proprietorships. - **Disadvantages**: - Double taxation (corporate income taxed at the corporate level, then again when distributed to shareholders). - More complex formation and management processes. 4. **Limited Liability Company (LLC)** - **Definition**: A business structure that combines elements of corporations and partnerships. - **Advantages**: - Limited liability for members. - Pass-through taxation like a partnership. - Flexibility in management and ownership. - **Disadvantages**: - Less established than corporations. - Potential for double taxation under certain circumstances. 5. **Limited Partnership** - **Definition**: A business with at least one general partner and one or more limited partners. - **Advantages**: - Limited liability for limited partners. - Tax benefits (pass-through taxation). - **Disadvantages**: - Complex management and legal requirements. - Limited life span unless a limited liability partnership is formed. 6. **Limited Liability Partnership (LLP)** - **Definition**: A partnership where each partner has limited liability. - **Advantages**: - Limited liability for all partners. - Tax benefits (pass-through taxation). - **Disadvantages**: - Complex management and legal requirements. - Limited life span unless a limited liability partnership is formed. 7. **C Corporation** - **Definition**: A corporation that is subject to double taxation. - **Advantages**: - Limited liability for shareholders. - Easier to raise capital through stock issuance. - Longer life span than partnerships or sole proprietorships. - **Disadvantages**: - Double taxation (corporate income taxed at the corporate level, then again when distributed to shareholders). - More complex formation and management processes. 8. **S Corporation** - **Definition**: A corporation that is eligible for pass-through taxation. - **Advantages**: - Limited liability for shareholders. - Tax benefits (pass-through taxation). - Easier to raise capital through stock issuance. - **Disadvantages**: - Limited life span (must be a domestic corporation). - More complex formation and management processes. 9. **Nonprofit Organization** - **Definition**: An organization that exists for charitable, religious, educational, or other public benefit purposes. - **Advantages**: - Tax-exempt status. - Potential for government grants and donations. - **Disadvantages**: - Limited ability to engage in commercial activities. - More complex management and reporting requirements. 10. **Government Entity** - **Definition**: An organization created by a government to provide services or carry out specific functions. - **Advantages**: - Government support and resources. - Potential for long-term contracts and stable funding. - **Disadvantages**: - Limited autonomy and flexibility. - Potential for political interference. When choosing a business entity, consider factors such as your personal liability concerns, tax implications, management complexity, and the nature of your business operations. Each type of business entity has its own set of advantages and disadvantages, and the best choice will depend on your specific circumstances. OVERVIEW OF THE OPERATIONAL AREA CAPABILITY The Emergency Council meeting bi-monthly, has evaluated the equipment needs specific to the threats to citizens, visitors and to water supplies. The prime departments for the operational area have concluded that a Level B capability is critical and equipment to support that objective is provided on the following graphic. Included are items acquired through separate means that are included in the capabilities of the Operational Area. INTEROPERABILITY Each agency, Sheriff, Health and Fire have reviewed the equipment listed and those items to be acquired with this grant. In each case, they have determined that these items meet the test of interoperability. These items will be stored in the Fire response unit and/or the Sheriff Mobile Command Unit and will be available to requesting Operational Areas in accordance with the California Master Mutual Aid program. BUDGET DETAIL The Operational Area agencies have agreed that the equipment specified in the Resources chart meets the needs of and mitigates the threats to Mariposa County. Two of the budget items are to be acquired in kit form to simplify purchasing. Detail is provided on the components of these kits and the conformance to Appendix “C”, Sample Price Ranges. The following is a list of the most common types of software development projects: 1. **Web Development**: This includes building websites, web applications, and web services. It involves using various programming languages such as HTML, CSS, JavaScript, PHP, Ruby on Rails, Node.js, etc. 2. **Mobile App Development**: This involves creating applications for smartphones and tablets. It can be either native (iOS or Android) or hybrid (using frameworks like React Native or Flutter). 3. **Desktop Application Development**: This includes creating desktop applications that run on Windows, macOS, or Linux operating systems. It typically uses languages like Java, C#, or Python. 4. **Game Development**: This involves creating video games. It can be for consoles, PC, mobile devices, or virtual reality platforms. Popular game engines include Unity and Unreal Engine. 5. **IoT (Internet of Things) Development**: This involves creating devices that connect to the internet and perform tasks autonomously. It often requires knowledge of embedded systems and wireless communication protocols. 6. **AI/ML (Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning) Development**: This involves developing applications that can learn from data and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed. It requires expertise in machine learning algorithms and deep learning frameworks. 7. **Blockchain Development**: This involves creating decentralized applications (dApps) that use blockchain technology. It requires understanding of cryptocurrencies, smart contracts, and consensus mechanisms. 8. **Cybersecurity Development**: This involves creating security tools and applications to protect against cyber threats. It requires knowledge of encryption, authentication, and intrusion detection systems. 9. **Augmented Reality/Virtual Reality Development**: This involves creating immersive experiences that blend digital content with the real world. It requires expertise in 3D modeling, graphics rendering, and user interface design. 10. **Automation Scripting**: This involves writing scripts to automate repetitive tasks. It can be done using languages like Python, Bash, or PowerShell. 11. **Data Science**: This involves analyzing large datasets to extract insights and make predictions. It requires knowledge of statistical analysis, machine learning, and data visualization. 12. **Robotics Development**: This involves creating robots that can perform tasks autonomously. It requires expertise in robotics engineering, computer vision, and control systems. 13. **Augmented Reality/Virtual Reality Development**: This involves creating immersive experiences that blend digital content with the real world. It requires expertise in 3D modeling, graphics rendering, and user interface design. 14. **Automation Scripting**: This involves writing scripts to automate repetitive tasks. It can be done using languages like Python, Bash, or PowerShell. 15. **Data Science**: This involves analyzing large datasets to extract insights and make predictions. It requires knowledge of statistical analysis, machine learning, and data visualization. 16. **Robotics Development**: This involves creating robots that can perform tasks autonomously. It requires expertise in robotics engineering, computer vision, and control systems. 17. **Augmented Reality/Virtual Reality Development**: This involves creating immersive experiences that blend digital content with the real world. It requires expertise in 3D modeling, graphics rendering, and user interface design. 18. **Automation Scripting**: This involves writing scripts to automate repetitive tasks. It can be done using languages like Python, Bash, or PowerShell. 19. **Data Science**: This involves analyzing large datasets to extract insights and make predictions. It requires knowledge of statistical analysis, machine learning, and data visualization. 20. **Robotics Development**: This involves creating robots that can perform tasks autonomously. It requires expertise in robotics engineering, computer vision, and control systems. | Purchasing Jurisdiction | Receiving Jurisdiction | Discipline | Item # | Category | Equipment Description | Unit Cost | Qty | Unit Cost Total | Tax | Shipping | Item Total Cost | Total Cost to be charged to grant | Optional Total cost to be paid by/local | |-------------------------|------------------------|------------|-------|----------|------------------------|-----------|-----|----------------|-----|----------|----------------|-----------------------------------|----------------------------------| | Fire/OES | Fire | Fire | 1 | PPE | Level A suit | 1200 | 4 | 4800 | 372 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Sheriff | Law | 34 | PPE, Level C | Level C Kit | 369 | 50 | 19450 | 1507 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Sheriff | Law | 48 | Detection, Ch | Gas Monitor | 1750 | 2 | 3500 | 271 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Sheriff | Law | 48 | Detection, Ch | Carb Kit | 460 | 1 | 460 | 36 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Sheriff | Law | 130 | Exgl Dvc Mt | Viewer Fibre Op | 6000 | 1 | 6000 | 485 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Fire | Fire | 1 | PPE, Level A | Airline System | 1985 | 1 | 1985 | 155 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Fire | Fire | 210 | PPE, Level A | SCBA Cyl | 1165 | 2 | 2310 | 179 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Fire | Fire | 37 | PPE, Level D | Escape Pack | 1335 | 4 | 5340 | 414 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Fire | Fire | 134 | Tech Rescue | Jaws, May Tool | 4517 | 1 | 4517 | 350 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Fire | Fire | 134 | Tech Rescue | Power Unit | 3888 | 1 | 3888 | 301 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Fire | Fire | 134 | Tech Rescue | Hoses | 293 | 2 | 586 | 45 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Fire | Fire | 133 | Tech Rescue | Thermal Cam | 9800 | 4 | 39200 | 3038 | | | | | | Fire/OES | MPUD | Fire | 20 | PPE, Level A | SCBA Cyl | 500 | 1 | 500 | 39 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Fire | Fire | 17 | PPE, Level B | Level B Suit | 520 | 1 | 520 | 40 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Fire | Fire | 20 | PPE, Level A | SCBA Cyl | 800 | 5 | 4000 | 310 | | | | | | Fire/OES | Sheriff | Law | 88 | Comm | Crimeview SW' | 19995 | 1 | 19995 | 1550 | | | | | **TOTAL** | | 117061 | 9072 | 126133 | 126133 | 0 | Applicant: MARIPOSA COUNTY Contact Information: Blaine Shultz, Fire Chief Name/Title 209-966-4330 Area Code/Office Telephone Number email@example.com E-Mail Address Maximum Amount Authorized—Total Grant (from Appendix A) $ 22,590 Equipment Amount Requested $ 17,301 Exercise Amount Requested $ 3,112 Planning Amount Requested $ 1,244 Administration Amount Requested $ 933 Total Amount Requested $ 22,590 Certification and Signature or Authorized Agent I hereby certify that the attached application represents the Operational Area's Approval Authority consensus on State Homeland Security Grant needs. Signature of Authorized Agent Blaine Shultz Printed Name Fire Chief, Emergency Planning Coordinator Title Date For OHS use ONLY Application reviewed/Grant award approved by: _____________________________ Name Date Grant Performance Period: ____________________________________________ OES ID # _______________ Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance #16.007 Award # ________________ | **Name** | **Age** | **Gender** | **Occupation** | |----------|---------|------------|----------------| | John | 30 | Male | Engineer | | Jane | 25 | Female | Teacher | | Mike | 40 | Male | Doctor | | Sarah | 35 | Female | Lawyer | | Tom | 28 | Male | Programmer | | **Name** | **Age** | **Gender** | **Occupation** | |----------|---------|------------|----------------| | Emily | 32 | Female | Nurse | | David | 45 | Male | Retired | | Lisa | 27 | Female | Student | | Mark | 38 | Male | Manager | | Olivia | 29 | Female | Salesperson | NARRATIVE PROBLEM STATEMENT The Mariposa County Operational is unincorporated. The primary industry is tourism to Yosemite National park as well as the numerous recreational sites along the Merced River and various lakes. The Mariposa County Operational area is confronted with many threats associated with weapons of mass destruction. The potential for large loss of life associated with Yosemite National Park and the recreational areas is significant. Traffic and visitation corridors and sites create numerous situations where a large numbers of visitors are vulnerable. Another issue exists with drinking water supplies impounded in the reservoirs within the County. The Mariposa County Sheriff provides law enforcement functions to all areas within the County and inholdings within the Park. The Mariposa County Fire Department provides fire and first responder emergency medical services to these same areas. Mercy Medical transport, a private ambulance provider, serves the transport requirements to all areas of the County. The Mariposa County Department of Public health provides oversight for hazardous materials with first response from the County Fire Department and Merced County Hazmat and Decontamination Teams. Budget constrains the expansion of local Hazmat capabilities. PRIORITY SETTING FOR THE OPERATIONAL AREA In reviewing the potential methods possible to terrorists, the highest priority fell to anti-personnel potential. The sheer numbers of people within the valley of Yosemite National Park would seem to indicate a chemical or biological weapon target. EQUIPMENT The Budget Worksheet included addresses the location of each of the units. The Fire Department has elected to maintain a trailer to store the specialized material. Radios and SCBA bottles are available at the air station or in the duty vehicle. In either case, all the equipment listed will be available to mutual aid within the immediate response classification. OVERVIEW OF THE OPERATIONAL AREA CAPABILITY The Emergency Council meeting bi-monthly, has evaluated the equipment needs specific to the threats to citizens, visitors and to water supplies. The prime departments for the operational area have concluded that a Level B capability is critical and equipment to support that objective is provided on the following graphic. Included are items acquired through separate means that are included in the capabilities of the Operational Area. INTEROPERABILITY Each agency, Sheriff, Health and Fire have reviewed the equipment listed and those items to be acquired with this grant. In each case, they have determined that these items meet the test of interoperability. These items will be stored in the Fire response unit and/or the Sheriff Mobile Command Unit and will be available to requesting Operational Areas in accordance with the California Master Mutual Aid program. BUDGET DETAIL The Operational Area agencies have agreed that the equipment specified in the Resources chart meets the needs of and mitigates the threats to Mariposa County. Two of the budget items are to be acquired in kit form to simplify purchasing. Detail is provided on the components of these kits and the conformance to Appendix “C”, Sample Price Ranges. EXERCISE ALLOCATION A portion of the funding, $4,369 is allocated to exercises. The Mariposa County Board of Supervisors and the County Administrative Officer have instructed this department to prepare an exercise integrating the Emergency Committee members and all departments in the County. The exercise will be both a tabletop as well as a functional event. This exercise will include mass casualties as well as a test of the entry devices available to first responders. ADMINISTRATIVE ALLOCATION The amount of $3,257 is established as the administrative charge for program management. The following is a list of the most common types of questions that are asked in the field of psychology. These questions are designed to help students understand the basic concepts and principles of psychology. 1. What is the definition of psychology? 2. What are the different branches of psychology? 3. What are the major theories in psychology? 4. What are the different methods used in psychological research? 5. What are the ethical considerations in psychological research? 6. What are the different types of psychological disorders? 7. What are the different treatments for psychological disorders? 8. What are the different types of psychological tests? 9. What are the different types of psychological assessments? 10. What are the different types of psychological interventions? These questions are designed to help students understand the basic concepts and principles of psychology. They can be used as a starting point for further exploration and learning. APPROVAL AUTHORITY Certification of the Application for Assistance includes the following: Mariposa Public Utility District Fire Chief James Dulcich Mariposa County Sheriff Lieutenant Doug Bennewies Mariposa County Health Officer Charles Mosher, MD. Mariposa County Administrative Officer Rich Inman Mariposa County Fire Chief Blaine Shultz The following is a list of the most common causes of death in the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The data is based on 2019 statistics. | Cause of Death | Percentage | |----------------|------------| | Heart disease | 64% | | Cancer | 23% | | Chronic lower respiratory diseases | 8% | | Accidents | 6% | | Stroke | 5% | | Diabetes mellitus | 3% | | Alzheimer's disease | 3% | | Nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, and nephrosis | 2% | | Influenza and pneumonia | 2% | | Septicemia | 2% | Note: The percentages may not add up to 100% due to rounding. | Purchasing Jurisdiction | Receiving Jurisdiction | Discipline | Item # | Category | Equipment Description | Unit Cost | Qty | Tax | Shipping | Item Total | Total Cost to be charged to grant | Optional Total cost to be paid by local | |-------------------------|------------------------|------------|-------|----------|------------------------|-----------|-----|-----|----------|------------|----------------------------------|----------------------------------------| | Fire/OES | Fire | Fire | 9 | Logist Support | Generator, Port | 2810 | 1 | 2810| 216 | 3028 | 3028 | | | Fire/OES | Fire | Fire | 4 | Comm | Pass Sys Base | 6995 | 1 | 6995| 542 | 7537 | 7537 | | | Fire/OES | Sheriff | Law | 4 | Comm | PASS, Individ | 749 | 2 | 1498| 116 | 1614 | 1614 | | | Fire/OES | Sheriff | Law | 9 | Logist Support | Cascade Tank Set | 4753 | 1 | 4753| 368 | 5121 | 5121 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | TOTAL | | | | | | 16056 | 1244| 17300| 0 | | | | | 1. **The Importance of Education** | 2. **The Role of Technology in Education** | |----------------------------------|----------------------------------------| | 3. **The Impact of Globalization on Education** | 4. **The Future of Education** | | 5. **The Challenges of Education** | 6. **The Benefits of Education** | | 7. **The Future of Education** | 8. **The Challenges of Education** | | 9. **The Benefits of Education** | 10. **The Future of Education** | **Education is the foundation of a society's progress and development. It plays a crucial role in shaping individuals, communities, and nations. Education equips people with the knowledge, skills, and values necessary to lead fulfilling lives and contribute positively to society.** **The Role of Technology in Education** Technology has revolutionized the way education is delivered and experienced. From online learning platforms to interactive digital tools, technology has made education more accessible, engaging, and effective. **The Impact of Globalization on Education** Globalization has brought about significant changes in the education sector. It has led to increased international collaboration, exchange of ideas, and the spread of diverse cultures. This has enriched educational experiences and fostered a global perspective among students. **The Challenges of Education** Despite its benefits, education faces several challenges. These include limited access to quality education, inadequate resources, and the need for continuous improvement in teaching methods and curriculum. **The Benefits of Education** Education offers numerous benefits. It enhances critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and creativity. It also promotes personal growth, social development, and economic opportunities. **The Future of Education** As technology continues to advance and globalization becomes more pronounced, the future of education looks promising. It will likely see a greater integration of technology, more personalized learning experiences, and a focus on developing skills relevant to the modern workforce. **Conclusion** In conclusion, education is a vital component of any society. It is essential for individual development, societal progress, and global cooperation. As we move forward, it is crucial to address the challenges and embrace the opportunities presented by technology and globalization to ensure a bright future for education. Office of Homeland Security Grant Assurances for State Homeland Security Grant Program Name of Applicant: Mariposa Address: P.O.Box162 City: Mariposa State CA Zip Code: 95338 Telephone Number: 209-966-430 Fax Number: 209-966-0252 E-Mail Address: firstname.lastname@example.org As the duly authorized representative of the applicant, I certify that the applicant named above: 1. Has the legal authority to apply for federal assistance, and has the institutional, managerial and financial capability to ensure proper planning, management and completion of the State Homeland Security Grant Program. 2. Will assure that grant funds are only used for allowable, fair, and reasonable costs. 3. Will give the awarding agency, the Comptroller General of the United States, and if appropriate, the state, through any authorized representative, access to and the right to examine all records, books, papers, or documents related to the award; and will establish a proper accounting system in accordance with generally accepted accounting standards or awarding agency directives. 4. Will provide progress reports and such other information as may be required by the awarding agency. 5. Will initiate and complete the work within the applicable time frame after receipt of approval of the awarding agency. 6. Will establish safeguards to prohibit employees from using their positions for a purpose that constitutes or presents the appearance of personal or organizational conflict of interest, or personal gain for themselves or others, particularly those with whom they have family, business or other ties. 7. Will comply, if applicable, with the Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act (42 U.S.C. §§ 4801 et seq.) which prohibits the use of lead based paint in construction or rehabilitation of residence structures. 8. Will comply with all federal statutes relating to nondiscrimination. These include but are not limited to: a. Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-352), as amended, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color or national origin; b. Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, as amended (20 U.S.C. §§ 1681-1683 and 1685-1686), which prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex; c. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended (29 U.S.C. § 794) which prohibits discrimination on the basis of handicaps; d. The Age Discrimination Act of 1975, as amended (42 U.S.C. §§ 6101-6107) which prohibits discrimination on the basis of age; e. The Drug Abuse Office and Treatment Act of 1972 (P.L. 92-255) as amended, relating to nondiscrimination on the basis of drug abuse; f. The Comprehensive Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Prevention, Treatment and Rehabilitation Act of 1970 (P.L. 91-616), as amended, relating to nondiscrimination on the basis of alcohol abuse or alcoholism; g. §§ 523 and 527 of the Public Health Service Act of 1912 (42 U.S.C. 290 dd-3 and 290 ee-3), as amended, relating to confidentiality of alcohol and drug abuse patient records; h. Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 (42 U.S.C. § 3601 et seq.), as amended, relating to nondiscrimination in the sale, rental or financing of housing; i. Title 28, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 42, Subparts C, D, E and G; j. Title 28, CFR, Part 35; k. Any other nondiscrimination provisions in the specific statute(s) under which application for federal assistance is being made, and l. The requirements on any other nondiscrimination statute(s) which may apply to the application. 9. Will comply, or has already complied, with the requirements of Titles II and III of the Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policies Act of 1970 (P.L. 91-646) which provides for fair and equitable treatment of persons displaced or whose property is acquired as a result of federal or federally assisted programs. These requirements apply to all interested in real property acquired for project purposes regardless of federal participation in purchases. 10. Will comply, if applicable, with the flood insurance purchase requirements of Section 102(a) of the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973 (P.L. 93-234) which requires recipients in a special flood hazard area to participate in the program and to purchase flood insurance if the total cost of insurable construction and acquisition is $10,000 or more. The following is a list of the most common types of software that are used in the field of computer science: 1. **Operating Systems**: These are the programs that manage the hardware and software resources of a computer system. Examples include Windows, macOS, and Linux. 2. **Application Software**: This type of software is designed to perform specific tasks for end-users. Examples include word processors (like Microsoft Word), spreadsheets (like Microsoft Excel), and web browsers (like Google Chrome). 3. **System Software**: This includes all the software that manages the operation of a computer system, including operating systems, device drivers, and utilities. 4. **Programming Languages**: These are the languages used to write software. Examples include Python, Java, C++, and JavaScript. 5. **Database Management Systems**: These are software tools used to store, retrieve, and manage data. Examples include MySQL, PostgreSQL, and MongoDB. 6. **Web Development Tools**: These are software tools used to create websites and web applications. Examples include HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and frameworks like React and Angular. 7. **Graphics and Multimedia Software**: These are used to create and edit images, videos, and other multimedia content. Examples include Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Premiere Pro, and Final Cut Pro. 8. **Security Software**: These are used to protect computers from malware, viruses, and other security threats. Examples include antivirus software and firewalls. 9. **Educational Software**: These are used to teach and learn various subjects. Examples include educational games and simulations. 10. **Business Software**: These are used by businesses to manage their operations. Examples include accounting software and customer relationship management (CRM) systems. 11. **Game Software**: These are used to play video games. Examples include first-person shooters, role-playing games, and puzzle games. 12. **Simulation Software**: These are used to simulate real-world scenarios. Examples include flight simulators and medical simulation software. 13. **CAD (Computer-Aided Design) Software**: These are used to design and create technical drawings and models. Examples include AutoCAD and SolidWorks. 14. **ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) Software**: These are used to manage business processes across an organization. Examples include SAP and Oracle E-Business Suite. 15. **AI (Artificial Intelligence) Software**: These are used to develop intelligent systems that can perform tasks typically requiring human intelligence. Examples include machine learning algorithms and natural language processing systems. These are just a few examples of the many types of software available today. The field of computer science is constantly evolving, with new types of software being developed to meet the changing needs of users and organizations. 11. Will comply with environmental standards which may be prescribed pursuant to the following: a. institution of environmental quality control measures under the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (P.L. 91-190) and Executive Order (EO) 11514; b. notification of violating facilities pursuant to EO 11738; c. protection of wetlands pursuant to EO 11990; d. evaluation of flood hazards in floodplains in accordance with EO 11988; e. assurance of project consistency with the approved state management program developed under the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (16 U.S.C. §§ 1451 et seq.); f. conformity of federal actions to State (Clean Air) Implementation Plans under Section 176(c) of the Clean Air Act of 1955, as amended (42 U.S.C. § 7401 et seq.); g. protection of underground sources of drinking water under the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, as amended, (P.L. 93-523); and h. protection of endangered species under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, (P.L. 93-205). 12. Will comply with the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 (16 U.S.C. §§ 1271 et.seq.) related to protecting components or potential components of the national wild and scenic rivers system. 13. Will assist the awarding agency in assuring compliance with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended (16 U.S.C. 470), EO 11593 (identification and preservation of historic properties), and the Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act of 1974 (16 U.S.C. 469a-1 et seq). 14. Will comply with Standardized Emergency Management System (SEMS) requirements as stated in the California Emergency Services Act, Government Code, Chapter 7 of Division 1 of Title 2, Section 8607.1(e) and CCR Title 19, Sections 2445, 2446, 2447 and 2448. 15. Has requested through the State of California, federal financial assistance to be used to perform eligible work approved in the applicant’s application for federal assistance. Will, after the receipt of federal financial assistance, through the State of California, agree to the following: a. Promptly return to the State of California all the funds received which exceed the approved, actual expenditures as accepted by the federal or state government. b. In the event the approved amount of the grant is reduced, the reimbursement applicable to the amount of the reduction will be promptly refunded to the State of California. c. Separately account for interest earned on grant funds, and will return all interest earned, in excess of $100 per federal fiscal year. 16. Will comply with the Intergovernmental Personnel Act of 1970 (42 U.S.C. Sections 4728-4763) relating to prescribed standards for merit systems for programs funded under one of the nineteen statutes or regulations specified in Appendix A of OPM’s Standards for a Merit System of Personnel Administration (5 C.F.R. 900, Subpart F). 17. Will comply with provisions of the Hatch Act (5 U.S.C. Sections 1501-1508 and 7324-7328) which limit the political activities of employees whose principal employment activities are funded in whole or in part with federal funds. 18. Will comply with P.L. 93-348 regarding the protection of human subjects involved in research, development, and related activities supported by this award of assistance. 19. Will comply, if applicable, with the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-544, as amended, 7 U.S.C. 2131 et seq.) pertaining to the care, handling, and treatment of warm blooded animals held for research, teaching, or other activities supported by this award of assistance. 20. Will comply with the minimum wage and maximum hour provisions of the Federal Fair Labor Standards Act (29 U.S.C. 201), as they apply to employees of institutions of higher education, hospitals, and other non-profit organizations. 21. Will comply, as applicable, with the provisions of the Davis-Bacon Act (40 U.S.C. Section 276a to 276a-7), the Copeland Act (40 U.S.C. Section 276c and 18 U.S.C. Sections 874), and the Contract Work Hours and Safety Standards Act (40 U.S.C. Sections 327-333), regarding labor standards for federally assisted construction subagreements. 22. Will not make any award or permit any award (subgrant or contract) to any party which is debarred or suspended or is otherwise excluded from or ineligible for participation in Federal assistance programs under Executive Order 12549 and 12689, “Debarment and Suspension.” 23. Agrees that: a. No federal appropriated funds have been paid or will be paid, by or on behalf of the undersigned, to any person for influencing or attempting to influence an officer or employee of any agency, a Member of Congress, an officer or employee of Congress, or an employee of a Member of Congress in connection with the making of any federal grant, the entering into of any cooperative agreement, and the extension, continuation, renewal, amendment, or modification of any federal grant or cooperative agreement; The following is a list of the most common types of software that are used in the field of computer science: 1. **Operating Systems**: These are the programs that manage the hardware and software resources of a computer system, allowing other applications to run on top of them. 2. **Application Software**: This includes all the programs that are designed to perform specific tasks for end-users, such as word processors, spreadsheets, and web browsers. 3. **System Software**: This category includes software that supports the operation of the computer system itself, such as device drivers, utilities, and system tools. 4. **Programming Languages**: These are the languages used to write software programs. Examples include Python, Java, C++, and JavaScript. 5. **Database Management Systems (DBMS)**: These are software systems that allow users to store, retrieve, and manipulate data in a structured manner. 6. **Network Software**: This includes software that enables communication between computers over a network, such as routers, switches, and network protocols. 7. **Security Software**: This category includes antivirus software, firewalls, and other tools designed to protect against cyber threats. 8. **Multimedia Software**: This includes software that allows for the creation, editing, and playback of multimedia content, such as video editors and audio players. 9. **Educational Software**: This is software designed to aid in learning and teaching, including educational games and interactive learning tools. 10. **Enterprise Software**: This includes software solutions designed for use in large organizations, such as enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems and customer relationship management (CRM) software. Each of these categories plays a crucial role in the functioning of modern computing systems and is essential for various applications and industries. b. If any other funds than federal appropriated funds have been paid or will be paid to any person for influencing or attempting to influence an officer or employee of any agency, a Member of Congress, an officer or an employee of Congress, or employee of a Member of Congress in connection with the federal grant or cooperative agreement, the undersigned shall complete and submit Standard Form LLL, "Disclosure of Lobbying Activities," in accordance with its instructions; c. The undersigned shall require that the language of this certification be included in the award documents for all sub awards at all tiers including subgrants, contracts under grants and cooperative agreements, and subcontract(s) and that all sub recipients shall certify and disclose accordingly. d. This certification is a material representation of fact upon which reliance was placed when this transaction was made or entered into. Submission of this certification is a prerequisite for making or entering into this transaction imposed by section 1352, Title 31, U.S. Code. Any person who fails to file the required certification shall be subject to a civil penalty of not less than $10,000 and not more than $100,000 for each such failure. 24. Agrees that equipment acquired or obtained with grant funds: a. Will be made available under the California Disaster and Civil Defense Master Mutual Aid Agreement in consultation with representatives of the various fire, emergency medical, hazardous materials response services, and law enforcement agencies within the jurisdiction of the applicant. b. Is consistent with needs as identified in the Terrorism Annex to the State's Emergency Plan, and will be deployed in conformance with that plan. c. Will be made available pursuant to applicable terms of the California Disaster and Civil Defense Master Mutual Aid Agreement and deployed with personnel trained in the use of such equipment in a manner consistent with the California Law Enforcement Mutual Aid Plan or the California Fire Services and Rescue Mutual Aid Plan. 25. Agrees that funds awarded under this grant will be used to supplement existing funds for program activities, and will not supplant (replace) non-federal funds. 26. Will comply with all applicable Federal statutes, regulations, policies, guidelines and requirements, including OMB Circulars A-87 and A-133, E.O. 12372 and Uniform Administrative Requirements for Grants and Cooperative Agreements contained in Title 28, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 66, that govern the application, acceptance and use of Federal funds for this federally-assisted project. 27. Will comply, and assure the compliance of all its subgrantees and contractors, with the nondiscrimination requirements of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, as amended, 42 USC 3789(d), or the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act, or the Victims of Crime Act, as appropriate; the provision of the current edition of the Office of Justice Programs Financial and Administrative Guide for Grants, M7100.1, and all other applicable Federal laws, orders, circulars, or regulations. 28. Will comply with provisions of 28 CFR applicable to grants and cooperative agreements, including Part 18, Administrative Review Procedures; Part 20, Criminal Justice Information Systems; Part 22, Confidentiality of Identifiable Research and Statistical Information; Part 23, Criminal Intelligence Systems Operating Policies; Part 30, Intergovernmental Review of Department of Justice Programs and Activities; Part 42, Nondiscrimination/Equal Employment Opportunities Policies and Procedures; Part 61, Procedures for Implementing the National Environmental Policy Act; Part 64, Floodplain Management and Wetland Protection Procedures; and Federal laws or regulations applicable to Federal Assistance Programs. 29. Will ensure that the facilities under its ownership, lease or supervision which shall be utilized in the accomplishment of this project are not listed in the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) list of Violating Facilities and that it will notify the Federal Grantor agency of the receipt of any communication from the Director of the EPA Office of Federal Activities indicating that a facility to be used in the project is under consideration for listing by the EPA. 30. Will comply with Subtitle A, Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 1990. 31. Will, in the event a Federal or State court or Federal or State administrative agency makes a finding of discrimination after a due process hearing on the grounds or race, color, religion, national origin, sex, or disability against a recipient of funds, the recipient will forward a copy of the finding to the Office of Civil Rights, Office of Justice Programs. 32. Will provide an Equal Employment Opportunity Plan, if applicable, to the Department of Justice Office of Civil Rights within 60 days of grant award. 33. Will comply with the financial and administrative requirements set forth in the current edition of the Office of Justice Programs (OJP) Financial Guide. 34. Will comply, if applicable, with the provision of the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (P.L. 97-348) dated October 19, 1982 (16 USC 3501 et seq.) which prohibits the expenditure of most new Federal funds within the units of the Coastal Barrier Resources System. 35. Will comply with all applicable requirements of all other federal laws, executive orders, regulations, program and administrative requirements, policies and any other requirements governing this program. 36. Understands that failure to comply with any of the above assurances may result in suspension, termination or reduction of grant funds. The following is a list of the most common types of software that are used in the field of computer science: 1. Operating Systems: These are the programs that control and manage the hardware and software resources of a computer system. 2. Programming Languages: These are the languages used to write computer programs. Some examples include Python, Java, C++, and JavaScript. 3. Database Management Systems: These are the programs that allow users to store, retrieve, and manipulate data in a database. 4. Web Development Tools: These are the tools used to create websites and web applications. Some examples include HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and React. 5. Data Analysis Tools: These are the tools used to analyze and visualize data. Some examples include Excel, Tableau, and R. 6. Cloud Computing Tools: These are the tools used to access and manage cloud-based computing resources. Some examples include AWS, Azure, and Google Cloud Platform. 7. Artificial Intelligence Tools: These are the tools used to develop and implement artificial intelligence algorithms. Some examples include TensorFlow, PyTorch, and Scikit-learn. 8. Machine Learning Tools: These are the tools used to develop and implement machine learning algorithms. Some examples include scikit-learn, TensorFlow, and Keras. 9. Natural Language Processing Tools: These are the tools used to develop and implement natural language processing algorithms. Some examples include NLTK, spaCy, and Gensim. 10. Computer Vision Tools: These are the tools used to develop and implement computer vision algorithms. Some examples include OpenCV, TensorFlow, and Keras. These are just a few examples of the many different types of software that are used in the field of computer science. The specific software used will depend on the particular application or project being worked on. The undersigned represents that he/she is authorized by the above named applicant to enter into this agreement for and on behalf of the said applicant. Signature of Authorized Agent: ________________________________ Printed Name of Authorized Agent: Blaine Shultz Title: Fire Chief Date: ___________________________ Applicant (County) Mariposa Contact Information Name/Title Blaine Shultz, Fire Chief Area Code/Office Telephone Number (209) 966-4330 E-Mail Address email@example.com Equipment Amount Requested $17,301 Planning Amount Requested $1244 Exercise Amount Requested $3,112 Admin. Amount Requested $0 Training Amount Requested $933 Grand Total Amount Requested $22,590 Statement of Certification - Approval Authority By signing below, I hereby certify that the enclosed application represents the Approval Authority body’s concensus on the Operational Area’s State Homeland Security Grant needs. (note: only the five voting members of the Authority need sign this certification.) | Position/Designee | Signature | Printed Name | Title | |----------------------------|-----------|--------------------|------------------------| | County Public Health Officer| | Charles Mosher, M.D.| Co. Health Officer | | County Fire Chief | | Blaine Shultz | Fire Chief | | Municipal Fire | | James Dulcich | MPUD Fire Chief | | County Sheriff | | Doug Bennewies | Mariposa Co. Sheriff Lt.| | Chief of Police | | none | | Certification and Signature of Authorized Agent I am the duly appointed Authorized Agent and have the authority to apply for this grant and submit this application on behalf of the Operational Area. Signature ____________________________ Title Fire Chief Mailing Address P. O. Box 162 City Mariposa Printed Name Blaine Shultz Date ____________________________ For OHS use ONLY Application reviewed/Grant award approved by: ____________________________ Name ____________________________ Date ____________________________ Grant Performance Period: ____________________________ OES ID # ____________________________ Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance #16.007 Award # ____________________________ | **Name** | **Age** | **Gender** | **Occupation** | |----------|---------|------------|----------------| | John | 30 | Male | Engineer | | Jane | 25 | Female | Teacher | | Mike | 40 | Male | Doctor | | Sarah | 35 | Female | Lawyer | | Tom | 28 | Male | Programmer | | **Name** | **Age** | **Gender** | **Occupation** | |----------|---------|------------|----------------| | Emily | 32 | Female | Nurse | | David | 45 | Male | Retired | | Lisa | 27 | Female | Student | | Mark | 38 | Male | Manager | | Olivia | 29 | Female | Salesperson | NARRATIVE PROBLEM STATEMENT The Mariposa County Operational is unincorporated. The primary industry is tourism to Yosemite National park as well as the numerous recreational sites along the Merced River and various lakes. The Mariposa County Operational area is confronted with many threats associated with weapons of mass destruction. The potential for large loss of life associated with Yosemite National Park and the recreational areas is significant. Traffic and visitation corridors and sites create numerous situations where a large numbers of visitors are vulnerable. Another issue exists with drinking water supplies impounded in the reservoirs within the County. The Mariposa County Sheriff provides law enforcement functions to all areas within the County and in-holdings within the Park. The Mariposa County Fire Department provides fire and first responder emergency medical services to these same areas. Mercy Medical transport, a private ambulance provider, serves the transport requirements to all areas of the County. The Mariposa County Department of Public health provides oversight for hazardous materials with first response from the County Fire Department and Merced County Hazmat and Decontamination Teams. Budget constrains the expansion of local Hazmat capabilities. PRIORITY SETTING FOR THE OPERATIONAL AREA In reviewing the potential methods possible to terrorists, the highest priority fell to anti-personnel potential. The sheer numbers of people within the valley of Yosemite National Park would seem to indicate a chemical or biological weapon target. EQUIPMENT The Budget Worksheet included addresses the location of each of the units. The Fire Department has elected to maintain a trailer to store the specialized material. Radios and SCBA bottles are available at the air station or in the duty vehicle. In either case, all the equipment listed will be available to mutual aid within the immediate response classification. The following is a list of the most common types of injuries that can occur during a car accident: - **Head and Neck Injuries**: These include concussions, whiplash, and other injuries to the brain and spinal cord. Whiplash is a common injury that occurs when the head is suddenly jerked back and forth, causing damage to the neck muscles and ligaments. - **Back Injuries**: These can include herniated discs, spinal fractures, and other injuries to the vertebrae and spinal cord. Back injuries can be very painful and may require surgery to repair. - **Shoulder and Arm Injuries**: These can include broken bones, sprains, and strains. Shoulder injuries are common in car accidents because the shoulder is often the first part of the body to hit the steering wheel or dashboard. - **Leg and Foot Injuries**: These can include broken bones, sprains, and strains. Leg injuries are common in car accidents because the legs are often the last part of the body to hit the floorboard. - **Pelvic and Hip Injuries**: These can include broken bones, sprains, and strains. Pelvic injuries are common in car accidents because the pelvis is often the last part of the body to hit the floorboard. - **Knee and Ankle Injuries**: These can include broken bones, sprains, and strains. Knee injuries are common in car accidents because the knees are often the first part of the body to hit the floorboard. - **Chest and Abdominal Injuries**: These can include broken ribs, internal organ damage, and other injuries to the chest and abdomen. Chest injuries are common in car accidents because the chest is often the first part of the body to hit the steering wheel or dashboard. - **Eye Injuries**: These can include black eyes, broken bones, and other injuries to the eyes. Eye injuries are common in car accidents because the eyes are often the first part of the body to hit the steering wheel or dashboard. If you have been injured in a car accident, it is important to seek medical attention immediately. Your doctor will be able to diagnose your injuries and recommend a treatment plan. It is also important to contact an experienced personal injury attorney who can help you understand your legal rights and options. OVERVIEW OF THE OPERATIONAL AREA CAPABILITY The Emergency Council meeting bi-monthly, has evaluated the equipment needs specific to the threats to citizens, visitors and to water supplies. The prime departments for the operational area have concluded that a Level B capability is critical and equipment to support that objective is provided on the following graphic. Included are items acquired through separate means that are included in the capabilities of the Operational Area. INTEROPERABILITY Each agency, Sheriff, Health and Fire have reviewed the equipment listed and those items to be acquired with this grant. In each case, they have determined that these items meet the test of interoperability. These items will be stored in the Fire response unit and/or the Sheriff Mobile Command Unit and will be available to requesting Operational Areas in accordance with the California Master Mutual Aid program. BUDGET DETAIL The Operational Area agencies have agreed that the equipment specified in the Resources chart meets the needs of and mitigates the threats to Mariposa County. Two of the budget items are to be acquired in kit form to simplify purchasing. Detail is provided on the components of these kits and the conformance to Appendix “C”, Sample Price Ranges. EXERCISE ALLOCATION A portion of the funding, $4,369 is allocated to exercises. The Mariposa County Board of Supervisors and the County Administrative Officer have instructed this department to prepare an exercise integrating the Emergency Committee members and all departments in the County. The exercise will be both a tabletop as well as a functional event. This exercise will include mass casualties as well as a test of the entry devices available to first responders. ADMINISTRATIVE ALLOCATION The amount of $3,257 is established as the administrative charge for program management. The following is a list of the most common types of software that are used in the field of computer science: 1. Operating Systems: These are the programs that control and manage the hardware and software resources of a computer system. 2. Programming Languages: These are the languages used to write computer programs. 3. Database Management Systems: These are the programs that allow users to store, retrieve, and manipulate data. 4. Web Development Tools: These are the tools used to create websites and web applications. 5. Software Development Tools: These are the tools used to develop software applications. 6. Data Analysis Tools: These are the tools used to analyze data and make decisions based on the analysis. 7. Project Management Tools: These are the tools used to manage projects and ensure that they are completed on time and within budget. 8. Collaboration Tools: These are the tools used to collaborate with others on projects and share information. 9. Security Tools: These are the tools used to protect computer systems from unauthorized access and attacks. 10. Virtualization Tools: These are the tools used to create virtual machines and run multiple operating systems on a single physical machine. APPROVAL AUTHORITY Certification of the Application for Assistance includes the following: Mariposa Public Utility District Fire Chief James Dulcich Mariposa County Sheriff Lieutenant Doug Bennewies Mariposa County Health Officer Charles Mosher, MD. Mariposa County Administrative Officer Rich Inman Mariposa County Fire Chief Blaine Shultz The following is a list of the most common types of software that are used in the field of computer science: 1. Operating Systems: These are the programs that control and manage the hardware and software resources of a computer system. 2. Programming Languages: These are the languages used to write computer programs. Some examples include Python, Java, C++, and JavaScript. 3. Database Management Systems: These are the programs that allow users to store, retrieve, and manipulate data in a database. 4. Web Development Tools: These are the tools used to create websites and web applications. Some examples include HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and React. 5. Data Analysis Tools: These are the tools used to analyze and visualize data. Some examples include Excel, Tableau, and R. 6. Cloud Computing Tools: These are the tools used to access and manage cloud-based computing resources. Some examples include AWS, Azure, and Google Cloud Platform. 7. Artificial Intelligence Tools: These are the tools used to develop and implement artificial intelligence algorithms. Some examples include TensorFlow, PyTorch, and Scikit-learn. 8. Machine Learning Tools: These are the tools used to develop and implement machine learning algorithms. Some examples include scikit-learn, TensorFlow, and Keras. 9. Natural Language Processing Tools: These are the tools used to develop and implement natural language processing algorithms. Some examples include NLTK, spaCy, and Gensim. 10. Computer Vision Tools: These are the tools used to develop and implement computer vision algorithms. Some examples include OpenCV, TensorFlow, and Keras. | 1. **The Importance of Education** | 2. **The Role of Technology in Education** | |----------------------------------|----------------------------------------| | 3. **The Impact of Globalization on Education** | 4. **The Future of Education** | | 5. **The Challenges of Education** | 6. **The Benefits of Education** | | 7. **The Future of Education** | 8. **The Challenges of Education** | | 9. **The Benefits of Education** | 10. **The Future of Education** | **Education is the foundation of a society's progress and development. It plays a crucial role in shaping individuals, communities, and nations. Education equips people with the knowledge, skills, and values necessary to lead fulfilling lives and contribute positively to society.** **The Role of Technology in Education** Technology has revolutionized the way education is delivered and experienced. From online learning platforms to interactive digital tools, technology has made education more accessible, engaging, and effective. **The Impact of Globalization on Education** Globalization has brought about significant changes in the education sector. It has led to increased international collaboration, exchange of ideas, and the spread of diverse cultures. This has enriched educational experiences and fostered a global perspective among students. **The Challenges of Education** Despite its benefits, education faces several challenges. These include limited access to quality education, inadequate resources, and the need for continuous improvement in teaching methods and curriculum. **The Benefits of Education** Education offers numerous benefits. It enhances critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and creativity. It also promotes personal growth, social development, and economic opportunities. **The Future of Education** As technology continues to advance and globalization becomes more pronounced, the future of education looks promising. It will likely see a greater integration of technology, more personalized learning experiences, and a focus on developing skills relevant to the modern workforce. **Conclusion** In conclusion, education is a vital component of any society. It is essential for individual development, societal progress, and global cooperation. As we move forward, it is crucial to address the challenges and embrace the opportunities that come with technological advancements and globalization. By doing so, we can ensure that education remains a powerful force for change and improvement.
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AGENDA Immediately following the Board of Adjustment meeting. I. Call to Order A. Roll Call B. Reading of Notice C. Approval of Agenda D. Approval of Minutes – PC Regular Meeting – October 4, 2018 II. New Business 1. Waiver of Plat/Buck - Section 35, Wheatland Township David Buck has applied for a Waiver of Plat to allow for an existing dwelling of record to be separated onto a parcel smaller than 35-acres. The property is described as: Part of the SE1/4 of Section 35, Wheatland Township, Rice County, Minnesota. The dwelling address is: 8200 Union Lake Trail, Lonsdale, MN 55046. PID #: 01.35.4.50.002. The property is Zoned UR, Urban Reserve. 2. Conditional Use Permit/Marvets - Section 9, Walcott Township Julie Marvets has applied for a Conditional Use Permit for a commercial kennel to house cats. The property is described as: part of the NE1/4 of the NW1/4 of Section 9, Walcott Township, Rice County, Minnesota. The property address is: 3405 220th St E, Faribault, MN 55021. PID #: 15.09.2.00.001. The property is Zoned UR, Urban Reserve. 3. Conditional Use Permit/Raines - Section 10, Forest Township Mikayla Raines has applied for an amendment to an existing commercial kennel Conditional Use Permit (CUP) housing domestic foxes. The proposed amendment is to allow for other types of domestic and agricultural animals. The property is described as: Part of the SW1/4 of the SW1/4 of Section 10, Forest Township, Rice County, Minnesota. The property address is: 3955 Millersburg Blvd W, Faribault, MN 55021. PID #: 06.10.3.50.003. The property is Zoned A, Agricultural. Correspondence MNDOT Correspondence - Add-On III. Adjournment Planning Commission Hearing Procedure: The Chair calls the item to be heard and planning staff to present the staff report and answer questions from the members. The Chair asks the applicant to present their information and answer questions of the members. Chair then opens the meeting to the public. Each speaker will have a set number of minutes to present their information. They must come to the speaker stand and state their name and address before presenting their comments. After the public comments, the Planning Commission publicly discusses the information and reviews the findings before making a motion to recommend approval, denial or to continue the item. All issues that require County Board approval will be heard at the November 13th meeting. I. Call to Order A. Roll Call - The meeting was called to order by Chair Tom Sammon at 7:37 p.m. Members present were: Tom Sammon, Preston Bauer, Charlie Peters, Aramis Wells. Members absent: Michael Streiff. Staff present were: Director Julie Runkel, Zoning Administrator Trent McCorkell, Administrative Coordinator Brandy Leon and Clerk Pam Carty. Others present: see sign-in sheet. Commissioners present: Jeff Docken. B. Reading of Notice Motion by Bauer, seconded by Peters, to read the notice into the minutes. RESULT: Adopted [Unanimous] AYES: Bauer, Sammon, Peters, Wells C. Motion by Bauer, seconded by Wells, to approve the agenda as presented. RESULT: Adopted [Unanimous] AYES: Bauer, Sammon, Peters, Wells D. Motion by Wells, seconded by Peters, to approve the minutes of September 6, 2018. RESULT: Approved [Unanimous] AYES: Bauer, Sammon, Peters, Wells II. New Business 1. Conditional Use Permit/LaCanne- Section 26, Wells Township Raymond LaCanne has applied for an amendment to a Conditional Use Permit to add a storage building and parking area for an existing Water Orientated Commercial Recreational business. The properties are described as: Block 2, Lot 3 & Lot 4 Western Heights 1st Addition and part of the S1/2 of the SE1/4 of the SE1/4 of Section 26, Wells Township, Rice County, Minnesota. PID#’s: 10.26.4.77.004, 10.26.4.77.005 and 10.26.4.77.013. The properties are Zoned GDS, General Development Shoreland. Motion by Peters, seconded by Wells, to recommend approval of the Conditional Use Permit with the following conditions and findings for Ray & Janelle LaCanne. RESULT: Referred for Approval [Unanimous] AYES: Bauer, Sammon, Peters, Wells ABSENT: Streiff CONDITIONS OF APPROVAL - LaCanne - Conditional Use Permit 1. The operation shall comply with all rules, regulations, requirements, or standards of the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Army Corps of Engineers and other applicable federal, state or local agencies. 2. The business shall consist of a marine and recreational vehicle sales and service business to include a repair shop, sales showroom, offices and onsite storage of the business equipment, and supplies. 3. The approved site plan shall be followed. 4. A pedestrian crossing meeting Rice County Highway Department standards shall be created and installed at the expense of the applicant to allow for pedestrian crossing of County Road 11, Roberds Lake Blvd. 5. No materials, equipment or vehicles shall be stored outside of the fenced area or within the Road Right of Way. 6. A screening plan shall be created and implemented by the permitted to minimize the visual impact of the business as viewed from the water. Existing vegetation shall not be removed unless the Rice County Planning Director has approved replacement vegetation to be replanted. 7. All onsite lighting must be down directed to minimize the lighting impact on the waterbody and on nearby residential properties. 8. The septic system for the property shall be shown to be in compliance. 9. Lots shall be combined on a single deed. 10. All buildings shall meet building code for their proposed use. 11. Failure to comply with conditions may result in immediate revocation of the conditional use permit. Hearing Minutes: Zoning Administrator Trent McCorkell (TM) presented the request to the Planning Commission (PC). The PC asked the applicant, Raymond LaCanne (RL), to come forward to add comments or answer questions regarding the request. RL - Trent said it all. I’m gonna use it for parking in the spring of the year and fall of the year. It’s really clogged up across the road on our side with people bringing their boats in and stuff like that. Just to get the storage boats out of there and employee parking. That’s what we are going to use it for 6-8 months and a building there next fall. CP - You aware of the 11 conditions? LC - No, I’m not, I haven’t seen them yet. Read conditions from staff report. Ok, I understand them. Chair Sammon opened the public testimony portion of the item to the public and no one spoke. Chair Sammon closed the public testimony portion of the item to the public. Discussion: AW - I think what we went through with the variance with everything get it under a roof out of sight. PB - Looking at condition #6 the screening plan created by, shall be created by the permitted. Does that apply to this parcel? TM - I believe that is a condition on the existing Conditional Use permit. It’s not specific to say what’s needed for that, it just states it needs to be preserved, the existing vegetation there and to create a plan to try to minimize the visual impact from the water. It is quite limited there for what’s available, it’s not a natural shoreline. Its rock and different things and the fence for the business is there. CP - So on the existing business property, this is combining the two with what’s across the road. TM - This is dealing with as viewed from the water. So it’s mainly the existing business. So that’s why those carry through. PB - In regards to screening for the new proposed lot and building as it is residential around it. TS - It is a lakeshore business and they need to advertise from the lake. Wondering if we should add anything to the north or the back. PB - Yes. CP - I think the elevation goes up quite a bit. AW - I see no complaints from the neighbors currently. Motion to recommend approval with stated conditions and findings made by Peters, seconded by Wells, and approved. 2. **Waiver Of Plat/Simon-Section 15, Wheatland Township** Eric Simon has applied for a Waiver of Plat to create two new building parcels through the use of two Transfer of Development Rights. The property is described as: Part of the NW1/4 of the NE1/4 of Section 15, Wheatland Township, Rice County, Minnesota. The property address is: 9396 50th St W, Veseli, MN 55046. PID#: 01.15.1.25.003. The property is Zoned A, Agricultural. **Motion by Bauer, seconded by Wells, to recommend approval of the Waiver of Plat with a Transfer of Development right with the following conditions and findings for Eric Simon.** | RESULT: | Referred for Approval [Unanimous] | |---------|-----------------------------------| | AYES: | Bauer, Sammon, Peters, Wells | | ABSENT: | Streiff | **CONDITIONS OF APPROVAL - Simon - Waiver of Plat** 1. The TDR receiving and existing house parcels shall each only contain one single family dwelling. 2. Any new construction on the parcels is to adhere to all Rice County codes and ordinances. 3. The remaining parcel(s) shall not be further subdivided unless approved under the Rice County subdivision regulations. 4. In-lieu park dedication fee of $1000 shall be paid prior to recording of the new parcels. 5. Recording of the new parcels shall be done within one year of the approval. Hearing Minutes: Zoning Administrator Trent McCorkell (TM) presented the request to the Planning Commission (PC). TM - In the staff report this is one typo dealing with the applicant name. Just ignore it, it is correct in the summary, just not in that portion. The PC asked the applicant, Eric Simon (ES), to come forward to add comments or answer questions regarding the request. ES - I’m applying for a Waiver of Plat for two new building parcels using TDRs. Chair Sammon opened the public testimony portion of the item to the public and the following spoke: Jim Duban - Wheatland township clerk-The Township sees no problems with this action here. Chair Sammon closed the public testimony portion of the item to the public. Discussion: PB - General Waiver of plat with TDR, makes sense. Motion to recommend approval with stated conditions and findings made by Bauer, seconded by Wells, and approved. 3. **Waiver Of Plat/Taylor (Sorgatz) – Section 13, Morristown Township** Kathy Taylor, on behalf of David & Judy Sorgatz, has applied for a Waiver of Plat to create a 5-acre building parcel. The property is described as: Part of the N1/2 of the SW1/4 of Section 13, Morristown Township, Rice County, Minnesota. The property address is: 23687 Harris Tr., Morristown, MN 55052. PID#: 13.13.3.00.002. The property is Zoned A, Agricultural. **Motion by Peters, seconded by Bauer, to recommend approval of the Waiver of Plat with the following conditions and findings for Kathy Taylor on behalf of David & Judy Sorgatz.** | RESULT: | Referred for Approval [Unanimous] | |---------|-----------------------------------| | AYES: | Bauer, Sammon, Peters, Wells | | ABSENT: | Streiff | **CONDITIONS OF APPROVAL - Taylor (Sorgatz) - Waiver of Plat** 1. Each parcel shall only contain one single family dwelling. 2. Any new construction on the parcels is to adhere to all Rice County codes and ordinances. 3. The remaining parcel(s) shall not be further subdivided unless approved under the Rice County subdivision regulations. 4. In-lieu park dedication fee of $500 shall be paid prior to recording of the new parcels. 5. Recording of the new parcel shall be done within one year of the approval. Hearing Minutes: Zoning Administrator Trent McCorkell (TM) presented the request to the Planning Commission (PC). The PC asked the applicant, Dave Sorgatz (DS), to come forward to add comments or answer questions regarding the request. DS - Nothing at all, very good job. Chair Sammon opened the public testimony portion of the item to the public and no one spoke. Chair Sammon closed the public testimony portion of the item to the public. Discussion: CP - Seems reasonable PB - Looks like it will make a nice house site. Motion to recommend approval with stated conditions and findings made by Peters, seconded by Bauer, and approved. 4. **Waiver of Plat/Sogla - Section 34, Webster Township** Michael Sogla has applied for a Waiver of Plat to split an existing parcel into three parcels. One parcel will contain an existing home site, a second is utilizing a Transfer of Development Right to create a building site and the remaining land will be non-buildable. The property is described as: the S1/2 of N1/2 of the NW1/4 Section 34, Webster Township, Rice County, Minnesota. The property address is: 8240 Chester Ave, Northfield, MN 55057. PID#: 02.34.2.00.002. The property is Zoned A, Agricultural. **Motion by Wells, seconded by Peters, to recommend approval of the Waiver of Plat with a Transfer of Development right with the following conditions and findings for Michael Sogla.** | RESULT: | Referred for Approval [Unanimous] | |---------|-----------------------------------| | AYES: | Bauer, Sammon, Peters, Wells | | ABSENT: | Streiff | **CONDITIONS OF APPROVAL - Sogla - Waiver of Plat** 1. The TDR receiving and existing house parcel shall each only contain one single family dwelling. 2. Any new construction on the parcels is to adhere to all Rice County codes and ordinances. 3. The remaining parcel(s) shall not be further subdivided unless approved under the Rice County subdivision regulations. 4. In-lieu park dedication fee of $500 shall be paid prior to recording of the new parcels. 5. Recording of the new parcels shall be done within one year of the approval. ----------------- **Hearing Minutes:** Zoning Administrator Trent McCorkell (TM) presented the request to the Planning Commission (PC). The PC asked the applicant, Michael Sogla (MSogla), to come forward to add comments or answer questions regarding the request. Mike Sogla - Nothing to add. Chair Sammon opened the public testimony portion of the item to the public and no one spoke. Chair Sammon closed the public testimony portion of the item to the public. Discussion: TS - Straight forward PB - Pretty simple one. Makes sense. Somebody else is fortunate that new lot will be on tar as well. Motion to recommend approval with stated conditions and findings made by Wells, seconded by Peters, and approved. 5. **Conditional Use Permit/Nokomis (Carver) - Section 28, Cannon City Township** Nokomis Partners, on behalf of landowners Russell & Rita Carver, has applied for an amendment to a Conditional Use Permit (CUP) for a 1-MW Solar Energy Production facility. The property is described as: Part of the SW1/4 of the SW1/4 of Section 28, Cannon City Township, Rice County, Minnesota. The property address is: 3119 197th St E, Faribault, MN 55021. PID #: 188.8.131.52.005. The property is Zoned UR, Urban Reserve. **Motion by Peters, seconded by Wells, to recommend approval of the Conditional Use Permit with the following conditions and findings for Nokomis Partners, on behalf of landowners Russell & Rita Carver. This property is located in Section 28 of Cannon City Township.** | RESULT: | Referred for Approval [Unanimous] | |---------|-----------------------------------| | AYES: | Bauer, Sammon, Peters, Wells | | ABSENT: | Streiff | **CONDITIONS OF APPROVAL - Nokomis (Carver) - Conditional Use Permit** 1. The landowner and operators shall comply with all rules, regulations, requirements, or standards of the Minnesota Public Utilities Commission, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Army Corps of Engineers, and other applicable federal, state or local agencies. 2. The Conditional Use Permit (CUP) is for a 1-MW solar energy production site as shown on the approved site plan, subject to meeting all setback and access requirements. 3. Security fence shall consist of fencing meeting state and federal electrical code requirements. 4. All required permits shall be obtained prior to onsite construction. 5. Verification of compliance with wetland regulations shall be submitted to Rice County Environmental Services prior to issuance of any building permits. 6. As soon as onsite construction is completed all areas of the site, excluding the access roads and electrical equipment pads, are to be established and maintained in Agricultural crop production or a perennial vegetative cover. 7. All electrical lines internal to the site shall be buried underground. 8. All onsite septic systems shall be shown to be compliant and suitable future septic replacement locations shall be identified prior to issuance of any construction permits for the proposed solar energy use. 9. The applicant or operator shall furnish Rice County with a $50,000 bond or other approved financial surety to ensure proper site decommissioning/restoration and to ensure road repair or other off-site damages caused by construction or operation of the facility. Financial surety shall be reviewed and approved by the Rice County Attorney’s office prior to any work on-site. 10. The entire site shall be restored to a condition suitable for agricultural crop production within 18-months after the cessation of onsite electrical production. 11. Failure to comply with conditions may result in revocation of the conditional use permit. 12. This Conditional Use Permit shall expire and be considered null and void if no construction has begun within one year from the County Board approval date. Hearing Minutes: Zoning Administrator Trent McCormell (TM) presented the request to the Planning Commission (PC). TS - I’m curious we’ve approved several. How many are going in? What is the percentage actually built? TM - I don’t have the exact number of that, I believe we have 5 or 6 that have been built within the county. TS - The 12 conditions were the original 12? TM - I believe those are the same 12. The original Conditional Use Permit is the second page of it. I actually had 13 conditions at the time. The change had to do with the pervious proposal they were coming through the neighboring parcel and it was requiring an easement for the driveway and utilities to come through there. So that condition has been removed. The PC asked the applicant, Daniel Rogers (DR), to come forward to add comments or answer questions regarding the request. DR - We are a local energy developer. Everything we do is from the state and within the state limits. This amendment is being driven to make the site as ideal for our landowners as possible. This came from their request and we are open to any questions. PB - Looks like you are just getting things finalized with it. Just for Nokomis partners I noticed the applicants name is Roberds Gardens and you run a few other applicant names under the others. Roberds would probably apply more under Wells Township as Roberds Lake and you had one with Cannon Gardens, right. DR - Yeah, Trent actually informed me of the confusion. TM - We explained the confusion. DR - We like to name around lakes and the GIS guy looked at the lakes. We will try to be clear next time. PB - Just confused with Cannon City and Cannon Gardens and it was just lake names and didn’t apply to the Townships. Chair Sammon opened the public testimony portion of the item to the public and no one spoke. Chair Sammon closed the public testimony portion of the item to the public. Discussion: CP – They are just trying to make the site better and to do what they can. AW - Addressed it before and the only issue was with the shared driveway. Motion to recommend approval with stated conditions and findings made by Peters, seconded by Wells, and approved. 6. **CUP/Nokomis (Klapperich) – Section 18, Walcott Township** Nokomis Partners, on behalf of landowners Dale & Julie Klapperich, has applied for an amendment to a Conditional Use Permit (CUP) for a 1-MW Solar Energy Production facility. The property is described as: Part of the NW1/4 of the SE1/4 of Section 18, Walcott Township, Rice County, Minnesota. PID #: 184.108.40.206.033. The property is Zoned A, Agricultural. **Motion by Bauer, seconded by Peters, to recommend approval of the Conditional Use Permit with the following conditions and findings for Nokomis Partners, on behalf of landowners Dale & Julie Klapperich. This property is located in Section 18 of Walcott Township.** | RESULT: | Referred for Approval [Unanimous] | |---------|----------------------------------| | AYES: | Bauer, Sammon, Peters, Wells | | ABSENT: | Streiff | **CONDITIONS OF APPROVAL - Nokomis (Klapperich) - Conditional Use Permit** 1. The landowner and operators shall comply with all rules, regulations, requirements, or standards of the Minnesota Public Utilities Commission, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Army Corps of Engineers, and other applicable federal, state or local agencies. 2. The Conditional Use Permit (CUP) is for a 1-MW solar energy production site as shown on the approved site plan, subject to meeting all setback and access requirements. 3. Security fence shall consist of fencing meeting state and federal electrical code requirements. 4. All required permits shall be obtained prior to onsite construction. 5. Verification of compliance with wetland regulations shall be submitted to Rice County Environmental Services prior to issuance of any building permits. 6. As soon as onsite construction is completed all areas of the site, excluding the access roads and electrical equipment pads, are to be established and maintained in Agricultural crop production or a perennial vegetative cover. 7. All electrical lines internal to the site shall be buried underground. 8. If any driveway or utility use is crossing the separate 1.5-acre parcel, south and east of the site, and easement allowing for that use shall be recorded prior to issuance of any construction permits. 9. The applicant or operator shall furnish Rice County with a $50,000 bond or other approved financial surety to ensure proper site decommissioning/restoration and to ensure road repair or other off-site damages caused by construction or operation of the facility. Financial surety shall be reviewed and approved by the Rice County Attorney’s office prior to any work on-site. 10. The entire site shall be restored to a condition suitable for agricultural crop production within 18-months after the cessation of onsite electrical production. 11. Failure to comply with conditions may result in revocation of the conditional use permit. 12. This Conditional Use Permit shall expire and be considered null and void if no construction has begun within one year from the County Board approval date. Hearing Minutes: Zoning Administrator Trent McCorkell (TM) presented the request to the Planning Commission (PC). TM explained the change in the access location, now proposing to come off county road with a new driveway and believe that has been approved by Highway department already. The PC asked the applicant, Daniel Rogers (DR), to come forward to add comments or answer questions regarding the request. DR - Nokomis partners on behalf of Dale and Julie Klapperich. Similar situation, originally we had intended to try to buy the land from the tower company. There is a dormant tower on site. That was the original intent. That company was unresponsive to the purchase request. And in doing so we wanted to again satisfy the request of the landowners, so they asked us to site it this way. Chair Sammon opened the public testimony portion of the item to the public and no one spoke. Chair Sammon closed the public testimony portion of the item to the public. Discussion: AW - Better plan than the original. CP - Really shielded site too. Motion to recommend approval with stated conditions and findings made by Bauer, seconded by Peters, and approved. 7. **Conditional Use Permit/Warsaw (OConnor) - Section 19, Warsaw Township** Warsaw Solar LLC, on behalf of landowner Michael O'Connor, has applied for a Conditional Use Permit (CUP) for a 2-MW Solar Energy Production facility. The property is described as: SE1/4 of the SW1/4 of Section 19, Warsaw Township, Rice County, Minnesota. PID #: 220.127.116.11.001. The property is Zoned A, Agricultural. **Motion by Peters, seconded by Bauer, to recommend approval of the Conditional Use Permit with the following conditions and findings for Warsaw Solar LLC on behalf of landowner Michael O'Connor. The property is located in Section 19 of Warsaw Township.** | RESULT: | Referred for Approval [Unanimous] | |---------|-----------------------------------| | AYES: | Bauer, Sammon, Peters, Wells | | ABSENT: | Streiff | **CONDITIONS OF APPROVAL - Warsaw (OConnor) - Conditional Use Permit** 1. The landowner and operators shall comply with all rules, regulations, requirements, or standards of the Minnesota Public Utilities Commission, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Army Corps of Engineers, and other applicable federal, state or local agencies. 2. The Conditional Use Permit (CUP) is for a 2-MW solar energy production site as shown on the approved site plan, subject to meeting all setback and access requirements. 3. Security fence shall consist of fencing meeting state and federal electrical code requirements. 4. All required permits shall be obtained prior to onsite construction. 5. As soon as onsite construction is completed all areas of the site, excluding the access roads and electrical equipment pads, are to be established and maintained in Agricultural crop production or a perennial vegetative cover. 6. All electrical lines internal to the site shall be buried underground. 7. A stormwater plan and proof of compliance with state/federal stormwater regulations shall be submitted to Rice County Environmental Services with the application for building permits. 8. The applicant or operator shall furnish Rice County with a $50,000 bond or other approved financial surety to ensure proper site decommissioning/restoration and to ensure road repair or other off-site damages caused by construction or operation of the facility. Financial surety shall be reviewed and approved by the Rice County Attorney’s office prior to any work on-site. 9. The entire site shall be restored to a condition suitable for agricultural crop production within 18-months after the cessation of onsite electrical production. 10. Failure to comply with conditions may result in revocation of the conditional use permit. 11. This Conditional Use Permit shall expire and be considered null and void if no construction has begun within one year from the County Board approval date. Hearing Minutes: Zoning Administrator Trent McCorkell (TM) presented the request to the Planning Commission (PC). The PC asked the applicant, Luke Nelson (LS), to come forward to add comments or answer questions regarding the request. LS - Project developer with Renesolar Power which owns Warsaw Solar, LLC. We’ve been developing this project for some time now and we are getting to the point where are ready to ask you for a Conditional Use Permit. If approved we would start construction first thing in the spring and finish the completion of the project in summer 2019. After it goes into operation there will be very minimal traffic to and from the site. There will be a maintenance crew that will be retained to keep after the site and keep vegetation mowed in and around the site. TS - On the vegetation, there are some of these sites that could use cleanup of the vegetation. There could be a better job from what I’ve seen PB - Just to refresh my memory. The applicant prior has a 1megawatt facility and yours is 2? Is that the maximum allowed now by the state? LS - So this application was put into Xcel energy when they still allowed multiple megawatts to be co-located next to each other. This facility was grandfathered in. Going forward new facilities will only be 1megawatt within a mile of any other facility. TM - That restriction is because of Xcel requirements. It’s not a restriction we have on solar or the state has, it’s Xcels. Chair Sammon opened the public testimony portion of the item to the public and the following spoke: Don Michel (DM)-I have a question. Do you have a setback on that permit for Farwell Ave? TM - Setback from Farwell Ave would be 70ft from the road right of way. There is a 33ft roadway and a 70ft setback so it would be 103ft from center of road right of way. DM - Ok. The other solar system that is going in, they agreed to 133ft with the idea that someday that road would be turned over to the county and rebuilt and blacktopped. If that would happen, we don’t want these fences and things in the way that would keep that from happening or would be a hazard to building that road. So that is why we have these questions, township. PB - Are you referring to this Farwell Ave or another road? DM - Yes. Chair Sammon closed the public testimony portion of the item to the public. Discussion: TM - We have had discussions with the county highway engineer about that concern with the 70 versus the 100 and with this site and there is a site further north, he felt that a 70ft setback would not prevent the county from ever looking at that roadway as a potential county road. PB - Nice piece of land, but the market is what it is. Harvest sun instead of grain. Motion to recommend approval with stated conditions and findings made by Peters, seconded by Bauer, and approved. 8. **Conditional Use Permit/Walcott (Uittenbogaard) - Section 19, Walcott Township** Walcott Solar LLC, on behalf of landowners Dennis & Susan Uittenbogaard, has applied for a Conditional Use Permit (CUP) for a 4-MW Solar Energy Production facility. The property is described as: Part of the SE1/4 of the NW1/4 Section 19 of Walcott Township, Rice County, Minnesota. A property address is: 24230 Albers Ave, Faribault, MN 55021. PID #: 15.19.2.00.001. The property is Zoned A, Agricultural. **Motion by Bauer, seconded by Peters, to recommend for approval of the Conditional Use Permit with the following conditions and findings for Walcott Solar LLC, on behalf of landowners Dennis & Susan Uittenbogaard. This property is located in Section 19 of Walcott Township.** | RESULT: | Referred for Approval [Unanimous] | |---------|-----------------------------------| | AYES: | Bauer, Sammon, Peters, Wells | | ABSENT: | Streiff | **CONDITIONS OF APPROVAL - Walcott (Uittenbogaard) - Conditional Use Permit** 1. The landowner and operators shall comply with all rules, regulations, requirements, or standards of the Minnesota Public Utilities Commission, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Army Corps of Engineers, and other applicable federal, state or local agencies. 2. The Conditional Use Permit (CUP) is for a 4-MW solar energy production site as shown on the approved site plan, subject to meeting all setback and access requirements. 3. Security fence shall consist of fencing meeting state and federal electrical code 4. All required permits shall be obtained prior to onsite construction. 5. As soon as onsite construction is completed all areas of the site, excluding the access roads and electrical equipment pads, are to be established and maintained in Agricultural crop production or a perennial vegetative cover. 6. All electrical lines internal to the site shall be buried underground. 7. A stormwater plan and proof of compliance with state/federal stormwater regulations shall be submitted to Rice County Environmental Services with the application for building permits. 8. The applicant or operator shall furnish Rice County with a $50,000 bond or other approved financial surety to ensure proper site decommissioning/restoration and to ensure road repair or other off-site damages caused by construction or operation of the facility. Financial surety shall be reviewed and approved by the Rice County Attorney’s office prior to any work on-site. 9. The entire site shall be restored to a condition suitable for agricultural crop production within 18-months after the cessation of onsite electrical production. 10. Failure to comply with conditions may result in revocation of the conditional use permit. 11. This Conditional Use Permit shall expire and be considered null and void if no construction has begun within one year from the County Board approval date. 12. The onsite septic system shall have a compliance inspection completed by not later than May 1, 2019. If the onsite system is found to not be in compliance, a compliant system shall be installed by no later than September 1, 2019. Hearing Minutes: Zoning Administrator Trent McCormell (TM) presented the request to the Planning Commission (PC). TM - One condition not on staff report but is on the powerpoint and should be included is condition #12, onsite septic system completed by no later than May if it is not compliant a new system will be put in place no later than September 2019. The PC asked the applicant, Luke Nelson (LN) to come forward to add comments or answer questions regarding the request. TS – You’re aware of the now 12 conditions with the new septic needs to be upgraded or inspected? LN - Yes. Chair Sammon opened the public testimony portion of the item to the public and no one spoke. Chair Sammon closed the public testimony portion of the item to the public. Discussion: PB - This has some scale to it as far as the project goes for putting in the infrastructure of the management of the energy. Screening. It is a southern facing slope. It looks like the neighbor to the south has some distance in between. No impact statement or issues with MNDOT with I35 fairly close to that field. CP - Better to have that next to hog barn. Motion to recommend approval with stated conditions and findings made by Bauer, seconded by Peters, and approved. 9. **CUP/Melka (Bertram) - Section 19, Warsaw Township** Andy Melka, on behalf of homeowner Gene Bertram, has applied for reissuance of a Conditional Use Permit for a 1-MW Solar Energy Production facility. The property is described as: Part of the N1/2 of the NE1/4 Section 19, Warsaw Township, Rice County, Minnesota. PID #: 14.19.1.00.004. The property is Zoned A, Agricultural. **Motion by Peters, seconded by Wells, to accept withdrawal of the Conditional Use Permit for Andy Melka, on behalf of homeowner Gene Bertram. This property is located in Section 19 of Warsaw Township.** | RESULT: | Withdrawn [Unanimous] | |---------|-----------------------| | AYES: | Bauer, Sammon, Peters, Wells | | ABSENT: | Streiff | TM explained that the applicant has asked to withdraw this item as they were able to start construction today. III. **Adjournment** Hearing no other items before the PC, a motion was made by Peters, second by Bauer, to adjourn the meeting at 8:16 pm. Motion carried 4-0. Respectfully Submitted Planning Commission _____________________________ ____________________________ Brandy Leon Tom Sammon, Chair Administrative Coordinator TO: Planning Commission FROM: Trent Mccorkell, Rice County Zoning Administrator HEARING DATE: November 1, 2018 SUBJECT: Buck – Waiver of Plat SUMMARY OF THE APPLICATION David Buck has applied for a Waiver of Plat to allow for an existing dwelling of record to be separated onto a parcel smaller than 35-acres. The WOP request is to correct a parcel split that was done in June of this year without the proper approval. Application Data APPLICANT: David Buck LOCATION: Part of the SE1/4 of Section 35, Wheatland Township, Rice County, Minnesota. The dwelling address is: 8200 Union Lake Trail, Lonsdale, MN 55046. PID #: 01.35.4.50.002. ZONING: UR, Urban Reserve Lot Area/Dimensions | | Lot Area | Lot Width | Lot Depth | |------------------------|------------|-----------|-----------| | Pre-split property | 66.11-acres| >1/4 mile | ¼ mile | | Proposed existing home parcel | 7.03-acres | >600-ft | >300-ft | | Remaining (unbuildable/easement) parcel | 59.08-acres | >100-ft | >100-ft | | Requirements | Min 1.0-acre for existing house site | 100-ft Minimum | N/A | Location The subject property is located on the south side of Union Lake Trail (County Road 59), approximately ¼-mile south of Lonsdale. Septic System Information has been submitted showing suitable septic locations. Roads and Access The existing home is accessed with a driveway from Union Lake Trail, no new driveways are proposed at this time. Existing Site Conditions Photos of the property will be provided at the meeting Applicable Zoning Ordinance Sections Sections 510.03 and 523 If approved, conditions might include: 1. The 7-acre parcel shall only contain one single family dwelling. 2. Any new construction on the parcels is to adhere to all Rice County codes and ordinances. 3. The remaining parcel(s) shall not be further subdivided unless approved under the Rice County subdivision regulations. 4. The 59-acre parcel shall have a conservation easement recorded on it restricting future development. 5. Recording of the new parcels shall be done within one year of the approval. Pre-split parcel outline New reduced size house parcel Pre-split parcel outline New reduced size house parcel New reduced size house parcel Waiver of Plat (WOP) Permit # ____ Property Information Parcel Information: | Parcel ID Number | Site Address | City | Zoned as | Owner Name | |------------------|-------------|------|----------|------------| | 01.35.4.50.002 | | | | DAVID A & ANN G BUCK TRUST | Are you the landowner? Yes Will you be using an Authorized Agent? No Applicant Information Applicant Information: Name: David Buck Phone #: (651) 380 - 5865 Email Address: firstname.lastname@example.org Mailing Address: 37298 180th AVE Goodhue MN 55027 Site Plan Please see attached site plan. Certificate of Survey: Will there be a new or change in use driveway? No Soil/Septic Information Soil/Septic information: Subdivision Review Process Is a transfer development right being used with this WOP? No Public Notes Text: 10/5/18 bl: Survey and Legal received from applicant 10/4/18 bl: Conservation Easement received 10/2/18 bl: Item on agenda for Nov 1 Planning Commission meeting & sent applicant email requesting conservation easement 10/2/18 pc: applicant will be submitting the legal desc of the residual parcel as soon as possible File(s): - File 1: Buck_Conservation_Easement_Signed.pdf - File 2: Legal.pdf - File 3: Survey.pdf Internal Notes Text: 10/3/18&md-sufficient septic info submitted for 2 Type I sites. File(s): CERTIFICATE FOR: DAVID BUCK 32298 180TH AVENUE GOODHUE, MN 55027 SITE ADDRESS 32298 UNION LAKE TRAIL Packet Pg. 21 PROPOSED LEGAL DESCRIPTION: That part of the Southeast Quarter of Section 35, Township 112, Range 22, Rice County, Minnesota, described as follows: Commencing at the southeast corner of said Southeast Quarter; thence North 01 degree 16 minutes 37 seconds East (assumed bearing) along the east line of said Southeast Quarter 895.25 feet to the point of beginning; thence North 80 degrees 11 minutes 17 seconds West 1284.67 feet; thence North 00 degrees 06 minutes 48 seconds East 334.39 feet, more or less, to the centerline of County Road 59; thence northeasterly, easterly and southeasterly along said centerline to said east line of the Southeast Quarter; thence South 01 degree 16 minutes 37 seconds West, along said east line, 556.74 feet to the point of beginning. EXCEPT the Easterly 20 acres of the Southeast Quarter of Section 35, Township 112, Range 22, Rice County, Minnesota, lying southerly of the centerline of County Road 59. Containing 7.03 acres, more or less. Subject to an easement for field tile maintenance purposes over, under and across that part of the Southeast Quarter of Section 35, Township 112, Range 22, Rice County, Minnesota, described as follows: Commencing at the southeast corner of said Southeast Quarter; thence North 01 degree 16 minutes 37 seconds East (assumed bearing) along the east line of said Southeast Quarter 895.25 feet; thence North 80 degrees 11 minutes 17 seconds West 591.95 feet to the west line of the Easterly 20 acres of said Southeast Quarter lying southerly of the centerline of County Road 59, and the point of beginning; thence continuing North 80 degrees 11 minutes 17 seconds West 288.93 feet to the west line of the East 871.13 feet of said Southeast Quarter; thence North 01 degree 16 minutes 37 seconds East, along said west line of the East 871.13 feet, a distance of 468.75 feet to the centerline of County Road 59; thence easterly, along said centerline, to said west line of the Easterly 20 acres of said Southeast Quarter lying southerly of the centerline of County Road 59; thence South 01 degree 16 minutes 37 seconds West, along said west line of the Easterly 20 acres, a distance of 522.76 feet to the point of beginning. Subject also to a public road easement and all other easements and restrictions of record, if any. I hereby certify that this survey, plan or report was prepared by me or under my direct supervision and that I am a duly Registered Land Surveyor under the laws of the State of Minnesota. JUNE 8, 2018 David G. Rapp Minnesota Registration No. 22044 RAPP LAND SURVEYING, INC. 45967 HIGHWAY 56 BLVD KENYON, MN 55946 612-532-1263 DRAWN BY: DGR DATE: 6-08-18 PROJECT NO. D18102 SCALE: 1"=200' SHEET 1 of 1 sheet BOOK/PAGE 42/3 Property Owner: Russ Sirek Property Address: 8200 Union Lake Trl Lonsdale MN 55046 Parcel Numbers: 01.35.4.50.001 Mound: - Slope: 2% - Upslope: 9.2 ft - Downslope: 20 ft - Endslopes: 10.4 ft - Dispersal Bed: 10 ft x 38 ft - Absorption Width: 26 ft - Final: 39.2 ft x 58.7 ft - Sand Depth: 18 inches - 1/4" perfs - 3 ft apart - 3-1.5" laterals - end feed - Pump: 29 gpm at 18.4 ft head - Pump Line: 50 ft - 2 inch - Dose: 112 gallons Setbacks: - Tanks to House: 60 ft - Mound to House: 50 ft - Tanks to Shed: 20 ft - Mound to Shed: 20 ft - Tanks to Well: 180 ft - Mound to Well: 100 ft - Tanks to Rd ROW: 180 ft - Mound to Rd ROW: 125 ft - Tanks to E Property Line: 300 ft - Mound to E Property Line: 300 ft - Tanks to S Property Line: 195 ft - Mound to S Property Line: 135 ft - Tanks to W Property Line: 20 ft - Mound to W Property Line: 20 ft - Tanks to Heath Creek: 290 ft - Mound to Heath Creek: 300 ft - Tanks to Wetland: 340 ft - Mound to Wetland: 300 ft I hereby certify as a State of Minnesota Licensed Septic Contractor that the subsurface sewage treatment system diagramed above was designed in accordance with all applicable requirements of MN Rules Chapters 7080 &/or 7081 and the Rice County Zoning Ordinance. Septic Designer Signature: [Signature] Septic Designer Company: M.S. Excavating, Inc. License Number: 438 Certification Number: 1683 Date: 5/4/2018 CERTIFICATE FOR: DAVID BUCK 32298 180TH AVENUE GOODHUE, MN 55027 SITE ADDRESS I hereby certify that this survey, plan or report was prepared by me or under my direct supervision and that I am a duly Registered Land Surveyor under the laws of the State of Minnesota. OCTOBER 2, 2018 David G. Rapp Minnesota Registration No. 22044 CERTIFICATE FOR: DAVID BUCK 32298 180TH AVENUE GOODHUE, MN 55027 PLEASE SEE ATTACHED SHEET FOR LEGAL DESCRIPTION RAPP LAND SURVEYING, INC. 45987 HIGHWAY 56 BLVD KEYMAR, MN 55946 612-532-1203 DRAWN BY: DOR DATE: 10-2-18 PROJECT NO.: 0181028 SCALE: 1"=200" SHEET: 2 of 2 sheets BOOK/PAGE: 42/2 That part of the Southeast Quarter of Section 35, Township 112, Range 22, Rice County, Minnesota, described as follows: Commencing at the southeast corner of said Southeast Quarter; thence North 01 degree 16 minutes 37 seconds East (assumed bearing) along the east line of said Southeast Quarter 895.25 feet to the point of beginning; thence North 80 degrees 11 minutes 17 seconds West 1284.67 feet; thence North 00 degrees 06 minutes 48 seconds East 334.39 feet, more or less, to the centerline of County Road 59; thence northeasterly, easterly and southeasterly along said centerline to said east line of the Southeast Quarter; thence South 01 degree 16 minutes 37 seconds West, along said east line, 556.74 feet to the point of beginning. EXCEPT the Easterly 20 acres of the Southeast Quarter of Section 35, Township 112, Range 22, Rice County, Minnesota, lying southerly of the centerline of County Road 59. Containing 7.03 acres, more or less. Subject to an easement for field tile maintenance purposes over, under and across that part of the Southeast Quarter of Section 35, Township 112, Range 22, Rice County, Minnesota, described as follows: Commencing at the southeast corner of said Southeast Quarter; thence North 01 degree 16 minutes 37 seconds East (assumed bearing) along the east line of said Southeast Quarter 895.25 feet; thence North 80 degrees 11 minutes 17 seconds West 591.95 feet to the west line of the Easterly 20 acres of said Southeast Quarter lying southerly of the centerline of County Road 59, and the point of beginning; thence continuing North 80 degrees 11 minutes 17 seconds West 288.93 feet to the west line of the East 871.13 feet of said Southeast Quarter; thence North 01 degree 16 minutes 37 seconds East, along said west line of the East 871.13 feet, a distance of 468.75 feet to the centerline of County Road 59; thence easterly, along said centerline, to said west line of the Easterly 20 acres of said Southeast Quarter lying southerly of the centerline of County Road 59; thence South 01 degree 16 minutes 37 seconds West, along said west line of the Easterly 20 acres, a distance of 522.76 feet to the point of beginning. Subject also to a public road easement and all other easements and restrictions of record, if any. PROPOSED LEGAL DESCRIPTION: That part of the Southeast Quarter of Section 35, Township 112 North, Range 22 West, Rice County, Minnesota, lying southerly of the centerline of Union Lake Trail. EXCEPT that part of the Southeast Quarter of Section 35, Township 112, Range 22, Rice County, Minnesota, described as follows: Commencing at the southeast corner of said Southeast Quarter; thence North 01 degree 16 minutes 37 seconds East (assumed bearing) along the east line of said Southeast Quarter 895.25 feet to the point of beginning; thence North 80 degrees 11 minutes 17 seconds West 1284.67 feet; thence North 00 degrees 06 minutes 48 seconds East 334.39 feet, more or less, to the centerline of County Road 59; thence northeasterly, easterly and southeasterly along said centerline to said east line of the Southeast Quarter; thence South 01 degree 16 minutes 37 seconds West, along said east line, 556.74 feet to the point of beginning. Also EXCEPT the Easterly 20 acres of the Southeast Quarter of Section 35, Township 112, Range 22, Rice County, Minnesota, lying southerly of the centerline of County Road 59. Containing 59.08 acres, more or less. Subject to a public road easement and all other easements and restrictions of record, if any. Certificate For: David Buck 32298 180th Avenue Goodhue, MN 55027 I hereby certify that this survey, plan or report was prepared by me or under my direct supervision and that I am a duly Registered Land Surveyor under the laws of the State of Minnesota. OCTOBER 2, 2018 David G. Rapp Minnesota Registration No. 22044 RAPP LAND SURVEYING, INC. 45967 HIGHWAY 56 BLVD KENYON, MN 55946 612-532-1263 DRAWN BY: DGR DATE: 10-2-18 PROJECT NO. D18102R1 SCALE: 1"=50' SHEET 1 of 2 sheets BOOK/PAGE 42/3 Field Soil Verification Form For Subsurface Treatment System Preferred Date/Time to meet: If possible tomorrow when we go to Kabul (24hr notice required) or ☐ New Construction ☑ Replacement system (Between 8:30 - 3:30 Mon-Friday) Please call to schedule Requested By: Mike Skrzacek Ph# 612-828-1442 Company Name: M.S. Excavating Inc. Site Location: Buyer - Russ Sirek Owner's Name David Ann Buck Pre-Treatment Device Proposed ☐ Yes ☑ No *If verification exceeds 30 minutes additional fees apply Address: 8200 Union Lake Trail Lonsdale PID# D18.104.22.168.001 Soil Boring# 1 ☑ Soil Pit # ______ Restricting Layer = 18" (Depth to periodically saturated soil or bedrock) Maximum depth to the bottom of the proposed absorption area = SP/Boring # ______ was performed where the most limiting soil conditions occur in the site. Department will contact Designer within 3 business days to confirm or schedule date/time to perform the soils verification. Department may postpone in the event of inclement weather. *Boring locations must be accurately identified on the Design site plan drawing, staked and identifiers maintained until system constructed and Inspected. Signature Rice County Inspector Designer Date 5/4/18 Attachment: Buck WOP Application (DOC-2018-178 : WOP-Buck) CONSERVATION EASEMENT This Agreement (hereinafter “Conservation Easement” or “Agreement”) is made this 3rd day of October, 2018, between the County of Rice (hereinafter “Grantee”), a body corporate and politic existing under the law of the State of Minnesota, 320 Third Street Northwest, Fairbault, MN 55021 and David A Buck Rev Trust, Anna Buck Rev Trust, David A Buck & Ann S Buck Trustees (hereinafter “Grantor”). (Insert information needed to identify owners – name, marital status, ownership status) husband & wife RECITALS WHEREAS, Grantor(s) is owner in Fee of land identified in Exhibit A (the Property) which is located in Rice County, Minnesota, and described in a deed recorded in the Office of the County Recorder of Rice County, Minnesota, as Document Number A696647, dated 4-11-2017; and WHEREAS, Grantor seeks to convey a CONSERVATION EASEMENT to Grantee, the County of Rice for the purpose of preserving productive farmland and open space. WHEREAS, the Property is located in a zoning district designated under the Rice County Zoning Ordinance as eligible for the transfer of development rights from the Property; and WHEREAS, Grantor has agreed to the transfer of all the development rights determined by Rice County to be allowable to the Property; and WHEREAS, the current use of the Property is agricultural use, open space or natural areas, and on the Property are located O structures including O dwelling units and O non-residential agricultural buildings; and WHEREAS, Grantor acknowledges the transfer of all rights to further develop the Property for any use other than the uses existing on the date of the grant of this Easement; and WHEREAS, Minn. Stat. Ch. 84C authorizes the State of Minnesota, governmental bodies to preserve, acquire, or hold lands for open space uses, which specifically include agriculture; and that actions pursuant to these purposes are for public health, safety, and general welfare of the citizens of the State of Minnesota and for the promotion of sound land development; and WHEREAS, Grantee is a qualified political subdivision under the laws of the State of Minnesota laws and is authorized by Minn. Stat. §375.18, subd. 12 to acquire conservation easements under chapter 84C for the purpose of implementing a transfer of development rights program; and WHEREAS, Grantee has declared that public benefits result from the protection and conservation of agricultural land, specifically including the protection of agricultural lands for production of food and other agricultural products; protection of scenic rural areas for public visual enjoyment from public right-of-way; and the protection of agricultural lands as valued natural and ecological resources to provide water quality benefits and open space benefits; and WHEREAS, Grantor desires and intends that the agricultural and open space character of the Property be preserved, protected, and maintained; and WHEREAS, Grantor desires and intends to give Grantee the right to enforce the terms of this Conservation Easement for the protection of the Property in perpetuity; and WHEREAS, Grantee agrees by acquiring this grant of conservation easement to preserve and protect in perpetuity the agricultural and open space values of the Property for the benefit of this generation and the generations to come; and WHEREAS, the specific agricultural and open space values of the Property are documented in an inventory of the Property, dated ________________, on file at the offices of Grantee and incorporated by this reference (“Baseline Documentation”), which consists of documentation that the parties agree provide, collectively, an accurate representation of the Property at the time of this grant of easement and which is intended to serve as an objective information baseline for monitoring compliance with the terms of this grant of easement; and NOW, THEREFORE, in consideration of the foregoing and intending to be legally bound, the undersigned Grantor grants and conveys to Grantee a CONSERVATION EASEMENT on the Property for the purpose of assuring that the Property will be retained forever in its agricultural and open space condition and to prevent any use that will impair the agricultural and open space values of the Property. To carry out this purpose, the following title restrictions are recorded: A. CONVENANTS, TERMS, CONDITIONS, AND RESTRICTIONS 1. The Recitals stated above are incorporated by herein reference and, intending to be legally bound, Grantor declares, makes known, and covenants for himself, his heirs, successors, and assigns, that the property shall be restricted to agricultural and open space uses. 2. This Conservation Easement shall continue in perpetuity unless terminated or otherwise amended by the parties. Any termination or amendment shall be by separate written agreement and recorded against the property. 3. Agricultural uses of land are defined for the purposes of this grant of easement, as the use of land for the production of plants and animals that qualify the Property for tax treatment under the provision of Minn. Stat. §273.11, the “Minnesota Agricultural Property Tax Law,” as may be amended from time to time, or as maybe interpreted by courts of competent jurisdiction. 4. Residences and structures permitted on the Property subject to these restrictions are the residences and structures existing on the date of this easement as noted in the Baseline Documentation, or in the event of their destruction, replacements of similar size (or larger if allowed by the Rice County Zoning Ordinance) and uses. Additional non-residential agricultural structures are allowed. Additional residential structures and uses are prohibited. 5. Upon a conveyance of all or a portion of the Property, any new Deed shall recite verbatim the terms of this Conservation Easement and incorporate this Conservation Easement by reference. 6. Use of the Property for dumping, storage, processing or landfill of non-agricultural solid or hazard wastes generated off-site is prohibited. B. GENERAL PROVISIONS 1. Grantor reserves to himself, and to his personal representatives, heirs, successors, and assigns, all rights accruing from his ownership of the Property, including the right to engage in or permit or invite others to engage in all uses of the Property that are not expressly prohibited herein and are not inconsistent with the purpose of this Easement. 2. No right of public access is provided for, nor will any right of public access result from the recording of these restrictions. 3. Grantee, its successors or assigns, jointly or severally, shall have the right to enforce these restrictions by injunction and other appropriate proceedings, including but not limited to, the right to require the Grantor to restore the Property to the condition existing at the time of this Grant in order to correct any violation(s) of this Grant of Easement. Representatives of Grantee, its successors or assigns, may at reasonable times and after appropriate notice to Grantor and any persons residing on the Property, enter the Property from time to time for the purposes of inspection and enforcement of the terms of the Easement. 4. Any cost incurred by Grantee in enforcing the terms of this easement against Grantor, including, court costs and attorneys’ fees, and any cost of restoration necessitated by Grantor’s violation of the terms of this Grant shall be borne by Grantor. 5. The restrictions contained herein shall apply to the land as a conservation easement in gross in perpetuity. The covenants, terms, conditions, and restrictions of this easement shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of, the parties hereto and their respective personal representatives, heirs, successors and assigns and shall continue as a servitude running in perpetuity with the Property. A party’s rights and obligations under this Easement terminate upon transfer of the party’s interest in the Easement or Property, except that liability for acts or omissions occurring prior to transfer shall survive transfer. 6. This easement, may be subject to modification, termination, or extinguishment, whether in whole or in part, if the zoning ordinance is amended, the property is annexed into a city, a development right is returned to the property or if circumstances arise in the future such as to render the purposes of this easement impossible to accomplish and the parties mutually agree, or by judicial proceedings in a court of competent jurisdiction. 7. If the easement is taken, in whole or in part, by the exercise of the power of eminent domain, Grantee shall be entitled to just compensation for its interest in the Property in accordance with applicable law. 8. Grantor agrees to incorporate the terms of this easement in any deed or other legal instrument by which he divests himself of any interest in all or a portion of the Property. Grantor further agrees to give written notice to Grantee of the transfer of any interest at least ten (10) days prior to the date of such transfer. The failure of perform any act required by this paragraph shall not impair the validity of this Conservation Easement or limit its enforceability in any way. 9. Grantor shall hold harmless, indemnify and defend Grantee and its employees, agents and contractors and their heirs, personal representatives, successors and assigns (collectively “Indemnified Parties”) from and against all liabilities, penalties, costs, losses, damages, expenses, causes of action, claims, demands or judgments, including without limitation, reasonable attorneys’ fees arising from or in any way connected with: (1) the result of a violation or alleged violation of any State or Federal environmental statute or regulation including the storage or disposal of hazardous or toxic chemicals or materials; (2) injury to or the death of any person, or physical damage to any property, resulting from any act, omission, condition or other matter related to or incurring on or about the premises, regardless of costs, unless due solely to the gross negligence of any of the Indemnified Parties; and (3) existence and administration of this easement. 10. Grantor retains all responsibilities and shall bear all costs and liabilities of any kind related to the ownership, operation, upkeep and maintenance of the premises, including the maintenance of adequate comprehensive general liability insurance coverage and payment of all real estate taxes. 11. Grantee shall record this Conservation Easement with the Rice County Recorder. 12. If any provisions of this Conservation Easement, or the application thereof to any person or circumstances, is found to be invalid, the remainder of the provisions of this conservation easement, or the application of such provision to persons or circumstances other than those as to which it is found to be invalid, as the case may be, shall not be affected and shall continue in full force and effect. TO HAVE AND TO HOLD unto Grantee, its successors and assigns forever. IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have set their hands on the date(s) indicated below intending to be bound thereby. GRANTOR(S): By: [Signature] Signature By: [Signature] Signature By: [Printed Name] Printed Name By: [Printed Name] Printed Name STATE OF MINNESOTA ) ) ss. COUNTY OF RICE ) The foregoing instrument was acknowledged before me this 3 day of Oct, 2018, by David A. Buck & Ann Buck - married, Grantor(s). Name(s), marital status NOTARY PUBLIC [Signature] Notary Public DIANNE M. PANK MINNESOTA - NOTARY PUBLIC My Commission Expires 01/31/2021 GRANTEE COUNTY OF RICE Attest: County Chair Board Sara Folsted, County Administrator STATE OF MINNESOTA ) ) ss. COUNTY OF RICE ) The foregoing instrument was acknowledged before me this _____ day of ________, 2018, by _________________, Chairperson of the Rice County Board, Rice County Minnesota, pursuant to the authority granted by its County Board. NOTARY PUBLIC BY: ____________________________ Prepared by: Rice County Attorney’s Office 218 NW Third Street Faribault, MN 55021 TRUSTEE'S DEED by Individual Trustee eCRV number: 639005 DEED TAX DUE: $1,419.00 DATE: APRIL 6, 2017 FOR VALUABLE CONSIDERATION, Norma J. Howe and Johanna R. Hanssen, as Trustee(s) of the Norma J. Howe Revocable Trust dated December 13, 2007, ("Grantor") hereby conveys and quitclaims to DAVID A. BUCK and ANN G. BUCK, Trustees, or their successors in trust, under the DAVID A. BUCK REVOCABLE LIVING TRUST, dated August 19, 2013 AND ANN G. BUCK and DAVID A. BUCK, Trustees, or their successors in trust, under the ANN G. BUCK REVOCABLE LIVING TRUST, dated August 19, 2013 ("Grantee"), real property in Rice County, Minnesota, legally described as follows: All that part of the Southeast Quarter (SE 1/4), except the most Easterly 20 acres thereof, of Section 35, Township 112 North, Range 22 West of the Fifth Principal Meridian, Rice County, Minnesota, lying Southerly from the center line of County Road 59. Check here if all or part of the described property is Registered (Torrens) together with all hereditaments and appurtenances belonging thereto. These proposals appear to have no significant impact on MnDOT roadways and are acceptable to MnDOT. Waiver of Plat/Buck – Section 35, Wheatland Township Conditional Use Permit/Marvets – Section 9, Walcott Township Conditional Use Permit/Raines – Section 10, Forest Township Thanks, Tracy Schnell Senior Planner | District 6 Minnesota Department of Transportation 2900 48th Street NW Rochester, MN 55901 O: 507-286-7599 mndot.gov/ Attachment: MNDOT (DOC-2018-178 : WOP-Buck) RICE COUNTY ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES DEPARTMENT MEMORANDUM TO: Rice County Planning Commission FROM: Trent McCorkell, Zoning Administrator HEARING DATE: November 1, 2018 SUBJECT: Marvets CUP, Kennel SUMMARY OF THE APPLICATION Julie Marvets has applied for a Conditional Use Permit for a commercial kennel to house cats. The site is currently operated without the required permit and the cats are currently housed within an existing building on the property. The proposal at this time is to utilize three additional existing buildings and to add an outdoor fenced area. Application Data APPLICANT: Julie Marvets LOCATION: Part of the NE1/4 of the NW1/4 of Section 9, Walcott Township, Rice County, Minnesota. The property address is: 3405 220th St E, Faribault, MN 55021. PID #: 15.09.2.00.001. ZONING: UR, Urban Reserve Lot Area | | Lot Area | Lot width | Lot Depth | |----------------|----------|-----------|-----------| | Subject Parcel | 4.9-acres| 350-ft | 420-ft approx | | Minimum Requirement | 2.5- acres | 50-ft | N/a | Location The subject property is located on the south side of 220th St. E., approximately 1/4-mile southeast of Faribault. Roads and Access The site uses an existing driveway from 220th St. Existing Site Conditions Photos of the property will be presented at the meeting. APPLICABLE ZONING ORDINANCE SECTIONS The parcel is zoned UR, Urban Reserve District and the conditional use permit request falls under Section 510.02 and 507.05(K) Kennel, Commercial 507.05(K) Kennel, commercial, where dogs or other domestic pets are raised for sale, boarded or trained 1. All animal kennels shall provide indoor facilities having adequate heating, ventilation, and lighting. 2. All animal kennels shall provide outdoor facilities having shelter from the elements, sunlight, rain, snow, and cold weather. 3. All animal kennels shall provide proper drainage for indoor and outdoor facilities. 4. Each large adult animal shall be provided with a separate fenced run of at least thirty-six (36) square feet that shall be located at least one hundred (100) feet from any property line. 5. Facilities shall be inspected at least once a year at the owner’s expense by a doctor of veterinary medicine who shall provide a report to the County describing the condition of the animals and facility, medical treatment required by the animals, and remedial actions necessary to improve the condition of the facility. 6. Facilities must obtain all required State and Federal licenses or operational permits. If the Commission should decide to approve the request the following are some possible conditions: 1. The Conditional Use Permit (CUP) is for a cat boarding kennel operation, changes to the use are not permitted without approval of a new/amended permit. 2. The operation and site shall comply with all Federal, State and Local rules and regulations. Site owner and operator shall maintain proof of compliance with applicable regulations and submit said proof to county staff upon request. 3. Indoor facilities having adequate heating, ventilation, and lighting shall be provided for all animals. Outdoor facilities shall have shelter from the elements, sunlight, rain, snow, and cold weather. 4. Facilities shall be inspected at least once a year at the owner’s expense by a doctor of veterinary medicine who shall provide a report to the County, by August 1st of each year, describing the condition of the animals and facility, medical treatment required by the animals, and remedial actions necessary to improve the condition of the facility. 5. Proof of a proper animal waste disposal system shall be submitted annually, by August 1st of each year, to the Rice County Environmental Services office. 6. There shall be no more than __________ domestic cats on the site at any one time. The only other animals allowed onsite are up to _______ domestic pets for the homeowner. 7. The approved site plan shall be followed. Animals shall only be housed within existing structures and the proposed outdoor fenced area as identified on the approved site plan. 8. The onsite septic system shall be shown to be in compliance with the existing and proposed use. 9. All buildings used shall meet building code for the intended use. Any new construction on the parcel is to adhere to all Rice County codes and ordinances. 10. There shall not be any unlicensed or inoperable vehicles or trailers on the parcel. 11. Failure to comply with conditions may result in revocation of the conditional use permit. Faribault Subject site Attachment: wide (DOC-2018-179 - CUP-Marvets) Packet Pg. 38 1905476001 1805400001 1905400001 RRL_1002 1504350001 1504350002 1504350003 1504300001 1504375001 1504375003 1504450001 1508100001 1509225002 1509225003 1509250002 1509200002 1509150001 1509150002 1509150003 Subject site 1509200001 Attachment: mid (DOC-2018-179 : CUP-Marvels) Packet Pg. 39 House Current cat building Buildings proposed for cat housing Conditional Use Permit Application (CUP) Permit # ____ Property Information Parcel Information: | Parcel ID Number | Site Address | City | Zoned as | Owner Name | |------------------|---------------|----------|----------------|--------------------------| | 15.09.2.00.001 | 3405 220TH ST E | FARIBAULT | URBAN RESERVE | MARVETS ANTHONY & JULIE | Are you the Landowner? Yes Will you be using an authorized agent? No Applicant Information Applicant Information: Name: Julie Marvets Phone #: (812) 298 - 7634 Email Address: email@example.com Mailing Address: 3405 220th ST E Faribault MN 55021 Conditional Use Request Specific Use from 508 Use Table: UR Explanation of requested CUP: I am requesting permission to be a sanctuary for unadoptable cats that we receive from the Animal Humane Society in MN and from the local police department in Faribault as well as local strays that we eventually adopt out. Site Plan Please attach a Site Plan: File 1: IMG_2102.JPG Legal Descriptions Legal Description of project: File 1: Marvets_Legal_Description.pdf ### Written Evidence/Criteria **Criteria:** ![Image](IMG_2220.JPG) --- ### Septic Information - **Is your septic system less than 5 years old or had a valid compliance inspection in the past 3 years?** Yes - **Please attach any septic inspections or compliance inspection records:** ![File](Marvets_Seplic_Inspection.pdf) --- ### Public Notes - **Text:** 9/28/18 bl: On 11/01/2018 agenda for Planning Commission 9/24/18 bl: Submit a completed conditional use permit criteria form. 9/5/18 bl: applicant will need to submit a detailed site plan, please see example below. Also required is a certified legal description and completed CUP criteria form. - **File(s):** ![File](site_plan.pdf) --- ### Internal Notes - **Text:** ![File](image.png) The parcels are the base parcels in Rice County. *Disclaimer: The information in this web site represents current data from a working file which is updated continuously. Information is believed reliable, but its accuracy cannot be guaranteed.* Date created: 9/28/2018 Last Data Uploaded: 9/28/2018 1:46:04 AM Developed by Schneider Geospatial SITE PLAN Scale of Drawing: 1 square = ___ feet Required Information as per Section 505.16 of the Rice County Zoning Ordinance – Can be submitted on separate sheet. Check box when complete: - Existing and proposed structures, including building footprints and setbacks - Landscape plan including existing vegetation - Roads labeled and location of access to lot/driveway - Septic Site location & Alternate Site plans if required - Storm water and Erosion Control plans - Location of working and/or abandoned wells - Location of any lakes, streams, or wetlands EXHIBIT "A" Part of the East One-Half (E½) of the Northwest Quarter (NW¼) and part of the West One-Half (W½) of the Northeast Quarter (NE¼) of Section 9, Township 109 North, Range 20 West of the Fifth Principal Meridian, Rice County, Minnesota, described as follows: Beginning at a point in the north line of said East One-Half (E½) of Northwest Quarter (NW¼), 652.00 feet westerly from the northeast corner of said Northwest Quarter (NW¼); thence southerly, at right angles to said north line 440.00 feet; thence easterly, parallel with said north line to a point in the westerly right of way line of the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad (now known as Chicago and North Western Transportation Company); thence northerly, along said railroad right of way line, to a point in said north line; thence westerly, along said north line to said point of beginning. Abstract Property - Rice County, Minnesota. ENDIF 503.05 E.2. Review criteria for all conditional use permits. In granting or renewing a conditional use permit, the Rice County Board of Commissioners shall consider the advice and recommendations of the Planning Commission and the effect of the proposed use upon the health, safety and general welfare of occupants of surrounding lands. Among other things, the following findings shall be made: a. **Burden on public facilities.** The use will not create an excessive burden on existing parks, schools, streets and other public facilities and utilities that serve or are proposed to serve the area. N/A b. **Sewer and water.** The site is adequate for water supply and on-site sewage treatment. Yes. We use 6 gallons of water a day, 2-3 loads of laundry. c. **Compatible with surrounding uses.** The use will be sufficiently compatible or separated by distance or screening from adjacent agricultural or residentially zoned or used land so that existing homes will not be depreciated in value and there will be no deterrence to development of vacant land. Yes. d. **Appearance.** The structure and site shall have an appearance that will not have an adverse effect upon adjacent residential properties. There will be no exterior changes except for future fence & adding windows to future sanctuary. Building already exists. e. **County needs.** The use is reasonably related to the overall needs of the County and to the existing land use. We help Rice County with nuisance cats & help lower the cat population by providing Spay/Neuter assistance. f. **Zoning district purposes.** The use is consistent with the purposes of this Ordinance and the purposes of the zoning district in which the applicant intends to locate the proposed use. Yes g. **Comprehensive Plan.** The use is in conformance with the Rice County Comprehensive Land Use Plan of the County. Yes h. **Traffic.** The use will not cause traffic hazard or congestion. We will hold fundraising events 3-4 times a year. i. **Effect on businesses.** Existing businesses nearby will not be adversely affected because of curtailment of customer trade brought about by intrusion of noise, glare or general unsightliness. N/A 503.05 H.1 Additional criteria and conditions in Shoreland Districts. Conditional uses allowed in Shoreland Districts shall be subject to the following additional information, evaluation criteria and conditions: **Additional evaluation criteria.** A thorough evaluation of the water body and the topographic, vegetation, and soils conditions on the site must be made to ensure all of the following: a. **Soil erosion.** The prevention of soil erosion or other possible pollution of public waters, both during and after construction. N/A b. **Visual impact.** The visibility of structures and other facilities as viewed from public waters is limited N/A c. **Watercraft.** The types, uses, and number of watercraft that the project will generate are compatible in relation to the suitability of public waters to safely accommodate these watercraft. N/A Rice County COMPLIANCE INSPECTION for Existing SSTS Environmental Health Services Soil Boring Logs Drawing MPCA Inspection forms Pumping Certificate Inspection Date: 8-20-15 (*Report to be submitted to LUG & Owner within 15 days of completion) Property Owner Dan Anonby or owner's representative Site Address 3405 E. 220th St. Frbo. Parcel I.D.# 15.09, 2.00.001 Weather Conditions: Clear Ground Conditions: Dry Time 2:30 am pm Are all the plumbing fixtures connected to the SSTS Yes System in Shoreland/Wellhead Protection Area/or Food Bev. Lodging No Describe any 'Other Compliance Conditions' in MPCA component #3 of 5 that impacted the System Status: comments: TANK(S): ☐ screen/filter alarm ☒ Septic Tank 1000 gallons ☐ Pump Tank ________ gallons ☐ Holding Tank ________ gallons Other ____________ SYSTEM TYPE: ☒ Standard ☐ Alternative ☐ Holding Tank ☐ III Other ☐ IV/Pre-Treatment Device SOIL TREATMENT: Media Type ☐ Rock ☒ Gravelless ☐ EZ-flow ☐ Chamber STS TYPE: ☒ Trench ☐ At Grade ☐ Mound ☐ Seepage Bed ☐ Artificial Drainage/Curtain Drain-*Annual monitoring required SIZE of STS 200 sq.ft. ☐ pressurized sts Operating Permit # ______________________ (non-transferable) ☐ Not in Adherence = Non-Compliant ☐ in Adherence (Must explain) ____________________________________________________________ SOILS: Depth to the restricting layer 40 ft/in Depth of soil treatment area ~ 13 ft/in SB performed ☒ prior soils documentation used Separation Distance = 27 in. installed 6/89 15% reduction in vertical separation employed Applicable to a SSTS constructed after March 31, 1996, or a SSTS located in an SWF area: (Shoreland -wellhead protection/food/beverage/lodging) In accordance with Minnesota Rules Chapter 7080.1500 or 7081.0080 if >5000gpd STATUS OF SEPTIC SYSTEM ☒ Compliant ☐ Non-Compliant ☐ Imminent Threat to Public Health or Safety Certificate of Compliance Notice of Non-Compliance See attachments for other reason of Non Compliance CERTIFICATION: I hereby certify with my signature as a State of Minnesota Certified Inspector that my observations recorded on this form are accurate as of the date of inspection. No determination of future hydraulic performance can be made due to unknown conditions, future water usage of the system, abuse of the system, and/or inadequate maintenance, all of which will adversely affect the life of the system. Licensed Inspector Cami Flom Printed Name Cami Flom Signature Certification # 9014 Business license # 2401 Phone # 507.330-0473 email: firstname.lastname@example.org Rice County Environmental Health – 320 Third St. NW Fairbault, MN 55021 ph/507/332-6170 FAX: 507/332-6277 Packet Pg. 47 Compliance Inspection Form Existing Subsurface Sewage Treatment Systems (SSTS) Doc Type: Compliance and Enforcement Inspection results based on Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) requirements and attached forms – additional local requirements may also apply. Submit completed form to Local Unit of Government (LUG) and system owner within 15 days For local tracking purposes: System Status System status on date (mm/dd/yyyy): 8/20/2015 ☒ Compliant – Certificate of Compliance (Valid for 3 years from report date, unless shorter time frame outlined in Local Ordinance.) ☐ Noncompliant – Notice of Noncompliance (See Upgrade Requirements on page 3.) Reason(s) for noncompliance (check all applicable) ☐ Impact on Public Health (Compliance Component #1) – Imminent threat to public health and safety ☐ Other Compliance Conditions (Compliance Component #3) – Imminent threat to public health and safety ☐ Tank Integrity (Compliance Component #2) – Failing to protect groundwater ☐ Other Compliance Conditions (Compliance Component #3) – Failing to protect groundwater ☐ Soil Separation (Compliance Component #4) – Failing to protect groundwater ☐ Operating permit/monitoring plan requirements (Compliance Component #5) – Noncompliant Property Information Parcel ID# or Sec/Twp/Range: 15 09 2.00.001 Property address: 3405 E. 220th St. Faribault MN 55021 Reason for inspection: Property Transfer Property owner: Dan Anonby Owner’s phone: 507-838-0810 or Owner’s representative: Representative phone: Local regulatory authority: Rice County Regulatory authority phone: 507-332-6113 Brief system description: 1000 gallon septic tank to shallow approx. 200 ft of shallow gravelless trench. *backfill over original grade. Comments or recommendations: This inspection report is intended only as an evaluation of the present condition of the Onsite Sewage Treatment System based on what was observed on above inspection date. Because of numerous factors which may effect the proper operation of a septic system as well as the ability of the Inspector to monitor the use and maintenance of the system, this report shall not be construed as a warranty by Flom Septic Services or its employees, that the system will function properly. Certification I hereby certify that all the necessary information has been gathered to determine the compliance status of this system. No determination of future system performance has been nor can be made due to unknown conditions during system construction, possible abuse of the system, inadequate maintenance, or future water usage. Inspector name: Cami Flom Certification number: 9014 Business name: Flom Septic & Drain License number: 2401 Inspector signature: Cami Flom 8-24-15 Phone number: 507-330-0473 Necessary or Locally Required Attachments ☒ Soil boring logs ☒ System/As-built drawing ☒ Forms per local ordinance ☐ Other information (list): Tank Pumping Certificate 1. **Impact on Public Health** – Compliance component #1 of 5 | Compliance criteria: | Verification method(s): | |----------------------|-------------------------| | System discharges sewage to the ground surface. | ☐ Searched for surface outlet | | ☒ Yes ☐ No | ☒ Searched for seeping in yard/backup in home | | System discharges sewage to drain tile or surface waters. | ☐ Excessive ponding in soil system/D-boxes | | ☐ Yes ☒ No | ☒ Homeowner testimony (See Comments/Explanation) | | System causes sewage backup into dwelling or establishment. | ☐ "Black soil" above soil dispersal system | | ☐ Yes ☐ No | ☐ System requires "emergency" pumping | | ☐ Performed dye test | ☐ Unable to verify (See Comments/Explanation) | | ☐ Other methods not listed (See Comments/Explanation) | *Any “yes” answer above indicates the system is an imminent threat to public health and safety.* Comments/Explanation: Spoke with homeowner, Dan, on day of inspection and he says they've never had a problem with their septic system. 2. **Tank Integrity** – Compliance component #2 of 5 | Compliance criteria: | Verification method(s): | |----------------------|-------------------------| | System consists of a seepage pit, cesspool, drywell, or leaching pit. | ☐ Probed tank(s) bottom | | ☐ Yes ☐ No | ☐ Examined construction records | | Seepage pits meeting 7080.2550 may be compliant if allowed in local ordinance. | ☒ Examined Tank Integrity Form (Attach) | | Sewage tank(s) leak below their designed operating depth. | ☐ Observed liquid level below operating depth | | If yes, which sewage tank(s) leaks: | ☐ Examined empty (pumped) tanks(s) | | ☐ Yes ☒ No | ☐ Probed outside tank(s) for "black soil" | | ☐ Unable to verify (See Comments/Explanation) | ☐ Other methods not listed (See Comments/Explanation) | *Any “yes” answer above indicates the system is failing to protect groundwater.* Comments/Explanation: See Tank Pumping Certificate 3. **Other Compliance Conditions** – Compliance component #3 of 5 a. Maintenance hole covers are damaged, cracked, unsecured, or appear to be structurally unsound. ☐ Yes* ☒ No ☐ Unknown b. Other issues (electrical hazards, etc.) to immediately and adversely impact public health or safety. ☐ Yes* ☒ No ☐ Unknown *System is an imminent threat to public health and safety.* Explain: c. System is non-protective of ground water for other conditions as determined by inspector. ☐ Yes* ☒ No *System is failing to protect groundwater.* Explain: 4. Soil Separation – Compliance component #4 of 5 Date of installation: 6/1/1989 ☐ Unknown (mm/dd/yyyy) Shoreland/Wellhead protection/Food beverage lodging? ☒ Yes ☐ No Compliance criteria: For systems built prior to April 1, 1996, and not located in Shoreland or Wellhead Protection Area or not serving a food, beverage or lodging establishment: ☐ Yes ☒ No Drainfield has at least a two-foot vertical separation distance from periodically saturated soil or bedrock. Non-performance systems built April 1, 1996, or later or for non-performance systems located in Shoreland or Wellhead Protection Areas or serving a food, beverage, or lodging establishment: ☐ Yes ☐ No Drainfield has a three-foot vertical separation distance from periodically saturated soil or bedrock.* “Experimental”, “Other”, or “Performance” systems built under pre-2008 Rules; Type IV or V systems built under 2008 Rules (7080.2350 or 7080.2400) (Advanced Inspector License required) ☐ Yes ☐ No Drainfield meets the designed vertical separation distance from periodically saturated soil or bedrock. Any “no” answer above indicates the system is failing to protect groundwater. Verification method(s): Soil observation does not expire. Previous soil observations by two independent parties are sufficient, unless site conditions have been altered or local requirements differ. ☒ Conducted soil observation(s) (Attach boring logs) ☐ Two previous verifications (Attach boring logs) ☐ Not applicable (Holding tank(s), no drainfield) ☐ Unable to verify (See Comments/Explanation) ☐ Other (See Comments/Explanation) Comments/Explanation: Indicate depths or elevations | Depth/Elevation | Approx. Depth | |--------------------------|---------------| | A. Bottom of distribution media | 13" from grade | | B. Periodically saturated soil/bedrock | 40" | | C. System separation | 27" | | D. Required compliance separation* | 24" | *May be reduced up to 15 percent if allowed by Local Ordinance. 5. Operating Permit and Nitrogen BMP* – Compliance component #5 of 5 ☒ Not applicable Is the system operated under an Operating Permit? ☐ Yes ☐ No If "yes", A below is required Is the system required to employ a Nitrogen BMP? ☐ Yes ☐ No If "yes", B below is required BMP = Best Management Practice(s) specified in the system design If the answer to both questions is "no", this section does not need to be completed. Compliance criteria a. Operating Permit number: ____________________________ ☐ Yes ☐ No Have the Operating Permit requirements been met? b. Is the required nitrogen BMP in place and properly functioning? ☐ Yes ☐ No Any "no" answer indicates Noncompliance. Upgrade Requirements (Min. Stat. § 115.55) An imminent threat to public health and safety (ITPHS) must be upgraded, replaced, or its use discontinued within ten months of receipt of this report, or within a shorter period if required by local ordinance. If the system is failing to protect ground water, the system must be upgraded, replaced, or its use discontinued within the time required by local ordinance. If an existing system is not failing as defined in law, and has at least two feet of design soil separation, then the system need not be upgraded, repaired, replaced, or its use discontinued, notwithstanding any local ordinance that is more strict. This provision does not apply to systems in shoreland areas, Wellhead Protection Areas, or those used in connection with food, beverage, and lodging establishments as defined in law. ## OSTP Soil Observation Log **Client/ Address:** Anonby / 3405 E. 220th St. Faribault **Legal Description/ GPS:** **Soil parent material(s): (Check all that apply)** - [ ] Outwash - [ ] Lacustrine - [ ] Loess - [x] Till - [ ] Alluvium - [ ] Bedrock - [ ] Organic Matter **Landscape Position: (check one)** - [ ] Summit - [ ] Shoulder - [ ] Back/Side Slope - [ ] Foot Slope - [ ] Toe Slope **Slope shape:** Convex, Linear **Vegetation** Grass **Soil survey map units** 104B **Slope%** **Elevation:** **Weather Conditions/Time of Day:** Clear/Dry/2:30pm **Date:** 08/20/15 ### Observation #/Location: | Depth (in) | Texture | Rock Frag. % | Matrix Color(s) | Mottle Color(s) | Redox Kind(s) | Indicator(s) | Structure | Consistence | |------------|------------------|--------------|-----------------|-----------------|---------------|--------------|-----------|-------------| | 0-16 | Silt Loam | | 10YR 2/2 | | | | Blocky | Moderate | Friable | | 16-20 | Silty Clay Loam | | 10YR 3/2 | | | | Blocky | Moderate | Friable | | 20-30 | Sandy Clay Loam | | 10YR 3/4 | | | | Blocky | Moderate | Friable | | 30-42*Redox @ 40* | Sandy Clay Loam | | 10YR 4/3 | | Concentrations, depletions | S1 | Blocky | Moderate | Friable | ### Comments --- I hereby certify that I have completed this work in accordance with all applicable ordinances, rules and laws. Cami Flom (Designer) 2401 (License #) 8/24/2015 (Date) I live near the proposed Furball Farms and I am against the issuance of a Conditional Use Permit for their continued operation of hoarding cats. Since the owners of Furball Farms moved into the area I have experienced many issues with their animals. In all the years that I have lived on my property there has never been an issue with stray or feral cats in the area until the owners of Furball Farms moved in. Even though I do not own a cat, there have been cats in my yard nearly daily over the course of the last year. I am constantly cleaning cat prints off my vehicles and tractors. In addition, the cats are pooping and peeing in my garden, yard, and near my house and barn. I have seen the cats going after birds, and they are tormenting my dogs. In addition to their cats, they also have uncontained, nuisance dogs. Most nights the dogs bark well past 10pm, and many of those nights it lasts all night long. I cannot have my windows open at night during the summer due to the barking. At any given time, there are also upwards of a dozen vehicles parked on or around the property of Furball Farms. This is an eyesore. Or is there another business on site? Furball Farms Website page states that they spay/neuter and then release the cats on their farm. This is unacceptable. The owners of Furball Farms are failing to contain the cats to their land, and the cats are constantly roaming the neighborhood disturbing the other residents of the area and damaging property. The owners of Furball Farms have been operating illegally without a permit for the last year. Rice County has a long history of allowing this type of behavior, issuing a CUP after the fact to collect the permit fees, and then not performing any enforcement or compliance actions. In the year that Furball Farms have been operating illegally there have been multiple problems with them. They are not good neighbors and are a nuisance property. They have not demonstrated the ability to follow the requirements of a Rice County. There are a lot of unanswered questions before you should even consider approving the CUP. The building that the cats are currently houses was built as a residential garage. Residential buildings are built to a different standard than commercial buildings. So will this have to be upgraded to commercial building standards if the CUP is approved? The site plan submitted by Furball Farms shows that there is a bathroom in the garage was the cats are housed with a holding tank. Was this permitted? Was the holding tank inspected or just the house septic system? The septic compliance inspection submitted was completed in 2015. There is a three year limit on compliance inspection so will this be accepted? How often will the cat waste be removed from the property? Weekly, Monthly or stock piled in the back yard? Will their fund raising events be at this location? There should be some conditions on this as to the size of the event and dust control of the gravel road. The last event they had created a lot of usage of the gravel road of 220th Street and a lot of dust. What kind of fencing and reassurance can I get that they can keep all the animals on their property? Is Furball Farms taking in just cats or dogs or other animals? Can people drop off animals at Furball Farms? I would encourage the Rice County Planning Commissioners and the Board of Commissioners to not issue the requested CUP for Furball Farms, and I would encourage the board to also issue an immediate Cease and Desist Order. Kris Olson These proposals appear to have no significant impact on MnDOT roadways and are acceptable to MnDOT. Waiver of Plat/Buck – Section 35, Wheatland Township Conditional Use Permit/Marvets – Section 9, Walcott Township Conditional Use Permit/Raines – Section 10, Forest Township Thanks, Tracy Schnell Senior Planner | District 6 Minnesota Department of Transportation 2900 48th Street NW Rochester, MN 55901 O: 507-286-7599 mndot.gov/ Attachment: MNDOT (DOC-2018-179 : CUP-Marvets) RICE COUNTY ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES DEPARTMENT MEMORANDUM TO: Rice County Planning Commission FROM: Trent McCorkell, Zoning Administrator HEARING DATE: November 1, 2018 SUBJECT: Raines CUP, Kennel SUMMARY OF THE APPLICATION Mikayla Raines has applied for an amendment to an existing commercial kennel Conditional Use Permit (CUP) housing domestic foxes. The application materials submitted do not state the types or numbers of additional animals requested but the applicant has stated she would like to be allowed to have additional types and numbers of animals. Application Data APPLICANT: Mikayla Raines LOCATION: Part of the SW1/4 of the SW1/4 of Section 10, Forest Township, Rice County Minnesota. The property address is: 3955 Millersburg Blvd W, Faribault, MN 55021. PID#: 06.10.3.50.003. ZONING: A, Agricultural District Lot Area | | Lot Area | Lot width | Lot Depth | |----------------|----------|-----------|-----------| | Subject Parcel | 3.5-acres| >400-ft | 230-ft approx | | Minimum Requirement | 2.5- acres | 50-ft | N/a | Location The subject property is located on the northeast corner of Millersburg Blvd. (County Road 1), approximately 4-miles southeast of Lonsdale. Roads and Access The site uses an existing driveway from Millersburg Blvd. Existing Site Conditions Photos of the property will be presented at the meeting. APPLICABLE ZONING ORDINANCE SECTIONS The parcel is zoned A, Agriculture District and the conditional use permit request falls under Section 509.02 and 507.05(K) Kennel, Commercial 507.05(K) Kennel, commercial, where dogs or other domestic pets are raised for sale, boarded or trained 1. All animal kennels shall provide indoor facilities having adequate heating, ventilation, and lighting. 2. All animal kennels shall provide outdoor facilities having shelter from the elements, sunlight, rain, snow, and cold weather. 3. All animal kennels shall provide proper drainage for indoor and outdoor facilities. 4. Each large adult animal shall be provided with a separate fenced run of at least thirty-six (36) square feet that shall be located at least one hundred (100) feet from any property line. 5. Facilities shall be inspected at least once a year at the owner’s expense by a doctor of veterinary medicine who shall provide a report to the County describing the condition of the animals and facility, medical treatment required by the animals, and remedial actions necessary to improve the condition of the facility. 6. Facilities must obtain all required State and Federal licenses or operational permits. **Current CUP conditions:** 1. The Conditional Use Permit (CUP) is for a domestic fox boarding kennel operation, changes to the use are not permitted without approval of a new/amended permit. 2. The operation and site shall comply with all Federal, State and Local rules and regulations. Site owner and operator shall maintain proof of compliance with applicable regulations and submit said proof to county staff upon request. 3. Indoor facilities having adequate heating, ventilation, and lighting shall be provided for all animals. Outdoor facilities shall have shelter from the elements, sunlight, rain, snow, and cold weather. 4. Facilities shall be inspected at least once a year at the owner’s expense by a doctor of veterinary medicine who shall provide a report to the County, by August 1st of each year, describing the condition of the animals and facility, medical treatment required by the animals, and remedial actions necessary to improve the condition of the facility. 5. Proof of a proper animal waste disposal system shall be submitted annually, by August 1st of each year, to the Rice County Environmental Services office. 6. There shall be no more than 15 adult domestic fox and 20 kits (under 4 months of age) on the site at any one time. 7. The approved site plan shall be followed. Animals shall only be housed within existing structures as identified on the approved site plan. 8. Site shall not accept or house any other animals. 9. All buildings used shall meet building code for the intended use. Any new construction on the parcel is to adhere to all Rice County codes and ordinances. 10. Failure to comply with conditions may result in revocation of the conditional use permit. 11. Perimeter fencing around the entire property shall be installed prior to animals being on site. STATE OF MINNESOTA COUNTY OF RICE In the matter of: Mikayla Raines on behalf of homeowner Debra Graber, has applied for a conditional use permit for a commercial kennel to house agricultural domestic foxes. The property is Zoned A, Agricultural. The above entitled matter was heard before the Rice County Planning Commission on June 29, 2017 and granted by the Rice County Board of Commissioners the 11th day of July 2017, on the request for a Conditional Use Permit pursuant to the Rice County Zoning Ordinance for the following property. PROPERTY ADDRESS: 3955 Millersburg Blvd W, Faribault, MN 55021. PID#: 06.10.3.50.003 PROPERTY LOCATION: The property is described as: Part of the SW1/4 of the SW1/4 of Section 10, Forest Township, Rice County Minnesota. LEGAL DESCRIPTION: as attached. IT IS ORDERED THAT the Conditional Use Permit as requested be granted with the following conditions: Conditions of Approval-(Raines/Graber) Conditional Use Permit 1. The Conditional Use Permit (CUP) is for a domestic fox boarding kennel operation, changes to the use are not permitted without approval of a new/amended permit. 2. The operation and site shall comply with all Federal, State and Local rules and regulations. Site owner and operator shall maintain proof of compliance with applicable regulations and submit said proof to county staff upon request. 3. Indoor facilities having adequate heating, ventilation, and lighting shall be provided for all animals. Outdoor facilities shall have shelter from the elements, sunlight, rain, snow, and cold weather. 4. Facilities shall be inspected at least once a year at the owner’s expense by a doctor of veterinary medicine who shall provide a report to the County, by August 1st of each year, describing the condition of the animals and facility, medical treatment required by the animals, and remedial actions necessary to improve the condition of the facility. 5. Proof of a proper animal waste disposal system shall be submitted annually, by August 1st of each year, to the Rice County Environmental Services office. 6. There shall be no more than 15 adult domestic fox and 20 kits (under 4 months of age) on the site at any one time. 7. The approved site plan shall be followed. Animals shall only be housed within existing structures as identified on the approved site plan. 8. Site shall not accept or house any other animals. 9. All buildings used shall meet building code for the intended use. Any new construction on the parcel is to adhere to all Rice County codes and ordinances. 10. Failure to comply with conditions may result in revocation of the Conditional Use Permit. 11. Perimeter fencing around the entire property shall be installed prior to animals being on site. _________________________ _________________________ Date signed Chair, Rice County Board of Commissioners STATE OF MINNESOTA ) ) ss. ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES DEPARTMENT COUNTY OF RICE ) I, Julie Runkel, Director of the Rice County Environmental Services Department do hereby affirm that I have compared the foregoing copy and Order granting this Conditional Use Permit with the original Planning Commission minutes thereof preserved in my office and the Rice County Board of Commissioners action on the permit, and have found the same to be a correct and true transcript of the whole thereof. Dated this 11th day of July, 2017. Julie Runkel Director, Environmental Services Department Subscribed and sworn before me this 11th day of July, 2017. PAMELA MARIE CARTY Notary Public-Minnesota My Commission Expires Jan 31, 2021 Pamela M Carty Notary Public My commission expires: 1/31/2021 THIS CONDITIONAL USE PERMIT SHALL EXPIRE AND BE CONSIDERED NULL AND VOID ONE (1) YEAR AFTER THE FINAL DECISION TO GRANT THE CONDITIONAL USE PERMIT IF NO CONSTRUCTION HAS BEGUN. FOR THE PURPOSES OF THIS SECTION, CONSTRUCTION SHALL INCLUDE THE INSTALLATION OF FOOTINGS, SLAB, FOUNDATION, POSTS, WALLS OR OTHER PORTIONS OF A BUILDING. LAND CLEARING OR THE INSTALLATION OF UTILITIES SHALL NOT CONSTITUTE CONSTRUCTION. The land referred to in this Policy is described as follows: Part of the Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4) of the Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4) of Section 10, Township 111 North, Range 21 West of the Principal Meridian, Rice County, Minnesota, is described as follows: Beginning at a point in the west line of said Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4) of Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4), distant 683.00 feet northerly from the southwest corner of said Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4) of Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4) (for purposes of this description bearings are assumed and based on said west line being North 0 degrees 08 minutes 28 seconds East); thence South 87 degrees 58 minutes 39 seconds West, 1,222.20 feet; thence North 8 degrees 07 minutes 23 seconds West, 782.86 feet to a point in the center line of County State Aid Highway 1; thence northwesterly, along said center line on a non-tangential curve, concave northeasterly (curvature: delta angle = 26 degrees 07 minutes 23 seconds, radius 716.20 feet, curve length 1,000.00 feet, deflection angle 48 degrees 00 minutes 28 seconds West, North 87 degrees 58 minutes 39 seconds West, and distance 3,221.64 feet to a point in said west line of Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4) of Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4); thence North 0 degrees 06 minutes 28 seconds East, along said West line 627.09 feet to said point of beginning. Lonsdale Subject site Circle lake Circle lake Attachment: mid DOC-2018-180 CUP-Raines) Packet Pg. 61 Subject site Attachment: close (DOC-2018-180 : CUP-Raines) Conditional Use Permit Application (CUP) Permit # ____ Property Information Parcel Information: | Parcel ID Number | Site Address | City | Zoned as | Owner Information | |------------------|-----------------------|----------|----------------|-------------------| | 06.10.3.50.003 | 3985 MILLERSBURG BLVD W | FARIBAULT | AGRICULTURAL | RAINES SANDRA J & MIKAYLA A RAINES | Are you the Landowner? Yes Will you be using an authorized agent? No Applicant Information Applicant Information: Name: Mikayla and Sandra Raines Phone #: (612) 981 - 6366 Email Address: email@example.com Mailing Address: 12245 175TH ST. W. Lakeville MN 55044 Conditional Use Request Specific Use from 508 Use Table: 508-1 'Permitted and Conditional Uses' Category B: 'Agriculturally-oriented business' Explanation of requested CUP: Request to Amend previously granted CUP dated July 11th, 2017 Site Plan Please attach a Site Plan: **Legal Descriptions** Legal Description of project: ``` Lot 1, Block 2, Section 10, Township 36 North, Range 4 West, Rice County, Minnesota ``` File 1: Faribault_legal_description.jpg --- **Written Evidence/Criteria** Criteria: - **Conditional Use Permit - Assures permitting an applicant** Any CUP is a review criteria for all conditional use permits. In granting or refusing a conditional use permit, the County Board shall consider the following factors: - The nature and character of the proposed use; - The effect on the value of adjacent property; - The effect on the health, safety and general welfare of occupants of surrounding lands, including other things, that may be affected by the proposed use. - **Meets or exceeds building code requirements.** The use will not create an excessive burden on existing utilities, drainage facilities, or other public services. The use will not create an excessive burden on the County's resources such as fire protection, police protection, and other public services. - **No zoning and county.** The site is subject to the same legal and regulatory requirements as any other site in the County. - **A compatible use surrounding area.** The use will be compatible in compatibility or compatible to element or accessory uses surrounding the site. The use will not result in visual or noise pollution or other nuisance to the surrounding area. The use will not result in a nuisance to the surrounding area. - **The use is consistent with the County's Comprehensive Plan.** The use will not result in a conflict with the County's Comprehensive Plan. The use will not result in a conflict with the County's Comprehensive Plan. - **Appropriate.** The structure and/or shall have an appearance that will not have an adverse effect on the character of the neighborhood. The structure and/or shall not be out of scale with the surrounding structures. The structure and/or shall not be out of scale with the surrounding structures. The structure and/or shall not be out of scale with the surrounding structures. - **A vacancy exists.** The use is reasonably related to the overall needs of the County and to the use of the site. - **All construction and approved hazardous waste disposal areas meet local and state standards.** - **Existing utility programs.** The use is consistent with the operation of the utilities and the County's policies regarding the use of utilities. The use is consistent with the County's policies regarding the use of utilities. - **Comprehensive Plan.** The use is in conformance with the Rice County Comprehensive Plan. The use is in conformance with the Rice County Comprehensive Plan and the Plan of the County. File 1: CUP_Criteria_Oct_2018.odt --- **Septic Information** | Is your septic system less than 5 years old or had a valid compliance inspection in the past 3 years? | Yes | |--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----| | Please attach any septic inspections or compliance inspection records: | | File 1: septic_compliance_test_3955_Millersburg_blvd.pdf Public Notes Text: 10/10/18 bl: Item on agenda for Nov 1 Planning Commission meeting 10/10/18 bl: Submit a completed Site plan showing distances between all buildings and to all property lines, 10/05/18 bl: Submit a completed Conditional Use Criteria form as well as a completed Site plan, see attached example. File(s): File 1: Sample_Site_Plan___F Sample_Site_Plan___Form.pdf Internal Notes Text: File(s): Farm Fields - Existing Fenced Area - To be Added - Propane - Existing Fenced Area - 400 FT - Concrete Ring - Shed - Kennels - Wall - Pete Bon Garage - Howie - Kennels - Millersburg Byp W - Dewey Gate - Fence Finished Attachment: Raines_CUP Application (DOC-2018-180 : CUP-Raines) Packet Pg. 68 Not to a specific scale No add'l out buildings added by present owner Over 1600' of fencing around entire property: Including a locked security gate at entrance, and security fencing around all cages and security cameras The land referred to in this Policy is described as follows: Part of the Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4) of the Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4) of Section 10, Township 111 North, Range 21 West of the Fifth Principal Meridian, Rice County, Minnesota, described as follows: Beginning at a point in the west line of said Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4) of Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4), distant 868.00 feet northerly from the southwest corner of said Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4) of Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4) (for purposes of this description bearings are assumed and based on said west line being North 0 degrees 06 minutes 28 seconds East); thence South 89 degrees 53 minutes 32 seconds East, 232.00 feet; thence South 9 degrees 06 minutes 28 seconds West, 752.85 feet to a point in the center line of County State Aid Highway; thence northwesterly, along said center line on a non-tangential curve, concave northeasterly (curve data: delta angle = 26 degrees 07 minutes 23 seconds; radius 716.20 feet; chord bearing and distance = North 45 degrees 40 minutes 21 seconds West, 323.72 feet), an arc distance of 326.54 feet to a point in said west line of Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4) of Southwest Quarter (SW 1/4); thence North 0 degrees 06 minutes 28 seconds East, along said West line 527.09 feet to said point of beginning. Conditional Use Permits – Answers pertaining to request 503.05 E.2. Review criteria for all conditional use permits. In granting or renewing a conditional use permit, the Rice County Board of Commissioners shall consider the advice and recommendations of the Planning Commission and the effect of the proposed use upon the health, safety and general welfare of occupants of surrounding lands. Among other things, the following findings shall be made: a. Burden on public facilities. The use will not create an excessive burden on existing parks, schools, streets and other public facilities and utilities that serve or are proposed to serve the area. The use will not create burden on existing parks, schools, streets and public facilities and utilities. b. Sewer and water. The site is adequate for water supply and on-site sewage treatment. The site is adequate for water supply and on-site sewage treatment. c. Compatible with surrounding uses. The use will be sufficiently compatible or separated by distance or screening from adjacent agricultural or residentially zoned or used land so that existing homes will not be depreciated in value and there will be no deterrence to development of vacant land. The site is separated from any residential homes by woods, fields and the roadway. The site cannot be seen from any other residence. The previous use was for a poultry farm. The smell was intense and when we took over we shoveled more than 4 inches of feces from every building and power washed them. Our caging is cleaned every am and every pm which is pretty much unheard of on any farm. Due to this our use should have appreciated surrounding properties. d. Appearance. The structure and site shall have an appearance that will not have an adverse effect upon adjacent residential properties. We have a clean and well cared for property. We have followed through as promised and fenced the entire acreage. We have additional fencing within the property. Additionally all fencing has inward facing top fencing as to keep animals from climbing over and two feet of chicken wire attached to the bottom along the entire fencing that would keep any animal from digging out. e. County needs. The use is reasonably related to the overall needs of the County and to the existing land use. We are considered an agricultural business in an agricultural zoned area and thus should be compatible with the County’s preferred land use. f. Zoning district purposes. The use is consistent with the purposes of this Ordinance and the purposes of the zoning district in which the applicant intends to locate the proposed use. The use is consistent with the purposes of the zoning district Ordinance. g. Comprehensive Plan. The use is in conformance with the Rice County Comprehensive Land Use Plan of the County. The use is in conformance with the Rice County Comprehensive Land Use Plan of the County. h. **Traffic.** The use will not cause traffic hazard or congestion. i. **Effect on businesses.** Existing businesses nearby will not be adversely affected because of curtailment of customer trade brought about by intrusion of noise, glare or general unsightliness. There are no businesses near by. 503.05 H.1 **Additional criteria and conditions in Shoreland Districts.** Conditional uses allowed in Shoreland Districts shall be subject to the following additional information, evaluation criteria and conditions: **Additional evaluation criteria.** A thorough evaluation of the water body and the topographic, vegetation, and soils conditions on the site must be made to ensure all of the following: a. **Soil erosion.** The prevention of soil erosion or other possible pollution of public waters, both during and after construction. There is no construction being done on the site b. **Visual impact.** The visibility of structures and other facilities as viewed from public waters is limited The site is not visible from any public waters. c. **Watercraft.** The types, uses, and number of watercraft that the project will generate are compatible in relation to the N/A NOTE: Please refer to letters from Rice County officials and a licensed veterinarian who viewed the property a few weeks ago. Also keep in mind the USDA has visited the property numerous times and we have passed all inspections and they have found our facility to surpass any expectations generally found in facilities the USDA oversees. Hi, Please find the enclosed M.P.C.A. Compliance Inspection forms for your above noted location. The Inspection was completed on March 4, 2017. A physical inspection of the entire septic system area and its components was conducted. **NO EVIDENCE OF DISCHARGE OF ANY KIND WAS OBSERVED.** The 1000 gallon septic tank and the 1000 gallon pump chamber were probed to verify as PRECAST WITH SOLID BOTTOMS. This confirms Pumper Certificate & As-Built data from LGU files. The existing Pressure Mound Type Drain Field with a 380 sq ft (10 x 38) rock bed was field located. A soil boring was completed in the drain field area (please see sketch). The condition noted as redox features was absent to a depth of 12 inches below surface grade. Records from the LGU were used to establish the sand base at 24 inches above surface grade. Regulations for this site require three feet (36 inches) of separation from any evidence of redox features (absent to 12 inches below surface grade) up to the bottom of the distribution media at the bottom of the rock bed elevated on a 24 inch sand base. It is evident (12" + 24" = 36") that THE REQUIRED 36 INCHES OF SEPERATION DOES EXIST. This also confirms As-Built data from LGU files. Based upon my site evaluation of March 4, 2017 this septic system has been classified as a passing or complying system. Please note that no determination of future hydraulic performance has been nor can be made due to unknown conditions during system construction, abuse of the system, inadequate maintenance, or future water usage. If you have any questions please feel free to contact me at (612) 232-9737. Thanks! If you have any questions please feel free to contact me at (612) 232-9737. Thanks! Compliance Inspection Form Existing Subsurface Sewage Treatment Systems (SSTS) Doc Type: Compliance and Enforcement Inspection results based on Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) requirements and attached forms – additional local requirements may also apply. Submit completed form to Local Unit of Government (LUG) and system owner within 15 days. For local tracking purposes: System Status System status on date (mm/dd/yyyy): March 4, 2017 ☑ Compliant – Certificate of Compliance (Valid for 3 years from report date, unless shorter time frame outlined in Local Ordinance.) ☐ Noncompliant – Notice of Noncompliance (See Upgrade Requirements on page 3.) Reason(s) for noncompliance (check all applicable) ☐ Impact on Public Health (Compliance Component #1) – Imminent threat to public health and safety ☐ Other Compliance Conditions (Compliance Component #3) – Imminent threat to public health and safety ☐ Tank Integrity (Compliance Component #2) – Failing to protect groundwater ☐ Other Compliance Conditions (Compliance Component #3) – Failing to protect groundwater ☐ Soil Separation (Compliance Component #4) – Failing to protect groundwater ☐ Operating permit/monitoring plan requirements (Compliance Component #5) – Noncompliant Property Information Parcel ID# or Sec/Twp/Range: PID # 06.10.3.50.003 Property address: 3955 Millersburg Blvd. West Faribault, MN, 55021 Reason for inspection: Property Transfer Property owner: Owner’s phone: or Owner’s representative: Northfield Edina Realty-attn: Jesse Graber Representative phone: (507) 645-1191 Local regulatory authority: Rice County Regulatory authority phone: (507) 332-6113 Brief system description: A 1000 gal septic, 1000 gal pump (tanks), A pressure Mound w/10’X38” Rock Bed Comments or recommendations: Consulted As-Built data from LGU file Certification I hereby certify that all the necessary information has been gathered to determine the compliance status of this system. No determination of future system performance has been nor can be made due to unknown conditions during system construction, possible abuse of the system, inadequate maintenance, or future water usage. Inspector name: Thomas Klanchnik Certification number: R 5945 Business name: Advanced OnSite, Inc. License number: L 2856 Inspector signature: Phone number: (612) 232-9737 Necessary or Locally Required Attachments ☑ Soil boring logs ☐ System/As-built drawing ☑ Forms per local ordinance ☑ Other information (list): Rice County CI 1. Impact on Public Health – Compliance component #1 of 5 **Compliance criteria:** - System discharges sewage to the ground surface. - [ ] Yes [X] No - System discharges sewage to drain tile or surface waters. - [ ] Yes [X] No - System causes sewage backup into dwelling or establishment. - [ ] Yes [X] No *Any "yes" answer above indicates the system is an imminent threat to public health and safety.* **Verification method(s):** - [X] Searched for surface outlet - [X] Searched for seeping in yard/backup in home - [ ] Excessive ponding in soil system/D-boxes - [ ] Homeowner testimony (See Comments/Explanation) - [ ] "Black soil" above soil dispersal system - [ ] System requires "emergency" pumping - [ ] Performed dye test - [ ] Unable to verify (See Comments/Explanation) - [ ] Other methods not listed (See Comments/Explanation) **Comments/Explanation:** 2. Tank Integrity – Compliance component #2 of 5 **Compliance criteria:** - System consists of a seepage pit, cesspool, drywell, or leaching pit. - [ ] Yes [X] No *Seepage pits meeting 7080.2550 may be compliant if allowed in local ordinance.* - Sewage tank(s) leak below their designed operating depth. - [ ] Yes [X] No If yes, which sewage tank(s) leaks: *Any "yes" answer above indicates the system is failing to protect groundwater.* **Verification method(s):** - [X] Probed tank(s) bottom - [X] Examined construction records - [ ] Examined Tank Integrity Form (Attach) - [ ] Observed liquid level below operating depth - [ ] Examined empty (pumped) tanks(s) - [ ] Probed outside tank(s) for "black soil" - [ ] Unable to verify (See Comments/Explanation) - [ ] Other methods not listed (See Comments/Explanation) **Comments/Explanation:** Verifies as-Built from County Files Observed appropriate liquid level 3. Other Compliance Conditions – Compliance component #3 of 5 a. Maintenance hole covers are damaged, cracked, unsecured, or appear to be structurally unsound. - [ ] Yes* [X] No [ ] Unknown b. Other issues (electrical hazards, etc.) to immediately and adversely impact public health or safety. - [ ] Yes* [X] No [ ] Unknown *System is an imminent threat to public health and safety.* Explain: c. System is non-protective of ground water for other conditions as determined by inspector. - [ ] Yes* [X] No *System is failing to protect groundwater.* Explain: 4. Soil Separation – Compliance component #4 of 5 Date of installation: 12/1/2004 ☐ Unknown (mm/dd/yyyy) Shoreland/Wellhead protection/Food beverage lodging? ☐ Yes ☒ No Compliance criteria: For systems built prior to April 1, 1996, and not located in Shoreland or Wellhead Protection Area or not serving a food, beverage, or lodging establishment: ☐ Yes ☐ No Drainfield has at least a two-foot vertical separation distance from periodically saturated soil or bedrock. Non-performance systems built April 1, 1996, or later, or for non-performance systems located in Shoreland or Wellhead Protection Areas or serving a food, beverage, or lodging establishment: ☒ Yes ☐ No Drainfield has a three-foot vertical separation distance from periodically saturated soil or bedrock.* “Experimental”, “Other”, or “Performance” systems built under pre-2008 Rules; Type IV or V systems built under 2008 Rules (7080, 2350 or 7080.2400 (Advanced Inspector License required) ☐ Yes ☐ No Drainfield meets the designed vertical separation distance from periodically saturated soil or bedrock. Any “no” answer above indicates the system is failing to protect groundwater. Verification method(s): Soil observation does not expire. Previous soil observations by two independent parties are sufficient, unless site conditions have been altered or local requirements differ. ☒ Conducted soil observation(s) (Attach boring logs) ☐ Two previous verifications (Attach boring logs) ☐ Not applicable (Holding tank(s), no drainfield) ☐ Unable to verify (See Comments/Explanation) ☐ Other (See Comments/Explanation) Comments/Explanation: verifies AS-Built from LGU Files Indicate depths or elevations | A. Bottom of distribution media | 102.0 | |---------------------------------|-------| | B. Periodically saturated soil/bedrock | 99.0 | | C. System separation | 36" | | D. Required compliance separation* | 36" | *May be reduced up to 15 percent if allowed by Local Ordinance. 5. Operating Permit and Nitrogen BMP* – Compliance component #5 of 5 ☒ Not applicable Is the system operated under an Operating Permit? ☐ Yes ☐ No If "yes", A below is required Is the system required to employ a Nitrogen BMP? ☐ Yes ☐ No If "yes", B below is required BMP = Best Management Practice(s) specified in the system design If the answer to both questions is "no", this section does not need to be completed. Compliance criteria a. Operating Permit number: ____________________________ Have the Operating Permit requirements been met? ☐ Yes ☐ No b. Is the required nitrogen BMP in place and properly functioning? ☐ Yes ☐ No Any "no" answer indicates Noncompliance. Upgrade Requirements (Minn. Stat. § 115.55) An imminent threat to public health and safety (IPTHS) must be upgraded, replaced, or its use discontinued within ten months of receipt of this notice or within a shorter period if required by local ordinance. If the system is failing to protect ground water, the system must be upgraded, replaced, or its use discontinued within the time required by local ordinance. If an existing system is not failing as defined in law, and has at least two feet of design soil separation, then the system need not be upgraded, repaired, replaced, or its use discontinued, notwithstanding any local ordinance that is more strict. This provision does not apply to systems in shoreland areas, Wellhead Protection Areas, or those used in connection with food, beverage, and lodging establishments as defined in law. Site Sketch: NOTES: 3 Catheracs (2") 1/4 parts at 3 Please indicate the location of: Well, well setback to system, dwelling or other establishment, tank(s), soil treatment system, septic tank, septic drain field area, curtain drain, property lines, waterways, and buried lines (make NOT installed by the utility) depths, sizes and length and approximate distances from fixed reference points such as streets and buildings. Please attach as-built drawings, inspection reports, Certificate(s) of Compliance and Notice(s) of Noncompliance, if available. Soil Borings (BR #): Locate each boring on the map above, indicate on the right of the column the soil texture, structure, color, depth of each different soil type, evidence of mottling, bedrock and standing water. Also indicate if the material is fill. | BR # | BR #1 | |------|-------| | | 107A | | | 12 | | | 18 | RECORD DEPTH OF MOTTLING, SEASONAL HIGH WATER OR BEDROCK ABOVE LINES M = 12" Sandbase 24" 12 + 24" = 36" Separation Rice County COMPLIANCE INSPECTION for Existing SSTS Environmental Health Services Inspection Date: March 4, 2017 Property Owner: Edina Realty Attn: Jesse Gruber Site Address: 3755 Millersburg Blvd Parcel ID#: 06-10-3-60-003 Weather Conditions: Clear Ground Conditions: Dry Time: 1:00 am Are all the plumbing fixtures connected to the SSTS? Yes System in Shoreland/Wethead Protection Area or Food Bsv. Lodging? No Describe any 'Other Compliance Conditions' in MPCA component #3 of 5 that impacted the System Status: comments: TANK(S): - Preseptic Tank ________ gallons - Pump Tank ________ gallons - Holding Tank ________ gallons - Other ____________ SOIL TREATMENT: Media Type: Rock STS TYPE: Trench SIZE of STS: 10x38 ft² preseated sts SYSTEM TYPE: - Standard - Alternative - Holding Tank - Other - IV/Pre-Treatment Device Operating Permit #: N/A (non-transferable) Not in Adherence / Non-Compliant / In Adherence (Must explain) SOILS: Depth to the restricting layer: 12 ft Depth of soil treatment area: 24 ft Separation Distance = 36 in. STATUS OF SEPTIC SYSTEM: - Compliant - Non-Compliant - Imminent Threat to Public Health or Safety CERTIFICATION: I hereby certify with my signature as a State of Minnesota Certified Inspector that my observations recorded on this form are accurate as of the date of inspection. No determination of future hydraulic performance can be made due to unknown conditions, future water usage of the system, abuse of the system, and/or inadequate maintenance which will adversely affect the life of the system. Licensed Inspector: Thomas Klawachuk Printed Name: Signature: R5945 Business license #: L2656 Phone #: (612) 223-9737 email: firstname.lastname@example.org Rice County Environmental Health -- 320 Third St. NW Faribault, MN 55021 ph:507/332-6170 FAX: 507/332-6277 Rice County Septic Tank Pumping Certificate Owner Name: Edna Reitz Atte, Jesse Gabe Location: 3955 - Millersburg BLVD. Septic Tank Size: 1000 gallons Compartments: [ ] One [X] Two Septic Tank Construction: [ ] Concrete [ ] Plastic [ ] Fiberglass [ ] Metal Gallons removed: 1000 Approx. Date of pumping: 3-2-17 Purpose: [X] Compliance Inspection [ ] Routine Pumping [ ] Existing tank-new STS [ ] Holding tank Alarm present & functioning Tank pumped through: [X] Maintenance access [ ] *Inspection pipe *Tank automatically deemed a Cesspool if Pumped/Inspected through inspection pipe for a Compliance Inspection. MPCA Rules 7083.0770; Pumpers must obtain a signed statement if owner refuses to allow pumping through maintenance hole Diameter of maintenance access: 24" Access: [X] within 12" [ ] at surface [ ] Yes - Inlet / Outlet / Center [ ] No [ ] added to: Inlet / Outlet / Center Filter/Screen [ ] Yes [ ] cleaned [ ] No Manway covers replaced securely? [X] Yes [ ] No Inspection pipes present? [ ] Yes on: [ ] Inlet [ ] Outlet [ ] Center [ ] No added to: Inlet / Outlet / Center Identify any safety concerns/repairs: Do you consider any of the above safety concerns an Imminent Threat to Public Health/Safety? [X] No [ ] Yes The Tank [X] DOES / [ ] DOES NOT appear Watertight as of today's date Tank leakage observed below operating depth? [X] No [ ] Yes = Cesspool/Non-Compliant Tank leakage observed above operating depth? [X] No [ ] Yes = requires repairs Disposal method: [X] Municipal Facility Medford STS Drain-back? [ ] Yes [ ] No [ ] Land application site# I hereby certify with my signature as a MPCA-licensed Pumper that I personally made the observations recorded on this form for the property stated above and that they are accurate as of the date signed to the best of my knowledge. Mike Chadderdon 2603 3-2-17 Pumpers name (Please print) MPCA license number Date Mike Chadderdon Bob Ruppers Portable Inc. 507-334-0003 Pumpers signature Company Name Phone number Please submit this record to the homeowner and local unit of government within 15 days of pumping/inspection Oct2013 Rice County Septic Tank Pumping Certificate 06.10.3.50.003 Owner Name: Edna Reffy Atk. Jasebaker Date of pumping: 3-2-17 Location: 3955 - Millersburg Blvd. Septic Tank Sizes: 1000 gallons Compartments: ☒ One ☐ Two Septic Tank Constructions: ☐ Concrete ☒ Plastic ☐ Fiberglass ☐ Metal Gallons removed: 300 Approx. Tank pumped through: ☒ Maintenance access *Inspection plugs Tank automatically cleaned a Cesspool if Pumped/Inspected through inspection plugs for a Compliance Inspection. MPCA Rule 7083.0770: Pumpar must obtain a signed statement if owner refuses to allow pumping through maintenance hole. Diameter of maintenance access: 24" Memory course replaced completely? ☒ Yes ☐ No Access: ☐ Kitchen 12" ☒ Jet surface ☐ Yes - Inlet / Outlet / Center ☐ No - Added to Inlet / Outlet / Center Filter/Screen: ☐ Yes ☐ channel / ☐ No Do you consider any of the above safety concerns an Immediate Threat to Public Health Safety? ☒ No ☐ Yes The Tank: ☒ DOES / ☐ DOES NOT appear Watertight as of today's date Tank leakage observed below operating depth? ☒ No ☐ Yes = Cesspool/Non-Compliant Tank leakage observed above operating depth? ☐ No ☐ Yes = requires repairs Disposal method: ☒ Municipal Facility (Medford) STS Drain-back? ☐ Yes ☒ No ☐ land application site# I hereby certify with my signature as a MPCA-licensed Healthiner that I personally made the observations recorded on this form for the property stated above and that they are accurate as of the date signed to the best of my knowledge. Mike Chadderton 2003 3-2-17 Healthiner name (Please print) MPCA license Number Mike Chadderton Late Pumping Services Inc. 507-234-0103 Healthiner signature Company Name Phone number Please submit this record to the homeowner and local unit of government within 15 days of pumping/inspection. All highlighted are proven fur-bearing animals. MN State Statute 17.358 states "Fur-bearing animals are domestic animals." The "Furbearer management in North America" posted on the MN DNR site states "Furbearer includes all mammals, all of which, by definition, possess some form of hair." GAME FARM ACTIVITY REPORT The licensee must provide the information requested on the GAME FARM ACTIVITY REPORT FORM. This report requests required information for the previous game farm year. New applicants must provide any anticipated animal purchases or any animals purchased and in possession at time of licensing. The Game Farm license year begins March 1 and ends the following year on the last day of February. The activity to be reported is what transpired on the game farm during the game farm license year. SPECIES: (Required to be listed on Game Farm Activity Report Form). Ducks (list types on back) Turkeys Raccoon Opossum Pheasants Gray Partridge Red and Grey Fox Bear Bob-white Quail Geese Bobcat Cougar Ruffed Grouse Common Snipe Jack Rabbit Geese (list types on back) Sharp-tailed Grouse Grey/Red/Fox Squirrel Cottontail Rabbit Canada Spruce Grouse Mink Lynx Prairie Chickens Fisher Gallinules Muskrat Otter Sora and Virginia Rails Beaver Badger Pine Marten Snowshoe Hare Wolverine Wolf/ Wolves American Woodcock How to fill out the GAME FARM ACTIVITY REPORT: Licensee must list each species (see list above) kept on the farm, (if not on grid fill in by hand with blank spaces provided) for each species listed you are required to report: 1. Number of animals in possession at the start and end of the license year. 2. Number of animals PURCHASED during the game farm license year. This includes all species you bought that were not born on your farm. 3. Number of animals BORN on the game farm. 4. Number of animals SOLD from the game farm. 5. Number of animals DIED on the game farm. 6. Number of animals RELEASED from game farm to wild. 7. For each species listed the licensee, MUST report the total number of that species they have in possession at the end of the Game Farm License Year. Licensee must complete, sign and date the application, mail along with license fee to address provided. Once application is approved the Licensee will receive a copy of license. Licensee must keep license with records at place of business. GAME FARM ACTIVITY REPORT (Due March 15th) | Species | Number in Possession - March 1, 2016 | Number of Animals Purchased | Number of Animals Born | Number of Animals Sold | Number of Deaths (Butchered for consumption) | Number of Animals Released to the Wild | Number in Possession - Feb. 28, 2017 | |------------------|--------------------------------------|-----------------------------|------------------------|------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|-------------------------------------| | Bob-White Quail | | | | | | | | | Bobcat | | | | | | | | | Cougar | | | | | | | | | Fisher | | | | | | | | | Grey/Fox Squirrel| | | | | | | | | Pheasants | | | | | | | | | Raccoon | | | | | | | | | Red, Grey Fox | 5 | 0 | 0 | 12 | X | X | 3 | | Swans | | | | | | | | | Turkeys | | | | | | | | Packet Pg. 82 17.352 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS AND PURSUITS. Fur-bearing animals are domestic animals and products of fur-bearing animals are agricultural products. A fur farmer is engaged in an agricultural pursuit. History: 1985 c 44 s 2 Technically, the term furbearer includes all mammals, all of which, by definition, possess some form of hair. Typically, however, wildlife managers use the term to identify mammal species that have traditionally been trapped or hunted primarily for their fur. North American furbearers are a diverse group, including both carnivores (meat-eating predators) and rodents (gnawing mammals). Most are adaptable species ranging over large geographic areas. They include beaver, bobcat, badger, coyote, fisher, fox, lynx, marten, mink, muskrat, nutria, opossum, raccoon, river otter, skunk, weasels, and others. A few animals that are normally hunted or trapped primarily for their meat or to reduce agricultural or property damage may also be considered furbearers if their skins are marketed. The Furbearer A magnified view of red fox fur shows the short, dense underfur that provides insulation and water repellent qualities, and the longer guardhairs that resist abrasion and protect the underfur from matting. Most furbearers possess two layers of fur: a dense, soft underfur. that provides insulation and water-repellent qualities; and an outer layer of longer, glossy guardhairs that grow through the underfur, protecting it from matting and abrasion. A fur is said to be prime when the guardhairs are at their maximum length and the underfur is at its maximum thickness. Fur generally becomes prime in midwinter when the coat is fresh and fully grown; the timing for primeness is governed by photoperiod and may vary somewhat depending on species, location (latitude) and elevation. Furs are generally "dressed" (tanned with the hair on), then trimmed and sewn into garments, rugs, blankets, and ornaments, and sometimes dyed in a variety of colors and patterns. Furs are also used in fishing lures, fine brushes and other products. Some furs are shaved, and the hair processed into felt for hats and other garments. Fur is a renewable (naturally replenished) resource, a product of long traditional use, valued by many for its natural beauty, durability and insulative qualities. Fur is only one of many values that people ascribe to furbearers (see page 30). Photo by Jack S. Raines Furbearers are a diverse group including several rodents and numerous carnivores (meat-eaters). The muskrat (above, left), a wetland herbivore (plant-eater), is the number one furbearer in the United States and Canada based on the number of pelts harvested each year. The beaver (above, right) is the largest native rodent in North America, best known for its ability to fell trees and dam streams. Facing page, top, the fisher, a member of the weasel family, is an opportunistic predator equally at home in the trees or on the ground. Below, the red fox, like the beaver, has achieved considerable success in adapting to suburban environments. Minnesota has an abundance of small game and furbearer species. These animals are important parts of the forest, grassland, and wetland ecosystems, are popular among wildlife watchers, and are favorites with many hunters and trappers. List of some furbearing species Read more about... - Badger - Beaver - Bobcat - Coyote - Fishers & pine martens - Foxes - Mink - Muskrat - Opossum - Otter - Rabbits and hares - Eastern cottontail - Snowshoe hare - White-tailed Jack rabbit - Raccoon - Squirrels - Fox squirrel - Gray squirrel - Red squirrel (Pine squirrel) requirements for breeding fur-bearing animals, game birds, bear, and mute swans. Fox and mink may not be bought or sold for breeding unless they have been pen-bred for at least two generations. Live beaver may not be transported without a permit. A violation may result in all animals being confiscated. It is not necessary to have a license to purchase live game birds or farming. Under the section, fur-bearing animals are domestic animals and products of fur-bearing animals are agricultural products. A fur farmer is engaged in an agricultural pursuit. A fur farmer may register annually with the state commissioner for $10. A registered fur farmer must file a verified report of the number of pelts of each species of fur-bearing aniThese proposals appear to have no significant impact on MnDOT roadways and are acceptable to MnDOT. Waiver of Plat/Buck – Section 35, Wheatland Township Conditional Use Permit/Marvets – Section 9, Walcott Township Conditional Use Permit/Raines – Section 10, Forest Township Thanks, Tracy Schnell Senior Planner | District 6 Minnesota Department of Transportation 2900 48th Street NW Rochester, MN 55901 O: 507-286-7599 mndot.gov/ Attachment: MNDOT (DOC-2018-180 : CUP-Raines) Communication: MNDOT Correspondence (Correspondence) | Signature | Print Name | Address | Speak Y or N | |-----------|------------------|----------------------------------------------|--------------| | James Weinel | Sharon Weinel | 17416 Roberson Lane Court | N | | James Duba | Paul Otting | 1565 Unnamed Road | Y | | Kimberly Pacorosa | Faye Knutson | 6676 Fairway Way | N | | Karen Zeller | Julie Burgart | 2195 Berkeley Ave | N | | Luke Nelson | Ken Meyers | 869 Camilla St | Y | | Brian Bauer | Kelly Anderson | 4865 180 St | N | | Mark Zulu | Steve Pleschowet | 1303 Jacobus Hor North | Yes | | Diane Summan | Daniel Rogers | 2375 230 St | | | Eric Simon | Nancy Baer | 9396 50th St. W | N | | Mike Sogh | Kevin Kuball | 8241 Amber Av | N | Communication: MNDOT Correspondence (Correspondence)
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Preserving Food by Drying: A Math/Science Teaching Manual Peace Corps ATFD Manual No. M 10 by: Cynthia Fahy, with Carl Vogel and Per Christiansen Published by: Peace Corps Information Collection and Exchange 806 Connecticut Avenue, N.W. Washington, DC 20525 USA Available from: Peace Corps Information Collection and Exchange 806 Connecticut Avenue, N.W. Washington, DC 20525 USA Reproduction of this microfiche document in any form is subject to the same restrictions as those of the original document. Preserving Food By Drying A Math/Science Teaching Manual Peace Corps INFORMATION COLLECTION & EXCHANGE MANUAL NO. M-10 PRESERVING FOOD BY DRYING: A MATH-SCIENCE TEACHING MANUAL by CYNTHIA FAHY with CARL VOGEL and PER CHRISTIANSEN This publication was produced for Peace Corps by Program Designs for Educators/Chevrons, Boston, Massachusetts. Peace Corps Information Collection and Exchange Manual M 10 July 1980 About this manual... *Preserving Food by Drying: A Math-Science Teaching Manual* is the tenth in the "Appropriate Technologies for Development" series published by the Peace Corps' Information Collection and Exchange (ICE). Like others in the series, Manual 10 presents technical "how to" information based on Peace Corps experience in development work in a format and language appropriate to field workers without previous specialized training. Though primarily designed as an informal syllabus for math and science teachers, this manual can be used outside the classroom setting as well. Its teaching approach is "learning by doing," and the experiments are designed not just to demonstrate math and science principles but to broaden the learners' understanding of the relevance of these principles in the context of their everyday lives. About Peace Corps and the Information Collection and Exchange... More than 85,000 Volunteers have served in some 83 countries around the world in people-to-people development projects since the Peace Corps began in 1961. Living and working at the grassroots level in villages and urban communities, Volunteers learn the restrictions of high technology. They work with their host country counterparts, utilizing limited local resources, to implement innovative programs in agriculture, health, education and overall community development. Thus, Peace Corps has been, in a sense, a field workshop in "appropriate technology" long before the term itself was adopted by the international development community. In 1975, the Peace Corps established the Information Collection and Exchange (ICE) to take the ideas and technical information derived from this experience and disseminate them in the form of manuals and other technical materials to Peace Corps Volunteers in the field and to others working at the grass-roots development level. A complete listing of all Information Collection and Exchange publications and how to obtain them is available from: Peace Corps Information Collection and Exchange/OPTC 806 Connecticut Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20525 If you have prepared materials that can benefit others in the development world, please send them to us. Your technical insights serve as the basis for the generation of ICE manuals, reprints and resource packets and also ensure that ICE can provide requestors with the most updated, innovative problem-solving techniques and information available. Contributors... Preserving Food by Drying: A Math-Science Teaching Manual was produced for Peace Corps by Program Designs for Educators/Chevrons, P.O. Box 235, Jamaica Plain, Boston, Massachusetts 02120. Cynthia Fahy, who designed and developed the manual, served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in the Gambia from 1970 to 1972. She has worked in Peace Corps training programs both in the Gambia and the U.S. and is currently involved in community health care in California. Per Christiansen, co-author, served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in the Philippines, 1963-1966 after several years in engineering. Later, he was involved with the science education program for Africa (SEPA) in rural Kenya. He has worked in Peace Corps training programs for countries on every continent. In the U.S., he has taught science education both in public schools and at the college level. Karen Boatman, editor, was a Peace Corps Volunteer in Senegal from 1965-1966. She has worked as a project consultant in Africa, and is currently director of Community Education in the School of Education at Boston University. Carl Vogel, editor, was a Peace Corps Volunteer in the Gambia, 1970-1972. He has his own business which deals with the varied use of pedal power. Many thanks to Sally Babb Landry, Arnulfo Barayuga and Lance Hellman for photography and art work. The final drawings were done by Robert Hammell. Thanks also to Margaret Jerger for her assistance in the overall assembly, editing, and production of the manual; to Janice Coleman for her attention to the details of production and to Rosly Walter for the comprehensiveness of her draft copy review. Research space for testing some of the activities was generously donated by the Boston Food Cooperative. Thanks to Mary Ernsberger and Howard Ebenstein of Peace Corps for their continued support and assistance. Thanks to USDA nutrition staff for their review. # TABLE OF CONTENTS **Introduction to Preserving Food by Drying** PART I. WEATHER - Introduction to Part I 5 - CHAPTER 1. WATER - Background Information on Evaporation 7 - Activity I-1 EVAPORATION OF WATER 7 - Activity I-2 AREA* 14 - Background Information on Boiling 20 - Activity I-3 HEATING WATER 21 - Activity I-4 CONDENSATION OF WATER VAPOR 26 - Summary 45 - Background Information on Relative Humidity 46 - Activity I-5 EVAPORATION AND TEMPERATURE 48 - Background Information on Heat Flow During Evaporation and Condensation 48 - Activity I-6 COMPARISON OF WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF FRESH AND DRIED FOOD* 51 - CHAPTER 2. SUN AND AIR - Background Information on Energy from the Sun 57 - Activity I-7 RADIATION* 58 - Activity I-8 MEASURING THE ANGLE OF SUNLIGHT* 62 - Activity I-9 USING THE SUN TO PURIFY WATER* 68 *The lessons in this book are in a series. Most of them depend on information from previous lessons. However, the starred items do not depend on the other lessons, and can therefore be taught separately from the rest of this book if they can help you to strengthen other topics you are teaching.* | Topic | Page | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|------| | Background Information on Conduction and Convection | 71 | | Activity I-10 CONDUCTION | 71 | | Activity I-11 CONVECTION | 72 | | Summary | 78 | | PART II. FOOD DRYERS | | | Introduction to Part II | 83 | | CHAPTER 3. PREPARING FOR FOOD DRYING | | | Activity II-1 WATER CONTENT OF FOOD* | 87 | | Activity II-2 SMALL SOLAR FOOD DRYERS | 91 | | Summary | 94 | | CHAPTER 4. BUILDING FOOD DRYERS | | | Solar Dryers | 95 | | Oil Drum Solar Dryer | 96 | | Mud Wall Solar Dryer | 100 | | Cold Frame Cabinet Solar Dryer | 104 | | Alternate Dryers | 107 | | Cabinet Dryer | 107 | | Light Bulb Dryer | 111 | | Summary | 113 | | PART III. NUTRITION | | | Introduction to Part III | 117 | | CHAPTER 5. FOOD DRYING TESTS | | | Background Information on Mold and Bacteria | 119 | | Preparation of Materials for Activities | 123 | | Activity III-1 PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION ON MOLD AND BACTERIA | 127 | | Activity III-2 DO MOLD AND BACTERIA DIGEST COMPLEX FOODS? | 128 | | Activity III-3 DO MOLD AND BACTERIA NEED WATER TO GROW? | 129 | | Activity III-4 | DO MOLD AND BACTERIA GROW WELL IN LIGHT AND DARK? | 130 | | Activity III-5 | DO MOLD AND BACTERIA GROW BEST IN COLD, WARM OR HOT PLACES? | 130 | | Activity III-6 | DOES SUNLIGHT KILL MOLD AND BACTERIA? | 131 | | **CHAPTER 6. SIMPLE TESTS FOR FOOD COMPONENTS** | | | | Background Information on Food Types | 135 | | Activity III-7 | FOOD TEST 1 | 138 | | Activity III-8 | FOOD TEST 2 | 138 | | Activity III-9 | FOOD TEST 3 | 139 | | Activity III-10 | FOOD TEST 4 | 140 | | Activity III-11 | FOOD TEST 5 | 140 | | **CHAPTER 7. DIGESTION** | | | | Activity III-12 | DIGESTION INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITY | 146 | | Activity III-13 | DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES | 149 | | Activity III-14 | DIGESTION OF FATS | 151 | | Activity III-15 | DIGESTION OF PROTEINS | 153 | | Activity III-16 | ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM | 154 | | Daily Food Intake Chart | 157 | | Mineral Chart | 158 | | Vitamin Chart | 159 | | **CHAPTER 8. PRESERVATION TREATMENTS** | | | | Background Information on Pre-Drying Treatments | 161 | | Pre-drying Treatments | 163 | | Anti-oxidants | 163 | | Blanching | 164 | | Sulfuring | 165 | | Salting | 168 | | Topic | Page | |--------------------------------------------|------| | Post-drying Treatments | 171 | | Conditioning | 171 | | Pasteurizing | 172 | | Preparation, Treatment and Dry Test Chart | 175 | | Food Storage | 178 | | **CHAPTER 9. PREPARATION OF DRIED FOODS** | | | Background Information on Rehydration | 181 | | Daily Protein, Fat and Carbohydrate Needs Chart | 183 | | Activity III-17 ANALYSIS OF DIETS | 183 | | Activity III-18 MEAL PLANNING | 184 | | Activity III-19 REHYDRATION | 184 | | Activity III-20 PREPARATION OF POWDERS FROM DRIED FOODS | 186 | | Summary | 188 | | **APPENDICES** | | | A. MATERIALS CROSS-REFERENCE LIST | 191 | | B. HOW TO MAKE A ROUND HOLE IN A TIN | 200 | | C. CONVERSIONS BETWEEN METRIC, BRITISH AND AMERICAN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES | 201 | | D. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BRITISH AND AMERICAN TERMINOLOGY | 204 | | E. DETECTING CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE WITHOUT A THERMOMETER | 205 | | F. MAKING AN EQUAL ARM BALANCE | 208 | | G. MAKING A SET OF WEIGHTS | 211 | | H. A HEATING STAND MADE FROM A TIN | 213 | | ADDITIONAL REFERENCES | 217 | INTRODUCTION Preserving Food by Drying is a design for teaching science principles and mathematics concepts through a sequence of activities concentrating on weather, solar food dryers and nutrition. Part I concentrates on the effect of the sun's energy on air and water: students learn about evaporation, condensation, radiation, conduction and convection. Applying these concepts to food drying, in Part II, students experiment to build the most effective solar food dryer for their locality. Emphasis is placed on using locally available materials and making the hardware needed. In Part III, students use the food dryer they have built in experiments demonstrating the effect of drying foods and the importance of using proper drying methods. They then create balanced diets from the foods they have dried and compile information about food drying for the people of their community. The three parts each begin with an introduction and a diagram outlining the major concepts covered. Concepts are presented through a constellation of activities designed to keep students actively involved and focused. Background information is provided before each related group of activities. Each activity contains a brief introduction, a list of materials needed, instructions for what is to be done, questions to ask the students while they are doing the activities, instructions on what information the students should be noting as they work, and suggestions for discussion. By the middle of Part I, when students have become accustomed to the way the activities are organized, instructions for activities are somewhat less detailed. Scattered throughout the manual are suggestions enclosed in boxes; these are recommended for further study for students who show particular interest. A reference section is also provided, with an overall listing of materials and/or equipment needed for each activity, and suggestions for alternatives. While Food Preservation by Drying is designed as a full year classroom course of study, any of the activities can be selected to enhance a standard curricula, to reinforce learning in another subject such as agriculture or health science, or to encourage discussion in an informal or adult literary setting. Other ICE publications which might prove useful to teachers focusing classwork or community work on food preservation include: 1. How to Make Tools (#R 35)* 2. Food Preservation Resource Packet (#P 7) 3. Small Farm Grain Storage (#M 2) 4. Agricultural Mathematics for Peace Corps Volunteers (#R 4) 5. Visual Aids (#R2) 6. Intensive Vegetable Gardening for Profit and Self-Sufficiency (#R 25) Like other ICE manuals, Food Preservation by Drying is designed to be used, adapted, modified and revised and it is you, the users in the field, who know best how relevant it is. ICE would appreciate your feedback, particularly in the following areas: Were the materials for activities easy to acquire? Were your students able to use the open-ended, lack of step-by-step approach in developing problem-solving skills? What changes would you recommend in materials, activities or sequencing of activities? Please send any comments you have to: Information Collection and Exchange OPTC Peace Corps 806 Connecticut Avenue Washington, D.C. 20525 *How to Make Tools was prepared in conjunction with Food Preservation by Drying and several of its sections have been included in the appendices on pp. 191 to 213. However, if your students do not have access to tools such as saws, hammers, etc., Reprint 35 provides directions for making all the basic tools necessary to build both small and large dryers. PART I. WEATHER PART I. WEATHER The activity lessons in this part provide the basis for an understanding of weather. This is done by looking at some interactions of water and air with energy from the sun. Important concepts are learned during the study of these interactions which provide a basis for designing and operating food dryers effectively. Part I is presented in two chapters. The first chapter includes activities about water and its relation to weather. The second chapter is concerned with the sun and its energy, and includes activities relating to conduction and convection. In the final activities of this chapter, students build and test small devices that are, in fact, simple models of food dryers. The concepts learned in the activities in this part are expanded in Part II and applied to the construction and testing of large food dryers. Part III supplies the rationale for preserving perishable foods by showing that good nutrition is possible throughout the year. The number of weather ideas to include or emphasize is dependent on the science skill level of the students and on what they have studied previously. This part concentrates on what could be called the "microscopic view" of weather, with emphasis on developing a familiarity with evaporation and condensation, and how the presence of the sun's energy affects these processes in nature. The "macroscopic view", concerned with the influence of oceans and mountain ranges on regional weather patterns, is something that you can introduce if the students are unfamiliar with it. At the conclusion of Part I, the students will be able to: 1. name the three variables affecting the evaporation of water. 2. vary the factors affecting evaporation to increase or decrease the rate of evaporation. 3. make predictions about a system of evaporation when one or more variables are changed. 4. use controls in experimenting, testing only one variable at a time. After reading through Part I, you may see some areas that need special attention because your students lack appropriate preparation. One approach is to proceed slowly through these areas, including additional activities from other sources whenever you find that your students need additional work. Another approach is to precede this part with lessons on weighing, heat, displacement, etc. To help you plan for materials, in the Appendices there is a chart showing everything needed in Part I. The chart lists all the activities where each item is used. From this chart, you can quickly see which materials are often used, and which materials are only needed for a few activities. Alternatives for many materials are also shown. Alternate activities for students with particular interests and abilities are offered throughout the unit. Some of the activities involve expanding studies of solar devices such as a solar still. The distilled water produced could be used later in the food preservation and preparation activities in Part III. A number of the activities in Part I could be conducted at various times during the year as the seasons change. This would be useful if weather studies are to be emphasized. Also, if some students are interested in weather, they could independently conduct the activities each season. CHAPTER 1. WATER BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON EVAPORATION The sun's energy is useful to us in many ways. One of them is in the evaporation, transportation and condensation of water. This is known as the water cycle. As water absorbs the sun's energy, it is warmed and evaporates; it changes from liquid to gaseous water vapor. The rate of evaporation depends on: 1. the temperature of the water. 2. the area of water exposed to air. 3. the ability of the air to hold more water vapor. When other substances such as salt or dirt particles are dissolved or mixed with water, they are left behind when the water evaporates. Distillation is one process of purifying water whereby water is caused to evaporate, leaving behind impurities, and then cooled to condense the pure water. Rain is essentially pure water that has evaporated from lakes, oceans, soil, leaves of plants, etc. and has condensed in the air high above the earth. These concepts are developed in the activities. Some of the devices used in these activities can be enlarged and used later during the food preservation and preparation activities. You may want to expand the activities to develop weather studies or follow the suggested sequence to lead more directly to the development of food dryers. If the science students have studied weather previously, you can ask them to summarize their knowledge during discussions. Activity I-1 EVAPORATION OF WATER This activity begins the study of evaporation. Students explore what happens when water is allowed to stand exposed to air under different conditions. The students discover or reaffirm that water evaporates at a rate that can be varied by changing the conditions in which the water is stored. Surface area, purity of the water, and temperature are each varied separately. Each of four groups sets up a different evaporation experiment. (You may want to alter this arrangement.) Containers of water are allowed to stand over a period of several days. The students observe them each day to determine how much water has evaporated. Throughout questioning and the discussions of the process, encourage record keeping as well as writing descriptions of experiments. The records can be used during discussions and for future reference. Secondly, they provide practice in communication skills. Measuring the volume of water is required in this activity. Students who do not have much experience with the manipulation of measuring vessels may need an extra class period to develop a concept of the hierarchy of measuring units. For example, they could pour water from one container to another, using a variety of containers, until they find relationships such as: 15 bottle caps full = 1 small tomato tin 3 small tomato tins = 1 large tin Measuring units developed by the students may be more immediately understandable than standard metric or English units. Also, it may be more practical if the supply of standard measuring devices is limited. Developing a system of measurement using available containers and other materials assures that each group of students can have a set of equipment for the activities. Conversion tables for the student-developed system to metric units and to English units can be developed and posted for use. For these experiments, the class should adopt a unit of volume for water that is an appropriate size to evaporate during a few class periods. You should practice the activity for "Group One" ahead of time so you can find out about how much water to use. It varies a lot in different localities, depending on the humidity and on whether or not there is much movement of the air near the surface of the water. Many tins are needed for this activity. Ask your students to begin collecting tins now. Every size of tin will be useful, including very small tins. The tins will also be used in many other activities. If each student brings three tins, there will be enough. ### Materials | Item | Group One | Group Two | Group Three | Group Four | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------|-----------|-------------|------------| | Size of each sub-group | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | | Tins of various sizes and dishes or trays | 6 | | | | | Tins of the same size | | 4 | 4 | 2 | | Water | | X | X | X | | Measuring spoons, cups, tins, bottle caps, etc. as needed to measure the amount of water you have found appropriate | | X | X | X | | Means for labeling the tins, such as paper; and cement, elastic bands, or tape | | | X | | | Cloth | | | | 2 | | Small stones | | | | 3 | | Rulers marked in centimeters | | X | X | X | | Paper | 6 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Salt | | X | | | | Sugar | | X | | | | Cooking oil | | X | | | | Source of a smoky flame, such as a candle or paraffin lamp | | | | 1 | | Matches | | | X | | | Sunlight | | | X | X | Divide the students into four groups. However, if your class is large and your groups contain many students, make sub-groups within each group. The recommended size of each sub-group is shown on the first line of the materials list. Each sub-group should have between two and four members because small sub-groups are better than large sub-groups. The quantities of materials listed are what one sub-group needs. Multiply by the number of sub-groups you have. Items shown with an "X" can be shared by everyone or by several sub-groups. Procedure for Group One Choose several tins of different diameters, and some dishes or trays. On a piece of paper, trace around the top of each container. Save these tracings because they will be used in Activity I-2. Into each container, pour one measure of water. With a ruler, measure the diameter of the container and write it down. Measure how many centimeters deep the water is in each container. Is the water the same depth in each container? Which container has the deepest water? Which container has the shallowest water? Does each container have the same amount of water? Which container has the largest area inside the tracing on the paper? Do you think there will be any change in the amounts of water in these containers tomorrow? Put the containers in a shady place where they will not be disturbed. Day 2 How deep is the water in each container today? Write down the measurements. Which container do you think will have the most water after another day? Which container do you think will have the least water after another day? Procedure for Group Two Choose four tins of the same size. On a piece of paper, trace around the top of one of them and save it for Activity I-2. In the first tin, put one measure of water. In the second tin, put one measure of water and a quarter (¼) measure of salt. Stir. In the third, put one measure of water and a quarter measure of sugar. Stir. In the fourth, put one measure of water and a quarter measure of cooking oil. Stir. Label the tins. Measure how many centimeters deep the liquid is in each tin. Write these measurements down. Do all the tins contain the same amount? Which tin has the deepest liquid? Do any of the tins have the same depth of liquid? Do you think there will be any change in the amounts of liquid in these tins when we measure them tomorrow? Put the tins in a shady place where they will not be disturbed. **Day 2** How deep is the liquid in each tin today? Write down the measurements. Which tin do you think will have the most liquid after another day? Which tin do you think will have the least liquid after another day? Is there any difference in the appearance of the tin that has salt dissolved in it and the tin with sugar dissolved in it? **Procedure for Group Three** Choose four tins of the same size. On a piece of paper, trace the open top of one of them to use in Activity 1-2. With a smoky flame, cover the outside of two of the tins with soot. Then pour one measure of water in each of the four tins. Measure how many centimeters deep the liquid is in each tin. Write these measurements down. Do all the tins contain the same amount? What do you expect will happen to the water in the tins? Place one black and one shiny tin in sunlight and one black and one shiny tin in the shade. Place the tins so they will not be disturbed. If they are likely to be disturbed outdoors during the night, bring in all the tins that are kept in sunlight indoors each night and put them in sunlight again each morning. **Day 2** How deep is the liquid in each tin today? Write down the measurements. Which tin do you think will have the most liquid after another day? Which tin do you think will have the least liquid after another day? Do any of the tins have the same depth of liquid? Procedure for Group Four Choose two tins of the same size. Trace the top of one of them on paper to use in Activity I-2. Cut two round pieces of cloth about three times the height of the tin from the same piece of cloth. They need not be exactly round. Each sub-group in Group Four should use a different kind of cloth for its pair of tins if possible. Make a hole in the center of each cloth large enough so the open end of a tin can fit into it. Next, choose two trays or wide bowls that are several centimeters deep. As support, put three small stones, or a small short tin with a hole punched in its bottom, into each bowl. A tin will stand on this support. Put one cloth over each tin so the open end of the tin comes out of the hole. With string, tie the cloth onto the tin near the open top of the tin. Into one bowl, pour almost enough water to cover the support. Leave the other bowl dry. Put each tin, with its cloth, into a bowl so it stands on the three stones or on the short tin. The cloth should drape into the bottom of the bowl. Pour one measure of water into each tin. Diagram 1 Measure how many centimeters deep the water is in each tin. Write these measurements down. Does each tin have the same amount of water? Do you think there will be any change in the amounts of water in these tins when we measure them tomorrow? Does the cloth with its lower edge in the water become wet all over? Place both bowls and tins in a sunny location. Carry them carefully indoors each night and put them in sunlight again each morning if they are likely to be disturbed outdoors during the night. Pour extra water into the wet bowl as it is needed to keep the edge of the cloth in water. Do not add water to the tins. How deep is the water in each tin today? Write down the measurements. Is anything else different between the water in the two tins? Have you any theories about how the water in the bowl changes the rate of water loss? **Teaching Method Alternatives** The first day, the students will be occupied setting up the equipment. On the last day, there will be comparison and discussion of results. During the intermediate days only enough time will be needed for the students to observe the liquid in each container and write down their measurements and any other observations. They will do this until all the water is evaporated from most of the containers. During these days, there will be time available to do something else with the students. Here are two suggestions of what to do: 1. Have each group show the others their experiments each day. This will give everyone a chance to know what each group is doing, and to make their own guesses about the results of each group's experiments. If your class is already used to comparing and discussing their results, this alternative will work out well. If the students are not ready to exchange information as outlined above, begin Activity I-2 with whatever extra time you may have in these intermediate days. 2. Begin Activity I-2. In this activity, the students make use of the tracings they make the first day of the sizes of the tins or other containers. They find the area of these tracings, and they also find the area of other things. Note: The discussion after Activity I-2 uses the results gotten by Group One, I-1, and some of the results from the other groups. Therefore, the discussion of I-2 should not be begun before the students have finished Activity I-1. Discussion of Activity I-1 At the end of the activity, have each group report their findings to the class. These should include: 1. Amounts of liquid in each container or tin each day. 2. Comments about which predictions were correct or not, and ideas that led to these predictions. 3. Each group's conclusions resulting from their measurements and other observations. During the discussion, introduce the term 'evaporation' after the students have described the concept. The rest of the class should have a chance to consider the conclusions of each group, and to form a tentative opinion concerning whether each experimental situation is satisfactorily understood. You should allow groups or individuals to do any of these experiments again if they express interest. Tell the students that the next experiments will help them become more familiar with evaporation. Ask the students if they are aware of situations in nature where evaporation occurs. If some situations are mentioned, ask if these vary with the time of year. Activity I-2A AREA This activity provides a brief look at the concept of area which is needed to understand that evaporation of a given volume of water will be more rapid if it is spread out more. The concept of area provides a measurable way of talking about how much of a liquid is exposed to air. If the students have demonstrated an understanding of area previously, such as in discussions during Activity I-1, you can proceed directly to the next discussion after doing Activity I-2A. Materials Sub-group size: This activity can be done by each student individually. However, you may decide to have the students work cooperatively in the same sub-groups formed for Activity I-1. Grid paper with 1 centimeter squares. You can have students make this, or you can produce it with a hectograph or cyclostyle or other copying device. Samples of the tins, trays and dishes used in the first activity. Tracings of tins, trays, dishes from the first activity. Rulers marked in centimeters. Scissors or razor blades. Pencils. The squares on the grid paper are 1 centimeter on a side. The area each square covers is 1 square centimeter. Have the students trace around the top of a container used in the first activity, or cut out a tracing from the first activity and draw around it on the grid paper. How many square centimeters are inside the tracing? A good approximation can be made by first counting all the squares that are completely inside the tracing line, and then adding an estimate of the area of squares that are partly inside the line. Encourage your students to try different ways of approximating the area accounted for by squares that are only partly inside the tracing. Find the area of the open tops of all the sizes of tins, trays or dishes used in the first activity. Students who do not have tracings can trace around the containers they used in the first activity. Have the students make a list of these areas, starting with the largest, then the next-to-the-largest, and so on, with the last area on the list being the smallest. Have this list saved because it will be used in a discussion later. Further Study 1. Estimate the area of a circle. Draw a 10 centimeter radius circle. Its radius is 10 cm, therefore its diameter is 20 cm. Make a square around this circle. Its sides each have a length of 20 cm, the same size as the diameter of the circle. The area of the square is 20 cm by 20 cm, or 400 square cm. $A_s = D^2$. Now make an estimate of the area of the circle. Some possible estimates could be: $$A_c = \frac{1}{2} A_s \quad A_c = \frac{3}{4} A_s \quad A_c = \frac{7}{8} A_s$$ What is yours? 2. Check your estimate of the area of the circle. Make a grid sheet out of the piece of paper that has the circle and the square drawn on it. Your squares should all be the same size but you can choose any size squares between 1 cm and 4 cm on a side. Count how many are in the circle and how many are in the square. $$A_c = \frac{\text{squares in circle}}{\text{squares in square}} A_s$$ 3. Compare the area of the circle you get with your estimate $$A_c = \frac{7}{7} A_s$$ 4. The exact formula for a circle can be written as: $$A_c = \pi r^2$$ or $$A_c = \frac{\pi}{4} D^2$$ Since $D^2 = A$, the area of a circle can also be written: $$A_c = \frac{\pi}{4} A$$ Compare your estimate of the area of the circle with the exact formula. ($\pi$ is pronounced "pie". Its value is about 3, which is close enough for most practical use). You can find the percentage difference between your estimate and the exact area this way: \[ \% \text{ diff.} = \frac{\text{your area} - \text{formula area}}{\text{formula area}} \times 100 \] If the answer is positive, your estimate was larger than the exact area; if negative, your estimate was smaller. If your estimate was within 10% of the exact area, it was an accurate enough estimate for most purposes. **Activity I-2B AREA** Finding the area of parts of the human body is a way of developing skills in estimating surface areas. **Materials** Sub-group size: Students can work individually or in sub-groups. Grid paper with 1 centimeter squares. Pencils Have the students trace around their hands on 1 centimeter grid paper. Have them find the area enclosed in this outline and use it as a basis for estimating the area of all the skin on their hands. What is the area enclosed in your tracing? What is your estimate for the area of all the skin on your hand? How did you decide on your estimate? Have the students make a list that shows each student's name and the area of their tracing. Start with the smallest area, then the next-to-the-smallest, so that the last name on the list is the student whose tracing has the largest area. Now have the students add each person's estimate of the area of all the skin on their hand to this table. | Name | Area of tracing of hand | Estimate of total hand area | |------|-------------------------|----------------------------| | | | | | | | | | | | | Which estimates seem accurate when compared to the rest of the estimates? Which estimates are very different from others nearby on the list? Which is more correct? Have the class consider each estimate that deviates a lot from surrounding estimates to decide whether it is more accurate or less accurate than the others. The area of the hand is approximately one hundredth of the total skin area of the body. **Further Study** The body's area can be approximated also by wrapping cylinders of paper around the arms, legs, trunk and head. Then calculate the area of the paper used. This activity can be tied to health studies by discussing the body's evaporative process: sweating. Discussion of Activities I-1 and I-2 Direct a discussion in which students compare the area of each container's open top with the number of days it took the water to completely change to vapor. Use all the results for containers that were kept in the shade but not those that were put in sunlight each day. As a way to focus the discussion, the following table could be placed on the blackboard and be filled in by students from each group. Use the list of areas which was prepared in Activity I-2A. This starts with the largest area and ends with the smallest. | Description of container | Area of open top | Number of days to completely evaporate in the shade | Number of centimeters deep when experiment started | What was in each container | |--------------------------|------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------|---------------------------| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Note that in this experiment the number of measures of water put in each container was the same. Do the results show any relationship between area and time for the water to evaporate? If so, what is it? If so, what cases don't seem to fit the relationship? Does the height of the sides of the container affect the rate of evaporation? Are there any containers where the area of the open top is larger or smaller than the area of the liquid's surface? If so, does this have any effect? If water was not the only thing in the tin, was there any change in the rate of evaporation? **Further Study** 1. Make a graph of days to evaporate versus square centimeters of area. 2. Do the Group One experiment again but this time (a) put the same depth of water in each container or (b) use tins of the same diameter but with different heights or (c) use tins of various diameters but with the same height. See how many days it takes for the containers to become empty. Tabulate the results in a similar way and discuss them. **BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON BOILING** One way to increase the rate of evaporation is by heating the liquid. This was illustrated in Activity I-1 where Group Three and Group Four put tins with water in sunlight and found that the water evaporated faster in the tin that was warmed the most by the sun. The rapid disappearance of water when it is heated is part of the everyday experiences of drying clothes, ironing clothes and cooking food. If enough heat is applied to water, it will reach a temperature where further heating causes it to change to vapor. As the water becomes warm, bubbles of air form on the inside surface of the container. This is air that was dissolved in the cool water. Therefore bubbles form as the water becomes warmer. Knowing that air dissolves in water helps in understanding that water can dissolve in air, which is what has been happening in the evaporation experiments you have been doing. (Realizing that air is able to dissolve in water also helps in understanding how fish can breathe without coming to the surface of the water.) The idea that temperature has an effect on how much of one substance can be dissolved in another will be worked with in future activities. When the water becomes quite hot, bubbles of water vapor are formed where the water is in contact with the part of the container that is being heated by the fire. At first, they change to water again as they rise through the somewhat cooler water near the surface. Sound comes from the container, but the bubbles of vapor are not reaching the air. If heat continues to be supplied, all the liquid becomes hot enough so the bubbles reach the surface and the vapor in them mixes with the air. This process is called boiling. **Activity I-3A HEATING WATER** In this activity, a tin of water is placed over a fire and heated. The water becomes hot and boils until no liquid is left. **Materials** Sub-group size: Two or three students. All the sub-groups follow the same procedure. Heat source: Charcoal cooker and charcoal or three stones and firewood, and a metal grating or other support so tins of various sizes can be put over the fire. Two or three sub-groups can use each fire. Tongs or cloth to lift tins on and off the fire. Tins of various sizes. Alternate heat source: Burner and paraffin or gas, and support for tins. One for each sub-group. Watch or other timer such as a pendulum made from a stone hanging on a piece of wire about two meters long. This swings about forty-two times each minute. All the sub-groups can use the same timer. Matches. If the heat source has a large hot area like a charcoal burner or a fire, you can assume that the heat is being applied to the entire bottom of the tin. Each sub-group should make a chart like this to collect their results. Choose several tins with different diameters. Measure the diameter of each tin and write it on the chart. Estimate the diameter of the fire or charcoal burner. To be sure the assumption is true, all of the tins should have diameters smaller than the hottest part of the fire. If the heat source is a small hot flame like a paraffin pressure stove or a bunsen burner, you can assume that all the heat supplied by the flame is reaching the bottom of the tin. Each sub-group should make a chart like the one shown above to collect their results. Estimate the diameter of the area heated by the burner. Choose several tins with different diameters. To be sure the assumption is true, all of the tins should have bottoms larger than the area heated by the burner. Measure the diameter of each tin and write it on the chart. In each tin, put the same amount of water that was used in Activity I-1. Note time or start the pendulum swinging. One person from each sub-group should be watching the watch or pendulum to keep track of how many seconds or swings of the pendulum it takes for the water to heat up and boil until it is gone. Put a tin on the fire. Do you have any theory to explain the differences in time that you have measured? Is the same amount of heat reaching the water in each tin? Do you think the area of the bottom of the tin affects the time it takes for all the water to heat and change to vapor? Do you think the area of the surface of the water affects the time it takes for all the water to heat and change to vapor? Can the results of another sub-group help you? Do you need to do another experiment before you can be sure what affects the boiling time? At the end of this activity, there should be agreement that water changes to vapor much faster when it is heated and boiled than when it is kept at room temperature. If the students have become involved in this activity, there may be argument as to which makes more difference in how quickly the water boils away: the diameter of the bottom of the tin, or the diameter of the surface of the liquid. You may decide to do the same activity again, using containers with walls that are not vertical. Some possibilities are frying pans, teapots, Ehrlemeyer flasks, and tins where you have bent the walls inward so that the surface of the liquid is much less than the size of the bottom. Information gained by using these containers will allow the arguments to be resolved. Further Study A thermometer is needed with a range that includes 100° centigrade and which has a heat-sensitive part that can be put into water. Heat some water over a burner or small fire. As the water is heated, measure its temperature very close to the bottom, in the middle, and just below the surface. Take these three measurements every two minutes (about 84 swings of the pendulum). Make a note on your measurements to remember (a) when sound begins to come out of the liquid, and (b) when bubbles begin reaching the surface. Stop taking measurements eight minutes after the water begins boiling. Make a graph of temperature in degrees centigrade versus time in minutes. Plot the three measurements on the same graph. Also mark the times (a) and (b) on the graph. Report your results to the rest of the class. CAUTION: Make sure the heat source does not set you on fire. If you are using a glass thermometer, avoid resting its bulb on the bottom of the container because the heat may crack the glass. If you need something to lean it on while measuring the water temperature very close to the bottom, put a pebble in the container. Activity I-3B HEATING WATER In this activity, a tin of water is placed over a small fire and heated. The water becomes hot enough to begin making a sound but not hot enough to boil. The fire or the position of the tin is adjusted to keep the water this way. Materials The materials and sub-groups are the same as in Activity I-3A. Use the same amount of water in the tin as was used before. The time that it takes for the water to disappear should be measured using a watch or by counting swings of the pendulum. The depth of the water should be measured at regular intervals such as every five minutes so that if all the water has not changed to vapor in the time you have available, an estimate can be made of how much more time it would have taken. (An alternative, if this happens, is to cover the tins tightly to keep the remaining water inside and continue the activity another day.) As soon as each sub-group has their tin on the fire, have someone in the sub-groups make a chart like this. It will contain the results from this activity as well as some of the results from previous activities. Be sure the students have all their previous results on hand the day you plan to discuss the results of this activity. | Diameter of tin in cm. | At room temperature (Act. I-1) | In the sun during the day (Act. I-1) | With water hot but not boiling (Act. I-3B) | With water boiling (Act. I-3A) | |------------------------|---------------------------------|--------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|-------------------------------| | | | | | | | | | | | | Do you think that any of your water has changed to vapor? What evidence do you have that some of your water has changed to vapor? How much time did it take for half of your water to change to vapor? How much time did it take for all of your water to change to vapor? **Discussion of Activities I-3A and I-3B** Have the students fill in the parts of their charts that need information from previous activities if they have not already done this. Meanwhile, have a student make a large chart on the blackboard. Then have students from different sub-groups put some of their information onto the chart on the blackboard. When the chart is filled with their results, ask the students questions such as: Which column refers to water that was kept at the coolest temperature? Which water was hottest? Which water was next-to-the-coolest? Does there seem to be a relationship between temperature and rate of evaporation? Can you establish a range of time in which you would expect water to change to vapor, for the conditions in each column of the chart? A lot of discussion may arise if there are large differences of time within a column. For example, some of the tins kept in sunlight may have evaporated in half a day while others took two or three days. When the first activity was being done, the students were not asked to measure the temperature. However, some of the students may have noticed differences of temperature of the various tins kept in sunlight. Now that the students have more understanding of the relationship between temperature and the rate of change of liquid water to water vapor, some results which may have puzzled them should become clear. By the end of this discussion, the students should agree that increasing surface area tends to speed up evaporation and that increasing temperature also tends to speed up evaporation. Also, decreasing either of these tends to make evaporation take place more slowly. The following activities concentrate on changing water vapor to liquid water. **Activity I-4A CONDENSATION OF WATER VAPOR** It is hard to believe that something exists when you cannot see it, feel it or smell it. This problem exists with water vapor when it is completely dissolved in the air. When people see fog, or "steam", coming from the spout of a tea kettle, they are looking at a mixture of tiny droplets of liquid water mixed with air and with water vapor. It is the tiny droplets of liquid water that are visible. As soon as all the tiny droplets are dissolved in the air, nothing is visible. In this activity, the students heat water to produce water vapor. Then they collect some of the vapor on nearby surfaces. **Materials** | Item | Group One | Group Two | Group Three | Group Four | |----------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------|-----------|-------------|------------| | Size of each sub-group | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | | Bottles or jars made of clear glass, not colored glass | 3 | 2 | | | | Elastic bands that can stretch around the bottles or jars | 6 | 4 | 1 | | | Water | X | X | X | X | | Sunlight | X | X | | | | Pieces of white paper, black paper such as carbon paper, and various other colors including metal foil if available | 3 | 4 | 1 | | | Lids or caps for bottles or jars, or use plastic and elastic bands | 3 | 2 | | | | Scissors or blades to cut paper and plastic | X | X | | | Materials (cont'd.) | Group | One | Two | Three | Four | |-------|-----|-----|-------|------| | Candles or burners using paraffin or gas that can produce a small flame | | | 1 | | | A heating stand to support each tin that is heated by a candle or burner (See Appendix H for a procedure for making heating stands from tins.) | | | 1 | | | Matches | | | X | X | | Drinking glasses | | | 1 | | | Small pieces of wood to support the glasses | | | 1 | | | Tins with small enough diameters to fit inside the drinking glasses. Each tin should be taller than the glass it is used with | | | 1 | | | Tins of various sizes | | | | 1 | | Pieces of transparent plastic large enough to cover the tops of the tins used by Group Four | | | | 1 | | Several nails of different sizes for making round holes in tins (See Appendix B for a procedure to make a round hole in a tin.) | | | | X | | Watch or other timer | X | X | X | X | Divide the students into four groups. Students should stay in the same group for this activity and Activities I-4B and 4C. For each group, these three activities form a series. In discussions, each group will tell the rest of the class what they are doing and the results they have gotten. As was mentioned in Activity I-1, your class is probably large enough so that each group contains two or more sub-groups. For these three activities, most students may find it best to work in pairs. Look at Activities 4A, 4B and 4C now. You may have to adjust how many sub-groups you have in each group based on the materials needed. For example, if you have many bottles, but only eight heating stands, and you have thirty-six students, you could divide the class as follows: | Number of students | Number of sub-groups | |--------------------|----------------------| | Group One | 10 | 5 | | Group Two | 10 | 5 | | Group Three | 8 | 4 | | Group Four | 8 | 4 | In this way, each sub-group in Group Three and Group Four would have a heating stand, yet all of the sub-groups would have only two students each. The quantities shown in the materials list are what one sub-group needs. Multiply by the number of sub-groups you have. Items shown with an "X" can be shared by the class or by several sub-groups. **Procedure for Group One** Choose paper of different color for each bottle used. Each piece of paper will be attached to a bottle with two or three elastic bands. The height of the paper should be about the same as the cylindrical part of the bottle. The width of the paper should be about half the circumference of the bottle. Put a little water in the bottle and put a lid on it. Shake the bottle, then loosen the lid and let the water drip out. Tighten the lid. There should be some drops of water on the inside of the bottle. Do you think the air inside the bottle contains a lot of water vapor or very little water vapor? Dry the outside of the bottle and attach a piece of paper to the bottle. Put the bottle in the sun as shown in Diagram 2. Sunlight should reach both the paper and the part of the bottle that is not covered by the paper. Take note of the time so you **Diagram 2** can look at the bottle after five minutes, and again after ten and fifteen minutes. Do the same thing for each bottle. What do you see inside the bottle after five minutes? Has it changed any after another five minutes? After fifteen minutes, take the bottle into the shade and examine the part of the bottle that was not covered by the paper. Then remove the paper and examine the part of the bottle that was covered by the paper. Is there any difference between what is on the inside of the walls of the bottle in different places? Can you feel any difference in the temperature of various parts of the bottle? **Procedure for Group Two** Shake water in each bottle as is done for Group One. Then attach two pieces of paper to each bottle. The pieces should be of different colors such as red and green, black and silver, light green and dark green, etc. Each piece of paper covers half the cylindrical part of the bottle, as shown in Diagram 3. Sunlight should strike each piece of paper equally. The paper will have to be partially removed to look inside the bottle after five minutes. The position of each piece of paper on the bottle should not be allowed to change while this is being done. **Diagram 3** **Procedure for Group Three** Choose a small tin and a drinking glass that can fit over the end of the tin, as shown in the next diagram. Cut a hole in the top of the tin. Cut a small piece of wood so that it rests on the edges of the tin and supports the glass. Measure a small amount of water and put it into the tin. Heat the water with a small flame so the water is hot but not boiling. If there is a breeze, have the open part of the heating stand face away from the flow of air so the flame is disturbed as little as possible. Place the glass over the tin. Note the time and look at the glass after five minutes, ten minutes and fifteen minutes. Do you think the air inside the tin contains a lot of water vapor or very little water vapor? What do you see inside the glass after five minutes? Has it changed any after another five minutes? Do you think there is any difference between the temperature of the glass and the temperature of the tin? After fifteen minutes, examine the glass again and remove it from the tin. Measure the amount of water in the tin. Did a measurable amount of water leave the tin? If so, what percentage of the water changed to vapor and left the tin? Procedure for Group Four Choose a tin that has a height a bit greater than its diameter. Make a small hole in the side of the tin about 1 centimeter below the top. For this activity, the size of the tin is not important, and the hole in the side does not need to be round. However, if you want to be ready for the next activity, use a tin that is large enough for a tea glass or very small tin to fit inside, and make the hole as round as possible, just large enough so the outer tube from a Bic pen can fit tightly in it. (A simple procedure for making a round hole of this size is found in Appendix B.) Cut a strip of paper about 1 centimeter wide and a little longer than the circumference of the tin. Attach it to the top edge of the tin with an elastic band. The top edge of the paper should be a little higher than the top edge of the tin. Measure a small amount of water and put it into the tin. Then put a piece of transparent plastic over the open top of the tin and hold it in place with an elastic band. The purpose of the strip of paper is to prevent the tin from melting the plastic when the tin is heated. Diagram 5 Cross-sectional View Heat the water with a small flame until the water is hot but not boiling. The heat should be adjusted to keep the water hot but not boiling throughout the activity. When the water becomes hot, take note of the time and look at the transparent plastic to see if any change has occurred. Look at the plastic again after five minutes, ten minutes and fifteen minutes. Do you think the air inside the tin contains a lot of water vapor or very little water vapor? What do you see inside the plastic after five minutes? Has it changed any after another five minutes? Do you think there is any difference between the temperature of the transparent plastic and the temperature of the tin? After fifteen minutes, look at the plastic again and remove the heat. Take the plastic off the tin. Then measure the amount of water in the tin. Did a measurable amount of water leave the tin? If so, what percentage of the water changed to vapor and left the tin? If there is enough time, each group can show the others their experiment. This will give everyone a chance to know what each group has been doing. However, there are two more related activities to be done before the students will have enough information for a discussion in which they compare their results and summarize what they have learned about evaporation and condensation. **Further Study** To the water add some color such as ink or use dark vinegar instead of plain water for all groups in Activity 4A. Note which water is clear and which water is colored after about ten minutes. Teaching Method Alternatives In the last activity, droplets of water formed on surfaces within a few minutes after starting the activity. Perhaps enough water collected on the drinking glass so that some drops fell off the edge of the glass. However, no effort was made to collect the water that condensed. In this activity, the equipment is adapted so the condensed water can be collected. Depending on your educational objectives, you have a choice of methods in this activity and the next activity. 1. **Student Investigation**. Tell the students that they have a "design problem" to solve. The design problem is to find ways to collect the water vapor that is being produced. You should provide all of the materials that are on the materials list and anything else you have around that might be useful. This way of managing the class helps the students develop judgement and self-confidence in applying what they are learning. It is a useful approach to use when students are not soon facing external examinations. Some classes enjoy a contest: Which group can produce the sun-powered device that collects the most water? Which group can produce the flame-powered device that collects the most water? Some of the students will not be able to think of anything on their own. You can suggest that they try something similar to what other students are preparing to do. You can also suggest one of the ideas shown in Activities I-4B and 4C, or ideas shown in the "distillation" section of science texts. 2. **Guided Learning**. Continue with Activities I-4B and 4C as they are outlined here. This way of managing the class reaches understanding of the science concepts more quickly than the student investigation method and is best for students who are required to cover all the material in the syllabus because they have to attempt an external examination at the end of the year. However, this method is not as effective in producing people who can put what they have learned to practical use after they have left school. This is because directions for what to do, and the pressure to do it, are being supplied by the teacher and the school. School leavers are left with little practice in deciding on their own projects, and then carrying them through, which are skills valuable in applying knowledge in real situations. As much flexibility as possible for making decisions has been included in the directions for making equipment used in activities. Exact sizes are rarely specified. Judgement is therefore necessary to make equipment with proportions similar to what is shown in the diagrams, and learning experiences occur by seeing whose equipment works best and thinking about why differences in size may have caused differences in function. In these ways the guided learning method can develop some skills not ordinarily considered necessary while remaining acceptable to students, teachers and administrators. **Activity I-4B CONDENSATION OF WATER VAPOR** If you use Method 1, the students will be occupied building and trying out the alternatives that they think of. If you use Method 2, it will take only a short time for the students to get their devices working. Then there will be some time when they have nothing to do. During this time, you could have each group describe Activity I-4A to the rest of the students. Another thing you can do is to begin Activity I-5 which is about relative humidity. That activity requires very little equipment. Near the end of the time available, they will see how much water has collected, and will write down their measurements. **Materials** | Material | Group | |-----------------------------------------------|-------| | Size of each sub-group | | | Jars made of clear glass. Some of them must have the same size mouths. | | | Elastic bands that can stretch around the jars | | | Sunlight | | | Pieces of paper of various colors, or a smoky flame or paint as used in the last activity | | | One | Two | Three | Four | |-----|-----|-------|------| | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | | 1 | 2 | | | | 2 | 2 | | | | X | X | | | | 1 | 1 | | | | Materials (cont'd.) | Group | |------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | | One | Two | Three | Four | | Lids for the jars or use plastic and elastic bands | 1 | | | | | Absorbent cloth such as from an undershirt or singlet or paper which is very absorbent | 1 | 1 | | | | Tea glasses or small tins that will fit inside some of the other jars and tins | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Water | X | X | X | X | | Books or pieces of wood to use as a support | 1 | | 3 | | | Scissors or razor blades for cutting paper, cloth and plastic | X | X | X | X | | Tins with a round hole in the side | | | | 1 | | Tins with a hole in the side, where the hole need not be exactly round | | | 1 | | | Candles or burners, and heating stands as used in the last activity | 1 | 1 | | | | Tops from small tins to make a stand inside tins being heated, or small stones | 1 | 1 | | | | Outer tube of Bic pen or hollow bamboo branch | | | | 1 | | Tins of various sizes | | | | 1 | | Pieces of transparent plastic to cover tops of tins | | 1 | 2 | | | Small stones, coins or washers to use as weight at the center of plastic pieces | 1 | 1 | | | | Matches | | | X | X | | Watch or clock | X | X | X | X | In this activity each group uses equipment that is quite similar to what they used in Activity I-4A, but this time the water vapor condenses into droplets that are collected in a separate container. **Procedure for Group One** A tea glass or a very small tin is placed inside a jar. The outside of the tea glass or small tin is coated or painted or covered with paper of whatever color the students have decided works best. A measured amount of water is placed inside the tea glass or small tin. Then a piece of very absorbent paper or cloth is placed so it sticks to the inside wall of the glass or tin. Cloth that makes a good wick works well. One part of the cloth or paper should be in the water. Another part of the cloth or paper should be under the part of the glass or tin that will be heated the most by the sun. The students will place the tea glass or tin inside the jar and cover the jar with its lid or with plastic held by an elastic band. The inside of the jar should be dry when this is done. Without spilling any of the water from the glass or small tin, carefully place the jar in sunlight. Note the time. Near the end of the time available, have the students examine the jar. Did any droplets of water collect on the inside of the jar? Did enough water collect to accumulate at the bottom of the jar? If so, what percentage of the water changed to vapor and then condensed on the jar? The students should record the amount of time the jar was in sunlight and the amount of water that collected in the jar, if it was enough to measure. They should also note any other details so they will be able to describe what happened. **Procedure for Group Two** Two jars are placed together so they form one container. Their mouths must be about the same size. If the mouths are not quite the same size, something such as clay or cloth can be stuffed into the gap. If only a few jars are available, one jar and one tin can be used. Prepare one of the jars or the tin the same way that the tea glass or small tin was in the Group One activity, with water and a wick inside, and colored paper or other coating outside. Place the two jars, or the jar and the tin, in sunlight with their mouths together. Note the time. Near the end of the time available, examine the jars. The questions to ask and the measurements to make are the same as for Group One. **Procedure for Group Three** A tin with a measured amount of water is heated with a small flame. Inside the tin is a tea glass or a tiny tin, supported by a stand. The stand can be made from the top of another tin. It should have a somewhat smaller diameter than the tin it is placed in. Bend the edge of the tin top in three places as shown in Diagram 8. Three small stones inside the tin can be used as a stand also. Make a hole near the top of the tin. It doesn't have to be round. Attach a paper strip and a piece of transparent plastic to the tin, as was done in Group Four in Activity I-4A. At the center of the plastic, put a coin or a small stone so that the plastic is lower at the center than elsewhere. Heat the water with a small flame until the water is hot but not boiling. The heat should be adjusted to keep the water hot but not boiling throughout the activity. When the water becomes hot, take note of the time. Near the end of the time available, the students should record the time that the water has been hot and remove the heat. Did any water collect in the tea glass? How did it get there? What percentage of the water you started with is now in the tea glass? What percentage of the water you started with remains at the bottom of the tin? **Procedure for Group Four** Some things are added to the equipment that was used by this group in Activity I-4A. The same heating stand and heat source with a small flame is used. If the tin used the last time has a round hole, and you have a tea glass or a very small tin that can fit inside, it is suitable for use in this activity. Make a stand to support the tea glass, or use three small stones. Fit the outer tube of a Bic pen into the hole in the side of the tin. A hollow bamboo branch can also be used, but it is not as good because you can't see inside it. The other end of the tube passes through a hole in a piece of transparent plastic which is attached to the top of another tin with an elastic band. This hole should be a little bit bigger than the tube so that air can escape from the tin as the system is heated and the air inside it expands. Put a measured amount of water in the tin on the heating stand. Place the tea glass on its support inside the tin. Attach the paper strip around the top edge of the tin with an elastic band. The plastic should be a little loose in the middle so a coin or a small stone will keep the middle lower than the edges. **Diagram 10** Heat the water with a small flame until the water is hot but not boiling. The heat should be adjusted to keep the water hot but not boiling throughout the activity. Note the time when the water becomes hot. Near the end of the time available, note the time and remove the heat. Did any water collect in the tea glass? Did any droplets form inside the tube? Are there any droplets of water in the tin at the other end of the tube? How much water remains in the bottom of the tin you heated? How much water is in the tea glass? Is there a measurable amount of water in the other tin? If so, how much water is there? Do these amounts add up to what you started with? Unless the students are eager to have a discussion, continue with Activity I-4C first. Tell the students to keep good records of their results so that comparisons can be made in the discussion after Activity I-4C. Further Study 1. Add some salt to the water. Taste the liquid which has condensed after about ten minutes to see whether the salt was transferred together with the water vapor. 2. Use vinegar instead of water. Taste the liquid which has condensed after about ten minutes to see whether anything was transferred together with the water vapor or not. Activity I-4C CONDENSATION OF WATER VAPOR In this activity, Group One and Group Two continue to use sunlight as their source of heat while Group Three and Group Four use somewhat larger flames than before. Materials | Material | Group | |-------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------| | Size of each sub-group | | | Access to the outdoors | | | Shovels or other tools for digging holes in the ground | | | Trays or dishes able to hold water | | | A smoky flame for coating some of the trays or dishes with soot | | | Small glass jars or drinking glasses | | | Sunlight | | | Pieces of transparent plastic larger than used before | | | Stones to hold down the edges of the plastic | | | Small stones to use as weight at the center of plastic pieces | | | Water | | | Measuring spoons, bottle caps, rulers, etc. to measure amounts of water collected | | | All of the materials used in Activity I-4B by Group Three and Group Four, except that the burners must now be hot enough to boil the water gently | | | Watch or clock | | | One | Two | Three | Four | |-----|-----|-------|------| | X | X | X | X | | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | X | X | X | X | | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | | 3-6 | | | | | X | | | | | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | X | X | X | X | | X | X | X | X | | X | X | X | X | | X | X | X | X | Procedure for Group One Dig a shallow hole almost as large as the piece of transparent plastic you have. The area of the top of the hole should be somewhat smaller than a square meter but preferably more than \( \frac{1}{4} \) of a square meter. If the plastic you have comes in a roll only about \( \frac{1}{4} \) of a meter wide, you can sew two or three strips together to get a piece that is approximately square. Sprinkle a measured amount of water on the soil at the bottom of the hole. Put a glass or jar at the center of the hole. Place the plastic over the hole. Use stones and soil to hold down the edges so air does not blow under the plastic. Put a small stone on the plastic above the glass. The plastic should be loose enough so the center is lower than the edges. Note the time. Near the end of the time available, note the time again. Did any droplets form on the plastic? Is there any water in the glass? If so, how much water is in the glass? What percentage of the water you sprinkled in the hole is now in the glass? If possible, put the glass and the plastic back and leave it until the sun is not shining on it anymore. Then measure the amount of water that has collected in the glass again. Procedure for Group Two Prepare a hole and plastic the same as used by Group One. Put several trays or dishes into the hole. Use dishes of various colors. Coat one dish with soot if you do not already have a black dish. Measure the same amount of water that Group One sprinkled in their hole. Put this water in the dishes so each dish has an equal portion of the water. Place a glass or jar at the center of the hole. Put the plastic over the hole. Use stones and soil to hold down the edges of the plastic so air is not blown into the hole by the wind. Put a small stone on the plastic above the glass. Be sure the plastic is loose enough so the center is much lower than the edges. Take note of the time. Near the end of the time available, note the time again. Cross-sectional view DIAGRAM 12 Did any droplets form on the plastic? Is there any water in the glass? If so, how much water is in the glass? What percentage of the water you put in the dishes is now in the glass? How much water remains in each dish? If possible, put the glass and the plastic back and leave it until the sun is not shining on it anymore. Then measure the amount of water in the glass again. Also measure the amount of water, if any, remaining in each dish. Procedure for Group Three All the materials are the same used in Activity I-4B, except the flame, which is larger. Heat the water until it begins to boil and note the time. Adjust the flame to keep the water boiling throughout the activity, but be careful the Bic pen tube is not heated so much by heat coming up next to the tin that it melts. Use the same amount of water that you used in Activity I-4B. Near the end of the time available, note the time and remove the heat. How much water collected in the tea glass? What percentage is this of what you started with? How much water collected in the other tin? What percentage is this of what you started with? How much water remains in the bottom of the tin that was heated? What percentage is this of what you started with? What percentage do the three of these percentages add up to? What percentage of the water was lost? Did the temperature of the second tin change while water vapor was condensing in it? For the discussion that follows, the students will need to use the results they have gotten during these last three activities. They may also need to refer to their results from some of the earlier activities. Remind the students to have all of their records in class for the discussion. **Further Study** 1. If you have a room where the windows can be closed so that there is very little breeze, it is recommended that some of the students do this activity and report their results to the rest of the class. Use the Group Four equipment but with the second tin standing on a dish, and the end of the Bic pen tube almost touching the side of this tin. Put the tin on the dish after the water is boiling, and keep it there for ten minutes. Do this three times: (a) put cool water in the second tin, (b) put warm water in it, (c) put very hot water in it. After each ten minutes, measure the amount of water that has collected in the dish. Have the students discuss possible reasons for different amounts of condensed water. 2. Use the Group Four equipment, but aim the Bic pen tube into various other containers such as a tea kettle. Use each container for ten minutes. Compare the water collected in the different containers tried. Feel the temperature of each container after vapor has been coming into it for a few minutes. In this activity the water should be boiling during the ten minutes that each container is being tried. SUMMARY As a result of doing the various activities, and sharing their results in the discussions, the students by now should feel familiar with a number of procedures and concepts. The procedures include measuring liquids by volume, measuring surfaces using square measure, measuring time, noticing differences in temperature, measuring temperature (if thermometers are available), computing rates of change, keeping records of results, making comparisons where differences in quantitative results are important, and making predictions or decisions using knowledge from previous experimental results. The concepts include evaporation, water vapor, condensation, rates of change, the sun as a source of heat, and area. Also cool, warm, hot and boiling as they apply to water. For some students the procedures may also have included looking for suitable equipment and bringing it to class, deciding which items to use from a supply of different sizes and shapes of tins, jars, pieces of plastic, etc., adjusting heat sources to maintain a certain rate of heating, using the sun as a source of heat, improving ways of collecting heat from the sun, approximating the surface area of solid objects, making graphs of results, using a pendulum as a timer, measuring temperature with a thermometer, and considering the flow of heat in a system. For some students the concepts may also have included evaporation as a way of reclaiming something that is dissolved in water (salt), evaporation as a way of cooling something (burlap refrigerator), condensation as a way of heating something, and distillation as a way of obtaining pure water from water that has things dissolved in it. Discussion of Activities 1-4A, 4B, and 4C As outlined in the summary, there is a core of procedures and concepts that all the students have been exposed to. Then there are additional procedures and concepts that some students have learned. The discussion should be a time when students in each group strive to explain clearly to the rest of the class what they did and what happened. It is also a time for students who did further activities to tell the class what they did. You may decide that the students' results can be best compared by using a chart similar to that available during the last discussion. Some of the students may be able to develop the necessary headings for such a chart, or you can develop one. or more charts based on your knowledge of what the students have been doing. If the class understands exactly what happened in each case, questions about similarities and differences in results should come up, and discussion will be lively. However, while a certain group is describing an experiment, in order to clarify the situation for the rest of the class, you may have to ask all the questions that you asked them during the activity. This helps to improve the communications skills of the students. It is sufficient at this time for most of the students to know what happened in most of the activities. In the discussion at the end of Part I, the students should be able to make generalizations about the major concepts they will have learned. * * * BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON RELATIVE HUMIDITY The ability of air to hold water vapor can vary a lot throughout the day and night. This is because the amount of water vapor that a given amount of air can hold is related to the temperature of the air. For each 10 degrees centigrade that air is warmed, its capacity to hold water vapor increases by about 100 percent. Similarly, for each 10 degrees centigrade that air cools, its capacity to hold water vapor is halved. If there is dew at night, the air is being cooled to a temperature where some of the water vapor it holds condenses onto plants and other objects. At that time, the air is saturated with water vapor, and the relative humidity is 100 percent. (When the air is holding all the water vapor it can, its relative humidity is 100 percent. Air containing no water vapor would have a relative humidity of 0 percent.) Consider a situation where the daytime maximum temperature is 10 degrees centigrade higher than the minimum temperature at night, and where dew forms at night. In this situation, the capacity of the air to hold moisture is doubled when the air is warmest, compared to when it is coolest. If no additional moisture is added to the air as it heats, its relative humidity would now be 50 percent. However, most of the moisture deposited at night as dew changes to vapor again when the air becomes warmer, so part of the capacity of the air to hold water vapor is used up. Therefore, the actual relative humidity at the maximum temperature in this example is somewhat greater than 50 percent. Now consider another situation. At certain times of year in some desert areas, the temperature goes down to about 5 degrees centigrade at night, and dew forms. The daytime temperature rises to about 45 degrees centigrade. If no additional moisture is added to the air as it heats, its relative humidity as the temperature rises would be as shown in this chart: | Temperature (degrees centigrade) | Relative Humidity (percent) | |----------------------------------|-----------------------------| | 5 | 100 | | 15 | 50 | | 25 | 25 | | 35 | 12½ | | 45 | 6½ | However, most of the moisture deposited on the sand at night as dew changes to vapor again when heated by the sun, so part of the capacity of the air to hold water vapor is used up. Therefore the actual relative humidity in this situation at 45 degrees centigrade is somewhat more than 6½ percent. In both of these examples, the relative humidity reaches 100 percent when the temperature becomes cool. The evidence that the relative humidity reaches 100 percent is the dew, which forms when the air has more moisture than it can hold. The more the temperature rises in the daytime, the lower the relative humidity. If dew forms in your locality at night, you can get an idea of what the minimum relative humidity could be in the daytime by measuring the usual high and low temperatures. Early in the morning the temperature is approximately the same as the lowest it may have been during the night. The high temperature can be measured around midday. These temperatures should be measured outdoors in the shade. Evaporation is slow if the relative humidity is near 100 percent and faster if the relative humidity is low. Air that has gained some extra water vapor by being in contact with the surface of water has higher relative humidity than it had before. If this air is moving away from the water and is being replaced by drier air, evaporation is faster than if the same air stays near the water for a long time. **Activity I-5A EVAPORATION AND TEMPERATURE** In this activity, students investigate what happens when water evaporates without any heat being applied. The human body's ability to sense differences in temperature is used to detect whether any change of temperature takes place. **Materials** Sub-group size: Students can work individually or in sub-groups. All the students follow the same procedure. A bowl or basin for each six to eight students Fans Pendulum or watch for timing Water to fill the basins Sunlight or another way of warming the water Dip your hand in water that has been out in the sunlight. Does it feel warm? Remove your hand from the water. Does your hand feel warm now? Swing your hand around while it is still wet. Does it still feel warm? When your hand dries, swing it as you did before. Does it feel the same as before? If you get both hands wet, hold one still and move the other one around. Which hand feels warmer? If you use a fan to move air to your hand, does it dry faster than when you don't fan it? How much time does each hand take to dry? Which makes your hand dry more quickly: fanning or swinging? Which makes your hand feel cooler? **BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON HEAT FLOW DURING EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION** After Activity I-3A, there is a Further Study which requires a thermometer. If you were able to do this activity, you saw that the temperature of water does not rise above a certain level (somewhere between 90 degrees centigrade and 100 degrees centigrade) when heat is supplied. Instead, the water boils. Water vapor is produced very rapidly, and it requires a continuous supply of heat. If you take away the heat, the boiling stops. If you put the heat back again, the boiling resumes, but the temperature of the water stays the same. How can the temperature stay the same when heat is being supplied? One way to answer this question is to think of the heat as being removed by something. It is being removed by the process of making water vapor from liquid water. In Activity I-4C, as done by Group Four, the tin at the end of the Bic pen tube became warm. Some of the water vapor condensed on this tin. Heat was being supplied to the tin by the process of making water from water vapor. This is the opposite of the situation just discussed. When water condenses it adds heat to the materials it is in contact with. If the relative humidity was close to 100 percent when your students were swinging their wet hands in the air, they would have had difficulty noticing any difference of temperature between their wet hands and their dry hands. Without any evaporation, there is no cooling taking place due to having a wet surface exposed. The lower the relative humidity is, the easier it is to notice the cooling, because more evaporation is taking place. When water evaporates it removes heat from the materials it is in contact with. In some localities with a hot climate, a small quantity of drinking water is kept in a slightly porous clay pot. Some of the water seeps through the walls of the pot, and evaporates from its surface. The cooling effect of this evaporation keeps the water in the pot noticeably cooler than water kept in an ordinary container. In the same way, the human body cools itself by sweating. Spoiling of fresh foods may be retarded by surrounding them with wet cloths. The water in the cloth evaporates, and cools the food a little bit. Drying of clothes is usually done in whatever way is most convenient and effective. Thus, they are put in sunlight in clear weather, and often hung near a fire in damp, rainy weather. If there are dry seasons and humid seasons in your locality, it would be interesting to compare the time it takes clothes to dry, if you keep all other conditions the same. For example, hang the clothes away from sunlight or fire, and where there is no breeze. The only remaining difference is the relative humidity of the air. **Activity I-5B EVAPORATION AND TEMPERATURE** If you have a thermometer, or if you can make a device that responds to fairly small changes in temperature and which is not destroyed by getting wet, do this activity. (See Appendix E for suggestions on developing these devices.) It enlarges upon Activity I-5A, and provides interesting results to compare if you can do it in dry weather and in wet weather. Materials Thermometers or homemade temperature sensing devices Fans Water Cloth This can be done as a demonstration if you have only one thermometer or by sub-groups if you have many thermometers or temperature sensing devices. Everyone follows the same procedure. Hang the thermometer in the shade or indoors and let it adjust to the correct temperature for a few minutes. What is the reading? With a fan, wave air towards the thermometer for a couple of minutes. Does the temperature change? Now wrap a small piece of wet cloth around the bulb of the thermometer. Leave it alone for a few minutes. Is the temperature different from when there was no cloth? If there is a difference, is the wet temperature higher or lower than the dry temperature? What is the reading? Fan the wet cloth for the same amount of time you fanned the dry thermometer before. Does the temperature change? What does it read now? If it changed, fan the wet thermometer again, until its reading stops changing. Compare the differences in temperature. Discussion of Activities I-5A and I-5B After Activity I-5B has been completed, have the students discuss their findings. They should compare these results with what they found when they moved and fanned their wet and dry hands in Activity I-5A. Also, Group Four should remind the other students of Activity I-1 where tins containing water and covered with cloth were placed in sunlight. Some pieces of cloth were wet, and some were dry. It should now be possible to understand what took place in that activity. Further Study If a wet-dry bulb humidity table is available, some study of humidity can be done. Relative humidity should be measured at various times of the day. It would also be useful to measure it at various times of the year: during dry months and during wet months. Discussion should correlate humidity with how people feel, as well as with what plants are growing during different periods. This study could be part of an expanded weather studies program. Activity I-6 COMPARISON OF WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF FRESH AND DRIED FOOD This activity uses concepts from previous activities to study how food dries. Equal arm balances or other means for weighing are needed. Weighing is also done in Activities II-1 and 2, and in measuring sulfur in Part III. Also, when the results of full-size dryers are evaluated, the wet weights and dry weights of the food dried will be required. The students may not be familiar with weighing. They could obtain practice by building equal arm balances, making a set of weights, and weighing various small objects. If you decide to have the students build equal arm balances, the instructions in Appendix F can be used. Appendix G shows ways of making improvised sets of weights. This activity also involves determining volume by displacement of water. If some students do not know this method of finding volume, this activity can serve as an introduction. Materials Piece of a large firm vegetable such as potato or cassava Straight sided jar at least 6 cm in diameter Equal arm balance or other device for comparing weights Cloth which air can circulate through Tray, dish, or piece of pasteboard Knife to cut potato Example of equal arm balance DIAGRAM 13 Materials (cont'd.) Razor blade or scissors to cut paper 1 cm grid sheets Ruler String Water Pencils Each sub-group should have one set of materials. Weighing equipment can be shared. Direct the students as follows, or hand out work sheets. Cut three pieces of potato in cubes, 4 cm on a side. Weigh each cube. Do they weigh about the same? If not, cut them so that all three are the same size, 4 cm on a side with equal weights. Cut one piece in half so that you have two equal pieces. How big is each piece? Measure the half pieces. How big is each edge? DIAGRAM 14 Cut one 4x4x4 piece into 4 equal pieces so that each piece measures 1x4x4. DIAGRAM 15 Weight Weigh each piece of potato on a balance. Does one 4x4x4 piece equal two 2x4x4 pieces? Does one 4x4x4 piece weigh the same as four 1x4x4 pieces? Volume Fill a jar half full of water and mark the water level with string. Then put one 4x4x4 piece of potato in the water, and mark the water level. Remove the potato. How many cm and mm did the water rise? Put one 2x4x4 piece of potato in the jar. How many cm and mm did the water rise? Put the other 2x4x4 piece in the water. Did the water rise to the same level as with the 4x4x4 piece? Remove the pieces from the water. Now put one 1x4x4 piece in the water and measure the water rise. Then add another 1x4x4. Does the water rise the same amount? Add the third 1x4x4 and measure the rise. Add the fourth piece of 1x4x4. Do four of the small pieces of potato change the water level the same as one big piece (4x4x4)? Area Wipe all the potato pieces dry. How many sides does the 4x4x4 cube have? Put the cube on a grid sheet and trace around each side. When you have traced around all of the sides, count the squares you have traced around. This is how many sq cm the cube of potato has on its surface. If you put the cube down on the table how many surfaces can you see without lifting the cube? How many sq cm of the surface can you see? Now count the sides on a 2x4x4 piece of potato. Trace around each surface of the piece on the grid paper. Count the number of sq cm the surfaces of the piece covered. How many sq cm are there on the surface? What is its area? When the 2x4x4 piece is sitting on the table, with the large surface upward, how many surfaces can you see without lifting the piece? Put the 4x4x4 piece and the two 2x4x4 pieces on the table with the large surfaces upward. Which has more area that you are able to see? One 4x4x4 or two 2x4x4 pieces? In the same way as with the larger pieces, count the surfaces of the 1x4x4 pieces and trace around each surface of each of the four 1x4x4 pieces. Count the number of sq cm of surface on all four 1x4x4 pieces. Also calculate the number of sq cm that are exposed to the air if the four pieces are put separately. on the table.* Stack the 1x4x4 pieces. What is the surface area exposed? Remove one piece from the stack and put it on the table. How much more area is exposed than when all four were stacked? Remove another piece from the stack and put it separately on the table. How much more area is exposed now? How can a 4x4x4 piece be cut to give more surface area than by cutting four 1x4x4 pieces? **Drying and Surface Area** On a large tray or dish or piece of pasteboard, place one 4x4x4 piece of potato, one 2x4x4, one 1x4x4, and any others you have decided to try. Measure these new pieces so you know their sizes and weights. Put the tray in a place where it will not be disturbed, and cover with cloth. Leave it a few days. What do you think will happen to the pieces of potato? Will they all be the same? How will the size and surface area affect the changes? **Teaching Method Alternatives** While waiting for the pieces of potato to dry, begin the next activities. Activities I-7, I-8A, I-8B, and I-8C are written as if everyone in the class will be doing the same thing on a particular day. However, you may decide to have certain students build the devices to be used in Activities I-8A and I-8B right away. These devices are for measuring angles. If you decide to do this, consider now whether or not you want the class to do Activity I-9. In Activity I-9, the students make a device to condense water using the heat of the sun so that pure water can be obtained from contaminated water. It is then operated at various angles to find the angle at which the most water is produced. However, it requires woodworking skill to build this device, so you should select students with this in mind. Students who are not building any devices should begin with Activity I-7A, and should then do the other activities as soon as the devices are finished. *Note: If the students have trouble conceptualizing the connection between area of grid paper and area of potato pieces, cut the grid paper out and pin it on the faces of the potato cubes.* Discussion of Activity I-6 When the pieces of potato have dried, have the students report on their findings. This should include the weight of each piece wet and dry, how much time each piece took to dry, which pieces dried and which pieces if any spoiled. The volume of each dried piece should be approximated and compared with the volume of the piece before drying. During the reporting of findings, you should note the extent to which the students apply any of the concepts they have been exposed to so far. At the end of the discussion, encourage the students to think of suggestions about how food drying may be done best. Tell them that after they do some more activities, they will have a chance to try out their suggestions. Have the students make a list of the suggestions they make now so they can be used in later discussions. CHAPTER 2. SUN AND AIR The activities in this section emphasize the use of the sun's heat energy. They begin with observations of surfaces heated by radiation from the sun. Attention to the use of black surfaces to absorb radiant heat is continued. The activities also explore the angle of a surface relative to the sun, and the effect of this angle on heat absorption. A familiarity with the measurement of angles is needed. This offers an opportunity to collaborate with a math teacher. The students will construct a box for condensing water, and maximize the amount collected by controlling the angle between the sun and the black material at the back of the box. Finally, activities studying how air moves when it is heated lead to the construction of food dryers in Part II. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON ENERGY FROM THE SUN The sun continuously gives off large amounts of energy which travel through empty space as radiant energy. A small amount of this energy reaches the earth, and some is absorbed by the atmosphere. The sun's energy exists as a continuous spectrum of different kinds of energy from radio waves to light, heat, ultraviolet and x-rays. On a clear day, most of the sun's heat energy passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by the surface of the earth. Dark colored materials absorb most of the heat energy that strikes them, while light colored materials reflect much of the heat and light energy that strikes them. Energy that strikes materials directly, perpendicular to their surface, is the most concentrated as it is spread over only a small area. Energy striking a surface obliquely is spread over a larger area and therefore less energy is absorbed per unit of area. The greatest absorption of radiant energy then is by a dark colored surface that is at a right angle to the source of energy (sun). These principles are used in devices which collect solar energy to make that energy usable to people. These devices can be used to gather heat energy from the sun to cook, bake, dry, heat water, distill water, produce electricity, produce steam and do other useful things. Because the earth is tilted, it receives more energy on one half than on the other. During the months of September through March, the half of the earth south of the equator receives the sun's energy more directly and is heated more than the Northern Hemisphere. From March to September, the northern half of the earth receives energy more directly and is heated more than the Southern Hemisphere. This unequal heating of the earth's surface leads to some areas becoming warmer. Air above these regions is heated by touching warm land and oceans. This air expands due to warming and is pushed upward by heavier, cooler air. This rushing of cool air to replace lighter warm air is the wind. The energy in the wind comes from the sun, and can be used to do work. Heat, a kind of energy, moves from something of higher temperature to something of lower temperature in three ways: 1. Conduction - heat moves from one substance to another substance that is touching the first substance. 2. Convection - one fluid material heats and expands, causing it to rise and carry heat to other areas. 3. Radiation - heat energy moving through space that is absorbed finally by a material. At the conclusion of Part I, the students will be able to: 1. name the three ways that heat moves from something of higher temperature to something of lower temperature. 2. vary the factors affecting absorption of heat to increase or decrease the amount being absorbed in a system they have built. 3. describe what happens in a convection box heated by the sun, including radiation, conduction, and convection in their description. **Activity I-7 RADIATION** Some materials that have sat in the sun absorb more heat and feel hotter than other materials. Which material's collect the sun's heat efficiently? **Materials** Sub-group size: Two or three students. All the sub-groups follow the same procedure. 1 Smoky flame for coating tiles and tins with soot, such as a candle or a paraffin burner Materials (cont'd.) 3 Clay tiles, bricks, or blocks molded from soil taken from termite mounds 2 Tins of the same size Matches Thermometer or other method of measuring temperature (see Appendix E) Water Flat glass or clear plastic sheet White paint, cassava paste, or whitewash Watch or other timer If you have only one thermometer, one person can circulate among the sub-groups to make the temperature measurements. Soil from termite mounds can be mixed with water and molded into blocks if other clay tiles or bricks are not available. Each sub-group should have three tiles: one that is coated on one surface with soot from a candle flame; one that is coated with whitewash, white paint or paste made from cassava or a similar food starch; and one that is left uncoated. These tiles should be kept in a shady place for a few hours before the activity, where their temperature will not have been raised by exposure to sunlight. Procedure for All Sub-Groups Set the three tiles out in the sun with the colored surfaces upwards. Take the temperature of the tiles when you first put them out. After thirty minutes, take their temperature again. Which tile became the warmest? While measuring the temperature, stand so the thermometer and the tile are in the shade of your body. If the thermometer receives heat directly from the sun, it gives a false reading. Thermometers should be stored in the shade because it is possible for them to become too hot and break if the temperature reading goes beyond the maximum. Further Study Take the temperature of each block at ten minute intervals. Make a time vs. temperature graph for heating of the blocks. While the blocks of clay are lying exposed to the sun, each sub-group should gather two tins of the same size. One tin should be covered with soot from a candle, one should be left shiny. Fill each tin to the top with water and take the temperature of the water. Place the tins in the sun, after five minutes take the temperature. Record the temperature in a table like this: | Water Temperature at Five Minute Intervals | |--------------------------------------------| | | 0 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 | | Shiny Tin | | | | | | | | | Black Tin | | | | | | | | Record the temperatures every five minutes and write them in the table. Continue recording the temperature for thirty minutes. Leave the tins in the sun and measure the temperature again after two hours and, if possible, after four hours. What is the highest temperature reached? Draw a graph from the temperature recorded on the table. Water Temperature vs. Time in Sunlight Which tin absorbs the most heat? Which tile absorbs the most heat? Further Study 1. Lay several pieces of cloth out in the sun. Some dark colors, some light colors. After a few minutes feel them. 2. Put a band of dark cloth around one arm or leg. Put a band of light cloth around the other arm or leg. Lie down in the sunlight for a short time. Which colors absorb the most heat? Which colors are not good absorbers? Which colors reflect the most sunlight? The least sunlight? (The reflection is judged by the brightness of the cloth when you look at it in sunlight). Sometime during the class period, put your hand in sunlight, then put your hand behind a piece of glass or clear plastic so that the sun shines through the clear material onto your hand. Does your hand feel warmer or cooler behind the clear material? Does the clear material stop all the sun's heat? Part of it? None of it? The air also is mostly clear on a sunny day. Do you think the air stops much of the sun's heat from coming to you? Do clouds stop the sun's heat from reaching you? Discuss your results with the other sub-groups. Activity I-8A MEASURING THE ANGLE OF SUNLIGHT Discuss: At what time of the day is the sun highest in the sky? How high does the sun get? Does the sun get higher in some seasons than in others? How can we measure how high the sun gets in the sky? Caution: You can damage your eyes by looking at the sun. You can use the following device to measure the angle of elevation of the sun without looking at it directly. Materials 6 pieces of wood, bamboo or reed Newspaper or other large paper Hammer Nails or pegs and a drill Heavy paper or cardboard for making a protractor Stone, bolt or similar for weight 2 tins with both ends cut out String Saw or knife Protractor Heavier stones, bricks or logs Activity I-8A BUILDING AN ANGLE MEASURING TUBE FOR SUNLIGHT Make a roll of newspaper by rolling the paper around two tins from which both ends have been cut out. You should be able to see down the center of the roll. Tie the roll with string to keep it from unrolling. Cut six pieces of wood 10 cm longer than the roll of paper. Hammer a thin nail or peg into one piece of wood 2 cm from the end, then drive the nail into a second piece of wood, also 2 cm from the end. The pieces of wood should be able to rotate. Nail a third piece of wood to the other end of the first piece in the same way. Nail the other three pieces of wood together in the same manner. Make a copy of a protractor on a piece of cardboard. Nail the cardboard protractor to the middle of one of these, as shown in Diagram 17. Make the straight edge run at right angles to the piece of wood, with the 90° mark centered on the piece of wood. Hammer a small nail into the protractor at the center of the straight edge of the protractor. It should stick out about one centimeter because a string with a weight will be tied to it as shown in Diagram 19. Tie the roll of paper onto the two center pieces of wood with string as shown in Diagram 18. Cut another piece of string as long as the distance from the protractor to the end of the center piece of wood. Tie a weight to the string, and tie the other end onto the nail. Weight the lower legs down with stones, bricks or logs. Move the front legs in and out, aiming the tube toward the sun until sunlight can be seen when your hand is held at the bottom of the tube. Measure the angle of elevation above the horizon by reading where the weighted string crosses the protractor. Using this device, measure the angle of the sun throughout the day. Each sub-group should use this device until everyone is familiar with the measurement of angles. Alternatively, each sub-group could build one device. The device can be used at different times of the year - seasons - for weather studies. Further Study Mount a mirror at the bottom of the tube between the pieces of wood for viewing the moon and stars as part of a unit on studying the skies. The device can be used to measure the elevation of heavenly bodies. Activity I-8B MEASURING THE ANGLE OF SUNLIGHT What angle is the best for heating? Materials Tiles or bricks used in Activity I-7 A smoky flame Matches Thermometers Square pieces of cardboard for making protractors String Washers or bottletops for weights Small nails Pieces of wood a little longer than one side of the square cardboard Protractors How to Make an Elevation Angle Measuring Device Draw a protractor on a square piece of cardboard. Attach a piece of wood to the cardboard as shown in Diagram 20. The nail at the center of the straight side of the protractor should stick out, so the string with a weight at the end can swing freely from it. If a bottletop is being used as a weight, hammer a small hole in it using a nail. Adjust the length of the string so the weight does not reach the edge of the cardboard in any position. To use this device, hold a straight edge of the cardboard against the surface whose angle is to be measured. The string crosses the edge of the protractor to show the number of degrees away from the horizontal the surface is. This is the elevation angle of the surface. For example, if held under a table, the reading should be 0 degrees. If held against a wall, the reading should be 90 degrees. After everyone is familiar with measuring the elevation of the sun, the way the sun heats surfaces which are set at different angles to the sunlight can be investigated. The results of Activity I-7 show that dark surfaces absorb more heat than light surfaces. Now, blacken one surface of each tile with soot from a smoky flame. Before putting the tiles in sunlight, measure and record their temperatures. Bring the tiles out in the sunlight and tilt one so that it faces the sun directly. With an elevation angle measuring device, measure the angle of the tilt. It should be at right angles to the sunlight. The elevation angle measuring device should show an angle 90 degrees different than the angle measuring tube for sunlight shows on its protractor. Another tile can be laid flat on the ground. How many degrees from the horizontal is it? Stand one tile straight up. Use rocks to hold it upright. How many degrees from the horizontal is this tile? Put another tile with its edge facing the sun. How many degrees is it from the tile which faces the sun? Which tile do you expect to heat best? Which one do you expect to be heated least? After several minutes, measure the temperature of the tiles with a thermometer or feel them with your hand. Which tile is heated the most? Almost as much? The least? Is this what you expected? How would you explain this to another student? Activity I-8C MEASURING THE ANGLE OF SUNLIGHT Why do surfaces facing the sun directly heat better than surfaces at an angle to the direct rays? Materials 1 cm grid paper Flat cardboard rectangular pieces Angle measuring tube Tape Protractor Angle measuring devices Hold this edge against the surface being measured. DIAGRAM 20 DIAGRAM 21 Procedure for All Sub-Groups Tape a sheet of 1 cm grid paper to a board, book or other flat rigid object. Tilt the grid paper to face the sun directly at the angle measured by the angle measuring tube. Place a rectangular piece of cardboard smaller than the grid paper over the grid paper. Tape the cardboard along one edge so that the edge lines up with one grid line. Trace the cardboard outline onto the grid paper. Count the number of square cm the cardboard covered. Measuring with a protractor, lift the cardboard rectangle 20° from the grid paper and trace the edge of the shadow. Count the squares that are inside this line. Did the shadow of the cardboard cover more or less grid paper than when the cardboard was flat? Did the cardboard tilted at 20° catch more or less sunlight than when it was flat? Measuring with a protractor, tilt the cardboard up at a 40° angle from the paper. Trace around the shadow's edge. Is the area covered by this shadow more or less than at a 20° angle? Tilt the cardboard at a 60° angle and trace the shadow. How many square cm of sunlight does the cardboard catch at a 60° angle? Do the same for 80°, then 90°. Refer back to the tiles in Activity I-8B. Which tile was heated most in the sunlight? Why did one heat more than the other? Discuss the results with the other groups. How would you explain this to other students? Further Study Stand in front of the cardboard and grid paper so that the shadow of your head is on the cardboard. You are looking now at the cardboard from the same way the sun does. Put the cardboard flat on the grid paper. Have somebody else lift it up by a free edge. Which way do you see more cardboard? Which way do you see less cardboard? How can you tilt the cardboard so that you do not see any of the surface? At which angle would the cardboard heat best from the sun? Why? Report your findings to the class. Activity I-9 USING THE SUN TO PURIFY WATER The preceding activities have shown the relationship between the angle at which the sun strikes a surface, the color of the surface, and the heating of the surface by the sun's rays. The following device uses the sun's heat to evaporate water. The water condenses on a flat piece of glass that is heated less than the dark surface below it. Water runs down the glass surface, which is sloped, and is collected in a trough. Water is fed into the box by a tube leading from a container of contaminated water. This device calls for a greater degree of woodworking skill than previous activities. Some of the construction could be done in the woodworking class, collaborating with the woodworking teacher. The basic design presented can be modified to fit the local materials, tools and woodworking skills. The box may be made as large as desired, limited by the size of glass or clear plastic available to cover the top surface. Materials 4 pieces of wood, making the sides of the box, planed and sanded, sealed if possible. Boards, making the bottom. Bamboo tube, about 2 cm diameter, 5 cm longer than the width of the box. Nails Hammer Metal shears or chisel Clear plastic or glass, making the top. Crack sealer: use what is available. Black cloth, covering the bottom Large tin and a piece of a large tin Saw Drill Tape The bottom of the box may be made with tightly fitted and sealed boards or it may be covered with plastic sheeting nailed tightly to seal the bottom. Over this some dark cloth is nailed. A hole is bored in one side at the upper end for the bamboo trough. The tube is cut in half to serve as a trough for water to enter the still. Small holes are bored in the bamboo trough so the water will drip down onto the cloth. Water in the supply tin drips through a tiny hole into the trough. Small blocks nailed to the inside of the box hold the bamboo trough in place. The collector trough for fresh water at the lower end is made from metal from a large tin. It is cut with metal shears and bent to form a V-shaped channel. It is nailed to the lower end of the box with the metal set tightly against the wood so that no leakage will occur between metal and wood. The end of the metal trough may be set tightly against the wood, or it may have a piece of metal soldered over the end to form a water-tight end. The other end is open for pure water to drip into a container for collection. The metal trough passes through a hole bored in the side of the box. A small hole is bored in the lower end of the box, below the metal trough, for extra contaminated water to run out. When all the parts are installed, glass cut to size or clear plastic sheeting slightly larger than the top of the box is fastened onto the box. The plastic can be nailed over the edges. Glass can be set on top with small blocks of wood nailed on the sides of the box, projecting up to keep the glass from sliding off. Then the glass may be taped to keep it sealed. See additional Diagram 23. bamboo trough blocks support trough tape edge seal glass wood box support black cloth metal trough pure water contaminated water drain excess contaminated water DIAGRAM 23 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION Energy reaches us from the sun by radiation. By now, the students have used this source of heat energy a number of times. In the last several activities, the students learned that to collect radiant heat energy effectively, its direction has to be taken into account. They also found that dark colored surfaces absorb radiated heat better than light colored surfaces. Heat energy is often transferred from one substance to another by conduction. If the two substances are touching each other and have different temperatures, the cooler substance will become warmer as it receives heat from the hotter substance. A table becoming warm beneath a teacup is an example of heat being transferred because substances are in contact with each other. The tea warms the cup by touching it. The cup warms the table by touching it. Movement of heat by conduction is studied in Activity I-10. If one of the substances involved in transfer of heat is a liquid or a gas, movement within the liquid or gas takes place while its temperature changes. This movement, which is called convection, is studied using air as the gas that moves, in Activities I-11A and I-11B. Activity I-10 CONDUCTION In this activity, the students use the body's ability to sense differences in temperature to study conduction. Materials Tins Table or floor not in sunlight. Sources of heat such as charcoal burner or flame. Stones Watch or other timer Heat the stones on the charcoal burner or flame. While this is being done, everyone should note if the tins and table feel warm or cool. One or two hot stones are put in each tin, and the tins are placed on the table or floor, and not moved. After about 5 minutes, feel the tins and the table underneath it. Are they warmer or cooler than before? Are the stones warmer or cooler than before? Where has heat moved in this activity? Teaching Method Alternatives Experiments are provided for each of the four groups in this activity concerning convection. Depending on how your class is working, you have a choice of two alternatives for teaching convection. 1. Have the sub-groups in each group do the experiment outlined for them here. If by now the students are able to communicate effectively with each other when each group explains to the rest of the class what they have been doing, this procedure will work well. 2. If you feel that communication between groups has not been effective, it is suggested instead that each experiment should be done by all the groups. The equipment required to do this would not be much more than would otherwise be needed, since the same equipment can be used by different groups on successive days. Activity I-11A CONVECTION In this activity, how heat is transferred by convection is studied, and a device is built that could function as a small food dryer using air heated by the sun. Materials | Materials | Group | |------------------------------------------------|-------| | | One | Two | Three | Four | | Students in each sub-group | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | | Pieces of paper about 20 cm by 25 cm | 3 | | 6 | | | Elastic bands or string | 2 | | | | | Thin wire | 1 | | | | | Small stones | 1 | | 5 | | | Source of heat such as a charcoal burner or fire| X | X | X | | ### Materials (cont'd.) | Material | Group One | Group Two | Group Three | Group Four | |-------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------|-----------|-------------|------------| | Scissors or blades to cut paper | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | String or braided cotton that produces smoke when glowing | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Hot charcoal | | | 1 | | | Small boxes made of paper, pasteboard or wood; or tubes made from paper | | | 1 | | | Stands made from tin lids to support hot charcoal | | | 1 | | | Candle | | | | X | | Common pins | | 8 | 20 | 8 | | Small boxes made of paper or pasteboard with open top | | | | 1 | | Black ink or paint | | | | 1 | | Transparent plastic | | | | 1 | | Matches | | X | X | | | Pendulum or watch | | X | | | ### Procedure for Group One Make a tube from paper about 6 to 8 centimeters in diameter and about 20 centimeters in length. The wall of the tube should have a thickness of not more than 2 or 3 layers of paper because in this activity the students will feel the temperature of the air inside the tube. Tie the tube together with several elastic bands or pieces of string. A small stone that has been heated in a fire will hang from the roof of the tube by a thin wire. Make the roof strong enough to support the wire, but thin enough so the temperature of the air inside can be felt through the paper. Folding a piece of paper twice is one way to make a suitable roof. Attach a thin piece of wire to the small stone. Measure enough additional length of wire so that the stone will hang about half way down the tube. Put the stone with the wire attached on the fire. It should become as hot as possible. Place the tube in as little breeze as possible. Attach the end of the wire to the center of the roof. Lower the stone into the tube until the roof rests on the end of the tube. The roof must be flat and rest on the end of the tube so that there are no holes for air to pass out of the tube. After about two minutes, feel the tube at the bottom, the middle, the top, and on the roof. Write down whether the tube feels cool, warm, or hot in each of these places. Were you surprised by the temperature of the tube in any of these places? Repeat the activity if everyone did not have a chance to feel the tube, or if there are any disputes about what parts of the tube were cooler or warmer. Now cut a small opening at the top and bottom of the tube. Each opening should be about 1 square centimeter. Heat the stone. Light one end of a piece of string or braided cotton so that it glows and produces smoke but not a great amount of hot air. Put the stone in the tube. Hold the smoking end of the string at the bottom opening in the tube, and then at the top opening in the tube. Try putting it just inside each opening, and just outside each opening. Watch what the smoke does. The way the smoke moves shows how the air is moving. In what direction is the air moving? Make a diagram showing how the air flows. Note: If you are doing this in a breeze, it may be impossible to see the smoke. Try using a larger source of smoke and replacing the hot stone with a piece of hot charcoal. Take precautions for fire because the charcoal may burn the tube. Procedure for Group Two Do the same experiment as is done by Group One, except use a box. If it poses a difficulty to make boxes, you can make tubes from paper and flatten one side as in Diagram 26. Have the tube lying horizontally, and close off both ends of the tube similar to the way the roof is used by Group One. Make two holes, one directly above the heat source, the second near the other end of the box or tube. Use a hot stone, hot charcoal, or a candle as source of heat. Test the flow of air by holding a piece of smoking string near each hole. Which way does the air flow? Make a diagram showing how the air flows. DIAGRAM 26 hole directly above heat source source of heat table source of smoke Cross-sectional view DIAGRAM 27 Procedure for Group Three Put about five hot stones on the ground, and place a paper enclosure over them as shown in Diagram 28. Feel which parts of the paper get warm. Make several holes about 4 square centimeters each along the bottom edges of the enclosure. Test for flow of air using a smoking string. Then make several similar holes near the top of the enclosure. Test for air flow again. Which way does the air flow? Make a diagram showing how the air flows. Diagram 28 Procedure for Group Four Use a box with one hole at each end, near the bottom of the box, as shown in Diagram 29. Coat the bottom of the box with black ink or paint. Attach transparent plastic with pins to make the top of the box. Leave this in the sunlight a few minutes, and test for air flow using a smoking string. Test it when the box is horizontal, and when one end is propped up, as shown in Diagram 30. This should be done where there is as little breeze as possible. Then put the box horizontal again, and make a hole at the top edge of one of the sides. Test the flow again. If a thermometer is available, measure the difference in temperature between the air entering the box and the air leaving the box. Diagram 29 After each group has reported its results to the rest of the students, continue with the next activity which concludes Part I. **Activity I-11B CONVECTION** In this activity all sub-groups need the same materials that were used by Group Four in Activity I-11A. The students have learned that air warmed by a source of heat inside a box tends to flow out of the box if there are two holes in the box, and one hole is higher up than the other hole. They have also learned that a surface absorbs the most energy from the sun if it is at an angle of 90° with the sunlight. In addition, they have been told that for each 10 degree centigrade raise in temperature, the relative humidity of air is halved. In this activity, the students build boxes that have transparent tops. You should encourage them to produce what they think are the most desirable conditions inside the box for food drying. They should design their boxes with following questions in mind: How can this box make the most effective use of the sun? How much temperature rise is best? How much air flow is best? How can ways to adjust these be built into the design of the box? These boxes can be used to dry pieces of food in Activity II-1 which concerns finding the percentage of water in various kinds of food. * * * **SUMMARY** The students have learned additional procedures and concepts in the activities done since the summary in Chapter 1 on page 45. These procedures include using smoke to detect air flow, measuring the direction of light, measuring elevation angles of surfaces, computing ratios of weight, and estimating ratios of volume. These concepts include relative humidity, surface-to-volume ratio, radiation, conduction, convection, measuring volume by displacement, evaporation as a means of cooling, and radiation being directional. For some students, the procedures may also have included measuring relative humidity and designing a system where everything cannot be maximized and an effective balance must be sought. For some students, the concepts may also have included reflection contrasted with absorption, and consideration of a situation where two or more variables must be taken into account simultaneously. The students have now been exposed to all the concepts necessary to participate knowledgeably in building and operating food dryers. If you are teaching a class which will eventually face an external examination, it will be worthwhile to look at the Syllabus to see how questions are framed that relate to each concept the students have learned in Part I. If there are gaps in the students' knowledge, you can teach lessons interspersed in Part II, so that there will be no confusion about the terminology or calculations your particular Syllabus requires. There are several ways by which you can assess how much and what your students have learned. One or more of the following methods may be appropriate for your situation: 1. Listen to the way students describe their work and otherwise participate in discussion. 2. Observe the way they have designed their boxes and their food dryers in Part II. 3. Note their answers to specific problems and questions that you pose. If your teaching is designed for practical outcomes only, these informal methods may be sufficient. If, however, written examinations of knowledge acquired is a requirement, then those exams can serve to help you identify areas in which students will need additional instruction. PART 2. FOOD DRYERS PART II. FOOD DRYERS This part develops and applies the concepts learned in Part I. It contains activities concerned with food drying, and activities constructing food dryers. Variables: - heat - moisture - volume - wet and dry - weight - wet and dry - area - wet and dry - humidity - air movement - angle of sunlight Note: Other subjects for related work are agriculture, math and trigonometry. Chapter 3 begins with simple food drying to determine the water content of foods. Volume, weight and surface area are measured, expanding on the food drying activity in Chapter 1. Heat, air movement and the angle of sunlight, which were introduced in Chapter 2, are explored further as students build and test small models of food dryers. As the students improve the effectiveness of their small models by modifying them, they will determine which of their designs work most effectively. In Chapter 4, various designs of dryers are presented with some building suggestions. These dryers cover a range of designs using a variety of materials. They can be modified a number of ways to suit the local materials and climate, in accordance with what the students have learned with their small dryers. However, students may build a large dryer they design themselves, instead of depending on the designs presented. Some trigonometry is required to build one of the dryers. The math class could work on this aspect while the science class works on another aspect or another dryer. The two classes could then build the large dryer(s) collaboratively. If this is not possible, you can make the necessary calculations and give the figures and dimensions to students interested in this dryer. Dryers using heat from a source other than the sun are also introduced. If electricity is available, a very inexpensive model can be built, encouraging the science students to apply concepts in an alternative situation. Also, the students can test and compare the results of drying foods with solar dryers to the results with alternative dryers (coal, paraffin) in order to determine the advantages of various dryers. Both small and large dryers can be built with tools the students have made. If the students have not made tools or do not have access to tools, you may want to precede some of the activities with tool building (see Reprint 35*). If each group of students has a set of tools, the problem-solving activities can run more smoothly. Getting the Community Interested To increase the likelihood of the methods and skills being generalized, try to involve the community as you and the students gather materials for the activities. (Some items may be donated also. Are dry mild, bulgar wheat, and other dry staples available in the local area?) Would a local restaurant owner give food to the science class in exchange for dried food during the season of shortage, thus improving the menu and saving money on purchases of expensive imported items? Would farmers give their extra perishable crops in exchange for having some of it dried? Are there international agencies or businesses in the area? Would they donate food or money for food for the project? What could the science class offer them? Presenting the food drying project as a potential community service increases the likelihood of assistance, and provides a link to the community for increased education. Advantages of Food Drying and Solar Dryers Preserving food by drying allows for nutritious meals even in the season of shortage. Besides this obvious advantage, there are other reasons for preserving food by drying. *Peace Corps ICE publication #R35, How to Make Tools. 1. Drying preserves the vitamin, mineral, protein and fiber content of food more than methods which expose it to extremes in temperature. (See pp. 162, 174) 2. Dry food is often more flavorful than fresh food because even after rehydration it is somewhat smaller than its original size. The flavor is therefore more concentrated. Eaten dry, the flavor and nutrients are much more concentrated. 3. Drying costs less than freezing and canning. 4. Dry foods require very little storage space. 5. Dry foods when kept dry will remain edible indefinitely. Mold and bacteria can grow only where there is water. Solar dryers offer further advantages: 1. Solar dryers can maintain high enough temperatures to eliminate the possibility of mold or bacterial spoilage. (See p. 122) Spoilage is common with open drying methods, especially in humid climates. Also, if the solar dryer can reach a temperature of 55° C, further pasteurization is not needed. This saves time and effort. (See pp. 125, 171-2) 2. Solar energy is free and readily available. 3. Food in solar dryers is protected from dirt and animals. 4. Any insects already in the food will be killed or driven off by the high temperature in the dryer. 5. The rise in temperature inside the dryer reduces the relative humidity. The moisture in the food is carried off by the heated air moving around the food. As a result, food can be dried faster in a solar dryer than outside. Objectives The students will learn to identify and manipulate the variables involved in food drying: 1. Heat 2. Moisture content 3. Volume 4. Weight 5. Area 6. Humidity 7. Air movement 8. Angle of sunlight This will be done through discussion, activities and the building and testing of small and large food dryers. CHAPTER 3. PREPARING FOR FOOD DRYING Activity II-1 WATER CONTENT OF FOODS (See introduction to II-2, p.91). In Chapter 1, the students began a preliminary investigation of the water content of food. In this activity, students weigh various foods wet and dry and calculate the water content. The students should apply the ideas learned in the evaporation activities to reduce the time needed to complete the activity. They will begin also to collect information about food types to use later when the small and large food dryers are built and tested. Each sub-group of students should have a balance to use for its studies.* As discussed in Appendix G, it is also a useful learning experience to develop one's own system of measures. By comparing the wet weight and dry weight, the students can calculate the percentage of water in foods. DIAGRAM 32 * See Appendix F for instructions on how to design and build equal arm balances. **Formula:** \[ \frac{\text{Final Dry Weight}}{\text{First Wet Weight}} \times 100 = \text{Food content; nutrients and fiber and some water} = F \] \[ 100\% - F = \text{Water content; removed by drying} = W \] **Example:** \[ \frac{1 \text{ bottlecap}}{4 \text{ bottlecaps}} \times 100 = 25\% \text{ Food Content} \] \[ 100\% - 25\% = 75\% \text{ Water Content} \] The students also can compare the volume of food pieces wet and dry. For some food items, this would be an approximation. For example, mango slices can be put in a straight sided jar and the volume of a cylinder can be calculated for the space the wet slices occupy and the space the dry pieces occupy. For other food items which can be cut in geometric shapes, such as potato or melon, the volume can be calculated directly. Using grid sheets may facilitate this measurement. **Further Study** If math is to be emphasized, encourage your students to calculate the volumes of their food pieces using the following formulas: - **Cube** \[ V = S^3 \] \( S = \text{One dimension} \) - **Rectangular Prism** \[ V = l \times w \times d \] \( l = \text{length} \) \( d = \text{depth} \) \( w = \text{width} \) - **Cylinder** \[ V = \pi r^2 h \] \( T = 3 \) \( r = \text{radius} \) \( h = \text{height} \) - **Sphere** \[ V = \frac{4}{3} \pi r^3 \] As a guideline, dried fruit and vegetables have 1/6 - 1/3 the volume and around 10 - 20% the water of their original fresh state. Have soap and basins available and encourage everyone to wash their hands before handling food. Have the students clean the food also before preparing it for drying. Encourage sanitary conditions during the activities. Some discussion of the reasons for sanitation may be developed as the students work on their experiments. Note also the pre-drying procedures outlined in Chapter 8. **Materials** - **Vegetable:** potato, cassava, carrot, celery - **Fruit:** banana, mango, melon - **Cereal or seed:** bean, rice, sorghum - **Protein:** fish, cheese (Use food items available. Although it is useful to test a variety of foods to compare the water contents and drying times, it is not necessary to have one of each food to test) - **Razor or similar cutting tool** - **Water** - **Basin, bowl or bucket** - **Equal arm balance or other device for comparing weights** - **Bottlecaps, tins or similar items to be used as weights** - **One small dish or piece of pasteboard for each piece of food to be dried** - **1 cm grid sheet** - **Straight sided jar to calculate approximate volume** - **String** - **Ruler** - **Soap** - **Cloth: cheesecloth, gauze, nylon tulle** Each sub-group should have one set of materials. Weighing equipment and basins can be shared. Direct the students as follows or hand out work sheets. After washing your hands, take one food sample. Check to see that your sub-group has a variety of food samples. Cut the clean food sample so that you can measure and dry it. Food for sampling should be gathered when ripe. Pieces should be selected which have no cracks, bruises or rotten spots. Bad spots should be cut out. (See pp. 175-177). First, measure the cut piece. What is its area? What is its volume? Record this information. Next, select a dish or pasteboard piece, weigh it and record the weight. Place the cut food piece on the dish and weigh them together. Record the result. Place the food piece and board or dish in a warm place and cover it with a piece of cloth. Note the time and location. Leave it for a number of hours or until the next day. Then weigh it (food and dish) and record the weight. Wait again for some time and weigh it and record weight. Continue to wait, weigh, and record until there is no change in the weight. What is happening? Why is there no more change in weight? Next, measure the food piece. What is its area? What is its volume? How does this volume compare with the first volume? What fraction or percentage of the first volume is the final volume? Compare the first weight of the food with the final weight of the food. What fraction or percentage of the first weight is the final weight? How much water has evaporated from the food? What percentage is the water content of the food sample? How does this food compare with the other foods? How long did it take to reach a final weight? How does the time compare with the other foods? How long did it take to reach a final weight? How does the time compare with the other foods? With the same food dried in a different location? Report your findings to the rest of the students. Some of the results can be presented in the form of a graph. Activity II-2 SMALL SOLAR FOOD DRYERS In this activity, students begin to apply the concepts learned and information gathered in Part I. This activity links with the last activity of Part I, Activity I-11, where the students discuss and design food dryers. You can do this activity before, during or after Activity II-1 depending on the areas of student interest and what is most convenient for you. Materials Tins and pieces of metal from tins Black paint, soot or black cloth Wood Pasteboard or wood boxes Paste or cement or other adhesive Thermometers (Angle measuring device) Equal arm balances or other devices for weighing Razor blades, knives, glass cutter Aluminum foil or aluminum paint Cotton gauze, nylon tulle, mosquito netting Nails Glass or plastic One type of food to slice for drying tests, preferably one that does not spoil readily. Soap Basins, bowls or buckets Rulers Hammers, saws, chisels, drill, etc. Each sub-group should have access to enough materials to build, test and modify their food dryers until they are satisfied with the results. This activity, as others, can be conducted outside, especially if the construction noise would be distracting to other classes. The activity should continue for a number of class periods until the students have determined which models work most efficiently and effectively in the local environment. Encourage the use and modification of the designs the students developed in Activity I-11. Have all the materials in a central location to facilitate the building. Ask the students to build a small device to dry food. Let the students know that after they have built and tested the small models, the class will build one or more large dryers. Ask the students to find out which design will dry food the fastest. Let the groups work independently. While the students are building the small models, move from group to group to ask questions. Ask questions about the design and how it takes these variables into consideration? How is the air around the food heated? What way will the air move through? What would be the best location for that model? Will moisture gather inside? What would happen to the device on a windy day? What surface color will work best? Where will the food be placed? Can the model's angle be changed? Some models built by students are diagrammed below: Diagram 33 Have one type of food available for cutting and drying. As each sub-group finishes building its small model, including trays or shelves (p.96) for the food, have these students prepare some food for drying. Encourage the students to wash their hands before handling the food. Ask the students to keep records on their experiments. How did you cut the food? What size were the pieces? What time of day did you begin to dry the food pieces? What was the weather like? Where did you place the dryer? How was the dryer placed? What did the food pieces weigh wet? What area? Volume? How much did the food change as it dried? Did the drying go fast or slow at first? Or was the drying rate consistent the whole time? How long did the drying take? What was the dry weight? Area? Volume? Ask the students to observe all the models being built and discuss their designs and ideas between the groups. After the drying tests, have each group report on their design and the results to the class. From this discussion should come ideas for modification of some of the dryer models. These will then be tested. Eventually, the students should agree on which designs work best. Then have the students work on the designs of one or more large dryers. At this point, there may be some collaboration with the math and woodworking classes. Collaborating on different aspects of the same problem or project involves using time allocated to different subjects which are often taught by different teachers. When circumstances favor this arrangement, learning outcomes are often enhanced. SUMMARY The students now know what has to be done to food to dry it. They also know how to make the many decisions necessary to build an effective dryer, and how to test and adjust until good results are gotten. The next activity will be building large dryers. Build the designs the students have determined are best suited for the local environment and materials available, or have them adapt a design from Chapter 4. Alternate heat sources for drying can be introduced, if desired, while the building is going on or after the students have built and tested the sun heated dryers (e.g. paraffin, coal). CHAPTER 4. BUILDING FOOD DRYERS The dryers presented here are samples to use after the students have experimented with small models. Some may not be appropriate for your local situation. All of them can be modified considerably. Some designs can be used with the sun's heat or with alternate heat sources. Some of the dryers can be adapted for indoor use which may be useful if there is a long wet season. All of the dryers can reach temperatures around 45 degrees centigrade and can therefore also be used to incubate yogurt, sour cream and other cultured milk products. Another modification to consider: Can a dryer be used as a chick incubator? Food drying trays can be built with a variety of materials. (See "Food Preservation Resource Packet".) The general design is a wooden or metal frame with cloth, netting, woven wood strips or woven bamboo attached. There must be holes for ventilation. Woven wood, bamboo or baling wire trays are sturdier and can be washed and reused more than trays made with cloth. Rubbing the trays with a small amount of cooking oil keeps the food pieces from sticking and makes cleaning easier. Don't use a material such as aluminum, copper or fiberglass which can contaminate the food. Generally each 20 square decimeters of tray accommodates about one kilogram of raw food. It is best to keep the size of the trays small enough to carry easily. This way, food can be washed and cut and placed on the trays indoors and then carried outdoors and put in the dryer. Also, the food laden trays can be moved easily indoors at night or if it should rain. SOLAR DRYERS Three very different dryers are described in this section. Each dryer has certain advantages. The students have weighed the factors affecting dryer operation in the local environment as they built and tested the model dryers. They can therefore develop a design appropriate to the locality and the materials available, using the designs shown here as a resource for additional ideas. All the dryers are heated by solar radiation and operate with convection currents of air. The food is enclosed and is protected from dirt and pests. All the dryers reach temperatures in the optimum drying range: 40°C. to 60°C. Some dryers can reach this range even on overcast days in the colder climates. Site Location of the dryer should be chosen based on needs, i.e. exposure to maximum sun; little wind, enough for ventilation but not cooling. OIL DRUM SOLAR DRYER As the sunlight changes direction throughout the day, this dryer with its curved surface has about the same area available to collect solar energy. Once the dryer has warmed up, the heated air moves across the food inside at a fairly constant temperature as long as the sun continues to shine on it. The sun heats the drum. The air outside the drum is warmed by touching the drum, before it flows into the drum. Two layers of plastic insulate this air from the cooler air outside. This minimizes unnecessary loss of heat. Diagram 34 Below: Cross-section of dryer showing how the air flows in the bottom, around between the plastic and the drum, in through the holes in the drum, and out the ends near the top. Inside the drum the heated air flows past the food and gains moisture. It also gains some additional heat by touching the inside of the drum. Then it leaves the dryer through the vent at the top of each wooden end. However, the food should not receive much radiation from the drum because the food may get too hot and cook. *A. Make one of these. *B. Cut two of these. *C. Make two of these. A black surface absorbs radiation best, and is also the best surface to radiate heat. A light colored surface absorbs radiation poorly because most of it is reflected away. A light colored surface is also the poorest surface to radiate heat.* This is the reason why the inside of the drum is supposed to be painted a light color. In your locality, it may not matter, but if you don't paint it and the food cooks instead of drying, you should then paint it. **Materials** | Item | Description | |-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | Oil drum | | | Chisel and hammer or welding torch | | | Clear plastic | | | Cloth for pad under drum | | | Hinges for door | | | Paint thinner | | | Tacks or very small nails | | | Nails or pegs | | | Saw | | | Trays (see the first page of Chapter 4) | | | Wood for frame | | | Black paint or something similar | | | Aluminum paint or whitewash | | | Paint brush | | | Net or wire to cover vents | | | Pegs, wood strips and small blocks | | | Hammer | | *The activities in Part I about radiation are concerned with how to absorb it most effectively. None of these activities deal with how you design a heat source. Therefore, there has been no information given about what sort of source radiates heat effectively, and what radiates heat poorly.* Both ends of the drum are removed, and three holes are cut in one side as shown here. **DIAGRAM 36** **Oil Drum Solar Dryer Construction** (See diagram) Read through completely. 1. Cut the top and bottom (the ends) out of the oil drum, using a hammer and chisel or a welding torch. Cut a rectangular piece from each area on the side of the drum between the ridges as shown above. 2. Paint or coat the outside black on all surfaces that sunlight will reach. Paint the inside with aluminum paint or whitewash. 3. Measure and cut pieces of wood to make the ends, the bottom, and the sides. 4. Make the ends. Near the top of each end is one vent opening, which should be covered with netting or cloth. In one end is a door which is large enough so that trays can be put in the dryer easily. Hinge the door. 5. To support the drum, attach blocks of wood to the inside surface of each wooden end. 6. To provide a place to fasten the inner layer of plastic, attach curved strips of wood, or small blocks of wood, (at least 2 cm wide) to the inside the drum to hold the trays. 8. Nail the cloth paid onto the bottom. Its purpose is to prevent air from flowing between the drum and the bottom. 9. Attach the ends to the bottom, leaving sufficient space above the ground for air to enter freely. The bottom should be a short distance below the blocks or strips that will support the drum, the cloth pad to fit firmly against the drum. 10. Put the drum on the blocks. 11. On the bottom air vent side, beginning where the bottom is attached to the ends, attach a layer of plastic to the inside of the curved strips or blocks on the ends. Let it hang down on the side that is not cut away for the air vent. Pull the plastic smooth and attach it to the edge of the bottom. Nail the side piece on this side only to the bottom. These nails pass through the plastic you have just attached to the bottom. Also nail it to the ends. 12. Place the other side piece in position. The inner plastic is now between the side and the bottom. Nail this side to the ends only. (Most of the bottom is cut away on this side for the air intake). 13. Pull the plastic smooth and attach it to the side. 14. Attach the outer plastic sheet to the ends and to the sides. Plug any leaks. 15. Position the dryer to take best advantage of the sunlight for as many hours of the day as possible. **MUD WALL SOLAR DRYER** This dryer was developed in Tanzania. It is built in a permanent location so care must be taken to determine the best direction to position the dryer, and to locate it where it will not be disturbed. It could be built on the school grounds or somewhere in the town or village so that community residents could use it. Except for not being movable, this dryer has all the advantages of other solar dryers, making it more efficient and effective than open air drying and much cheaper than drying with alternative heat sources. It also costs very little to build, and uses building skills that most people have. Materials Plastic sleeve - all dimensions for the dryer must match the plastic sleeve so that the cover fits on the walls. One standard size has a circumference of about 240 cm and can be gotten in any length. Nails String Bamboo tubes the width of the dryer (cut ventilation holes) Lime or cement or cow dung Hammer Knife Measuring tape or meter stick Clay soil or termite hill soil or some similar material Wood or bamboo poles as long as the dryer Boards to cut for end pieces for sleeve top Reeds, strips or twigs Charcoal powder Wood posts about 50 cm long Sand paper or something similar Saw Hoe Mud Wall Dryer Construction 1. The wood frame for the plastic sleeve is built first so that the other construction can be matched to the plastic sleeve roof. A. Cut the end boards in triangular shapes that will fit in the plastic sleeve. B. Cut out holes at the corners and fit and nail the poles into these holes. C. Sand down all the rough edges on the frame so that the sleeve will fit over the frame without tearing. D. Slip the plastic sleeve over the frame. Roll the excess plastic on the ends around wood poles. Draw the rolls up tightly against the ends and tie them securely. 2. The dryer walls are built next to match the dimensions of the plastic sleeve roof. A. Clear and level the site for the dryer. B. Mark out the dimensions using pegs driven in the earth and string drawn between the pegs. The corner angles should be 90°. The plastic sleeve roof should overlap the outer edge of the walls by 3 to 5 cm so rain will not run off the roof onto the walls. C. Dig holes for the poles at the corners and at 25 cm intervals. The holes should be about 25 cm deep. D. Put the poles in the holes so that they are aligned and all the same height, which should be about 25 cm above ground level. E. Tie or nail twigs or reeds connecting the poles at two or three levels above the ground. This makes a sturdy frame. F. Mix the clay or similar substance to make a smooth mud. Pack this inside the spaces between the linking reeds. Smooth the mud completely over the inside and outside of the frame to make smooth walls. G. Insert the bamboo tube vents from side wall to side wall while the mud is wet. Set them at 50 cm intervals. When the dryer is finished, the food trays can sit on the bamboo tubes above the ground to assure good air circulation. H. Around the top edge of the wall, carve out half circles for exhaust vents. Make sure the rest of the top edge of the wall is smooth and level so that the plastic sleeve roof will sit securely on it. I. After the mud has dried completely, plaster over the outside walls with lime, cement cow dung. J. Mix charcoal powder with mud or some other sticky substance and plaster the inside walls and the bottom of the dryer with this black paste. 3. Build trays to hold the food. The trays should be wide enough to be supported by the bamboo tubes. Instructions for making trays are on the first page of Chapter 4. After the trays with food have been placed in the dryer, the roof is set on top and can be tied down to pegs to secure it against the wind.* COLD FRAME CABINET SOLAR DRYER This rectangular shaped dryer has a roof angled to catch the optimum solar radiation. The students experimented with this angle in Part I. Generally, it can be approximated if one knows the latitude of the area. | Latitude | Roof Angle with Horizontal | |----------|----------------------------| | 0° | 0° | | 10° | 0° | | 20° | 10° | | 30° | 15° | | 40° | 25° | | 50° | 35° | The double layer glass or plastic framed roof is hinged and the food trays are put in the dryer from the top. The cabinet should be at least three times as long as it is wide to minimize shading from the sides. The double cabinet walls and bottom are insulated with about 5 cm of thickness between inside and outside walls. Wood shavings, sawdust, dry organic matter, animal hairs and other similar things can be used for insulation. The double walls and bottom are sealed tightly after insulating. The inside is coated with black to absorb heat. The dryer is set on legs. There are holes along the front edge of the bottom, and along the top of the side and back walls. Convection currents or air move in through the bottom, pass by the food, and out the top. *A different way of constructing this type of dryer is described on pages 71 to 82 of the Dryer Models section of Small Farm Grain Storage, published jointly by VITA and the Peace Corps.* Braces are attached to the inside of the dryer to put the trays on.* If math is to be emphasized, trigonometry can be used to calculate the dimensions of the end pieces once the optimum angle with the horizontal has been determined. *Instructions for building an insulated dryer similar to this, containing many helpful construction techniques, are found on pages 59 to 75 of the Dryer Models section of Small Farm Grain Storage, published jointly by VITA and the Peace Corps. ABC is a right triangle. Angle x is known; it is the angle for optimum solar heating. Angle z is 90°. Angle y = 90° - Angle x The framed glass or plastic size is known. Therefore, the hypotenuse (C) would be known. Since: \[ \sin y = \frac{B}{C} \] \[ \cos y = \frac{A}{C} \] Then: \[ C \sin y = B \] \[ C \cos y = A \] Also, since \(A^2 + B^2 = C^2\), any side dimension can be calculated from the equation. For example, if \(B = 16\) and \(C = 18\), then, \[ 16^2 + A^2 = 18^2 \] \[ A^2 = 18^2 - 16^2 \] \[ A^2 = 68 \] \[ A = 8.25 \] As with the mud wall solar dryer, it is good to start with glass or plastic and frame the double layer. Then with the known dimensions of the lid, the other dimensions can be calculated. The glass or plastic may be available only in certain widths. The length of the lid, and therefore the cabinet, needs to be three times the width or more. **Materials** - Glass or clear plastic - Nails - Wood pieces for legs and frame and braces for trays - Hammer - Black paint or charcoal paste - Hinges - Wood boards for inside and outside walls and bottom - Saw Materials (cont'd.) Insulating material such as sawdust, animal hair rags, lint, rice husks Wood strips or tape to cover the edge of the insulating material Drill Short pieces of bamboo or other tubes to keep insulation from plugging the vent holes in the sides and bottom As you consider these designs for dryers, keep in mind that the students are likely to think of useful modifications of materials as well as design, in producing a dryer suitable for your locality. After the large dryers are ready, proceed with the lessons on treatment and preparation of food for drying in Part III and begin preserving usable quantities of food by drying. ALTERNATE DRYERS CABINET DRYER This dryer is the most complicated design and requires more woodworking skill than the other dryers. It can be adapted for use with several heat sources and so, can be used indoors during the wet season. This may be viewed as an advantage. It can use electricity from a hot plate or similar source, or a paraffin heater, or a coal burner, or a solar plate collector similar to the device built in Activity I-11B, to supply warm air. The heat source is below the cabinet and convection causes the heated air to move through the trays carrying the moisture from the food out through the top. It is possible to collaborate with the woodworking class to build this dryer. Note: Discuss dangers of paraffin and coal. The cabinet is diagrammed below: - **Diagram 41** - Side view - Heat - **Diagram 42** - Top slides for venting - Walls can be wood or bamboo or woven reed - Screening can be used above heat source - Heat source: charcoal, electricity Materials Wood Hammer Wood strips about 2 cm by 4 cm to hold shelves Wood pieces about 4 cm by 4 cm for the frame Hinges and latches for the doors Saw Ruler Wide wood pieces for sides, back, doors and top (or bamboo or reed mats) Trays that can slide into the cabinet Nails You can adjust the dimensions to fit the materials available. Generally, the cabinet dryer is about $2\frac{1}{2}$ to 3 times as tall as it is wide. Also, if other dryers are being built, it is a good idea to make a standard size tray that will fit all the dryers; this consideration also affects the choice of dimensions. The trays should be less deep than the dryer to allow for circulation of the warmed air so that the moisture is lifted from the food and carried out. The walls of the cabinet can be constructed with wide pieces of wood or can be built with a number of thin strips fit tightly together and sealed or lined with plastic. Split bamboo strips, woven bamboo or reed mats can be used as walls if lined well with plastic and nailed to a wood frame. As with other dryers, check the temperature with a thermometer placed on a tray or hanging from a tray. Adjust the heat source or the sliding top as indicated by the temperature. SOLAR CABINET DRYER The cabinet dryer can also be used outdoors, since the food is protected from dirt, insects, rodents and birds. By attaching a solar plate collector to the base, the air can be warmed using the sun's heat. The device used in Activity I-11B is a simple solar plate collector. Solar radiation passes through the clear glass or plastic and is absorbed by the black surface. Air moving through the collector is heated and moves up out of the collector by convection. The solar plate collector shown below uses black coated corrugated metal to absorb the radiation. The heat is then transferred to the air inside which is touching the metal. This collector has a double panel of glass or plastic to insulate the warm air inside. If only one thickness of glass or plastic is used, the air inside can lose much heat by touching the transparent material which is cooled by the air outside. In this collector, the air passes on both sides of the heated metal, as shown in the diagram. The solar plate collector is attached to the cabinet with pegs or screws. The angle of the collector should be the angle that resulted in the best heating in the experiments in Part I. If you make its connection to the cabinet flexible, the collector can be raised or lowered at the base to adjust for the optimum angle. LIGHT BULB DRYER If crops mature and spoil during a cloudy time of year in your locality, and electricity is available or can be generated, this dryer may be useful. It is simple and inexpensive to build. It could also be kept in the classroom and used for pasteurizing food which has been dried in the sun in solar dryers that do not reach pasteurizing temperatures. This small dryer reaches a range of 55° to 60° C. after heating for a period of time. (This dryer was adapted from an Organic Gardening & Farming magazine design.) Materials 50 watt light bulb Cardboard or wood to make two boxes Aluminum foil or aluminum paint Hammer Metal sheet cut to fit top of box or a cookie sheet that fits the box. Light socket, base, cord and plug Small nails Knife or scissors Screwdriver Saw Chisel Black paint and brush or black cloth and cement or a smoky flame for coating the bottom of the metal sheet with soot. 1. Paint the bottom of the metal sheet black, or cement black cloth to the bottom or cover the bottom with soot. 2. Line the inside of box with aluminum paint. One could use other shiny substances to line the box; the object is to create reflective surfaces to focus the light and heat on the black bottom of the metal sheet which absorbs the heat. 3. Notch the box or cut a small opening at the base of the box to pass the electrical cord through to the electricity source. 4. Set the bulb, socket and base in the bottom of the box. 5. Make holes in the metal sheet and place it on top of the box. 6. Make a pasteboard or wood box with no bottom which is almost as large as the tray. It should have holes along the lower edges of three sides. The top should be adjustable to control the flow of air leaving the box. Cover that allows air flow but keeps flies away from food. One 50 watt bulb is adequate for 15 to 20 square decimeters of tray. If a larger area is set up for drying, use six 50 watt bulbs for each square meter of area. The depth can vary considerably; with the bulb placed 20 to 25 centimeters below the sheet, the dryer will heat from 20° to 30° C within an hour. After four hours, the temperature will be between 55° and 60° C. Rub the sheet (tray) lightly with oil before putting food slices on it. Each 20 square decimeters of tray space holds about one kilogram of raw food. Drying time averages from 8 to 12 hours. This may vary with the relative humidity. Place the top box on the dryer. If the dryer is used in a breezy location, make sure that the top box is placed over the tray so the side with no holes is facing the breeze to prevent the flow of air from being too rapid. Have the students experiment to see how controlling the flow of air over the tray affects the drying rate. If there is concern about insects or dirt, cheesecloth can be draped over the upper box, covering the air holes. The cost of using this dryer can be calculated using the following formula: \[ \frac{\text{watts}}{1000} \times \frac{\text{energy price}}{\text{square decimeters of drying space}} = \text{cost per hour per square decimeter of drying area} \] For example, in the United States, electricity costs about 5 cents a kilowatt hour, so using this dryer for 12 hours costs about 3 cents. This dryer activity can be tied to other electricity studies. Encourage your students to compare this dryer's effectiveness and cost with other dryers they build. **SUMMARY** The students now have the training and, if they have built one or more large dryers, the equipment to preserve significant amounts of food by drying. Part III provides the students with sufficient background in nutrition to realize that including a variety of foods in one's diet is worth making an effort. There are also reference tables and practical guides for designing good diets. PART 3. NUTRITION This part can be presented as food is being dried and stored. A number of lessons will evolve as students test the different dryers. Some vegetables and fruit may spoil as students run tests and learn the most productive drying methods. When this occurs, lessons on spoilage from mold and bacteria can be introduced as well as lessons reinforcing the use of preservation and pasteurization methods. The decomposition of food by mold and bacteria is similar to the digestive process in humans. As simple food tests and digestion tests are being run, students can also test spoiled foods and note differences between fresh, spoiled and dried foods. This will emphasize the value of drying and preserving foods as well as increase the students' awareness of the digestive process. The sequence of chapters presented is a suggestion. It is best to sequence the chapters as students bring up issues, questions and concerns. Lessons on preservation and spoilage and decomposition may precede or follow simple food tests based on the students' questions. In this section, food drying tests are presented before simple food tests only as a suggestion for following upon the equipment constructed in Part II. CHAPTER 5. FOOD DRYING TESTS BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON MOLD AND BACTERIA In this series of lessons, students learn more about the impact of mold and bacteria on the preservation of foods. This is important in studying food preservation by drying because bacteria and molds are found in foods. By ingesting foods contaminated with mold and bacteria, we can become infected so we need to preserve foods free of mold and bacteria. (p.178) These lessons show the behavior of mold and bacteria under different conditions and thereby reinforce the preservation and storage methods necessary to avoid the contamination and spoilage of foods. A lesson also shows the digestive process of mold and bacteria and thus emphasizes what will be learned in the food test and digestion test lessons. The discussion of mold and bacteria is offered to assist the teacher in facilitating lessons and directing student research. It is not necessary to include all the detail in the lessons. It is your choice to interject various pieces of information in the discussion after the activities. You may want to discuss food storage in association with this chapter. (See p. 178) BACTERIA Bacteria are considered plants primarily for classification, though many scientists would prefer to put them in a class separate from plants and animals. Bacteria have the following characteristics: 1. Small size; micro-organism. 2. Unicellular. 3. Rigid cell wall. 4. Reproduction: primarily binary fission; some produce spores. 5. Able to obtain food in a soluble form. 6. No chlorophyll. Some examples of bacteria are: 1. *Staphylococcus*, which causes infections on the skin and in the respiratory tract. 2. *Diplococcus pneumoniae*, which causes pneumonia. 3. *Salmonella typhi*, which causes typhoid fever and is spread through contaminated water, milk and food. 4. *Rhizobium*, which is the nitrogen fixing bacteria on legumes' roots and is quite necessary and beneficial for plant growth. Bacteria sources for the lessons include decaying fruit and the dirt under fingernails. **MOLD** There are many types of mold; they are classified by their reproductive processes. Molds have the following general characteristics: 1. Multicellular. 2. Majority of molds are composed of many thread-like filaments (exception - Slime Molds). 3. Filaments are thin walled. 4. Reproduction: asexual or sexual; most molds have both cycles. Each mold produces a fruiting body where spores are formed. The spores are thick walled. 5. Ability to obtain food in a soluble form. 6. No chlorophyll. Some examples of mold are: 1. *Rhizopus Nigricans*, the "bread mold." It is a soft, white, cottony mass with black spore cases. It grows on moist bread, raw sweet potatoes, and other starchy foods. 2. *Penicillium* grows commonly on citrus fruits, forming blue-green spots on the fruit. It is used to make the antibiotic Penicillin and is also used in cheese production. 3. Aspergillus appears reddish or black depending on what it grows on; it is similar to Penicillium and is very common. 4. Neurospora grows in bread, on fruit and on grains. It is red. In culture, it has produced a number of enzymes including Lipase and Trypsin. Mold can be found or produced for the lessons on moist bread, citrus fruits and/or by placing dead flies in stagnant water. **MOLD AND BACTERIA** Mold and bacteria differ in the first four characteristics listed above, but have other characteristics in common. As mentioned, both mold and bacteria contain no chlorophyll and both are able to obtain food in a soluble form. Also, all mold and bacteria are killed or made dormant by low or high temperatures or when moisture is low. These factors are very important when considering the preservation of foods and will be studied in this chapter. Although bacteria and mold differ in some ways, the factors important in a discussion of food preservation are common to both. For this reason, they will be studied together. Learning the advantages of preserving food by drying and employing good drying procedures will be the outcome of these lessons. The following diagram on the effect of temperature on mold and bacteria growth is offered to facilitate discussion while the students prepare materials and during the tests. It is best that the students discover the relationships through the activities; presenting this diagram before the activities might inhibit some problem solving. At 115° to 120°C, with steam under pressure, even the hardiest spores are killed in 15 to 20 minutes. Most mold and bacteria are killed rapidly at 100°C (212°F). No mold or bacteria grow in the range of 60° to 105°C, but some resistant spores can survive. Our body temperature is 37°C. Most common mold and bacteria grow best at temperatures in the range of 18° to 36°C. No mold or bacteria grow at temperatures below -5°C, but most spores can survive. DIAGRAM 45 Preparation of Materials for Activities Students will gain a better awareness of the need for cleanliness, sterilization and pasteurization in food preservation and preparation as they become involved in the preparation of materials for this chapter. Check in the local area for resources. Would the local meat market butcher be willing to donate bones? Or would he be willing to trade bones in return for the fat that is rendered while making gelatin? Could the farmer who slaughters an animal use some of the gelatin? The uses of gelatin can be a secondary objective learned in this series of lessons. Agar, which is similar to gelatin, may be available. It is made with seaweed from the East Indies. It has some advantages over gelatin, one being a higher melting point. Gelatin can be used for these studies, though, and may be easier to secure or produce. While the students are involved in the preparation of materials, concepts learned in other lessons (solutions, colloids, characteristics of fat, measurement, evaporation) can be reinforced through questioning and discussion. CULTURE Materials Animal bones (uncooked or boiled) Water Scale Pot Procedure 1. Crush the bones to small pieces. 2. Put the bone pieces in a pot, cover with water and boil for 15 minutes. 3. Cool. Skim off the fat. (The fat can be used.) 4. Remove the bone pieces and retain the water. 5. Grind the bones to powder; weigh. 6. The water should equal 8-10 times the weight of the bones. Add more water if necessary to obtain this proportion. 7. Return bone powder to the pot. 8. Boil until evaporated to $\frac{1}{2}$ the volume. The resultant liquid is gelatin. 9. Pour gelatin into sterile dishes for the mold and bacteria studies or keep gelatin warm while the additions are prepared for the activities. **ALTERNATIVE CULTURE** If gelatin cannot be produced, potato, cassava, cooked egg white, or margarine can be sliced and put in dishes with lids and sterilized. The test results with this procedure, though, are not as definitive. It may be useful to have both types of culture dishes prepared and used, especially if the students seem unsure about the results. Another alternative culture for growing mold and bacteria can be made with well cooked cereal. Put cooked cereal in dishes or small jars, cover, and sterilize. If each group of students runs the full series of tests, you will need 18-24 culture dishes total for each group. This may be difficult. It is possible to run a test/activity, record and discuss results and then clean, prepare and sterilize the dishes for the next test. With this procedure, you will need 2 or 3 dishes for each group. Alternately, you can assign one test/activity to each group of students and have them conduct the tests simultaneously. This would require 18-24 dishes total for the class (4-6 tests). **TO STERILIZE OR PASTEURIZE** Sterilizing, the killing of microorganisms, is done by placing the item (dish, stick) in an oven, heater, or dryer at a temperature of $45^\circ - 50^\circ$ C. for one hour. This is sufficient to kill most mold and bacteria, except the spore forming bacteria which require higher temperatures. Many spores resist higher temperatures and will sprout when placed in favorable conditions. Pasteurizing is a modified, partial sterilization recommended for sun dried foods that may not have been kept at a high enough temperature for the length of time needed to kill microorganisms (mold and bacteria, p.p. 172, 174). The process is modified so that the food is not cooked and the loss of nutrients is minimized. During the mold and bacteria lessons, it would be useful to emphasize the similarities between sterilizing, pasteurizing and food preservation methods. **Sterilization in an Oven** **Materials** - Items to be sterilized. - Oven or dryer able to heat to 70° - 80° C. **Procedure** Heat items in oven at 70° - 80° C. for 10 - 15 minutes. **Sterilization by Steam** Another sterilizing procedure uses steam and, thus, reaches higher temperatures and kills more molds and bacteria than the other procedure. **Materials** - Items to be sterilized - Water - Source of heat - Large pot or can with rack or platform - Lid to pot or can **Procedure** Put 5 cm of water in the pot and place a rack or platform above the water. The dishes/jars to be sterilized are put on the rack in the pot. Bring the water to the boiling point. Steam will be visible, escaping from the cover. Boil for twenty minutes. Remove from the heat source to cool. Keep the pot covered while cooling. There are many ways to adapt available materials for sterilizing and pasteurizing. Some models of food dryers can reach temperatures sufficient for pasteurization and partial sterilization and can be used to prepare culture dishes for the mold and bacteria studies. It is useful to have another alternative, preferable a steam sterilizer. Students can compare results in the dishes/jars sterilized with the different procedures; this increases the opportunities for learning. Oven or Sterilizer To Make Transfer Needles Transfer needles are used to transfer mold or bacteria from their source to a sterilized dish or jar. Each time this is done, the student should sterilize the needle by heating the end of it in a flame before using the needle to transfer again. This transfer to a sterilized dish is called planting. Materials Soft wood twigs or branches about the size of pencils Sewing needles Procedure Push the needle into the end of the wood leaving the needle eye about 3 cm from the end. Activity III - 1. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF MOLD AND BACTERIA In this activity, students will observe some physical characteristics of mold and bacteria. This preliminary investigation is particularly important if the students have not discovered mold and bacteria during other food lessons and activities. Materials Source of bacteria and mold (see pp. 119-120) Hand lens Procedure Have the students observe and record what they have noted about mold and bacteria. During the discussion, cover such questions as: What does it look like? Where is it found? Have you seen it other places? Are the samples different? How? Are some larger? How do they grow? What is needed? The preliminary discussion should bring out some questions to test. Sequence the test lessons according to the questions the students raise. If the students discuss the need for water for mold and bacteria growth, begin with this study. If the concern is focused on the type of food mold and bacteria grow on, begin with that study. Ask the students how they can check how bacteria and mold grow. For example: How can we test whether water is needed for mold or bacteria to grow? Have the students discuss and develop plans to answer the question. Let the students begin the tests/activities. The following activities outline the kinds of tests students can perform for some of the basic questions about mold and bacteria. The students can gain more if they design the test procedures themselves; it is not necessary to limit the study to the questions presented here. Activity III-2 DO MOLD AND BACTERIA DIGEST COMPLEX FOODS? In this activity, students will discover that mold and bacteria themselves digest many of the foods which we eat. This will reinforce the concept that foods must be prevented from being contaminated by mold or bacteria. An example of a chart for students to use in recording their observations for this and the following activities is found after Activity III-6. Materials Sources of mold and bacteria Sterilized culture dishes Pieces of protein, carbohydrate and fat Transfer needles Procedure 1. Transfer mold and bacteria to sterilized dishes, each containing a different food type. 2. Label the dishes according to food type. 3. Put the dishes in a warm place (18-35° C) for 2 or 3 days. 4. Observe the various dishes. Are there differences in the size of the mold and bacteria from its previous size? Are there differences from one food type to another? What changes have occurred to the original foods? 5. Record your observations and conclusions. Activity III-3 DO MOLD AND BACTERIA NEED WATER TO GROW? In this activity, the necessity for water for bacteria and mold growth is investigated. This is done by planting bacteria in wet and dry cultures and observing the differences over a period of a few days. Materials Sources of mold or bacteria Gelatin in sterile dishes Light bulb dryer or other solar dryer with cover Dry cereal or dried food in sterile dish Cooked cereal or fresh food in sterile dish Transfer needle Procedure 1. Plant mold and bacteria in some gelatin dishes. Place half the samples on a light bulb dryer covered with a box or place them in a solar dryer covering the open dishes with a box or bowl. Place the other covered samples in a warm, dark place. Check all the dishes after a few days. Note the differences and record the results. 2. Place a spoonful of dry cereal or a few pieces of dried food in a sterile dish with lid. 3. Place a spoonful of cooked cereal or a few pieces of fresh food (same kind as dried) in a sterile dish with lid. 4. Plant each dish with mold or bacteria. 5. Put the dishes in a dark warm place for a few days. 6. Check them. What has happened? How do the dishes differ? 7. What can you conclude about the results? Activity III-4 DO MOLD AND BACTERIA GROW WELL IN LIGHT AND IN DARK? In this activity, students will study the effects of light and darkness on mold and bacteria. Materials Culture dishes Source of mold and bacteria Transfer needles Procedure 1. Plant some dishes with mold or bacteria. 2. Place some of the dishes in a light place such as by a window. 3. Place the other dishes in a dark place. 4. After a few days, check the dishes. Observe the results and record your findings. Activity III-5 DO MOLD AND BACTERIA GROW BEST IN COLD, WARM OR HOT PLACES? In this activity, students investigate whether mold and bacteria grow best in cold, warm or hot places. Materials Culture dishes with covers Source of mold and bacteria Dryer or oven Transfer needles Procedure 1. Plant dishes as in the other tests and cover with lids. 2. Place one in a very cold place such as on a concrete floor in a well shaded corner. 3. Place one in a warm place. 4. Place one dish in a hot place such as a dryer or oven. 5. Check the dishes after a few days. Record your findings. Activity III-6. DOES SUNLIGHT KILL BACTERIA OR MOLD? In this activity, students will discover what effect direct sunlight has on the growth of bacteria and mold. Materials Culture dishes Source of mold and bacteria Transfer needles Direct sunlight Procedure 1. Put mold or bacteria in two sterile dishes. 2. Place one of the dishes in open sunlight for several hours. 3. Place the other dish in a warm dark place. 4. After a few hours, remove the first dish from the sun and place it with the other dish. 5. Check them after a few days. Record your findings. Have the students prepare charts such as the one on the following page. If the class has been divided into groups, with each group doing a different activity, have a table written on the blackboard, so that each group can record and share the results of its activity. Have the students discuss the differences they have noted and what these results mean for food storage. What food sources did the mold prefer? What sources did the bacteria prefer? What conditions slowed or stopped the growth of mold and bacteria? What conditions were necessary for bacteria and mold to survive? What would you want to do to make food less appealing to mold and bacteria? What does drying food in a solar dryer do that makes food last longer? Although light and temperature affect the growth of bacteria, the amount of moisture is the significant difference. Lack of moisture alone is sufficient to prevent the growth of mold and bacteria. This should be emphasized as it might not be definitive from the tests and it is the major advantage of preserving food by drying. | Category | Mold | Bacteria | Comments | |-------------------|------|----------|----------| | I Fat | | | | | Protein | | | | | Carbohydrate | | | | | HCl | | | | | Iodine | | | | | II Dry | | | | | Wet (dark place) | | | | | Dry food | | | | | Wet food | | | | | III Window | | | | | (not direct light)| | | | | Shade | | | | | Direct sunlight | | | | | Cold | | | | | Warm | | | | | Hot | | | | CHAPTER 6. SIMPLE TESTS FOR FOOD COMPONENTS BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON FOOD TYPES Several of the tests in this chapter are used by chemists to analyze chemicals. Chemists look at, feel, smell and taste substances as part of preliminary analysis. By working with the groups, you can encourage students to test and record their results. You may want to perform the tests by yourself beforehand to become acquainted with the results. This also gives you the opportunity to develop directive questions to ask the students as they experiment. You can also anticipate opportunities to re-emphasize things learned in other lessons—for example, evaporation and dehydration while students conduct Test 5, or solubility if basic chemistry lessons have been taught earlier. In this chapter the students will: 1. learn the basic food types: Sugar, Protein, Starch and Fat by experimenting and observing differences. 2. develop record keeping skills as demonstrated by the charts and tables produced after the food tests have been conducted. 3. keep diet records to learn what types of food they consume. Diet records, discussion and observation of animals will direct students to the need for balanced diets. Measurement of this learning can be done by having the students prepare menus or diets that contain the basic food types. The activities are used to identify the basic food types: Sugar, Starch, Protein and Fat. PROPERTIES OF SUGAR 1. Sugar is soluble (Test 1). Simple sugars are absorbed in the human body by direct diffusion. Digestion, or chemical breakdown, is not necessary. 2. Sugar turns brown when mixed with iodine (Test 2). 3. Sugar has a sweet taste (Test 1). 4. When burned, sugar turns black and gives off water vapor. This is because it contains carbon and water (Test 4). The presence of carbon and water indicates that sugar is a carbohydrate. It is a simple carbohydrate. Because it is absorbed in the body directly (soluble), it is separated from other carbohydrates (starches) which require digestive reactions, starting in the mouth with the action of the enzyme, ptyalin, in the saliva. **PROPERTIES OF STARCH** 1. Starch is soluble. 2. Iodine turns blue when mixed with starch (Test 2). 3. When burned, starch turns black and gives off water vapor (Test 4). This is because starch, like sugar, is a carbohydrate. **PROPERTIES OF PROTEIN** 1. Proteins, such as those in meat, fish and egg whites, are large chemical compounds and require a series of digestive reactions to be broken down to amino acids which are absorbed and used by the human body. 2. Protein is not water soluble (Test 1). 3. Protein begins to break down in the presence of hydrochloric acid (Test 5). This is what occurs in the stomach. **PROPERTIES OF FAT** 1. Fats, such as palm oil or margarine, are large chemical compounds. 2. Fats are not water soluble (Test 1). 3. Fats are the only food type that change paper, leaving a smear on the paper, which appears translucent when held up to a light (Test 3). There are several tests that students can perform in order to observe differences between the four basic food types: Protein, Fat, Starch and Sugar. The food tests will take 2 or 3 class periods. If students are interested and continue to test food items, this part of the unit could be extended. You can divide the class into groups. Each group can run one or two of the tests and report to the rest of the class. Alternately, each group can run all the tests and compare their results with other groups. The written directions for each test can be handed out to each group. This can save time and allow the teacher more time for questioning as the activities are in progress. Choose food items that are locally available, but try to get at least one sample from each food type. The food samples can be cut ahead of time, or the students can cut or chop pieces from the items as they perform the tests. Newspapers can be spread on the desks or tables to protect them as the chemical tests are in progress. Have the students use only a small amount of food for each test. While testing is going on, you might question the students about mixing or keeping the food items separate. Emphasize the importance of control in science experiments. Have the students practice using grass reed droppers or Bic pen droppers as accuracy with these takes trial and error. The diagram below shows how the grass reed dropper is held. Grass Reed Dropper DIAGRAM 4? There should be an area of the room set aside for washing and rinsing used equipment such as jars and caps. The soap and water are also essential for students who accidently get HCl on their skin. They must wash the area liberally with soap and water. The soap will neutralize the acid. Following are the directions to be given to the students. You may want to circulate among the groups questioning the students about their process. "How did you crush the food sample?" "What happened to the rice when you put iodine on it?" "Does the sample smell different now?" The questioning should direct the students toward observing the difference between foods, the changes that take place. The questioning also can reinforce problem solving skills and the scientific method. **Activity III-7 FOOD TEST 1** This activity tests the effect of water on food samples. **Materials** - Small jars - Samples of each food type - Water **Procedure** 1. Place food sample in a small jar. If solid, crush it. Fill jar \( \frac{1}{4} \) full with water. Mix. What happens? 2. Taste a small amount of food. What does it taste like? Sweet, sour, bitter or no taste? **Activity III-8 FOOD TEST 2** In this activity students will test to see what effect iodine has on the food samples. Materials Bottle caps Water Iodine (see p. 197) Samples of each food type Grass reed dropper or Bic pen dropper Procedure 1. Place small food sample in a clean bottle cap. If solid, crush it first. Add a few drops of water. 2. Add a few drops of iodine to the sample. Do not taste this - iodine is POISON. What happens? Activity III-9 FOOD TEST 3 Students will test to see if the food samples have any effect on paper. Materials Samples of each food type Brown paper Procedure 1. On a small piece of brown paper, place a food sample. If solid, crush it. Wipe off extra food, leaving a spot on the paper. 2. Set this aside and check it later. What happens? Hold the paper up to the light. What do you observe? Activity III-10 FOOD TEST 4 Here, students will observe the effect of heat on the food samples. Materials Food samples Bamboo tweezers (see Appendix A). Bottle caps Candle Piece of glass Procedure 1. Place a small amount of food in a clean bottle cap. Crush it if necessary. 2. Using bamboo tweezers, hold the bottle cap over a flame of a candle. Trim the wick to get a small flame with no smoke. While doing this, hold a piece of glass over it. What happens? Continue heating it. What happens? Activity III-11 FOOD TEST 5 In this activity, students will test the effect of hydrochloric acid (HCl) on the food samples. Materials Hydrochloric acid* Food samples (see p. 197) Small jars Water Tin labelled ACID Candle or burner *If the acid appears concentrated, as evidenced by fuming when the lid is taken off the bottle, dilute what you use with five parts of water to one part of acid. Pour the acid slowly into the water while stirring. Do not pour the water into the acid. Procedure 1. Place small amount of food sample in a small jar and cover with water. 2. Mix the solution thoroughly. 3. Heat slowly over a candle or burner. Record what happens. 4. Carefully add a few drops of HCl to the food sample. Record what happens. Important: HCl is an acid and can burn your hand. When finished, empty the mixture into the tin marked ACL. Put the jar or test tube into the basin/bucket with soap and water. Wash. During the next science period, the groups can report on their findings by developing a chart on the blackboard. | Food Types | Water | Iodine | Paper | Heat | HCl | |------------|-------|--------|-------|------|-----| | Sugar | | | | | | | Starch | | | | | | | Protein | | | | | | | Fat | | | | | | Have the students discuss the results. Why do certain foods react to only some of the tests? Direct the discussion to bring out four basic reactions. Introduce the food type terms: Protein, Fat, Starch and Sugar. Have the students develop lists of foods in the four groups. Point out by referring to the test results that sugars are carbohydrates as are starches. The test results vary because of the size of the chemical compounds. In the future lessons, this difference will be clarified through digestion experiments and activities. Have the materials ready should some conflict about food items come up in the discussion. If there is some conflict, have the students test the food items in question. Discuss the basic uses of the food types. Carbohydrates and Fats produce energy, while Proteins build and repair tissues as well as provide needed substances in the body. (Refer to "Food Preservation Resource Packet.") Ask the students to write down what they eat (their diets) each day for the next week. A diet record form is found in Chapter 7. What types of food do they eat each day? How much of each food type? What season is it? Do they eat different foods at other times of the year? What are the differences in diet throughout the year? Why? What foods are available in each season? If the students are finished with the food tests at this point, proceed with the lessons on digestion and nutrition including the need for vitamins and minerals. When the students have their diet records ready, use the reports on diets to develop a discussion on nutrition and the need for well-rounded diets. CHAPTER 7. DIGESTION This chapter can be presented in 6 to 14 lessons dependent on what concepts you choose to include and the interest and skill level of the science students. For example, if the students have not studied solutions, colloids and suspensions, you may want to set up materials and activities for the students to determine the differences. This activity could precede the food test lessons. This is appropriate at the beginning of digestion studies because the behavior of food substances in water is important in digestion (hydrolysis). This activity would involve samples of substances: sugar, gelatin (protein), starch and oil (fat). These samples would be mixed with water. Each mixture is shaken and allowed to stand for about 5 minutes. The students then record the results and discuss their findings. The format of the food test lessons can be used for this activity. Through the activities and discussions, the students will develop an understanding of the following concepts and be able to apply them to their daily lives. 1. Digestion is the chemical change of foods into particles that can be absorbed by the body cells. 2. Fats, proteins and carbohydrates must be digested to make possible their absorption and entry into the body cells. Fats, proteins and carbohydrates all contain Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) used to produce energy. Proteins also contain Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S), and Phosphorus (P) used to produce chemical substances essential to life. Proteins are used to build and repair body tissues. We are about 20% protein by weight. The body depends on proteins to produce enzymes, hormones and hemoglobin. In addition, proteins are used to regulate body fluids. An insufficient amount of protein in the diet causes fluids to build up in parts of the body. This is why children with protein deficiencies (Kwashiorkor) have distended stomachs. 3. Hydrolysis is the breaking down of a chemical compound by combining it with water ($\text{H}_2\text{O}$). 4. An enzyme is a catalyst that speeds the hydrolysis of foods. The general equation for a digestive equation is: Food + water $\xrightarrow{\text{enzymes}}$ food parts The equations for the basic food types are: Fat + water $\xrightarrow{\text{lipase}}$ fatty acids - glycerine Protein + water $\xrightarrow{\text{proteinase}}$ amino acids Carbohydrate + water $\xrightarrow{\text{carbohydrase}}$ glucose 5. Glands produce the digestive juices such as saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. These digestive juices contain enzymes. 6. Proteins, fats and carbohydrates are digested as they move through the alimentary canal which consists of five main parts: mouth and pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine. 7. Water, vitamins, simple sugars and minerals (inorganic salts) are taken in the body by direct diffusion; digestion is not necessary. On the following pages is a table on the composition of some foods to assist you in generating discussion questions and clarifying students' research. ## COMPOSITION OF SOME FOODS (Adapted from *Handbook of Chemistry*, Lange ed.) | FOOD | % Protein | % Fat | % Carbo. | % Ca | % P | % Fe | Vitamin | |--------------------|-----------|-------|----------|------|------|------|---------| | Avocado | 2 | 23 | 7 | | | | ++ | | Banana | 1 | 23 | .01 | .03 | | | ++ | | Barley | 9 | 1 | 78 | .04 | .40 | .01 | ++ | | Beans (navy) | 23 | 2 | 60 | .16 | .47 | .01 | + ++ | | Beans (soya) | 37 | 17 | 28 | | | | + sprouted | | Beans (lima) | 18 | 2 | 66 | .07 | .34 | .01 | | | Beans (lean) | 22 | 3 | | -.01 | .24 | | + + + | | Butter | 1 | 85 | | .02 | .02 | | +++ | | Cabbage | 2 | 6 | .05 | .03 | | | + ++ | | Cheese | 28 | 37 | 4 | .93 | .68 | | ++ | | Chicken | 22 | 3 | | .01 | .23 | | + + | | Coconut | 6 | 57 | 32 | .06 | .15 | | + ++ | | Corn Starch | | | 90 | | | | | | Dates | 2 | 3 | 78 | .07 | .07 | .01 | + ++ | | Eggs | 13 | 10 | | .07 | .18 | | +++ ++ | | Egg (whites) | 12 | 1 | | .01 | .01 | | + + | | Egg (yolk) | 15 | 33 | | .14 | .53 | | +++ ++ | | Flour (white) | 11 | 1 | 75 | .02 | .09 | | + | | Flour (whole wheat)| 14 | 2 | 72 | .03 | .24 | | + ++ | | Gelatin | 91 | | | | | | + + | | Lamb | 20 | 13 | | .01 | .22 | | + + | | Lard | 100 | | | | | | + | **Abbreviations** - **Ca** = Calcium - **P** = Phosphorus - **Fe** = Iron - **+** = vitamin present - **++** = good source of vitamin - **+++** = excellent source of vitamin - Blank space = no appreciable amount of substance | FOOD | % Protein | % Fat | % Carbo. | % Ca | % P | % I'e | Vitamins | |------------|-----------|-------|----------|-------|-------|-------|----------| | | | | | | | | A B C D E | | Lemon | 1 | 1 | 9 | .04 | .02 | + | + +++ | | Milk | 3 | 4 | 5 | .12 | .10 | +++ | ++ + + + | | Noodles | 2 | 3 | 17 | | | | | | Margarine | 1 | 83 | | | | + | | | Olive Oil | | 100 | | | | + | | | Onions | 2 | 9 | .03 | .05 | + | ++ ++ | | Orange | 1 | 11 | .05 | .02 | | +++ | | | Parsley | | | | .02 | | ++ | | | Peanuts | 26 | 39 | 24 | .07 | .40 | + | ++ | | Peppers (green) | 2 | 5 | .03 | + | ++ | +++ | | | Pineapple | | 14 | .02 | .03 | ++ | ++ ++ | | Pork | 17 | 31 | | .01 | + | ++ | | | Potato | 3 | 20 | .01 | .06 | + | ++ ++ | | Rice | 2 | 23 | | .02 | | | | | Sardines | 23 | 20 | | .03 | .26 | | | | Spinach | 2 | 3 | .07 | .07 | .01 | +++ | + ++ | | Squash | 1 | 1 | 9 | .02 | | ++ | | | Sugar | | 100 | | | | | | | Tomato | 1 | 4 | .01 | .03 | ++ | ++ +++ | | Turnips | 1 | 8 | .06 | .05 | + | ++ ++ | | Watercress | 1 | 1 | 4 | .20 | +++ | +++ | | | Whitefish | 23 | 7 | | .02 | .26 | + | + | | Yeast | 11 | 1 | 21 | | + | +++ ++ | **Activity III-12 DIGESTION INTRODUCTORY ACTIVITY** In this activity, students will begin to understand the digestive reaction, the breaking down of food for absorption, as they solve the introductory problem and discuss their solutions. (A written assignment can be used also to measure the students' knowledge of digestion.) Materials Box - closed with holes cut out on all sides Large dirt clod or piece of termite hill Large piece of cassava or other fibrous root Large piece of wood - block, cylinder, pyramid shape These must be larger than the holes in the box DIAGRAM 49 Have one set of materials for each group or team of students. Set the task and have each team work on the problem collectively and then share their results. An alternative to this would be to have one set of materials and direct questions to the total class, although there is generally less problem-solving with this approach. The box is completely enclosed; the walls have small round holes. These holes cannot be made larger. How can the dirt, root and wood be moved into the box? Give the problem and let the groups work on solutions. While the groups are working you can move from group to group and ask questions to stimulate problem-solving. What solution (s) have you come up with? Does that solution require work (energy)? What steps are involved in the solution? What is doing the work? What arrangement or change in the materials is necessary to get them in the box? Are other materials (substances) needed to change the objects? Are there other solutions to the problem? Do the different objects require different solutions? When the groups seem to be at a stopping point, ask for oral reports from the groups. Again, ask directive questions during the reports and discussion. Some groups will offer breaking/cutting up the materials as the solution. Others may offer dissolving substances with water as another solution. Discuss these different solutions, emphasizing that different agents (knife, water) are required. Through the discussion, bring out that this process is like digestion in the human body. Food must be broken down mechanically and chemically by hydrolysis and enzyme action in order to be absorbed by body cells in much the same way as the objects had to be broken down, using such things as a knife and water, in order to be put in the box. Someone may offer the use of chemicals as a solution to the problem. Ask how the chemical is used. Does it go in the box as well as the material? Develop the use of enzymes for digestion from this response. Enzymes are catalysts/agents that speed up hydrolysis. If the problem-solving and discussion demonstrate that students understand the process, the general food equation can be presented. FOOD + WATER $\xrightarrow{\text{enzyme}}$ FOOD PARTS The terms: hydrolysis, enzyme, catalyst, digestion can be introduced as the students generate definitions out of the problem-solving. Note: The next series of activities involve digestive reactions of the basic food types. Some of the activities require materials that may not be easily available. These can be eliminated without losing continuity although they do serve as reinforcers of the concepts. The teacher may wish to tell the students what the results of those activities would be. Activity III-13 DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES Through experimentation, the students will learn that digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth. Mechanical (chewing) and chemical (ptyalin in saliva) breakdown is necessary for hydrolysis of carbohydrates. Starches are broken down to simple sugars. The equation for this process is: \[ \text{Carbohydrates} + \text{water} \xrightarrow{\text{ptyalin}} \text{simple sugar} \] **Materials** | Starch | Raw potato | |--------|------------| | Cooked potato | Wax | | Crackers, tortilla or bread | Iodine (Indicator of starch) | | Benedict's solution* (Indicator of sugar) | Jars or test tubes | | | Candles or burners | | Food samples from food tests | | The first step in these activities is to have the students test the food samples used in Chapter 6 with Benedict's solution to determine what it indicates. The solution changes to a yellow-red color in the presence of simple sugars. If you are not able to get Benedict's solution, you can proceed with the other exercises reinforcing the students' observations of changes in the presence of starch.** Through discussion, you can develop the concept of starch breakdown to sugar. * See note about specialized sources on page 197. ** It has been suggested to us that easily observable changes can take place by saliva action alone on certain substances. Please let us know what results you discover. A. WHAT DOES BENEDICT'S SOLUTION TEST?* Take a small food sample of protein, fat, sugar and starch, if solid, crush it and mix each sample with a little water in a jar or test tube. Heat the mixtures, then add a few drops of Benedict's solution to each jar. What happens? Record any change in color. Discuss the results. When the students have determined what Benedict's solution indicates, proceed to the other activities. B. DOES SALIVA CHANGE BENEDICT'S SOLUTION? Have the students work in small groups. Each group member chews a different food sample for a few minutes and collects saliva in a jar or test tube. Have one student in each group chew a small piece of wax and collect saliva. After the saliva is collected, direct the students to add about 1 teaspoon (5 ml or cc) of Benedict's solution. Heat the jars over burners or candles for about 30 seconds. What happens to the sample of just saliva? C. HOW DO ENZYMES WORK - CARBOHYDRATES? Ask groups of students to arrange eight jars containing the materials listed below. Suggest that the students find a way to be able to identify the contents of the jars (label, code, record). 1. 2 jars with 5 ml of water and a small piece of raw potato in each. 2. 2 jars with 5 ml of water and a small piece of cooked potato in each. 3. 2 jars with 5 ml of water, 10 ml of saliva and a small piece of raw potato in each. 4. 2 jars with 5 ml of water, 10 ml of saliva and a small piece of cooked potato in each. Test one jar of each sample (1-4) with iodine. What are the results? Do the samples vary? Does the presence of saliva make a difference? Let the other samples (1-4) stand for 15 minutes. Add 10 ml of Benedict's solution to each jar and heat each jar for thirty seconds. What happens? Record any changes *Please let us know if you find any indicator derived from locally available materials that can be used instead of Benedict's solution. that occur in each jar. As the students are experimenting, move from group to group to question them. In addition to the questions in the above paragraphs, you may wish to discuss the use of controls with them. Have the students report their findings by developing a chart on the blackboard. During the discussion, introduce the equation that describes the action the students observed. Introduce the term, Ptyalin, the enzyme in saliva that begins digestion of carbohydrates to sugars by speeding up hydrolysis of carbohydrates. \[ \text{Carbohydrates} + \text{water} \xrightarrow{\text{Ptyalin}} \text{Sugar} \] D. ANOTHER TEST - HOW DOES PTYALIN WORK? Have the students test pieces of cracker, bread or tortilla with iodine. By this point, the students may be familiar with the food type. Ask the students what type of food the cracker, bread or tortilla samples are. If the students know this, begin the activity at the next step. Chew a piece of cracker, bread or tortilla for a minute. Take the chewed cracker out and put some of it in one dish and some in another. Add a few drops of iodine to one dish. Add a few drops of Benedict's solution to the other dish. What happens? What can you conclude about saliva? Activity III-14 DIGESTION OF FATS These activities emphasize emulsifying fats. Here you can encourage thinking about increases in surface area. Why is physical or mechanical breakdown of food necessary? What are the advantages? Why is mixing food and water important? Can enzymes react with food more readily if the food is in smaller pieces? The equation for fats: \[ \text{Fats} + \text{water} \xrightarrow{\text{lipase}} \text{Fatty acids} + \text{Glycerine} \] The chemical tests for fats, fatty acids and glycerine are complicated and involve solutions and equipment not readily available. Focusing on emulsification as well as comparing the reactions of different foods should give the students an understanding of digestion and the rudiments of nutrition. **Materials** - Water - Hydrochloric acid* - Vinegar - Jars - Oil - Soap - Gum Acacia - Bucket/basin Assign groups of students the following problems: 1. Put equal amounts of water and oil (about 60 ml) in a small jar. What happens? Mix them. What happens? What size are the drops? 2. Add an equal amount of vinegar. Mix or shake. What happens? What size are the drops? 3. In another jar, add equal amounts of water and oil. Add some gum acacia. What happens? Mix and note the change. Note size of drops. 4. In another jar, add equal amounts of water and oil. Add about 15 ml of hydrochloric acid. Mix carefully. Note any change. As students discuss their findings, reinforce the concepts of hydrolysis and the advantages of mechanical and chemical breakdown of foods. Introduce the equation for the digestion of fats. You may want to include some explanation of fatty acids and glycerine and how the body uses these substances. *It has been suggested to us that 1. papaya leaves can be mixed with egg white instead of HCl; 2. lemon juice or vinegar can substitute for HCl. We would like to hear what you discover with these substitutes.* Activity III-15 DIGESTION OF PROTEINS As with fats, a series of steps are necessary to break down proteins to amino acids. We must replenish our supply of essential amino acids daily because the body does not store them. Amino acids, like fats and carbohydrates, can be stored for energy but not as amino acids necessary to tissue repair and building or the production of hormones and enzymes. The equation for protein digestion: \[ \text{Protein} + \text{Water} \xrightarrow{\text{Proteinase}} \text{Amino acids} \] The activities involve the first steps of protein breakdown, as occurs in the stomach. Further breakdown occurs in the small intestines. **Materials** - Hydrochloric acid - Water - Egg whites (boiled) or meat - Jars - Pepsin - Milk - Fresh pineapple or juice squeezed from papaya leaves - Candles or burners **Procedure** 1. Put a small amount of milk (about 60 ml) in two small jars. Add 15 ml of hydrochloric acid to one jar. Add 15 ml of vinegar to the other jar. What happens? Why? Do the same changes occur in both jars? Why? 2. This activity takes 1–2 days to complete. The students can proceed with other activities, checking the results of this activity during the next lesson. Set up four jars (test tubes) with pieces of egg white. Add one of the following to each jar of egg white. (Meat can also be used). a. Water – 5 ml b. Pepsin solution – (1g pepsin, 50 ml H₂O, and a few drops of HCl. c. Water – 15 ml and a few drops of HCl. d. Pepsin – 15 ml and a few drops of HCl. Allow the jars to set 24 to 48 hours. Observe and record the results. Which jar showed the most change? What can you conclude about pepsin? Where in the body do these chemical reactions take place? How did saliva react with egg white in the earlier experiments? During the discussion of the results, introduce the equation for protein digestion. Emphasize hydrolysis and enzyme action in the stomach. 3. Set up 2 jars with egg white pieces. Add 15 ml fresh pineapple juice to one jar. Boil an equal amount of juice and add it to the other jar. Allow the mixtures to set for 48 hours. Observe and record the results. What can you conclude about pineapple juice? Why was one jar of juice boiled? (This experiment can be done with juice extracted from papaya leaves. They contain the same plant enzyme. Or egg white or meat pieces can be wrapped in crushed papaya leaves and allowed to set.) * * * Activity III-16 ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Students dissect fresh fish to observe the digestive system (alimentary canal). This activity can be used to summarize the findings in the other exercises, keying the chemical reactions to the various parts of the system. After the fish have been dissected, they can be cleaned and prepared and put in one of the food dryers! Materials Fish, frogs or toads Knives or single edge razors Newspapers for desks or Food dryer tables The students can work individually or in pairs. Direct the students to cut the fish from the mouth to the anal area, taking care not to cut any organs. Trace the alimentary canal - the mouth, the esophagus, the stomach and the intestines to the anus. Can you find the liver and gall bladder? Move from group to group to check progress. Compare what you find with the diagram below. At this point, you may want to summarize the digestive system activities or have the students prepare the fish for drying (refer to Part II). Following are Further Studies on vitamins and minerals which give the students more to work with on their diet records. In fact, the diet records can be used as the focus for the summary discussion. On the following pages are vitamin and mineral charts to use for the lessons. Also, a sample of a diet record form which the students can use at the end of this study, follows the charts. Further Study Vitamins and Minerals These lessons involve the transfer of information. As such they may be scheduled at a number of points in the nutrition studies. They supplement the digestion and other nutrition activities. They can be introduced in the summary discussions. The students can supplement their diet records and meal planning work with this information. Activities studying vitamin and mineral needs are complex and take long term efforts. If the school has a poultry farm, students with high degrees of interest may study vitamin and/or mineral needs in poultry as an independent special study. Another supplementary activity could be a field trip to a local health center including discussion with center staff: a physician, public health nurse or health auxiliary for example. This may be especially useful in areas where there is a recognized deficiency that can be overcome with a change in diet. Alternately, a health practitioner can be invited to the school as a guest speaker or you may want to coordinate a community workshop with the local health facility staff, having the science students help with the planning and presentation. Reproducing the charts that follow on a hectograph or similar device may be useful. Sample for Diet Record (Record sheets can be reproduced on hectographs or copy machines.) Name ____________________________ Date ____________________________ Daily Food Intake | MEALS | QUANTITY | PROTEIN | CARBOHYDRATES | FAT | VITAMIN | MINERAL | |-------|----------|---------|---------------|-----|---------|---------| | Breakfast | | | | | | | | Lunch | | | | | | | | Dinner | | | | | | | | Snacks | | | | | | | | Mineral | Function | Source | |----------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | Calcium | Good bone and tooth development. Prevents rickets if vitamin D is present. Important in blood clotting and muscle action. | Milk, cheese, egg yolk, dried beans, green vegetables and nuts. | | Phosphorus | Good bone and tooth development and nervous tissue. | Cheese, chocolate, egg yolk, dried beans, peas, peanuts, whole wheat flour, soybean flour and seafood. | | Iron | Making hemoglobin in red blood cells. | Liver, heart and kidney, raisins, dried apricots, peas, lima beans, whole wheat flour, oats, spinach, onions, cabbage, bulgar wheat. | | Iodine | Production of thyroxin. | Seafoods, iodized salt, and vegetables grown in soil containing iodine. | | Flourine | Good teeth and eye tissue | Some waters, fruit and vegetables grown in soil containing flourine. | | Sodium | Essential to blood plasma, lymph and body tissues. Aids digestion. | Salt, baking soda, spinach, cabbage and tomato. | | Chlorine | Same as sodium. | Salt, lettuce, spinach, cabbage, bananas, beans, corn and seafood. | | Sulfur | Making body proteins | Eggs, cabbage, fish, meat, corn, cheese and beans. | | Magnesium| Tissue building, mainly teeth, bone and muscles. | Greens, cabbage, tomato, lemon, banana, pineapple, wheat, rice and barley. | | Potassium| Good tissue tone. | Potato, spinach, beans, tomato, lime and lemon. | | Manganese| Aids in carrying oxygen from lungs to cells. | Watercress, parsley, egg yolk and some nuts. | | Vitamin | Function | Source | |---------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | A | Maintains a moist covering in eyes, respiratory system, digestive system and urinary system. Prevents night blindness. | Green, leafy vegetables, yellow vegetables, liver, butter and eggs. | | B₁ (Thiamin) | Prevents beriberi. Keeps nervous system healthy. Promotes good appetite and good digestion. Helps the body use carbohydrates. | Milk, eggs, peas, beans, peanut butter, meats and whole-grain or enriched cereals. | | B₂ (Riboflavin) | Keeps eyes and skin healthy, keeps up general body resistance to disease, promotes health of nervous system. | Eggs, pork, cheese, beef, lamb, liver, broccoli, milk, spinach, fresh green peas, and green vegetables. | | Niacin | Prevents pellegra, keeps skin healthy, protects health of nervous system, stimulates appetite. | Milk, lean meats, tomato, green peas, fish, beans, many leafy vegetables, eggs, liver, fish, nuts, whole-grain cereals. | | B₁₂ | Prevents pernicious anemia. Keeps number of red blood cells at a normal level. | Liver, green vegetables. | | C (Ascorbic Acid) | Prevents scurvy. Keeps blood vessels healthy. Contributes to good bone and teeth formation. | Fresh vegetables, fresh citrus fruits and tomatoes. | | B₆ (Pyridoxin) | Essential for hemoglobin formation; metabolism of amino acids. Absence impairs growth. | Grains, seeds, legumes, liver, milk and egg yolk. | | E (Tocopherols) | Absence causes sterility in either sex. Influence growth and healing. | Vegetable oils, lettuce, beans, rice, corn, meat, meat, milk and eggs. | | K | Promotes normal blood coagulation. | Green vegetables, tomatoes, vegetable oils and egg yolk | CHAPTER 8. PRESERVATION TREATMENTS There are four steps in the preservation of food by drying: the pre-drying treatment, the drying, the post-drying treatment, and the storage. The actual drying of the food was studied in Part II. (See p.87) This chapter addresses the remaining three steps of the preservation process. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON PRE-DRYING TREATMENTS Fruits, vegetables, meat and fish are treated before drying to preserve nutrients and the natural color and to slow the enzyme action that breaks down the food. If the students have studied digestion (Chapter 7), they will be aware of the action of enzymes. Otherwise, you may want to use examples of food left out in the open to show the breakdown that occurs. Choose some food item that is not obviously overgrown with microorganisms. Comparing a just ripe mango to one that has fallen and begun to discolor and soften should illustrate enzyme action. The various treatment methods slow this process down. Treating vegetables by blanching, in fact, loosens the tissues and the drying is quicker. Treating foods prevents the loss of nutrients. Vitamins A, E, and many of the B's are broken down by light and oxygen. Vitamin C is destroyed by heat. There will be some loss with any preserving method but some of the treatments will minimize the loss. The temperature range of the dryer has an effect on the preservation of color and nutrients as was mentioned in the food drying section. The temperature of the dryer, the availability of treatment substances, the humidity of the air, and the availability of storage containers need to be taken into account as the students prepare food for drying. It is possible to clean, cut and dry food in dryers without having to use any of the treatment methods before drying. There is, however, more nutrient loss if drying without pre-drying treatment. If the temperature in the dryer reaches $60^\circ$C, enzyme action in vegetables can be stopped, making the vegetables palatable even after long term storage. If the temperatures are kept higher than $60^\circ$C for long periods, however, food can start to cook and scorch, and there is a high loss of nutrients. Although it is possible to dry and store many foods without any treatment prior to drying, the various treatments are presented to give you and the students more options. There is a wide range of methods offered, and experts do not agree on the amount of treatment substance to use, the length of time of the treatment or the preparation of the food type for drying. This is due to the fact that many factors are involved in the drying of food. Also, the experts emphasize different results, some want to minimize nutrient loss while others want to extend storage life. During the lessons when the students are preparing food for the dryers, it is important to emphasize the factors affecting food preservation and the purpose of different methods. Factors affecting food preservation by drying can be summarized as the following: (See "Food Preservation Resource Packet"). 1. size of food pieces 2. temperature of dryer 3. moisture content of food 4. humidity 5. air movement - in dryer - in surroundings 6. treatment method used 7. type of storage containers available 8. type of food - fruit, vegetable, meat, or fish The major reasons for treating foods before drying them can be summarized as the following: 1. preserve natural color 2. preserve nutrients 3. stop decomposition (enzyme action) 4. make drying even 5. extend storage life Begin the food drying lessons with types of food that do not need treatment before drying. Onions and peppers can be used. Encourage the students to keep records. How was the food cut? (See p. 89, pp. 175 - 177). How thick were the pieces? How much did the food weigh before drying? What size? (Refer to food drying activity, Chapter 3). As the lessons proceed, introduce the various treatment methods. Start with the less complex processes, such as blanching and adding an anti-oxidant, and move on to the more complex processes, such as sulfurering and salting. This can only be done if there is a type of food available for each of the treatment processes. If this is not the case, plan the lessons around the foods that are available to dry. This may change the sequence of treatment presentations. The important thing, though, is to encourage the students to test different procedures, keep thorough records and learn how to weigh the factors involved in drying and storing and develop methods useful for the local area. Have the groups of students experiment with different preparations and treatments. With thorough record keeping, by the end of this book, the students should have the information needed to produce a table listing local foods and the most effective preservation technique for each food. You may want to reproduce copies of the local food preservation tables for the students to take to their villages and for community residents who may have been involved or are interested. Another way to share this information with the community would be at the school open house. Have groups of students demonstrate the steps in food preservation using the equipment the science class(es) has built. Of course, special community workshops could be offered as well. Explanation of each of the treatments follow along with tables of some fruits and vegetables to help you get started and to facilitate planning the sequence of lessons for treatment, drying and storing. The information in this section was developed on the farm, in classes and in the kitchen. The book, *Putting Food By* and the *Organic Garden and Farming* magazine and the report from the "Food Preservation and Storage" workshop in Tanzania were also used to develop this section. **PRE-DRYING TREATMENTS** **ANTI-OXIDANTS** Some foods, when exposed to the air, oxidize quickly, turning brown. This especially is true of light colored fruit. Anti-oxidants are acids that prevent oxidation. Ascorbic acid* (Vitamin C) is the most effective anti-oxidant. *Lemon juice contains both citric acid and ascorbic acid and can be used as an anti-oxidant. It is much weaker than ascorbic acid and is not as effective. Sprinkle the squeezed lemon juice on the cut pieces as described previously. It is water soluble. The solution is sprinkled on the fruit as it is being sliced for the drying trays. Turning the pieces over a number of times while slicing and sprinkling will assure a sufficient coating of ascorbic acid. The nutrient value of the fruit is improved also by adding vitamin C. One cup of solution will treat about 5 quarts of cut fruit. **Materials** - Water - Source of heat - Ascorbic acid - Food to be treated **Procedure** Boil water for 20 minutes and cool it before preparing the solution. It is important to use pure water while preparing food for drying as water borne microorganisms can cause much food spoilage. The proportion for mixing the solution is 45 ml of ascorbic acid crystals to 240 ml of pure water. **BLANCHING** Vegetables contain enzymes which cause decomposition while drying if not destroyed by heat first. Blanching, exposing vegetables to full steam (100° C See pp. 175 - 177) stops enzyme action and protects the natural color. Also, because enzyme action is stopped, nutrients are preserved. **Materials** - Water - Pot, bowl or basin - Cover for pot - Source of heat - Wire rack, bamboo, or reed basket or clean cloth - Tin or flat rock - Food to be treated A large pot, bowl or basin can be used for blanching. Put about 5 cm of water in the pot. The cleaned and cut vegetables can be placed in a wire rack, a bamboo or reed basket or a piece of clean cloth tied loosely. The rack is placed in the pot above the water when there is full steam. A lid or cover is put on the pot. Blanching time varies for the type of vegetable; thicker or denser vegetables are blanched for a longer period of time than leafy vegetables. It may be necessary to put a tin or a flat rock in the pot so that the rack or basket sits above the water. If a cloth is used, knot it around a stick that can rest on the top edge of the pot to keep the cloth out of the water. After blanching, remove the vegetable pieces and lay them on a clean cloth to soak up the extra moisture and then arrange them on drying trays. Blanching times are listed on the tables at the end of this section. Experiment with local vegetables using the samples listed in the tables as a guideline. **SULFURING** Sulfuring fruits before air or sun drying slows down enzyme action and preserves the fruits' color. It protects vitamins A and C. It also protects against insects and mold, although if a closed dryer (such as a solar dryer) is used, insects are not a problem. Also, as mentioned earlier, if the temperature in the dryer is high enough, mold and bacteria growth are inhibited. As with other treatment methods, sulfuring is an extra assurance that the dried food will keep for longer periods of time and will be nutritious and palatable. **Sulfite Soak** **Materials** - Pure water - Sulfite substances (see below) - Food to be treated - Bowl or basin This treatment involves preparing a solution with any number of sulfite compounds. The food pieces are then soaked in the solution for 15 to 30 minutes. Sulfite substances that can be used are: - sodium sulfite - sodium bisulfite - potassium metabisulfite - sodium metabisulfite The solution releases sulfur dioxide into the food. The general ratio for the solution is one liter of water to about 10 ml of sulfite. The specific proportions for different types of food are listed in the tables. There are some problems with sulfite soak that make it less effective than using sulfur dioxide fumes, although it is an easier process. The soaking results in an uneven penetration of food. The food can become waterlogged which extends the drying time considerably. Also, there is a loss of water soluble nutrients while the food is being soaked. **Sulfur Dioxide Fumes** **Materials** - Food to be treated - Wooden box covered with heavy paper or pasteboard box - Sublimed sulfur - Dish - Drying trays Food is sulfured by being enclosed in an area filled with sulfur dioxide fumes. The fumes penetrate the food pieces. This treatment is done outdoors as the fumes irritate the eyes and the breathing passages. Sulfur is burned in a dish under the box after the drying trays loaded with food are stacked and placed under the box. Sublimed sulfur or refined sulfur (sold in cake form with wick for fumigating buildings) can be used. Sulfur melts at 115°C and the proportion to use is 12 ml for each kilogram of cut fruit. Experiment with the burning sulfur. A thin layer in a shallow dish may burn more evenly than a thicker layer. The sulfur burns to a brown syrup that expels the fumes. Time the sulfuring after the sulfur has burned and the air vents have been closed off. When the sulfuring is finished, generally after 30 minutes for small slices and 60 minutes for larger pieces, unload the sulfur box by opening it away from you and on the leeward side if it is a windy day. By checking the wind first and lifting the box away from you, you can avoid having the fumes blow in your direction. You may want to discuss this with the students before sulfuring or while they construct the box. It may be useful to burn a small bit of sulfur beforehand to observe the changes and plan the sulfur treatment. It may be an opportunity to review change of state concepts. Also, the concept of convection can be reviewed and applied to the design of the box. A sample of a sulfur box is diagrammed below: ![Diagram 52](image-url) - **covered wood crate or pasteboard box** - **trays raised about 10 cm above group with space between and about 15 cm clearance** - **sulfur in dish set to side of trays** - **air vents for burning (convection)** Sulfuring steps: 1. Weigh food and calculate the amount of sulfur needed. 2. Sulfur the same type of food: mixing foods in the box can get complicated. 3. Put trays on rocks or wood blocks and stack trays with about 8 cm between each tray and 10-15 cm clearance from the ground and above the trays. 4. Set dish of sulfur beside the food trays and put the box over. 5. Light the sulfur and let it burn to brown syrup. 6. Block the air vents; the cut at the bottom of the box and the small hole at the top on the opposite side of the box. 7. Time the sulfuring after the sulfur has burned and the vents are blocked. 8. After the sulfuring, remove the trays of food, taking care to avoid the sulfur dioxide fumes. 9. Arrange trays in a food dryer. SALTING Foods high in protein invite spoilage more than other foods and therefore require extra steps to dry and preserve. Salting meat and fish discourages the growth of microorganisms, preserves the color and speeds up the drying process. Protein foods also must be stored in a cool place, around 4° C, to avoid spoilage. Pickling salt is used for salting or making brine, a salt solution. It is coarse salt that has not been refined and no iodine has been added. Iodine will discolor some foods. Meat Materials Food to be treated Dryer Brine Meat can be dried without salting although it does not keep as long as salted meat. Use only lean meat. Fatty meat spoils too readily. Cut the meat into strips lengthwise of the grain. The strips should have a width of 2.5 cm and a thickness of a little more than 1 cm. The strips are hung on the drying frame. Trays made of woven wire, bamboo or grass reed can be used, hanging the meat strips over the cross pieces. The dryer should have a temperature range around 49° C. The meat strips will be brittle when dry. The dry meat weighs about ¼ the weight of fresh raw meat. Salted meat can also be prepared by making a brine using approximately 1 liter of salt to 5½ liters of pure water. The meat is cut as described above and then soaked in the brine for 1 - 2 days. The meat is removed then from the brine, wiped dry with a clean cloth and arranged in a dryer. When brittle and at least ¼ the weight of the raw meat, the strips are removed, cooled and stored in air tight containers in a cool place. The cooler illustrated below can be used to store dry meat and fish. A model of this device was studied in Activity I-1. See also Activities I-5A and I-5B. Diagram 53 Fish Materials Food to be treated Knife Pickling salt Dryer The process for drying fish is more complicated than drying meat, but if fresh fish is readily available only part of the year, it may be useful to learn the process in the science class. Fish is an excellent source of protein. Adding a little fish to dishes with vegetable proteins, such as beans, grains or nuts and seeds greatly increases the protein value of the dish. Fish has to be dried in the shade. Direct sunlight will cook fish, even at a temperature as low as 23° C. Frames that can be covered with cloth placed under a large shade tree work well. Use fresh, lean fish. Split the fish and clean out the internal organs. The head can be removed. (The head and organs can be composted for the school garden. Add some lime.) split fish - flesh side up fresh fish - remove head and gut DIAGRAM 54 The split fish is coated with pickling salt. One half kg of salt for each kg of fish. The salted fish is arranged on trays flesh side up. The trays are placed on frames in the shade for 1 - 2 weeks. Each night, the trays should be brought indoors. Press the racks or frames to squeeze out extra brine. After 1 - 2 weeks, the fish is scrubbed to remove the extra salt and then set outside again to finish the drying. When the fleshy part of the fish can be pinched, leaving no imprint, it is dry. The dried fish can be cut into pieces and put in air tight containers and stored in a cool place. **POST-DRYING TREATMENTS** These treatments are extra assurance that mold and bacteria are killed and that the food has dried evenly before storing. Whether these treatments are necessary depends on the temperature of the dryer, the length and thoroughness of the drying and the amount of humidity in the air. **CONDITIONING** Conditioning gives fruit an opportunity to complete the drying process and prevents growth of mold. Food is conditioned to check for thorough drying. If the food is air or sun dried, it is possible that the dryness of some of the pieces may vary. If the food is stored immediately and one piece still has some moisture, the whole batch can spoil in the storage container. On the other hand, if the weather is humid, the dried fruit can take up moisture from the air while being conditioned. **Materials** Dried food Large container To condition, place cool, dried food in a large open container such as a crock or enamel bowl or basin and put it in a warm, dry room with good air circulation. Stir the food in the container two times a day for 10 - 14 days. Again, if it is humid, it may be better to cool and dry test the food pieces and store in airtight containers immediately. The factors involved in pasteurizing and conditioning should be discussed with the students. Ask questions that make the students weigh the factors and develop methods that solve the problems in the local environment. Ask the students: Why are high temperatures important in food dryers? What would happen to dried food if the weather is humid? The following tables outline the preparation, treatment and drying for some fruit and vegetables. Use them as a guideline and encourage students to develop processes for local foods. A suggested sequence to include all the treatment methods in the lessons is to start with onions (no treatment) and proceed with greens such as tampala, mustard or bok choy (blanching) and a fruit like bananas (anti-oxidant coating), then mangos or apricots (sulfuring) and finish with beef or a lean fish like cod, tilapia or congo (salting). Of course, choose food that is available. By picking foods that are available seasonally, the nutritional advantage of having dried foods can be reinforced. **PASTEURIZING** Pasteurizing is the partial sterilization of food to kill microorganisms without causing a chemical change in the food that is a loss of nutrients. Some experts recommend pasteurizing for air and sun dried foods. The drying time may not have been long enough to kill mold and bacteria. Others find that if a dryer is kept at 57° C for one hour (solar dryers can reach this range), the food is pasteurized sufficiently to avoid spoilage. **Materials** | Dried food | Oven | |------------|------| | Source of heat | Rocks | One method for pasteurizing is to expose dried food to a temperature of 80° C. This can be done in an oven or the container used for blanching can be put on a flat rock or brick that is set in hot coals. The dried food is layered (2½ cm layers) on rocks in the oven or blanching pot. Fruit is pasteurized for 15 minutes; vegetables for 10 minutes. SUMMARY OF TEMPERATURE FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PRESERVATION AND DRYING OF FOODS Blanch - full steam - at 100°C (212°F). Boil water to sterilize for treatment solutions 20 minutes. Pasteurize fruit for 15 minutes and vegetables for ten minutes at 80°C. Over 60°C, food will cook, scorch and lose nutrients. Food kept in dryer at 57°C for one hour is pasteurized sufficiently. The range of 45°C to 60°C is good for drying food quickly with little loss of nutrients and color and protection from microorganisms and enzyme action. Fish will cook in direct sunlight even in the 20°C to 30°C range. Below 40°C in a humid climate, food can spoil on the drying trays. Store dried meat and fish at 5°C or below. High protein foods spoil more easily than other foods. DIAGRAM 55 Note: For foods that need shredding (see pp.175-177) a food shredder can be made by pounding nail holes in a sardine tin, holding the nail at a 30° - 40° angle. The holes are cutting edges that shred food. Shreds will dry faster than slices. Food can be cut up very fine with a knife also to make shreds. DIAGRAM 58 | FOOD | PREPARATION | ANTI-OXIDANT | BLANCH | SULFUR | DRY TEST | NOTES | |---------------|------------------------------|--------------|--------------|-----------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|-------------------------------| | Apricots | Halve and remove pit | | 15 minutes | fume 2 hours | leathery; pieces fall apart when squeezed together. | | | Figs | Cut in half | | 20 minutes | if light, fume in 30 minutes | leathery, sticky but do not stick together. | | | Pears | Core and slice 6 mm | coat with ascorbic acid | 5 minutes or | fume 1 hour | no moisture when cut and squeezed. | | | Bananas (ripe)| Peel and slice 3-6 mm | coat | | | leathery and tough. | | | Bananas (unripe) | Peel and slice 6-8 mm | | 3-4 minutes | dip in sodium metabisulfite solution (3g/l l) | brittle | can be pounded into flour. | | Guava | Peel and slice 6 mm | coat | | | leathery, tough | can be stewed. | | Melon | Peel and slice 5 cm cubes | | | | leathery, tough | | | Mangos | Peel and slice 3-6 mm or shred | coat | | | tough | | | FOOD | PREPARATION | ANTI-OXIDANT | BLANCH | SULFUR | DRY TEST | NOTES | |----------|--------------------------------------------------|--------------|-----------------|-------------------------|----------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------| | Carrots | Slice 6 mm | | 15-20 minutes | | brittle | | | Cabbage | Shred or cut fine | | 8-10 minutes | | ridges tough, edges brittle | | | Mushrooms| Separate caps and stems. Cut 12 mm | | | | brittle | Many vegetables can be dried without blanching if the temp of the dryer is high enough. They won't keep as long. Approx. 6-9 months in containers. | | Okra | Slice 3-b mm leave seeds | | 6 minutes | dip in sodium metabisulfite (12 g/l l) | brittle | | | Corn | Shuck, remove kernalis after water blanch | | whole ear in boiling HON. 10 minutes. Drain. Cool. | | transparent and hard | | | Onion | Peel and slice 6 mm strips or rings | | | | brittle | | | Peppers | Slice 6 mm strips | | | | brittle | spicy hot: leave seeds mild: remove seeds. Can be pounded to make paprika. | | Greens | Cut uniform size. Split stems if thick | | 4 minutes | | brittle | | | FOOD | PREPARATION | ANTI-OXIDANT | BLANCH | SULFUR | DRY TEST | NOTES | |-----------------------|---------------------------|--------------|-----------------|--------|--------------|--------------------------------------------| | Sweet Potato | 3 mm pieces or shred | | 30 minutes whole| | brittle | | | Potato/Cassava | Slice 3-4 mm or shred | | 20 minutes peeled and quartered | | brittle | | | Beans: lima, shell, etc. Peas: green and black eye | Remove from pod | | 10 minutes | | brittle, break clean | store some for next growing season. | | Celery | Slice stalks 6 mm Chop leaves | | 4 minutes | | brittle | dry leaves and stalks on separate trays; leaves dry faster. | Food storage methods can be covered in the lessons in Chapter 5. The key to safe storage is to keep the moisture content to a minimum. If this is done, other problems, such as insect or vermin invasions, can be avoided. The reasons for pasteurizing, adding preservatives and using airtight containers should be emphasized. Some examples of food storage containers: 57. Any kind of tins with lids. 58. Basket lined with plastic or coated with melted wax. 59. Well cleaned, used oil drum. 60. Ceramic pots and bowls and gourds. DIAGRAMS 57 - 60 If dried food is stored in baskets, ceramic pots or gourds, a lid or seal can be made by dipping a piece of cloth in melted wax (use candle stubs from other lessons) and quickly tying it over the top of the container. Lessons on storage can be conducted in much the same manner as some of the other lessons by having groups of students work together to design and test various storage containers. It may be a good idea to initially store small amounts of foods in the various containers until the effectiveness of the containers is established by the students' tests. Keeping moisture out of the storage containers is the most important factor to develop. Removing 80 - 90% of the moisture from foods concentrates the sweetness (fruit sugar) in fruits and the nutrients in all foods, and since foods rehydrate to 90% of their original size, dried foods can be more nutritious than fresh foods. Dry food also conserves storage space. **Examples:** | Fresh Food | Dried Food | |------------------|----------------| | 1 kg fresh carrots | 80 g dried carrots | | 8 kg potatoes | 1 kg dried potatoes | | 12 kg onions | 1 kg dried onions | | 1 kg fresh fruit | 200 g dried fruit | **A Special Note on Food Storage** Beans and other seeds can be protected from weevils and other insects by putting a dried hot pepper or a dry bay laurel leaf in each storage container of beans, peas or other dried seeds including those stored for the next growing season. Bay laurel and other medicinal or culinary herbs should be dried in a dark, dry, cool place. Light and heat will cause the loss of the herb's volatile oils and, therefore, their flavor or medicinal value.* See the food preservation materials in this packet. *For additional information, see *Small Farm Grain Storage*, published jointly by VITA and the Peace Corps. CHAPTER 9. PREPARATION OF DRIED FOODS This final chapter can be tied to the diet record work and meal planning that the students began at the end of the nutrition studies. Some math can be included as students calculate the portions of protein, fat and carbohydrate in the meal plans. Also, converting proportions of fresh ingredients in local recipes to dried foods involves some math. After this work, the students may want to prepare a balanced meal made from dried foods for the school. It may be beneficial to invite the community people who have been involved. This can help to transfer some of the skills and methods to the general population. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON REHYDRATION Rehydration is the opposite of dehydration; it is the process of adding pure water to dried food. Dried foods absorb water and rehydrate to about 90% their original size. Generally, 1 kg of dried food will equal 2 - 2½ kg of food when rehydrated. Dried food can be rehydrated and then prepared in recipes as fresh food or it can be added to recipes, absorbing liquid and cooking in one process. For example, dried vegetables can be added to soup stock without rehydrating beforehand. A variety of rehydrating methods are used by nutritionists. As with food drying methods, a number of approaches work equally well, depending on taste and local food preparation methods. The variety of methods possible lends itself to testing by the students to develop acceptable methods for the local recipes. Some general guidelines and methods will be offered here to develop the problem solving rehydration activities with the students. Some experts feel the proportion of 1 part food to 2 parts liquid is adequate for all rehydration. Generally, water is used, but fruit juices and stocks can be used as well. Fruit 1 : 2 liquid (water) - be sure to use pure water with foods. Vegetable 1 : 2 boiling water - cover and wait 5 minutes; then cook at low temperature to taste. Other experts suggest a 1:3 ratio for dried vegetables. Again, this depends somewhat on taste. Beans, such as soybeans, are covered with water and soaked overnight and then cooked for 1-2 hours in fresh water. The bulkier foods will take up more water. You may ask the students to refer to the figures they recorded in the water content activity (Activity II-1) to figure how much water different foods may absorb when rehydrated. Some experts suggest that soaking before cooking makes the food tough. This seems to be dependent, though, on the type of food and how it is prepared. These experts pour boiling water over the dried food and cover and cook at low temperatures. They adjust the water level while cooking the food, adding just enough water for the food to rehydrate and cook without getting tough or soggy. As mentioned in the treatment charts in Chapter 8, dried foods can be pounded to powders. The powders can be stored mixed or separately. The powders can be mixed, added to boiling water and cooked low for soups, porridges or sauces. A mix of high protein, carbohydrate and fat dried food powder can be used for special food for babies and young children. A high protein food powder can be added to sauces and other dishes to supplement the protein intake if it is low in a particular region. Milk powder is commonly used this way, but others, such as soybean or groundnut powder, could be used as well. Dried food that is to be eaten raw can be put in a bowl with enough boiling water to cover. A lid is put on the bowl and the food soaks for several hours. The concept of balanced diets can be expanded and reinforced during these activities. The students can return to the diet records they began after the food and digestion tests (p. 157). At this point, you may introduce the need for average portions of protein, fat and carbohydrate in the daily diet. The following chart depicts the daily protein, fat and carbohydrate needs of adolescents and adults. Daily Protein, Fat and Carbohydrate Needs in Grams | | Person's Wt. in lbs. | Person's Wt. in kgs | Protein Veg./Animal | Fat | Carbohydrates | |----------------|----------------------|---------------------|---------------------|-----|---------------| | Growing Adult | 100 | 45.5 | 100 | 80 | 90 | 380 | | | 120 | 54.5 | 120 | 96 | 100 | 440 | | Adult | 120 | 54.5 | 6C | 48 | 80 | 330 | | | 140 | 63.5 | 70 | 56 | 90 | 380 | (This chart is adapted from figures given in Diet for a Small Planet and caloric value conversions in Today's Basic Science.) Adults need about 1.1 g /kg of body weight of plant protein (grains, legumes, nuts) or about .88 g /kg of animal protein (meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, yogurt) each day. Growing people, children and young adults, need 1½ - 2 times as much protein per pound of body weight each day. The fat and carbohydrate needs are approximations. Excess protein in the body will be converted to carbohydrates for energy, therefore altering the carbohydrate intake need. You may want to use average figures for each need based on the average age and weight of the science students in a class. The chart, or a portion of the chart of average figures, can be given to the students. Activity III-17 ANALYSIS OF DIETS Using their diet records, the students can calculate the amount of protein, fat and carbohydrate they consume in a day. You may want to post a conversion table or note some conversions on the blackboard. Ask the students to explain the procedure. Some math review may be needed. After the students have finished their calculations, ask for reports. During the reports, bring out the need for the food types and vitamins and minerals in the diet. Why do we need protein? What do carbohydrates provide? Why do we need green vegetables? Are there protein foods that can be added to improve the diet? For example, milk powder, nuts or seeds can be added to sauces or cooked rice to increase the amount of protein in the diet. Sesame seeds, bulgar wheat or soybeans can be cooked with rice if rice is a common part of the diet. * * * **Activity III-18 MEAL PLANNING** At the end of the discussion, ask the students to begin to plan nutritious meals starting with local recipes. This can be done in the class or as a task outside the class. If the class is made up of people with different traditions and diets, divide the class into groups so that all the various diets are considered. * * * **Activity III-19 REHYDRATION** **Materials** Dried foods - use small portions for the tests. Bowls or pots with lids - some tins may be used for cooking. Burners, charcoal pots or fire pits. Pure water (boiled for 20 minutes). Mortar and Pestle, pounding stones or similar utensil. Conversion table and food portion need chart. Milk powder, if available for special powder mixes. Stirring, mixing tools - wood, metal, plastic. Basin Soap Cloths Water Measuring spoons, plastic caps or something similar for measuring small amounts. Direct the students to experiment with small portions of dried food to discover the best way to rehydrate a particular food either for cooking or eating raw. Groups of students can work together with one type of food per group or each group can test all the types available. Encourage record keeping. How much water did you use? Was it boiling or cold? How did you decide on the amount of water to use? (Did the students remember the water content activity results and apply them to these tests?) How much dried food did you use? (Encourage using only spoonfuls for the tests.) How long did it take for the food to soak up the water? Did you cook the food? How long? What temperature range? Low? Medium? High (boiling)? Through questioning, alert the students to the variables involved: Water - amount and temperature. Food - amount and type. Time - soaking and cooking. After the testing, have the groups report their findings. The students can develop a chart such as the one that follows, on a large paper or the blackboard outlining the rehydration process that works best for each type of dried food. This information will be used again. It can also be compiled with the food drying methods developed earlier. At this point, you may want to have the students compile all their results into tables, charts and recipes. Assign the various parts of the study to each group of students. Have each group give a final report. If there are copying machines or hectographs available, the science students could produce a booklet on drying, preserving and preparing local foods for balanced nutritious meals the year round, even in the season of shortage. **Activity III-20 PREPARATION OF POWDERS FROM DRIED FOODS** Direct groups of students to pound various kinds of dried foods to make powders if this has not been done. Give a problem to each group to solve. *Problems:* 1. What mix of powders would make a balanced nutritious food for babies and young children? 2. What mix of powders would make a sauce that could be served with rice (wheat, noodles, cassava, potatoes) to make a nutritious meal? 3. What mix of powders would make a soup or porridge that is complete (nutritious)? The students will have to consider and calculate proportions of food types. Have the food type need chart and conversion tables posted. Some review of ratios may be needed to get started. Ask the students to use small portions. Later when recipes are developed, the amounts can be increased to usable portions for meals. With milk powder available some mixes may be easier to develop. Having dried commonly used herbs also may facilitate developing sauce recipes. Also, having some cooked rice or similar food in the class may be useful for tasting the samples of new sauces being developed. The steps involved in this activity are: 1. Calculate the portions of food types needed for a balanced meal (1/3 of daily need). 2. Decide which available powders fit each type. 3. Measure and mix samples from each type. 4. Add herbs if desired. 5. Cook sample mix in small tin with pure water. 6. Taste sample. 7. Adjust sample if necessary. 8. If acceptable, record the recipe increasing the portions to normal amounts for a meal. While the students are working, move from group to group to question them. How did you calculate the portions to use? Do children need the same portions of food types as adults? What did you have to consider? Use this activity set to question and review the nutrition concepts from earlier lessons. Ask the students to gather and record local recipes for various dishes. Using their dehydration and rehydration records and results, have the students convert local recipes to the appropriate portions using dried foods. Using the results of the various activities, have the students plan, prepare and give a meal at school for the other students. Invite interested community residents as well. If some people have donated food or time to the project, include them also. SUMMARY In Part I and Part II, the students learned the basic construction of solar dryers and the scientific principles needed in order to design and understand how solar dryers work. In Part III, the students have investigated and learned why it is important to preserve foods by drying. They have also learned enough about basic nutrition for them to be able to plan well balanced meals the entire year. APPENDICES A. MATERIALS CROSS-REFERENCE LIST B. HOW TO MAKE A ROUND HOLE IN A TIN C. CONVERSIONS BETWEEN METRIC, BRITISH AND AMERICAN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES D. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BRITISH AND AMERICAN TERMINOLOGY E. DETECTING CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE WITHOUT A THERMOMETER F. MAKING AN EQUAL ARM BALANCE G. MAKING A SET OF WEIGHTS H. A HEATING STAND MADE FROM A TIN APPENDIX A. MATERIALS CROSS-REFERENCE LIST A list of all the equipment and materials needed to do the activities in "Preserving Food by Drying" is presented here. The list is divided into categories intended to assist you in the practical tasks of locating and storing these things. The categories are as follows: Items used without modification which can be obtained free or purchased locally. Items cut from a larger piece, or that need to be modified slightly, and which can be obtained free or purchased locally. Items made from easily available materials that need some effort or skill to build. Consumable items obtainable locally. Consumable items obtained from specialized sources. Equipment obtained from specialized sources. Available resources. Colored materials. Heat sources using fuel. Where appropriate, the items in a category are divided according to whether or not they require special care in storing. Items in each list are in the order of their first use in the book. Next to each item are listed all of the activities throughout the book where it is needed. By looking through this list, you can see what materials and equipment are frequently needed, what is needed occasionally, and what is needed only once or twice. Thus, you can make decisions about what items to accumulate, what items to borrow when needed, and what activities you may have to modify or omit due to lack of materials or equipment. Alternatives are suggested for many of the items. Any of the alternatives should work in all of the activities listed for the particular item. Many of the materials can be collected by your students. Involving your students finding materials has value because they learn what materials are available locally, and their resourcefulness and problem solving abilities increase as they learn to substitute other materials for those suggested here. We are anxious to know about any successful materials substitutions you and your students make. Returning PCV's are urged to write Program Designs for Educators at: Chevrons and PDE, P.O. Box 235, Jamaica Plain, Boston, Massachusetts 02130, U.S.A. Most of the activities do not require tools, but as the students make the transition from learning how dryers work to designing and building them (Activities I-11B and II-2), the importance of having tools suddenly increases. We recommend making your own tools. As part of the framework of this manual, "How to Make Tools" was created by Per Christiansen and Bernard Zubrowski as a companion piece. ITEMS USED WITHOUT MODIFICATION WHICH CAN BE OBTAINED FREE OR PURCHASED LOCALLY Fragile or Damaged if Stored Wet: Dishes or small trays able to hold water I-1, I-4C Rulers marked in centimeters I-1, I-2A, I-6, II-1, II-2, p.126 Scissors or razor blades I-2A, I-4A, I-4B, I-4C, I-6, I-11A, I-11B Watch or clock or other timer for measuring relatively long periods of time I-4A, I-4B, I-4C, I-7, I-10, p.122-5 Jars I-4A, I-4C, III-7, III-11, III-13, III-14, III-15 Bottles I-4A Elastic bands I-4A, I-4B, I-11A Drinking glasses I-4A, I-4C Jars with certain size requirement I-4B, I-6, II-1 Tea glasses or very small tins I-4B, I-4C Basins, large bowls or buckets I-5A, II-1, II-2, III-14, p. 166, III-18 Trays or dishes or pieces of pasteboard I-6, II-1 Clay tiles or bricks, or blocks molded from adhesive material such as soil taken from termite mounds I-7, I-8B Protractor I-8A, I-8B, I-8C | Item Description | References | |----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------| | Common pins | I-11A, I-11B | | Cooking pots or large tins | pp. 122-6, 163 | | Culture dishes | p. 122, III-2, III-3, III-4, III-5, III-6 | | Sewing needles to use as transfer needles | p. 126, III-2, III-3, III-4, III-5 | **Not Fragile:** | Item Description | References | |----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------| | Tins of various sizes | I-1, I-3A, I-3B, I-4A, I-4B, I-4C, I-10, II-2, III-11, III-20 | | Tins of the same size | I-1, I-7 | | Small stones | I-1, I-4B, I-4C, I-10, I-11A, p. 163 | | Measuring spoons, cups, tins, bottle-caps, etc. for measuring small amounts of liquid or powder (p. 8) | I-1, I-4C, p. 125, III-13, III-14, III-15, III-18 | | Lids or caps for bottles or jars, or use plastic and elastic bands | I-4A, I-4B, III-8, III-10 | | Tine with a certain size requirement | I-4A | | Several nails of different sizes | I-4A | | Showels or other tools for digging holes in the ground | I-4C | | Bricks or similar size stones | I-4C, I-8A | | Nails or pegs | I-8A, I-9, II-2 | | Tins with both ends cut out | I-8A | | Small nails, brads or tacks | I-8B | | Large tins | I-9 | | Bottletops or other objects having uniform weight, to be used as weights | II-1, II-2 | | Pieces of metal from large tins, or dishes, to use as covers | p. 125, p. 163 | ITEMS CUT FROM A LARGER PIECE, OR THAT NEED TO BE MODIFIED SLIGHTLY, AND WHICH CAN BE OBTAINED FREE OR PURCHASED LOCALLY Fragile or Damaged if Stored Wet: Cloth I-1, I-5B, p. 161, III-18 Paper other than usual notebook I-1, I-4A, I-11A, III-9, III-16 Means for labelling, such as paper and cement, elastic bands or tape I-1, III-2, III-13, III-15 String I-3A, I-3B, I-5A, I-6, I-8A, I-8B, II-1 Cloth which air can circulate through, such as cheesecloth, gauze or nylon tulle I-6, II-1, II-2 Thin transparent plastic, small pieces I-4A, I-4B, I-4C Absorbent cloth such as from an undershirt or singlet, or paper which is very absorbent I-4B Books or pieces of wood to use as a support I-43 Thin transparent plastic, larger pieces I-4C, I-11A, I-11B, II-2 Hand-held fans, or big leaves, pieces of newspaper, etc. to use as fans I-5A Flat glass or clear plastic and tool to cut it I-7, I-9, II-2, III-10 Poles such as straight tree branches, reeds, broom handles, or narrow boards I-8A Newspaper or other large pieces of paper I-8A, III-7, III-8, III-9, III-10, III-11 Pasteboard or heavy paper with a smooth surface on at least one side I-8A, I-8B Pasteboard I-8C Tape I-8C, I-9 Thin wire I-11A ITEMS CUT FROM A LARGER PIECE, OR THAT NEED TO BE MODIFIED SLIGHTLY, AND WHICH CAN BE OBTAINED FREE OR PURCHASED LOCALLY ile or Damaged if Stored Wet: Cloth I-1, I-5B, p. 161, III-18 Paper other than usual notebook I-1, I-4A, I-11A, III-9, III-16 Means for labelling, such as paper and cement, elastic bands or tape I-1, III-2, III-13, III-15 String I-3A, I-3B, I-5A, I-6, I-8A, I-8B, II-1 Cloth which air can circulate through, such as cheesecloth, gauze or nylon tulle I-6, II-1, II-2 Thin transparent plastic, small pieces I-4A, I-4B, I-4C Absorbent cloth such as from an undershirt or singlet, or paper which is very absorbent I-4B Books or pieces of wood to use as a support I-4B Thin transparent plastic, larger pieces I-4C, I-11A, I-11B, II-2 Hand-held fans, or big leaves, pieces of newspaper, etc. to use as fans I-5A Flat glass or clear plastic and tool to cut it I-7, I-9, II-2, III-10 Poles such as straight tree branches, reeds, broom handles, or narrow boards I-8A Newspaper or other large pieces of paper I-8A, III-7, III-8, III-9, III-10, III-11 Pasteboard or heavy paper with a smooth surface on at least one side I-8A, I-8B Pasteboard I-8C Tape I-8C, I-9 Thin wire I-11A String or braided cotton that produces smoke when glowing I-11A, I-11B Small boxes made of paper or pasteboard I-11A, I-11B, II-2, III-12 Pieces of soft wood about the size of a pencil p. 126 **Not Fragile:** Small pieces of wood I-4A, I-8B, II-1 Outer tubes of Bic pen, preferably transparent, hollow bamboo branches, or hollow grass reeds I-4B, I-4C, III-8, III-11, III-13 Tops from small tins (Diagram 8) or other stand that will not be damaged by water or heat I-4B, I-4C, I-11A Bottletop with a hole in it, washer, or other small object to hang on a string I-8A, I-8B Wood boards or slabs I-9, II-2, III-12 Bamboo I-9 Pieces of metal from tins I-9, II-2 ITEMS MADE FROM EASILY AVAILABLE MATERIALS THAT REQUIRE SOME EFFORT OR SKILL TO BUILD Fragile or Damaged if Stored Wet: Grid paper with 1 centimeter squares I-2A, I-2B, I-6, I-8C, II-1 Pendulum made from a stone hanging on a piece of twine about 2 meters long, to be used as a timer for relatively short times. A clock or watch with a second hand can also be used. Device for comparing weights, such as an equal arm balance I-6, II-1, II-2, p. 122 Knife I-6, II-1, III-12, III-16, p. 169 Saw (Appendices D, E and L) I-8A, I-8B, I-9, II-2, pp. 95-113 Angle measuring tube (I-8A) I-8C, I-11B, II-2 Elevation angle measuring device (I-8B) I-8C, I-11B, I-2 Chisel or shears to cut metal I-9, II-2 Device to purify water (I-9) p. 163, 166 Tweezers III-10 Food dryers (Part II) III-3, III-5, III-16, pp. 163-9 Not Fragile: Tongs or cloth to lift hot objects off a fire I-3A, I-3B, p. 122-5 Support for tins to be heated by a candle or small burner I-3A, I-3B, I-4A, I-4B, I-4C Tins with a round hole in the side or equivalent container I-4B, I-4C Device to hold wood while cutting or drilling it I-8A, I-8B, I-9, II-2, pp. 95-113 Hammer I-8A, I-9, II-2, pp. 95-113 Drill I-8A, I-9, II-2, pp. 107-113 | Consumable Items Obtained Locally | References | |----------------------------------|------------| | Salt | I-1 | | Sugar | I-1 | | Cooking oil | I-1, III-14| | Potato, cassava or other large, firm vegetable | I-6, II-2, III-12, III-13 | | Crack sealer, such as mud or tar | I-9, II-2 | | Charcoal | I-11A, p. 122-5 | | A variety of kinds of kinds of food such as fruits, vegetables, meat, etc. | II-1, p.122, III-2, III-3, III-7, III-8, III-9, III-10, III-11, III-13, III-15, III-16, p.163-9 | | Soap | II-1, II-2, II-11, III-14, III-18 | | Paste or cement or other adhesive | II-2 | | Piece of termite hill or large clod of dirt | III-12 | | Wax | III-13 | | Animal bones | p. 122 | | Mold and bacteria (pp. 119-21) | III-1, III-2, III-3, III-4, III-5, III-6 | | Crackers, tortilla or bread | III-13 | | Starch | III-13 | | Vinegar | III-14 | | Gum acacia | III-14 | | Milk | III-15 | | Lemon juice | p.163 | | Brine | p.169 | CONSUMABLE ITEMS OBTAINED FROM SPECIALIZED SOURCES Iodine III-8, III-13 Hydrochloric acid III-11, III-14, III-15 Benedict's solution III-13 Pepsin III-15 Ascorbic acid p. 163 Pure water p. 163, 166 Sublimed or refined sulfur p. 166 Sulfire substance p. 166 Pickling salt p. 169 Note: Most of these items are likely to be available at pharmacies, hospital laboratories, health centers and secondary schools. EQUIPMENT OBTAINED FROM SPECIALIZED SOURCES Thermometers (For a discussion of possible ways to make temperature sensing devices, see Appendix T.) I-5B, I-7, I-8B Hand lenses III-1 AVAILABLE RESOURCES Water I-1, I-3A, I-3B, I-4A, I-4B, I-4C, I-5A, I-5B, I-6, I-7, II-1, p. 122-5, III-7, III-8, III-11, III-11, III-14, III-15, p. 163, III-18 Sunlight I-1, I-4A, I-4B, I-4C, I-7, I-8A, I-8B, I-8C, I-11A, I-11B, II-2, III-4, III-6 ## COLORED MATERIALS | Description | References | |------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------| | Source of a smoky flame, such as a candle or a paraffin lamp, for coating surfaces black with soot | I-1, I-4C, I-7, I-8B | | Pieces of white paper, black paper such as carbon paper, and various other colors including metal foil, if available | I-4A, I-4B | | White paint, cassava paste, whitewash or aluminum paint | I-7, II-1 | | Black cloth | I-9 | | Black ink or black paint | I-11A, I-11B, II-2 | ## HEAT SOURCES USING FUEL | Description | References | |------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------| | Matches | I-1, I-3A, I-3B, I-4A, I-4B, I-4C, I-7, I-8B, I-11A | | Charcoal cooker, or three stones and firewood, and a metal grating or other support so tins can be heated | I-3A, I-3B, I-10, I-11A, pp.122-6, 113, III-18 | | Burner and paraffin or gas that provide a medium source of heat | I-3A, I-4C, II-13, III-15 | | Candle or small burner and paraffin or gas, to provide a small source of heat | I-3B, I-4A, I-4B, I-11A, III-10, III-11, III-13, III-15 | APPENDIX B. HOW TO MAKE A ROUND HOLE IN A TIN In cases where one wants to insert a tube into a tin tightly so that there is no leakage between the tube and the hole it fits into, it is necessary to make a round hole in the tin. If the hole is large enough to be able to fit the case of a Bic pen into (or a very small hollow bamboo branch) use the following method. First, make a tiny hole with a nail having a length of 5 centimeters. Then enlarge the hole with a $6\frac{1}{2}$ cm nail, followed by a 10 cm nail, and lastly by a 15 cm nail. It is important that these four nails be used in this way. If only the largest nail is used, it will make a square hole because the point of the nail has four sides. APPENDIX C. CONVERSIONS BETWEEN METRIC, BRITISH AND AMERICAN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES These conversions have been rounded to produce values that are easy to work with and to remember. However, they are all within 2 percent of the exact values. **LENGTH** | Metric | British and American | |-----------------|----------------------| | 1 centimeter | = 4/10 inch | | 1 decimeter | = 4 inches | | 1 meter | = 40 inches | | 1 kilometer | = 5/8 mile | | British and American | Metric | |----------------------|--------------| | 1 inch | = 2.5 centimeters | | 1 foot | = 3 decimeters | | 1 yard | = 9/10 meter | | 1 mile | = 1.6 kilometer | **AREA** | Metric | British and American | |-----------------|----------------------| | 1 square decimeter | = 15.5 square inches | | 1 square meter | = 10.8 square feet | | 1 square meter | = 1.2 square yards | | 1 hectare | = 2.5 acres | | British and American | Metric | |----------------------|--------------| | 1 square inch | = 6.5 square centimeters | | 1 square foot | = 9.3 square decimeters | | 1 square yard | = 5/6 square meter | | 1 acre | = 4/10 hectare | | Metric | British | American | |-----------------|---------------|--------------| | 100 milliliters | = 3.5 ounces | = 3.4 ounces | | 500 milliliters | = 17.5 ounces | = 17.0 ounces| | 1 liter | = 0.88 quart | = 1.06 quart | | 5 liters | = 1.1 gallons | = 1.3 gallons| | British | Metric | American | Metric | |-----------------|---------------|--------------|----------| | 1 cubic inch | = 16.4 milliliters | 1 cubic inch | = 16.4 ml | | 1 ounce | = 28.0 milliliters | 1 ounce | = 30.0 ml | | 5 ounces (½ pint) | = 140.0 milliliters | 4 ounces (½ cup) | = 120.0 ml | | 10 ounces (½ pint) | = 280.0 milliliters | 8 ounces (1 cup) | = 240.0 ml | | 1 pint (20 ounces) | = 560.0 milliliters | 1 pint (16 ounces) | = 480.0 ml | | 1 quart (40 ounces) | = 1.1 liters | 1 quart (32 ounces) | = 960.0 ml | | 1 gallon (4 quarts) | = 4.5 liters | 1 gallon (4 quarts) | = 3.8 l | **Miscellaneous** | Metric | Metric | |-----------------|---------------| | 1 bottletop (Coca-Cola, etc.) | = 3.5 milliliters | | 1 usual teaspoon | = 4 to 5 milliliters | | 1 measuring teaspoon | = 5 milliliters | | 1 tablespoon, eating | = 8 to 10 milliliters | | 1 tablespoon, serving | = 14 to 16 milliliters | | 1 measuring tablespoon | = 15 milliliters | **Note:** 40 British ounces - 1 British (Imperial) quart, and 32 American ounces = 1 American quart. The ounces are almost the same size but this relationship creates a difference of about 20 percent in the size of pints, quarts and gallons between British and American measurement of volume. WEIGHT | Metric | British and American | |-----------------|----------------------| | 10 grams | = 7/20 ounce | | 100 grams | = 3.5 ounces | | 1 kilogram | = 2.2 pounds | | British and American | Metric | |----------------------|------------| | 1 ounce | = 28 grams | | 1 pound | = 450 grams| | 10 pounds | = 4.5 kilograms| Note: The British and American units of weight shown above are the ones in common use, the "Avoirdupois" system, which has 16 ounces in a pound. Another system exists in both Britain and America, the "apothecary" or "troy" system. Its pound, which equals about 370 grams, contains 12 ounces. This system is only used in certain specialties. TEMPERATURE See page 122 for a conversion chart between the Fahrenheit and Centigrade temperature scales. | British English | American English | |-------------------------|-----------------------------------| | Cement | Glue | | Common pins | Pins or straight pins | | Edible oil | Cooking oil | | Muriatic acid | Hydrochloric acid | | Paraffin | Kerosine, charcoal lighting fluid | | Pasteboard | Cardboard | | to revise a lesson | to review a lesson | | Spirit | Alcohol | | Tin | Can | APPENDIX E. DETECTING CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE WITHOUT A THERMOMETER In a number of the activities where an increase of temperature takes place, it can be felt with your hand. These are Activities I-3B, I-4C, I-4C Further Study, I-5A and I-10. In several other activities, the increases in temperature can be noted the same way, but it would be desirable to improve both measuring skills and understanding of the situations by making a somewhat more quantitative measurement. The approaches suggested here apply to these activities: I-5B, I-7, I-7 Further Study, I-8B, I-11A, I-11B and II-2. In the Further Study following Activity I-3A, a laboratory thermometer which can measure temperatures up to 100°C is needed. This is a difficult requirement to meet with improvised temperature measuring devices, but perhaps you can invent one or locate an existing design that is easy to make and works well. If you do, please communicate it to the Information Collection and Exchange office. Also, please let us know about your successful or unsuccessful attempts to measure temperature in any of the lessons. In many industrial applications, temperatures are measured using pieces of material that melt at known temperatures. For example, in Activity I-7, three tiles are placed in the sun. They are all horizontal. One is black, one is earth colored, and the other one is white. On each tile, you could put a piece of margarine and a piece of wax. Whether both of these melt on each tile, and how long it takes could be noted. Maybe in your locality, both of these melt too easily. Can you find another material that melts at a higher temperature? The following device can measure small and medium changes of temperature. The air trapped in the tube expands as the temperature rises. Experiment with the size of the air space. A small air space gives less sensitivity, but a higher temperature can be measured without the water spilling out the end of the tube. The range has an upper limit near the boiling point of water because too much water vapor forms in the air space. Positions along the tube can be marked, or it can be glued to a piece of paper, pasteboard, plastic or wood, and that can be marked. The following device is useful for measuring relatively small changes in temperature. Air in the body of the pen expands to move the colored water. Air must be free to leave or enter the tip. Water getting in it will impair its operation. All connections must be sealed, including the small hole on the side of the pen. When the air is warmed and expands, it pushes the colored water. It must not escape elsewhere. The whole device is sensitive to change of temperature. Either the whole thing should be put in the place where temperature is being measured, or the same length must be used for all measurements which are to be compared. It also responds to your warm fingers, and thus must be held some other way. As you can see, these devices have some merit, and we are anxious to hear of your efforts to use them. However, they also have limitations. Perhaps they can be adapted in some way to become better. The conditions of measurement in the various activities are as follows: | Activity | Wet or Dry | Amount of temperature change | Temperature present over a large or small area | Calibration of device needs numbered uniform intervals | Temperature too hot to touch by hand for very long | |-------------------|------------|------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | I-5b | wet | slight | can be either | no | no | | I-7 | dry | moderate to large | large area | no | maybe | | I-7 | wet | moderate | large area | yes | no | | I-7 Further Study | dry | moderate to large | large area | yes | maybe | | I-8b | dry | moderate to large | large area | no | maybe | | I-11a I-11b II-2 | dry | moderate | depends on size of equipment | no | no | | I-3a Further Study| wet | very large | depends on size of equipment | yes | yes | APPENDIX F. MAKING AN EQUAL ARM BALANCE Many science lessons can be improved by having weighing equipment available for the students to use. Often there is only one triple arm balance or weighing scale in the science room, and the teacher is apprehensive that it may become broken if students are allowed to use it. Simple designs for equal arm balances that can be made from easily available materials are shown here. Several details of design affect how sensitive a balance is: 1. Friction at the center point. 2. Whether the center hole is placed above or below the end holes. 3. The weight of the beam and where the center of gravity of the beam is located compared to the center hole. Friction at the center point can be kept very low as long as the pivot uses rolling instead of sliding friction. Using a nail that rolls on the edges of tins is one effective way to keep friction at the pivot from being a problem, and is the method used in the diagrams that follow. To investigate the effect of having the end holes a. below the center hole, and b. in line with the center hole, make the holes shown in the following diagram in a wooden ruler. Put a nail in the center hole, which is approximately at the center of gravity of the ruler. Then hang a hook or light-weight container from the lower holes at each end of the ruler. Get many small objects that all have the same weight. These could be common pins, paper clips or staples. One of these objects should be enough to unbalance the ruler. (If the ruler does not hang level at first, put an elastic band around the portion of it that is higher, and use its position to adjust the ruler so it is level.) Then put five pins on each side. Add a sixth to one side. Does the ruler move? Add five more pins to each side, so you have ten on each side. Add an eleventh to one side. Does the ruler move? Continue this procedure for fifteen and twenty pins. Now hang your hook or light weight container from the upper holes at each end of the ruler. Do the same thing, testing the sensitivity to detect the weight of one pin when there are zero, five, ten, fifteen and twenty other pins already in each container. You will find that in one case, the sensitivity decreased greatly when many pins were already on each container. This characteristic is useful when you want students to quickly compare objects that are approximately the same weight with other objects that are very different in weight, such as being only half as heavy. Too much sensitivity might make every object seem different in weight from every other object, and the students would get bogged down. Measuring the potato cubes in Part I of Preserving Food by Drying is an activity where the balances purposefully should not be very sensitive. Now make one more hole in the center of the ruler, so it looks as follows: In this explanation, the weight of the beam is staying the same - it is the weight of a ruler. If you need to make an extremely sensitive balance, the same principles described here can be used with a light weight beam made from thin cardboard. Similarly, if a more rugged balance is needed for heavier weights, a design using parts of a tree could be made, similar to the diagram at the end of this explanation. Now put the nail in the new hole you have made near the edge of the ruler. First put it on the pivot with the hole near the lower edge of the ruler. You will see that it does not balance when it is used this way. This is because the center of gravity of the ruler is above the pivot. The ruler tries to fall to a position where its center of gravity is below the pivot. Now put the ruler on the pivot so the new hole (with a nail through it that rests on the edges of the tins) is near the top edge of the ruler. Repeat the same procedure of testing the sensitivity of the balance by putting one pin on one side, when you have zero, five, ten, fifteen and twenty pins already in the containers at each end of the beam. You now have seen how the sensitivity varies according to where you make the holes at each end, and the hole in the center that the pivoting nail goes in. Now you will be able to make a balance where you can design what the sensitivity will be, even if you use materials such as shown in the following diagram: APPENDIX G. MAKING A SET OF WEIGHTS Without a set of weights, an equal arm balance can be used to see whether various objects are equal in weight or not. This is done in Activity I-6, where the equal arm balance shows that if one of the cubes is cut into several pieces, the pieces still weigh the same as the other cube that was not cut. If the objects are to be weighed with the equal arm balance, a set of weights is needed. This is necessary where the weight of a piece of fresh food is to be compared with the weight of the same piece of food after it has been dried. The equal arm balance can be used for weighing by putting the piece of food on one side of the balance and by putting enough weights on the other side to balance the food. The set of weights should be based on some easily available objects that all weigh about the same. In Appendix S, things like staples, common pins, and paper clips are suggested for testing the sensitivity of the balance. However, these are too light to be useful for weighing the food pieces. They also have the disadvantage that unless they are all bought from the same source, they may not all have the same weight. Washers also do not make suitable weights, because they are made from scrap pieces of sheet metal, and although the diameter may be the same, the thickness varies tremendously. Bottle tops from Coca-Cola, Fanta and beer bottles are quite uniform in weight. These are probably the best things on which to base your set of weights. They have the added advantage of being obtainable for free. The set of weights can consist only of bottle tops. For example, a piece of food might weigh 130 bottle tops fresh and 47 bottle tops after being dried. This gets to be a lot of bottle tops to pile on the balance, however. Somewhat heavier objects that are quite uniform are batteries of the kind used in flashlights and radios. The weights may vary between batteries from different makers, but all batteries of a certain type made by the same company should weigh about the same. Consider that you have some small batteries that each weigh 14 bottle tops, and some large batteries that each weigh 55 bottle tops. To weigh the fresh food in the example, two large batteries would equal 110 bottle tops, one small battery would add 14, and 6 bottle tops would add the rest, to reach the total of 130 bottle tops of weight. To weigh the dried fruit, three small batteries would equal 42 bottle tops, and 5 bottle tops would be added to balance the food's weight of 47 bottle tops. Objects such as these can be used to make sets of weights suitable for all the food drying activities in this book. | | Fresh Food | Dried Food | |----------------|------------|------------| | | Objects on balance x Object weight = Equivalent weight | Objects on balance x Object weight = Equivalent weight | | Large Battery | 2 | 55 | 110 | 0 | 55 | 0 | | Small Battery | 1 | 14 | 14 | 3 | 14 | 42 | | Bottletops | 6 | 1 | 6 | 5 | 1 | 5 | | Total weight (bottletops) | 130 | 47 | APPENDIX H. A HEATING STAND MADE FROM A TIN Using one of the methods of cutting a tin shown previously, you can make heating stands while you obtain rectangular pieces of metal to use for other purposes. The stand is used like this: It has the advantages that 1. a breeze will not disturb the flame, and 2. heat can be prevented from rising all around what is being heated, which might contain something that could burn or melt. REFERENCES REFERENCES Christiansen, Per and Bernard Zubrowski, *How to make Toole*, Peace Corps ICE Reprint #35, Washington, D.C., 1980 Daniels, Farrington. *Direct Use of the Sun's Energy*. (p. 271) ($1.95 paperback) Ballantine Books, Division of Random House, 201 E. 50th St., NY, NY. 10022 (1974). Available in most college bookstores and most bookstores that have science or ecology sections. Dr. Daniels was America's leading authority on solar energy. Excellent background material for any solar energy experimentation with students, farmers or builders. Fairly technical. Chapters on radiation, measurement, geographical distribution of radiation, as well as chapters on solar cooking, heating buildings, heating and distilling water, solar drying and solar energy conversions to electrical energy. Dick, William. *Dick's Encyclopedia of Practical Receipts and Processes or How They Did It in the 1870's*. Leicester and Harriet Hansfield, editors. (P. 607) ($7.95) Funk and Wagnalls, distributed by Thomas Crowell Company, 666 5th Ave., NY, NY 10019 (1975). Available from the Whole Earth Access Company, Berkeley, CA. This book is fun to read through to develop an appreciation for the practical arts of the late 1800's, as well as increase one's awareness of the methods used for appropriate technology. It is a collection of practical science recipes and processes. Its major drawback is that the terms used for various chemicals and processes are antiquated and are not readily translatable to the young scientist of the late 1900's! We hope to remedy this in a later Peace Corps publication. Recipes and processes in Dick's include: soap making, wine making, brewing, perfumes, toothpastes, cheese, preservatives, disinfectants, cements, and pastes, whitewash and paints, electroplating, acids and alkaloids, and medical receipts. Useful and enjoyable! Hertzberg, R., B. Vaughn and J. Greene. *Putting Food By*. (p. 565) ($2.50 paperback revised edition) Bantam Books, Inc., 666 5th Ave., NY, NY 10019 (1976). Available in most bookstores with cooking sections. Most useful compilation of all the safe ways to preserve foods: drying, canning, freezing, pickling. Useable tables and charts. Lappe, Frances. *Diet for a Small Planet*. (p. 301) ($1.95 revised paperback) Ballantine Books, Division of Random House, 201 E. 50th St., NY, NY 10022. A discussion of protein sources and how to plan diets without using animal protein. Well written information that can be used for nutrition lessons. Easily modifiable recipes with high protein content. Gives the reader..."a way of eating that makes the most of the earth's capacity to supply this vital nutrient, ...protein." Magee, John. *How to Build Food Drying Equipment*, (p. 17) ($2.00 paperback), California Wood Plans, P.O. Box 541, San Luis Obispo, CA 93406 (1975). Also available through the Whole Earth Truck Store, San Mateo, CA. Step-by-step guide to building three basic types of food dryers with steps to modify the designs for varied heat sources. The plans use plywood and therefore need to be modified for use in most developing countries. McDowell, James. *Solar Drying of Crops and Foods in Humid Tropical Climates*, The Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute, Jamaica Centre-Trinidad Centre, 1973 *Organic Gardening and Farming Magazine*, "Solar Drying: It's Energy Free", Staff Report, August, 1977. "How to Use Dried Foods", Ron Beasley, August, 1977. "Build a Low Cost Indoor Dryer", Brenda Bortz, August, 1975. Rodale Press, Inc., 33 E. Minor Street, Emmaus, PA 18049. Subscription rates (in 1977 US Dollars): United States and Possessions: One year, $7.85; Two years, $14.25; Three years, $19.95. (In Canada, add an additional $1.00 per year, other foreign, add $1.50 per year). Single copies are $.75 each.
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Cycling Skills Clinic Guide A step-by-step approach to planning and initiating a bicycle safety skills event. U.S. Department of Transportation National Highway Traffic Safety Administration This publication is distributed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, in the interest of information exchange. The opinions, findings and conclusions expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the Department of Transportation or the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. The United States Government assumes no liability for its content or use thereof. If trade or manufacturers’ names or products are mentioned, it is because they are considered essential to the object of the publication and should not be construed as an endorsement. The United States Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Acknowledgement NHTSA gratefully acknowledges the support and expertise provided during the development of this guide by the League of American Bicyclists, and by Lois Chaplin, bicycle and pedestrian specialist, Cornell Local Roads Program, Ithaca, New York. # Table of Contents **Chapter 1: Overview** ................................................................. 1 Guide Purpose ........................................................................... 2 Cycling Skills Clinic Purpose ..................................................... 3 Effective Bicycle Education ....................................................... 3 Use of Skilled Instructors .......................................................... 5 **Chapter 2: Organizing a Cycling Skills Clinic** ......................... 6 Steps to Organize a Cycling Skills Clinic .................................... 8 Clinic Supplies Needed .............................................................. 19 Clinic Layout ............................................................................. 20 Clinic Flow ............................................................................... 24 **Chapter 3: Clinic Organizer’s Summary** .................................. 25 Volunteer Orientation ............................................................... 26 The Basic Essentials ................................................................. 26 Station Setup and Intent ........................................................... 34 **Chapter 4: Cycling Skills Clinic Stations** .................................. 35 Station 1: Check-In .................................................................... 36 Station 2: Helmet Fit .................................................................. 39 Station 3: Bike Fit and Inspection .............................................. 42 Station 4: Start! and Stop .......................................................... 45 Station 5: Avoid Hazards ........................................................... 49 Station 6: Scan and Signal ......................................................... 52 Station 7: Turn and Yield ........................................................... 56 Station 8: Enter a Roadway ....................................................... 58 Station 9: Intersections ............................................................. 61 Station 10: Traffic Practice ....................................................... 65 Celebrate Success ..................................................................... 69 **Appendices** ........................................................................... 70 Appendix A: Explanation of Terms ........................................... 70 Appendix B: Sample Checklists ................................................ 70 Appendix C: Sample Letters and News Releases ....................... 70 Appendix D: Sample Parental Consent Waivers ......................... 70 Appendix E: Sample Bicycle Safety Checks ............................... 70 Appendix F: Sample Bicycle Safety Quizzes .............................. 70 Appendix G: Promise Card and Helmet Pledge ........................... 70 Appendix H: Certificates and Progress Forms ............................. 70 Appendix I: Take-Home Tip Sheets for Bicycle and Pedestrian Safety 70 Appendix J: Station Signs ........................................................... 70 Appendix K: Sample Props ........................................................ 70 Appendix L: Clinic Station Diagrams and Dimensions ................. 70 Appendix M: Frequently Asked Questions ................................. 70 Appendix N: Keeping Loaner Helmets Clean .............................. 70 Appendix O: How To Fit a Bicycle Helmet .................................. 70 Appendix P: How to Signal Your Turns ...................................... 70 Appendix Q: Sample Cycling Skills Clinic Evaluation .................. 70 Chapter 1 Cycling Skills Clinic Overview Bicycling is an activity that people of all ages can enjoy for a lifetime. It is a cost-effective mode of transportation. Whether riding for fun, exercise, or transportation, bicyclists can and should enhance their safety. In addition to learning safety tips and the rules-of-the-road in a classroom, bicyclists should learn to be safe by practicing on a bicycle in a controlled environment. **Guide Purpose:** This guide is written for those interested in planning a bicycle safety skills event for children either at school or at other community venues. If you are reading this guide, you have likely been approached about providing a bicycle safety program that includes on-bike training. You probably represent law enforcement, public health, emergency responders, school professionals, safety advocates, or parents. This guide gives you a step-by-step approach to planning and initiating a bicycle safety skills event, including instructions and resources for setting up a course and conducting it to meet the needs of all the children participating. Use these ideas to help plan your safety skills event, but don’t let it limit your creativity in planning your own program. Consider special audiences in your community, including those who are non-English-speaking, older children and even adults who may want to participate. Finally, this guide is not copyrighted, so you are free to use it without permission, and you can adapt it as necessary based on your community’s need. This guide draws from a variety of “bicycle rodeo” guides, as they were once called, and incorporates ideas, activities, and suggestions from those who have been organizing bicycle rodeos for years. While more stations can be added, stations 1-7 are the most critical for comprehensive on-bicycle training and should be included in every cycling skills clinic for participants age 10 and older. Cycling skills clinics, by their very nature, are designed to get the maximum numbers of participants engaged in a hands-on learning experience that demonstrates the basics of traffic safety when bicycling. It is important to note that a cycling skills clinic is **not** a comprehensive bicycle safety program. Once completed, students do not suddenly have the knowledge, skills, or maturity to ride bicycles safely in traffic and without supervision. Schools, parents, caregivers, camps, recreational centers, and communities are strongly encouraged to use the cycling skills clinic as part of a process towards enhancing bicycle safety. The safety principles and skills learned during a clinic need to be reinforced and applied beyond the confines of a blocked-off parking lot. The clinic is a stepping stone for the bicyclist who will need to apply judgment and refined skill when advancing to riding in neighborhoods, shared pathways, and in traffic. Cycling Skills Clinic Purpose: A cycling skills clinic is designed to be a fun educational activity for children of varying levels of bicycle riding experience. This clinic serves to: 1. **Educate**: increase knowledge about traffic safety and bicycling; 2. **Train**: transfer the knowledge to the practice of skills and decision-making while riding a bicycle; and 3. **Motivate**: energize and excite participants to want to learn more and to engage in bicycling. Fall and spring seem to be the most popular times to offer clinics because the weather is more suitable for outdoor activity. However, during winter or summer, clinics can be held indoors using gymnasiums or recreation centers. Preparing children for safe riding is a project that many groups are willing to sponsor—parent-teacher associations (PTAs, PTO’s), youth-centered organizations/clubs, public health agencies, law enforcement traffic safety groups, or emergency response professionals. Effective Bicycle Education: **Learning Styles:** Cycling skills clinics apply four types of learning styles to teach bicycle safety: visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic. Regardless of age, many people gravitate toward one type of learning or a combination of learning styles. Types of learning styles used in a cycling skills clinic include: - **Visual** – the student learns best by *seeing* things in writing, in picture format, or by observing behavior. - **Auditory** – the student learns best by *hearing* directions either by an instructor or via an audio tape. - **Tactile** – the student learns best by hands-on experience including touching parts, pieces, material, etc., and performing the skill being taught. - **Kinesthetic** – the student learns best by movement, actually performing the skill. **Active Learning:** Studies have shown that active learning increases the likelihood of knowledge retention. Many of us may recall sitting passively through a lecture one day, and then being unable to recall more than the basics the next day. Bicycling lends itself very well to active, hands-on, experiential learning. **Human Growth and Development:** On-bicycle and traffic safety training needs to be adapted not only to a child’s actual age but also the child’s growth and developmental level. Not all children of the same age have the same processing skills, gross and fine motor skills, or levels of maturity. For this reason, those working with children need to be flexible and creative, sometimes on the spot. Watch children’s verbal and non-verbal cues (e.g., children who may appear bored or those who act out may actually be frustrated because they don’t understand, and are compensating by using attention-seeking behavior). One thing that most children have in common, however, is their tendency to take information very literally. Provided are a few real life examples related to bicycle and traffic safety and a child’s perspective. **Example #1** **Behavior** Volunteer tells the child to look both ways. The child looks up and then down. More desirable and specific instructions: The volunteer tells the child to look left, then right, then left for traffic. Volunteer demonstrates the behavior showing the child to slowly look to the left (and say “No cars coming”), then right (and say “No cars coming”), then left again (say “Still no cars coming”), then say “It is safe for me to go.” **Example #2** **Response to question** Volunteer asks the child who lives in a rural area: “Why do you think you need to signal with your hands?” Child’s response: “So I think about which way I am going to turn.” Volunteer: “Who else do you think you may need to let know which way you are going to turn?” Child’s response: “Hmm, God?” Consideration: The child in this situation has little orientation to traffic in a rural environment. Children are typically really excited about getting on a bicycle at a cycling skills clinic. People who work with youth on bicycle safety strongly recommend providing basic classroom education prior to on-bicycle skills at a clinic. This can be done on a separate day or the same day. Children are given a brief overview of bicycle safety principles or are shown a brief bicycle safety educational video. If time is limited, we recommend NHTSA’s video, *Bike Safe. Bike Smart*, which covers the rules of the road and the importance of wearing a bicycle helmet. This video is performed by middle-school-age actors, and is suitable for grades 3 to 8. Throughout the clinic, and after, reinforce that while bicycling is fun, bicycles are not toys. In order to adapt cycling skills clinics to children’s literal interpretations you should: - Design the stations for practicing bicycle safety skills to look as much like the road as possible. For this reason, specific measurements are provided to scale, using tape or chalk-drawn lanes. - Create actual traffic safety signs when possible, such as stop signs and yield signs, and use cardboard to create a representation of cars or motorized traffic. It is important to reinforce to volunteers their roles in the learning process, especially when working with children. Not only do children’s learning styles vary, but their understanding of safe bicycling is affected by their lack of experience with traffic. Volunteers don’t have to be child development experts, they simply need to reinforce the safety concepts by verbalizing the desired behavior, demonstrating the desired behavior, and then reinforcing the desired behavior as the child practices in a safe environment. Finally, volunteers must remember that children take information very literally. Asking children to repeat what they heard can minimize some of what is lost when communication occurs from an adult’s frame of reference to a child’s. Example #3 Parent versus child interpretation Parent says to child walking or bicycling to school: “You’re late—get going!” Child’s interpretation and likely behavior: The child will focus on getting to school and likely not take into consideration ways to get to school safely. Example #4 Parent versus child interpretation Parent says: “Watch out for cars.” Child’s interpretation: The child literally looks for the presence of cars but avoids other traffic-related indicators, including traffic signs and signals, etc. Use of Skilled Instructors: Adults are role models; the best teacher is one who teaches by example. Have you been on your bicycle lately? Are you confident with basic bicycling skills? Many events are initiated by non-cycling adults; that’s fine, but it’s important that skilled cyclists are a part of the program. Enlist help from your local bike club, coalition, or shop. A listing of skilled cycling instructors throughout the country can be found at www.bikeleague.org. Many skills are easier to teach when demonstrated by experienced bicyclists. Consider developing a program that involves parents and other community adults as participants. By promoting bicycling with youth and adults, you’re promoting a great way to get exercise and quality family time. Thanks for Promoting Bicycle Safety! Chapter 2 Organizing a Cycling Skills Clinic This event can be as simple or as elaborate as you have the resources to support. Your determination will drive planning, recruiting, and marketing decisions. One thing that most cycling skills clinics have in common is a limited budget. This guide is based on the assumption that a nominal budget is likely. The guide also assumes that you are the established coordinator of the cycling skills clinic. This may mean that you will be: - Responsible for the clinic, including planning, implementing, and evaluating with the help of a committee; or - Using an outside group that will do this for you. Regardless, you will likely establish a committee of people who represent the school, county, and city sponsoring the event. This committee is necessary to assure that you are: - Meeting the needs of those requesting your services; - Including key personnel to cover such things as administrative approval, marketing, public outreach, etc.; - Receiving any additional input needed to make the cycling skills clinic a success; and - Establishing a core group of volunteers committed to help out in the planning, implementation, and evaluation stages of the cycling skills clinic. As the clinic coordinator, you may be given all the answers to the typical when, why, and who questions or you may be responsible for proposing and getting approval for: (1) the size, format, and target audience for your clinic; (2) the date, time, and place for your clinic; and (3) a timeline to guide you and others to planning needs leading up to the actual clinic; and (4) a method for selecting and establishing a planning committee. **Step One:** Determine the size, format, and target audience for the cycling skills clinic **Step Two:** Choose the date, time, and place **Step Three:** Establish a timeline **Step Four:** Establish a planning committee with roles and responsibilities **Step Five:** Explore and establish sources of volunteers and sponsors **Step Six:** Market to the target audience **Step Seven:** Conduct the event **Step Eight:** Evaluate and provide after-action reports to appropriate people Step One: Determine the Size, Format and Target Audience for the Clinic A. **Size**: Larger isn’t necessarily better. Ask yourself the following three questions; the answers will help you decide the size of your clinic and will drive your planning process. The larger the event, the more planning and time are necessary. 1. **Do you want a small, medium, or large event?** - Small - targets a local group or single school with a very limited budget - Medium - targets a larger community with the public invited, but with a small budget - Large - targets a citywide audience with significant budget and publicity 2. **What resources are available?** - Good resources: supply of volunteers (30-50), supply of bicycles (30) - Limited resources: small number of volunteers (10), participants must bring their own bicycles 3. **What level of experience is on hand?** - Do you have experience running a cycling skills clinic? - If you have no experience you may want to start off small. Or, you may wish to seek out an experienced person (see Step 5, Establish Sources of Volunteers). - Alternatively, consider ways to build up some experience prior to the event. One way to do this is to start with a dry run with the planning committee. Adults can be assigned to be “kids” or you can gather children to help you practice the focus of each station and the flow of the event. Regardless of the size of the cycling skills clinic, much of your effort will be spent in the planning and organizing phase. The time you spend on this phase will depend upon where you are in the planning matrix. You are strongly encouraged to decide on the size and format of your event well in advance. The planning, including recruiting volunteers and marketing of the event, takes time; the planning for the actual day is relatively simple. B. **Format**: Establishes how the cycling skills clinic will be administered and is often based on numbers of participants, volunteers, and bicycles available. 1. **By Class**: *Small event* – can be offered as a physical education class running 12-30 participants through in a 45- to 50-minute period. Setup of the event may require several hours the day before, so plan around availability of the facility and the security between setup and the event. 2. **By Grades:** *Medium to large event* – can be conducted in 2-4 hours and can accommodate more children, such as all 4th graders (up to 100 participants at the same time) or as an event for all 4th and 5th graders, (100 to 200 participants at the same time) over a 2- to 3-hour period. 3. **By School:** *Medium to large event* – this can be as large as a community event, and take as long, but as the organizer, you can control how many participants and what ages come through. Further, marketing efforts are much simpler since students can take material home to parents in their backpacks, and participation does not have to be sought outside the school. 4. **By Community or City:** *Large event* – may be conducted over a larger span of time such as 4-5 hours, and could involve over 200 participants and adults of varying ages. The planning and organization for this type of event is more intense because it requires marketing to a community for participation. The organizing group may ask participants to sign up in advance, or participants may just show up. Large numbers of participants need to be considered with a large number of volunteers and experienced bicycle safety experts needed. It may require months of planning and significant time to set up. Getting permission to use a venue for hours may be challenging. Storage of bicycles at the site, when they are supplied, can create a need for increased security at the site. ### Planning Matrix | Size/complexity of event | 1 Small (12-30 participants at one time) | 2 Medium (35-100 at one time or staggered) | 3 Large (100-300+ at one time) | |--------------------------|----------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|-------------------------------| | **A. Good resources** | Focus primarily on: | Focus primarily on: | Focus primarily on: | | | • Location | • Location | • Location | | | • Date/time | • Date/time | • Date/time | | | | • Marketing | • Marketing | | **B. Limited resources** | Focus primarily on: | Focus primarily on: | | | | • Location | • Location | | | | • Date/time | • Date/time | | | | • Recruiting | • Recruiting | | | | • Marketing | • Marketing | | Let’s walk through a variety of scenarios you may encounter with your event; consideration and preparation will help you in the end. - **Scenario 1A:** A trailer of bicycles and helmets with paid or volunteer instructors and helpers may lessen preparation time to less than a month. Many local bicycle advocacy groups are purchasing trailers of bicycles and providing cycling skills clinics as part of outreach to their communities. An event of this type is often done in a school parking lot or school gymnasium. A typical event of this type may be training for a Boy Scout troop or a physical education class, etc. If volunteers are limited, limit how many children participate at any given time, i.e., space participants out. Limited marketing efforts are required because the audience is established, but reminders to school staff, parents, and students will be necessary. **Positive:** Bicycles are well maintained, leaving greater time for participants to actually be on the bicycles. - **Scenario 1B:** Parents and children bring their own bicycles and helmets to the cycling skills clinic. An event of this type is the same as in scenario 1A above except that costs must be minimized. Recruiting volunteers may become a significant effort unless you do these events regularly and have a core group to draw from. Because the children are bringing their own bicycles and helmets, more time will be used to obtain bicycle maintenance volunteers from a local bike shop. A few spare bicycles and helmets should be available in case a child doesn’t have a bicycle or a helmet, or if the child’s equipment is not suitable. Bicycle shops may accommodate such a request in return for free advertising, or your local police department may have access to abandoned or stolen bicycles it is willing to donate. **Positive:** A plus to this scenario is children can practice on their own bicycles and their helmets most likely will be properly fitted. - **Scenario 2A:** If you are resource-rich and are reaching out to a large market, then publicizing the event becomes more important. You will have to choose a larger site to accommodate more participants and recruit more volunteers as well as paid staff. You should plan on spending at least 6 months planning an event of this type and working to attract sponsors who can defray some of the costs. To provide a full range of bicycle safety activities, you will need to have access to a large space, preferably providing both indoor and outdoor facilities. You will have to look for different ways to raise the public’s awareness of the event to encourage attendance, including use of local media. **Positive:** Often these types of events are on the weekends so more parents can get involved. - **Scenario 2B:** With limited resources, holding a larger event with only volunteer staff can be challenging. Recruiting becomes a significant effort and may not provide the numbers of adults needed to make the event successful. To provide a full range of bicycle safety activities, you will need to have access to a large space; you may wish to consider use of both indoor and outdoor space. Use local media, including radio stations, newspapers, and announcement flyers in schools, libraries, and recreation centers to get the word out if offered as a community event, and bulletin boards and backpack flyers if conducted for children during school. Signing up participants or grouping certain ages together with a pre-determined time slot can help significantly in terms of clinic layout and staggering participants to minimize wait time. Consider allowing students to participate during a physical education period. Consider engaging parents, high school students looking for community service projects, college students, or young adult service organizations to volunteer their time. **Positive:** Can use a relatively large number of children in a school setting to expose them to bicycle safety in a cycling skills clinic for all 4th and 5th graders. - **Scenario 3A:** Citywide programs with more than 400 participants have been conducted. However, support is typically generated by corporate sponsors who encourage their employees to help pay for professionals to train and direct the volunteers. A large event requires at least 9 months of planning. The space necessary to hold a large event should include significant amenities such as rest rooms, water fountains, shade, and a large open space for the event layout and bicycle storage. Don’t neglect to provide sufficient parking for those who drive to the event. **Positive:** You are more likely to also reach parents and caregivers. C. **Target Audience:** Most often the target audience for a cycling skills clinic will be children, but you will need to consider your audience more specifically. Some considerations include: - Will you be working with an entire school (multiple grades and ages)? Will you be working with a subset of the school such as just 4th and 5th graders? For example, will you be working with one class at a time during their scheduled physical education or health education class? - Will the cycling skills clinic be part of a community event? If so, it is likely that parents will show up with children of varying ages. Will you have participants at a community event sign up ahead of time or come on a walk-in basis? - The age of the participating audience will determine the skills to include in your course and thus your course layout. Children under 10 can go first and get finished faster. The course for younger children will be limited as compared to the course for older children. Older children may be more experienced riders and can be presented with additional challenges and potentially a neighborhood ride at the conclusion of the event. See the table below for an example of how the clinic may vary based on the target age. If your purpose is to reach 4th and 5th graders in a particular school, for example, you are likely to use all the stations and layout design of an advanced clinic. Cycling Skills Clinics – Based on Target Audience Age As we have indicated, not all clinics are the same. The general age of your participants may prompt you to modify the number and complexity of the skills you teach. If your cycling skills clinic is being run with younger children or with children with no bicycling experience, for example, consider the stations included in the basic or intermediate clinics shown below. The skills learned in the advanced clinic below, however, are not considered “advanced” bicycling skills. They are basic skills in bicycling, but children under 10 years old are not likely to have acquired the fine and gross motor skills needed to perform the tasks, and lack the experience necessary to apply traffic negotiation skills. The recommendations below do not take into account the need to adjust skills to be learned according to an individual child’s developmental limitations. | Basic Clinic Recommended Participant Age 5+ | Intermediate Clinic Recommended Participant Age 9+ | Advanced Clinic Recommended Participant Age 10+ | |--------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------| | Check-In - Registration (Station 1) | Check-In - Registration (Station 1) | Check-In - Registration (Station 1) | | Helmet Fit (Station 2) | Helmet Fit (Station 2) | Helmet Fit (Station 2) | | Bike Fit and Inspection (Station 3) | Bike Fit and Inspection (Station 3) | Bike Fit and Inspection (Station 3) | | Start and Stop (Station 4) | Start and Stop (Station 4) | Start and Stop (Station 4) | | Station 5 Not Recommended for Basic Clinic | Avoid Hazards (Station 5) | Avoid Hazards (Station 5) | | Scan and Signal (Station 6) | Scan and Signal (Station 6) | Scan and Signal (Station 6) | | | Turn and Yield (Station 7) | Turn and Yield (Station 7) | | | Enter a Roadway (Station 8) | Enter a Roadway (Station 8) | | | Intersections (Station 9) | | | | Traffic Practice (Station 10) | | Celebrate! Examples of clinic design using the basic, intermediate, and advanced stations (based on age only) are discussed further in the Clinic Layout section, pages 20-24. The layout will ultimately be determined by the amount of space available and the number of volunteers available to run the cycling skills clinic. Less space and fewer volunteers may mean you wish to double up on the skills tested at the varying stations. Step Two: Choose the Date, Time, and Place The date, time, and place for your cycling skills clinic may have already been determined by those requesting the clinic, due to school or community calendar constraints, or you may be making these decisions with approval from others. Either way, take a moment to review the tips below to make sure the following have been considered: Date: - Weekday events can work in school and after-school programs. This timing is particularly applicable for small single-school events. Weekend events can interfere with other activities such as sports practice, lessons, or homework, but may be necessary for reaching a broader range of participants. - A major community/citywide event would probably work best on a weekend morning. - Determine the best time for your cycling skills clinic based on your particular community. - Use your school calendar if conducting your event during the school day, making sure you aren’t scheduling during a conflicting event or holiday. - Schedule a community event in conjunction with community calendars/events, or see if you can orchestrate your event in conjunction with another event. - If you are conducting this event for school children during the school year, make sure everything is approved by the school administrative staff and documented in the school calendar. If you are offering the event in the community, be sure the date is approved and documented in the communitywide calendar. **Time:** - Spring and fall are great times for bicycle events outdoors; winter and summer events can be done indoors. - Late in the school year works well for many school administrators, as it gives the teachers a fun event for the students. However, you may also want to consider conducting your event indoors during the winter months to prepare riders for the spring bicycling weather. - The beginning of the school day, end of the school day, or lunch time may allow for greater availability of volunteers. **Place:** - Many cycling skills clinics are conducted on school grounds in a parking lot. - Your cycling skills clinic does not have to be held outdoors. School or community gymnasiums are also suitable. If you schedule an outdoor event, consider either a rain date or an alternative location indoors so the event can go on as planned in the event of bad weather. **Step Three: Establish a Timeline** The coordinator should establish a preliminary timeline and plan to present this to the planning committee (see Step Four) for discussion and revision. At least a basic timeline is strongly encouraged so that the committee can consider where efforts need to be placed and to assist in the delegation of responsibilities. No matter how small the event, if volunteers, equipment, space, or approval of any sort is needed, a basic timeline is helpful. A helpful approach is to work backwards based on the actual date that has been selected for the cycling skills clinic. While the chart reflects months in the left hand column, you may set up your calendar to specify day, week, or month. | Sample Timeline: | Sample Tasks: | |------------------|---------------| | **Three Months Prior** | • Choose date, time, and place—obtain necessary approval. • Consider rain dates or alternative indoor locations for clinic. • Identify the planning committee. • Solicit volunteers and sponsors. • Check with local businesses and local service organizations about the possibility of donating handouts or prizes. • Check for availability of loaner bicycles of varying size. • Contact local bike shops or bicycle clubs for volunteers to conduct bicycle inspections. | | **Eight Weeks Prior** | • Send letters to volunteers with date, time, location of event, and information on their duties at the event. | | **Six Weeks Prior** | • Start marketing the event. For a small event you can market through the school, with backpack mail. For larger events, you’ll want to use local media, including radio stations and newspapers and announcement flyers in schools, libraries, and recreation centers. Be sure to identify who is sponsoring the event. • Children should be reminded to bring their own bicycles and helmets if necessary. (Encourage participants to have their bicycles checked out for maintenance issues before the clinic.) If you are providing bicycles and helmets for use for participants that don’t have equipment or in lieu of their own equipment, the flyer should indicate this. • Make a “floor plan” of the proposed site. If the site will not accommodate all stations, the cycling skills clinic will need to be modified or reduced in the number of stations offered. This would reduce the number of volunteers needed. • Establish a secure place for children to park their bicycles at school or at the event while registering or participating in non-riding activities. • Confirm with the bicycle shop to discuss any special assistance or needs. • Arrange for medical support, which may be as simple as the school nurse or may be as complicated as an emergency medical services truck on site. | | **Three Weeks Prior** | • Make copies of material and signs, and gather all material needed for the clinic. | | **One Week Prior** | • Have a meeting with all volunteers to explain the cycling skills clinic and how it will be conducted. • Give each volunteer a copy of the rules and directions. • If law enforcement officers or other organizations are volunteering, invite them to the meeting. • Answer questions and distribute site layout. • Check supplies to make sure you have everything. • **Note:** Be prepared to repeat the briefing on the day of the clinic for those who did not attend the meeting and to make sure all questions are answered prior to starting the clinic. | | **Day Before or Hours Before the Clinic** | • Set up tables/chairs • Draw or tape the design each of the stations and flow. • Put station signs up • **Note:** Weather conditions may determine when you set up your clinic. If, for example, there is any possibility of rain the night before, the use of chalk to draw the station design is not suitable. | | **Day of Cycling Skills Clinic** | • Be flexible. • Be prepared. • Have fun! | | **After the Cycling Skills Clinic** | • Meet with volunteers to get feedback about the event and gather suggestions for improving the process for the next event. • Provide a summary report to the sponsoring group of the event. • Send thank you notes. People appreciate a written acknowledgement for their efforts. | Step Four: Establish a Planning Committee, Roles, and Responsibilities Three questions will need to be addressed in this step: 1. Who will make up the planning committee for the clinic? 2. Who will provide the services for the clinic? Will the committee run the clinic or an outside resource be hired? 3. What are the roles and responsibilities for the planning the clinic? **Planning Committee**: Chances are if you are reading this, you are the coordinator of the planning committee and you will be in charge of selecting the members of the committee. As the lead of the planning committee, you will be responsible for keeping those who requested the cycling skills clinic informed (i.e., the school administrator, principal, a PTA board member, the Chamber of Commerce, or civic associations, local businesses, etc.). **Who Will Provide the Services for the Clinic**: Some groups offer a service to run cycling skills clinics at varying costs, such as Kiwanis clubs, insurance agencies, etc. Such groups bring in experts to do specific aspects of the clinic: a local bike shop or bicycle advocate group for the helmet fit and maintenance, or law enforcement officers to provide bicycle registration, etc. Other clinics are completely run by bicycle advocate groups or individuals who coordinate the entire effort. Only you can decide which direction your clinic will go. If an outside organization is being used to coordinate the clinic, a planning committee may not be needed. **Roles and Responsibilities of the Planning Committee**: The coordinator is responsible for facilitating the management of duties necessary to enable the clinic to run smoothly. The duties include such things as: - Recruiting volunteers - Generating sponsorship - Arranging for storage of equipment (bikes, helmets) - Coordinating with school or event planner - Determining marketing efforts - Distributing and collecting parental consent forms - Reproducing handout materials - Purchasing drinks and snacks for volunteers - Purchasing materials needed - Setting up - Cleaning up See Appendix B for Sample Checklists Step Five: Establish Sources of Volunteers, Sponsorship and Logistics Volunteers: - Volunteers are vital to the success of cycling skills clinics. - Frequently law enforcement officers, fire departments, emergency service providers, or school nurses like to take part in cycling skills clinics. They have a powerful incentive to work on public safety events—they want to help community members prevent injuries and fatalities caused by bicycle crashes. Anyone would prefer taking part in preventing injury than responding after the fact. The ultimate goal of this interactive educational experience is the prevention of bicycle crashes. - Many local organizations or clubs like the Rotary, or Kiwanis, for example, participate in such events. - Use parents as volunteers whenever possible to give them additional exposure to the safety messages. Children only have a short exposure during the event, so it is important that parents and other adults reinforce the messages with children after the event. Sources of Volunteers: - Community service organizations - Faith-based organizations - Schools - Fire departments - Police departments - Health departments - Hospitals or rehabilitation centers - Driver education teachers - Libraries - Nearby businesses or local or State agencies - Bike shops - Cooperative extensions, 4-H - Parent-teacher organizations - Emergency medical services - Pediatricians, family practice providers - Injury prevention advocacy groups - Bicycle clubs or coalitions - Girl’s or boy’s clubs or scout programs *League cycling instructors *Sponsorship: Enhance your program and save some money. Identify sponsors willing to cover the cost of promotional material, supplies, ribbons, prizes, or refreshments, etc. For ideas of potential sponsors, review the list of sources of volunteers above. While these same groups may not be in a position to offer volunteers, they may be seeking tax write-offs and be interested in providing monetary support towards your effort. Logistics: - Storing equipment: determine where children will lock/store their bicycles and helmets. - Setting up: explore options for where the clinic will be laid out, how it will be laid out, and back up plans for poor weather conditions if the clinic is scheduled for outdoors. Step Six: Market to the Target Audience All the work in the world won’t make your event effective if you don’t have participation. So… who do you need to market the event to? - For small, single-school events, publicity or parent awareness is normally done via the typical means of communicating with parents: backpack news, e-mail listservs, phone trees, posters, parent/teacher meetings, and through the children themselves. Multiple reminders of the upcoming event are strongly encouraged. - Larger events many require advance notice in neighborhood newsletters, bulletin boards, Web sites, and e-mail lists. Posters and yard signs can be effective if well-designed and displayed in local gathering places. Grocery stores, libraries, schools, and places of worship are all good locations to reach large groups. Many radio stations will provide free listing of community events as will newspapers and some television stations. Cable providers may have local access channels that list events of this kind. - For citywide events, publicity should start months in advance and be widespread. In addition to the avenues mentioned above, a local utility company may be willing to provide access through its billing system to announce an event of this type. Press releases to local newspapers and radio and television stations are appropriate. Handouts at other local events can help publicize the event. The school district may be willing to announce and support a major event with publicity, volunteers, and venues for a citywide event. - Tell participants what to wear so they are comfortable for the activity (shorts, sweatpants, tennis shoes). - Tell participants to bring their bicycles and helmets if the items are not being provided. While the target audience for cycling skills clinics is typically children, parents/caregivers must be considered as well. In particular, materials need to be given to the parents/caregivers to: 1. Provide enough information about the clinic, such as what it is, what they will be doing, what is expected, what the child will learn, etc., so the parent/caregiver feels comfortable signing the parental release form allowing the child to participate. 2. Reinforce the desired safety messages. It is not uncommon for the children to be clear on the safety messages, only to have it undermined by parents, grandparents, or other adults who grew up with a different set of rules. In addition to participants, adults are critical to reinforcing your safety message. If you opt to have the event as part of the school day, many parents or guardians may not be able to attend, but you are most likely to capture all the students you are seeking to reach. Send participants home with handouts that identify key safety messages you wish the adults to model and reinforce. Step Seven: Conduct the Event Volunteer Orientation: Each volunteer should be very clear on the purpose of the station they will manage, as well as a general familiarity with the activities taking place elsewhere. Orient volunteers to the objectives and procedures of the stations prior to the day of the event. When all the stations are set up, volunteers should be given a general overview of the entire course and setup. Take a moment ahead of time to teach your volunteers what to look for when helping the participants at each of the stations. Volunteer Handouts: On the day of the event, give each volunteer the associated content that explains the volunteer’s station. Be prepared. It is not uncommon for someone not to show and for you to have to move people around or find a substitute at the last minute. The volunteer handouts should be detailed enough to serve as an orientation for someone serving as a last-minute substitute (Chapter 4 – Cycling Skills Clinic Stations). Step Eight: Evaluate and Compile After Action Report Assuming the cycling skills clinic will be desired year after year or more often throughout the year, it is important to take the time to review and write down what went well and what you or others might do differently to enhance the next clinic. As the clinic organizer, your perspective, as well as those of your committee, volunteers, participating parents, and the kids will be valuable. Read Appendix P for evaluation factors to consider during the process. Feedback can be collected through a combination of a paper evaluation, a debriefing with workers at the end of the clinic, or from asking or listening to comments as the clinic is happening. The more feedback received, the better determinations can be made for what went well, what didn’t go so well, and areas for improvement. The information you gather in your evaluation will be essentially the same whether your evaluation yields an informal report for your own files, in case you offer a cycling skills clinic in the future, or a more formal report, which is given to the sponsoring group who hired you or asked you to run the program. At a minimum, your evaluation should generate the following information: - Who participated: number, ages, school, and any other information about the participants or families; - An overall sense of how things went: the flow, the organization, anything you learned that would make a clinic go better next time, or what went well that you want to do again; - Recommendations for planning future clinics; and - A summary of the perceived value of the event based on feedback from volunteers and participants. A worksheet is provided in Appendix Q to assist you in gathering this information. Some of the questions and answers should be considered before, during, and after your cycling skills clinic. Clinic Supplies Needed **Helmets:** Every child who participates in the event MUST wear a helmet. You may encourage or require that all children wishing to participate bring a helmet from home or notify someone in advance if they don’t have one. Arrangements should be made for all children to participate through the use of a loaner helmet, discounted helmet for sale, or free giveaway. The Bicycle Helmet Safety Institute offers a consumer resource for the purchase of inexpensive helmets, see http://www.bhsi.org/cheapies.htm. **Surgical or Shower Caps:** A barrier over each child’s head is needed only if helmets are to be shared. This prevents the transmission of communicable diseases like lice, a relatively common occurrence in school-age children. Contact your local hospital or medical supply agencies to secure surgical caps that each child borrowing a helmet should wear prior to putting on the helmet. Paper towel sheets may be used as a substitute if surgical caps cannot be obtained. **Certificates:** Children love receiving acknowledgement of their accomplishments; each child should receive a certificate of completion at the end of the event (see sample certificates in Appendix H). **Progress Cards/Hangtags:** Each participant should be given a progress card. Consider punching a whole in the card and attaching it to the child’s bicycle with an elastic band. This will allow easy access to the volunteer at each of the stations who must initial and comment, if needed, upon completion of the station (see samples in Appendix H). **Bicycles:** Determine in advance if participants will bring bicycles from home or if you will be providing them. Note: Some schools or bicycle coalitions have bicycles that can be loaned. Ideally some bicycles should be available so as not to exclude those who don’t own bicycles. **Refreshments:** At a minimum, provide water for the participants and volunteers, especially if the event is during a warm season. **Prizes:** Local sponsors may want to contribute special bicycle equipment, such as reflective clothing, bicycle helmets, front and back lights, bells, etc. to be used as prizes. **Other:** - Registration tables - Chairs - Station signs - Name tags for volunteers - Pens, pencils, and thick and thin markers - Clip boards - Parental release forms - Elastic bands - Firstaid kit - Basic bicycle maintenance tools and tire pump for inspection station - Extra sizing pads for helmet fitting - Traffic cones, colored masking tape, sidewalk chalk, halved tennis balls or sponges to mark the course - 100 foot tape measure - Cooler for cold water/drinks - Provision for a shaded area such as a tent (optional) - Communication devices, such as two-way radios, cell phones, announcement system (optional) - Reflective stickers - Sunscreen - Tent covering if no shade is available **Clinic Layout** - For a small event, the different stations can be easily developed by one or two people in less than an hour assuming the surfaces are clean and free of debris. - For a large event, a more formal layout is suggested to ensure that participants flow through the stations in an orderly manner. If possible, the layout should be completed well in advance so the volunteers can be trained on the actual stations prior to the event. - Clinic layouts may vary according to how big your event and how much room is available. Recommended measurements are provided for the different stations in Appendix L, and every effort should be made to design the course to scale. Why? Children are literal learners. Each station is designed to represent a real situation including the size of a lane, intersection, driveway, etc. The more realistic, the better the participant can learn and practicing the skill to ensure their overall safety. *See Appendix L to create your own Clinic Layout* Basic Clinic Sample Layout Choose which shape for Station 6 best fits your space. Station 1 – Check-in Station 2 – Helmet Fit Station 3 – Bicycle Fit Station 4 – Start and Stop Station 6 – Scan and Signal (Alternative) Station 6 – Scan and Signal Celebrate Success! Intermediate Clinic Sample Layout Station 1 – Check-in Station 2 – Helmet Fit Station 3 – Bicycle Fit Station 4 – Start and Stop Station 5 – Avoid Hazards Station 6 – Scan and Signal (Alternative) Station 7 – Turn and Yield Station 8 – Enter a Roadway Celebrate Success! Advanced Clinic Sample Layout Station 10 – Traffic Practice Station 9 – Intersections Station 8 – Enter a Roadway Station 7 – Turn and Yield Station 6 – Scan and Signal (Alternative) Station 5 – Avoid Hazards Station 4 – Start and Stop Station 3 – Bicycle Fit Station 2 – Helmet Fit Station 1 – Check-in Celebrate Success! The purpose of this diagram is to emphasize the importance of traffic flow and sequence of the stations. Flow gives not only a sense of order, but enables participants to build on previously learned and practiced skills. I. Getting Ready - Station 1 Check-In - Station 2 Helmet Fit - Station 3 Bike Fit and Inspection II. Bike Handling Skills - Station 4 Start and Stop - Station 5 Avoid Hazards - Station 6 Scan and Signal - Station 7 Turn and Yield III. Applying Safety Knowledge and Principles - Station 8 Enter a Roadway - Station 9 Intersections IV. Putting It All Together - Station 10 Traffic Practice Celebrate Success! Chapter 3 Clinic Organizer's Summary This overview provides the organizer with a brief discussion on preparing volunteers to carry out assigned tasks and the stations recommended for a cycling skills clinic. Each station setup and activity is broken down into greater detail. All volunteers should receive a copy of the detailed instructions for the station they are overseeing, so they can do a final check on the supplies and layout and become familiar with the flow of the station before the event begins. **Volunteer Orientation** Each volunteer should be very clear on the purpose of the station they will manage, as well as a general familiarity with the activities taking place elsewhere. Orient volunteers to the objectives and procedures of the stations prior to the day of the event. When all the stations are set up, volunteers should be given a general overview of the entire course and setup. Take a moment ahead of time to teach each of your volunteers what to look for when helping the participants at each of the stations. Be prepared. In the event that a volunteer is absent, you may have to move people around or find a substitute at the last minute. Handouts should be given to each station volunteer and should be detailed enough to provide an orientation to a last-minute substitute. **The Basic Essentials** | The cycling skills clinic has four areas: | Associated stations: | |------------------------------------------|----------------------| | I. Getting Ready | Check-in; Helmet Fit; Bike Fit and Inspection | | II. Bike Handling Skills | Start and Stop; Avoid Hazards; Scan and Signal; Turn and Yield | | III. Applying Safety Knowledge and Principles | Enter a Roadway; Intersections | | IV. Putting It All Together | Traffic Practice; Celebrate Success | A clinic has to be set up based on the space available. This makes the look of each clinic potentially different. I. Getting Ready - Station 1 Check-In - Station 2 Helmet Fit - Station 3 Bike Fit and Inspection II. Bike Handling Skills - Station 4 Start and Stop - Station 5 Avoid Hazards - Station 6 Scan and Signal - Station 7 Turn and Yield III. Applying Safety Knowledge and Principles - Station 8 Enter a Roadway - Station 9 Intersections IV. Putting It All Together - Station 10 Traffic Practice Celebrate Success! I. Getting Ready To reduce the confusion and potential liability inherent in running a children’s event, the first three stations are critical: check-in; helmet fit; and bike fit and inspection. Each station should be staffed with competent adults who can calmly move people through the process and answer most questions. Stations 1, 2, and 3 require a great deal of organization because they are the stations that will determine the organization of your entire event. It is at these stations that you are likely to have a backlog of participants ready to get engaged and do something. This may be a great place to provide the students with a bag (write their names on it) and engage both the students and their families in a bicycle safety game or bicycle safety video while they wait. You may wish to send students home with registration forms prior to the event and bring them back for review at the check-in table. If you do this, make sure you have blank copies available in case children forgot to bring their forms from home. Station 1: Check-In At check-in, volunteers will: - Confirm that each child turns in or has a release/waiver signed by a parent or guardian. See samples in Appendix D. - Identify the children who need helmets or bicycles if necessary. - Label and attach the progress cards, see Appendix H for samples. - Engage children and their families in watching a bicycle safety video or taking a fun quiz, see Appendix F if they have to wait in a line, or include this as the standard for your cycling skills clinic. Each progress card should be pre-punched with an elastic band attached prior to the event. At the event, volunteers will only need to write in the child’s name and attach the elastic band to the bicycle handlebars. Volunteers will fill out the progress card as the child completes each station. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration recommends the following three videos: “How to Properly Fit a Bicycle Helmet,” “Ride Smart. It’s Time to Start,” and “Bike Safe. Bike Smart.” For copies contact NHTSA at 888-327-4236 or send an e-mail to http://nhtsa.gov/nhtsa-dpme/ntn/jsp/email/email_nhtsa.jsp. Station 2: Helmet Fit At this station participants will be: - Assessed for proper fit and adjustment of a personal bicycle helmet; or - Fitted with a suitable loaner bicycle helmet and provided with a necessary barrier (surgical cap, shower cap, or painter’s cap); or - Fitted with a donated helmet for the child to keep. Newer helmets on the market are relatively easy to adjust if they are the right size to begin with. Children’s heads vary in size and shape, so parents should be advised to shop for different brands if necessary to find the right fit. Prior to the event, volunteers should be trained on how to fit a bicycle helmet. Refer to either the step-by-step handouts (Appendix O) or the video instruction provided by NHTSA. You may choose to show the video instruction of how to fit a bicycle helmet, available on DVD at no cost from NHTSA. To order call NHTSA at 888-327-4236 or send an e-mail to http://nhtsa.gov/nhtsa-dpme/tn/jsp/email/email_nhtsa.jsp. **Common challenges with helmet fitting:** - Check that the helmet fits snugly; the helmet should not rotate easily side to side or front to back. The helmet should not fall off when the child bends over even with the chin strap undone. - If the helmet is loose, adjust the strap in the back to fit. - If the helmet does not have an adjustable strap, use pads provided with the helmet to achieve the proper fit or use a smaller helmet if available. **Common errors with wearing a helmet:** - Helmet is too far off the forehead. - Helmet is too large. - Helmet is on, but not buckled. - Helmet is buckled too loosely. If it is impossible to get a good fit, use a different helmet if one is available. Have some loaners available for children whose helmets are damaged or don’t fit properly. See a discussion of how to keep loaner helmets clean in Appendix N. This station can cause a backup unless you have the station staffed with trained, experienced helmet fitters. We recommend at least three volunteers seated in chairs; the seated position allows the child to stand in front of the volunteer. Consider having participants fill out the fun quizzes in Appendix F if you are backed up. Station 3: Bike Fit and Inspection Children should not be allowed to ride on unsafe bicycles. At this station a bicycle mechanic will check the participant’s bike for: - Proper fit and adjustment of seat and handlebars; - Safety of the bicycle to ride; and - Need for basic repairs and adjustments including inflating tires, lubing chains, and tightening bolts. Use the Bicycle Inspection Form to check each child’s bicycle. Any additional repairs should be marked on the form and sent home with the child (see samples in Appendix E). Notice should be given to parent/guardian of need for repairs at a bicycle repair shop. You will need at least one competent bicycle mechanic to oversee your volunteers. Hopefully a local retail bike shop will be willing to support your event by providing a trained mechanic who can bring tools and a work stand. II. Bicycle Handling Skills Before a child is allowed to proceed into the more advanced parts of the event program it is important to evaluate his/her skill level and also to give him/her refresher practice on bicycling handling skills. The first set of stations provides safe and simple practice drills to assess the skill level of the participant and provides important handling practice for those whose skills are not fully developed. Station 4: Start and Stop At this station the participant will practice to increase comfort, ability, and skill with: - Starting; and - Stopping. Slow-speed operation can present special handling issues for the inexperienced cyclist. It is important that they learn to start and stop with confidence and ride a straight line without wobbling or weaving. - All stations add a skill and repeat the skill learned at the previous station. - It is strongly recommended that each of the activities in the bicycle handling skills stations (Stations 4-7) be completed at least three times if time allows. Since many children are anxious when learning something new, practicing the new skill repeatedly allows children to experience some level of improvement in their performance. - Remember, the goal of the cycling skills clinic is for participants to have fun while learning; every child should feel successful rather than frustrated. To minimize frustration for those children experiencing difficulty, adjustments to expectations at one or more of the stations may need to be made. Restraint in adding skills or participation in stations that are beyond a child’s level of performance might be a consideration. Station 5: Avoid Hazards At this station the participant will practice: - Maneuvering around items in the roadway; and - Maintaining control of the bicycle. Most bicycle crashes do not involve automobiles. Dodging hazards that can divert a wheel or puncture a tire can save bicyclists from serious falls on the sidewalk or in the road. Station 6: Scan and Signal At this station the participant will: - Understand the importance of scanning for traffic and for roadway hazards; - Practice the skill of looking over each shoulder, while maintaining balance and a straight line; - Demonstrate hand signals; and - Understand the importance of signaling in roadway safety. To successfully negotiate sidewalks and roadways a rider must be able to scan and signal before merging or turning. This exercise provides some basic practice in these activities and allows for an evaluation of the cyclist’s ability to maintain control of the bicycle during these maneuvers. Station 7: Turn and Yield At this station the participant will learn and demonstrate: - Proper roadway positioning for left hand turns; and - Yielding and right-of-way rules of motorists, bicyclists, and pedestrians. Multiple turning actions in quick succession can unbalance an inexperienced rider. One of the first rules of good traffic behavior is to yield to the vehicle on the right. This exercise provides practice in both of these areas. III. Applying Safety Knowledge and Principles Young children and even youth into their teens have limited exposure to the simplest traffic rules and laws. This section is designed to introduce or reinforce the application of safety principles to children including the laws and rules that govern movement on sidewalks and streets. The intent is for bicyclists to learn and become a predictable part of the traffic flow. The most ideal way to offer the final three stations is on a section of a street closed to traffic by law enforcement officers. This makes bicycling in traffic more real to the children. Not everyone, however, will have this opportunity. Ensure then that your “roadway” resembles a roadway using the measurements provided in the layout examples. Additionally, while this is clearly a bicycle safety event, many seasoned bicycle safety instructors and community educators weave in pedestrian safety messages in their education and skills practice. Entering a roadway, for example, is a perfect opportunity to reinforce what many students learn in K-3, but may have forgotten or disregard in practice. **Station 8: Enter a Roadway** At this station the participant will demonstrate: - Slow and purposeful assessment of traffic before entering the roadway; and - Stopping at the second edge and its application. The highest incidence of bicycle fatalities among children occurs when a child rides into the road mid-block. Frequently this occurs at the end of their own driveway where they are familiar with the neighborhood and not as alert as they would be in a less familiar area. Young children, in particular, often look quickly and don’t remember to make a conscious effort to look for traffic. For example, a young child is taught to look left, right, and then left for cars. It is not unusual for preschoolers to move their heads quickly left to right almost as if shaking the head “no.” Multiple drills reinforce the “look both ways” activity and make the “stop at the edge” message clear. As part of the educational message at this station, reinforce to participants that they should: - Stop at end of driveway and slowly look left – right – and left again for traffic before entering the roadway. - Stop at the second edge as well. For a bicyclist, an example of stopping at a second edge is when the bicyclist must stop at the stop line in a roadway, but they can’t see traffic; in order to best see, the bicyclist must move forward a bit, stop again and look left-right-left. For a pedestrian, an example is when the child stops at a curb to look for traffic but there is a parked car present; the child will need to move just in front of the car, stop, and look left-right-left for traffic again, before proceeding when clear. - Apply the same behavior when advancing from a traffic sign or signal. **Station 9: Intersections** At this station the participant will: - Practice the safest techniques for negotiating right-turn, straight, and left-turn travel at a typical intersection. Crash reports and self-reporting indicate that most crashes resulting in injuries or fatalities result from unsafe decisions made by either bicyclists or motorists. Many of these crashes occur at intersections and are associated with the bicyclists or motorists turning. IV. Putting It All Together Knowledge without practice is frequently lost. This optional “traffic simulation” section of the event layout is designed to allow participants to practice the bicycle handling and decision-making skills they have learned earlier. It provides a safe place to practice making safe choices in simulated, complex traffic situations. Generally children older than 9 get the most out of this simulation. Younger children should be allowed to participate but in separate groups from the older children. Station 10: Traffic Practice At this station the participant will ride in a pattern that allows the participant to incorporate all the skills learned, including: - Starting - Stopping - Determining the right-of-way at stop signs - Dodging hazards in the roadway - Scanning for traffic - Turning at intersections - Turning left at an intersection - Yielding to traffic In addition to volunteers to work positions around this station, you will need at least one mature rider to simulate traffic by “riding” in close proximity to the participants and providing verbal support or direction as the participants navigate the station. Illustrations of vehicles can be expanded, printed, and mounted on the front of a bicycle (or worn) to help participants visualize motor vehicle traffic (see Appendix K). Celebrate Success This can be offered as a separate station or area or combined with Station 10 if space or volunteers are limited. Each child and accompanying adult should have an opportunity to celebrate the successful acquisition of knowledge and cycling accomplishments of the day. Signing of the progress card and presentation of a certificate, safety tips and other “goodies” is a great way to top off a child’s feeling of accomplishment and enjoyment. Don’t Forget! - Children have different learning styles. - Learning is best when children are actively involved. - Children are literal learners. (For more detailed information, see pages 3-4 of this guide.) Station Setup and Intent The following describes information related to each station. While Chapter 3 (the Clinic Organizer’s Summary) lists materials needed for the entire event, Chapter 4 (Cycling Skills Clinic Stations) offers reference sheets (volunteer handouts) that elaborate on each of the stations. Volunteers should be given a copy of the sheets related to their assigned stations to enhance their understanding of their roles and to ensure that their stations are appropriately set up and ready. Each station will have a sheet describing: - Station objective; - Station description; - Traffic safety implications of the experiential learning; - Equipment and supplies needed; - Approximate time to complete the station; - Staffing recommendations; and - Procedure. As the organizer of the clinic you may choose to provide each volunteer a full package of the following handouts, or simply the handouts to their assigned stations. Giving a full package to each volunteer gives them all the references they need should you have to move volunteers around at the last minute or at any time during the clinic, while giving handouts for only assigned stations limits printing costs. Chapter 4 Cycling Skills Clinic Stations Station Objective: - To orient and prepare the participant and family member for the bicycle safety skill event activity. Station Description: This station is the welcome and distribution point for all information and should be positioned prominently. At this station, participants and family members will receive an overview of what will happen at your Cycling Skills Clinic. All parental waivers must be signed and completed here before participants engage in any activity. Alternatively, you can send take-home packets with children one or two days before the event and use the event to collect the forms. Forms should be reviewed for completion and accuracy. If space for tables or volunteers is limited at your clinic, this station can also serve as the distribution area for certificates of completion and take-home material. Traffic Safety Implications: Parents should not assume that since their children have participated in a bicycle safety clinic, they now are cleared to bicycle alone or know how to bicycle safely. Many parents and caregivers do not know safe bicycling behavior. As such, they should be encouraged to attend the event with their children to learn more. Parents need to reinforce traffic safety behaviors when their children bicycle, as well as be role models when bicycling. Equipment and Supplies: - Station signs - Tables (1-2) - Chairs (2-3) - Clipboards For those children who do not have parents or caregivers present, handouts should be sent home that review and encourage reinforcement of basic bicycle safety principles. • Pens • Release statements • Progress cards (pre-punch and attach rubber bands); attach to each participant’s bicycle handlebars • Other: If it is a hot day, water should be available for volunteers and participants. If it is cold enough for volunteers to wear coats, consider providing coffee or hot chocolate for the volunteers. **Station Staffing:** One station leader and 4-10 assistants, depending on anticipated number of participants. **Time:** 3-5 minutes per group (6-12 participants). **Procedure:** • As volunteers at the Welcome Station you are a major part of making this an enjoyable experience for the children and their families. Please be happy and upbeat and greet everyone with a smile and cheery welcome. • The first part of your job is to make sure tables and chairs are set up to ease the flow of people to and past your station. • Each child is required to turn in a waiver form signed by a parent or guardian. If you have clipboards and ballpoint pens, waivers can be handed out to people who are waiting in line to keep the process moving. • Volunteers at the station: ▪ Review forms to assure completeness. ▪ Write the child’s name on the top of a progress card or form and instruct the child to present it to a volunteer at the end of each station for check-off. ▪ Direct the participants to the helmet station. Reinforce that the child must wear a properly fitted helmet in order to participate in the rest of the activities. The number of tables and chairs for volunteers should be selected based on the expected crowd. Assume that up to three sign-in lines can be accommodated at each 6-foot table. Allow more tables, chairs, and volunteers than you think you need to keep the lines to a minimum. Optional Activities: Quizzes Minimized versions of two fun quizzes are provided in this section for quick review. Full-size versions are located in Appendix F. These activities can be used to keep the participants engaged if there is a backup in the line at this station. What Do The Traffic Signs Mean? Young bicyclists as well as pedestrians need to know what laws pertain to them. They also need to know what traffic control devices mean and how they should act and react when they encounter one. Signs, signals, and painted markings on the pavement all have special traffic meanings for roadway users. Directions: Match the signs with their description. 1. Let the other traffic go first. 2. Bicycles not allowed. 3. All traffic in the right-hand lane must turn right. See Appendix F for Safety Quizzes Bike Riding Dangers Pretend you are the person riding the bicycle at the bottom of the picture. Can you see all the things that could affect your safety when bicycling? There are 13 bike-riding dangers in all. Reprinted with permission: John Williams Station Objectives: - To explain and demonstrate the proper fit and way to wear a bicycle helmet. - To encourage a child to get in the habit of wearing a properly fitted bicycle helmet every ride. Station Description: This area is where helmets are distributed to participants who do not already have them. Participants will then have their helmets properly fitted, learn why they need to always wear helmets, and will be shown how they can adjust their helmets to ensure a secure fit. No person should be allowed to participate in the cycling skills clinic without a bicycle helmet. A properly fitted bicycle helmet means that the helmet should sit flat and snug on the head, without much side-to-side movement. There should be no more than the width of two horizontal fingers between the front of the helmet and the wearer’s eyebrows. The straps of the helmet should come together at the jaw bone, just beneath the ear, forming a “V.” The strap should fit snug under the chin but allow the wearer to freely open his or her mouth. Be sure to wear a helmet that is appropriate for the particular activity you or your child is involved in. (You can order up to 300 copies of “Which Helmet for Which Activity?” by calling the CPSC at 800-638-2772 or write www.cpsc.gov.) Traffic Safety Implications: Many cyclists, regardless of age, think that only inexperienced riders need to wear helmets. For young riders, it may be the State or local law. For all riders it is a matter of safety—not just about how you ride but also about the environment (roadway conditions, presence of dogs, debris in the roadway, etc.) and how motorized and non-motorized traffic interact with you. The majority of bicycle crashes are related to the bicyclists falling. The use of a properly fitted bicycle helmet is proven to be 80- to 85-percent effective in preventing brain injuries in the event of a crash. Adults and children alike should be encouraged to wear properly fitted helmets every ride. Equipment and Supplies: - Station sign - Chairs – Those volunteers fitting helmets will need chairs to be able to sit at the child’s height and visually inspect the helmet and make adjustments. - Storage Container/Space - A large area to store helmets if you are giving them away or offering them for sale. Make this area accessible so children can see and have a choice of helmets. - Bicycle helmets - All participants must wear bicycle helmets to participate in a bicycle clinic. You may either: (1) require the participants to provide their own helmets, (2) loan them helmets for the exercise, or (3) provide free helmet giveaways for those who don’t have helmets. Any helmet given to a child or family member should include instructions and a demonstration on how to properly fit the helmet and a reminder to wear the helmet properly every ride. - Surgical caps or shower caps, one per child if loaner helmets are being used. - Helmet sizing pads - Have extra sizing pads on hand to adjust helmets to the proper size. The sizing pads placed in the helmet will ensure a secure fit. Over time you should be able to collect helmet pads to help in fitting older helmets. If you are just beginning, ask your local bike shop if they have a supply of helmet padding. Those experienced in fitting helmets suggest that using helmet sizing pads can be challenging. An alternative is to order helmets in advance that have an internal adjustable band around the head. Use a helmet that is small enough that it doesn’t fall off when the child bends over, even before it is buckled. Use a helmet that is large enough to clear big hairdos and then fit the helmet by tightening this band. For more information, contact your local bicycle coalition or bicycle shop for assistance. - Flexible cloth measuring tape to measure children’s heads. Measuring is not necessary for the helmets with internal adjustable bands. - Surgical or shower caps if loaner helmets are being used. - Pens/Pencils (for volunteers to sign-off on progress cards). Station Staffing: This station needs one person trained to fit helmets and at least three volunteers to help get helmets for the children and make preliminary adjustments. Time: 3-5 minutes per group (6-12 participants). Time may vary based on the experience of those fitting the helmets. Discussion With Participants: - Discuss that a helmet should be worn every ride. Everyone should wear a helmet, not just children. Be prepared and protect yourself; encourage your parents and siblings to protect their heads and brains by wearing helmets when riding as well. • Verbalize the steps for fitting the helmet for safety and comfort. • Discuss if child currently wears a helmet and why not. Encourage them to individualize their helmets with stickers or other ways to make helmet wearing more acceptable to youth. **Procedure:** • The best way to fit a helmet is to measure the child’s head around the widest part just above the eyebrows and ears. • Helmets should have a label indicating what size they are. Choose the smallest helmet that will fit the child. • First put on the helmet so it is level on the child’s head and—if it slides around or moves side to side, insert helmet sizing pads. • Adjust the straps: - Eyes: The child should be able to see the front edge of the helmet. - Ears: The sliders should be moved up to just under the ear lobes. - Mouth: The chin strap should fit snugly enough that opening the mouth widely will move the helmet. Follow the diagrams for fitting a helmet: | Hat Size | Head Circumference | Approximate Helmet Size | |----------|--------------------|-------------------------| | 6-1/2 | 20-1/2 inches | Toddler | | 6 5/8 | 20 7/8 inches | 530 Small | | 6 3/4 | 21 1/4 inches | 540 Medium | | 7 1/4 | 22 3/4 inches | 578 Large | **Optional Activity: Videos** The following videos can be downloaded from the link provided or ordered from NHTSA by calling 888-327-4236 or sending an e-mail to http://nhtsa.gov/nhtsa-dpmextn/jsp/email/email_nhtsa.jsp. 1. “How to Properly Fit a Bicycle Helmet.” – http://www.nhtsa.gov/DOT/NHTSA/Traffic+Injury+Control/Multimedia/BikeSafety.wmv 2. “Ride Smart: It’s Time to Start” – http://www.nhtsa.gov/Driving+Safety/Bicycles/Ride+Smart/-+lt%27s+Time+to+Start Station Objective: - To check the proper fit and safety function of the bicycle before riding. Station Description: Both the volunteer and the clinic participant work together in this hands-on experience. Participants will have their bicycles inspected for safety and will be shown the basics of keeping their bikes safe for use. A participant will not be allowed on the cycling skills course without a safe bicycle. In most cases this will involve a few adjustments to the bicycle; you will need to have at least one knowledgeable person at this station. Ideally it is helpful to have one or more knowledgeable mechanics from a local bike shop to oversee this station and volunteers to assist. It is important that bicycle equipment be checked thoroughly after being purchased to ensure not only that the bicycle is adjusted to fit the child, but also that the handlebars, seat, brakes, wheels, pedals, and chains are tight and working properly before riding. Traffic Safety Implications: Equipment malfunctions and bicycles that are too big for the rider are avoidable causes of some bicycle crashes. Riding a poorly maintained bicycle can lead to serious consequences. The simplest way to avoid a crash is to be in control of a properly working bicycle. Prior to riding, the bicycle must fit the rider correctly and work properly. This station is not meant to be an exhaustive repair session, but rather a quick safety check. Participants should be taught the basic things to inspect on a bicycle including tire inflation, brake function, loose or rusty chains, and the security of the seat and handlebars. Equipment and Supplies: - Station sign - One bicycle per participant (either their own bicycles or provided for the event) - Tire pump(s) - Basic bike tools including various sized Ill-fitted bikes are commonly seen, as parents or caregivers purchase or receive hand-me-down bicycles that the child can “grow into.” While a bike to grow into may save money, a bike that is too large or too small is unsafe for the rider. wrenches, pliers, screwdrivers, lubricants, and rags. For a small event, a couple of adjustable wrenches probably are sufficient, but a set of socket and Allen wrenches in both English and metric sizes are better. For a large event a work stand and a good set of bicycle tools is best. Try to get a bike shop to donate the time of one of their employees who knows how to inspect and make adjustments to a bicycle. - Varying size tubes typical for children's bikes (12", 16," and 20"). - Chain lube, grease - Paper towels or shop rags to lube the chains - Bike inspection forms (see Appendix E) - Pens/pencils for volunteers to sign progress cards **Station Staffing:** This station requires at least one experienced person knowledgeable in bicycle mechanics and maintenance. Additional (3–6) assistants should be used in a large clinic to help prevent a backlog at the station. Volunteers for this station should be taught how to assess bicycle fit and function. The mechanic is most qualified to do the adjustments necessary. **Station 3 – Bicycle Fit** See Appendix L for Station Legend Those experienced with running clinics offer ideas for alternatives: - Have families take their children’s bicycle to the local bike shop for basic maintenance prior to the cycling skills clinic. - For those who will offer a number of cycling skills clinics on an ongoing basis, or for those schools or agencies that will be offering bicycling classes, it may be worthwhile to purchase a trailer of bicycles with three or four bicycles of varying sizes. These bicycles can be maintained by a local bike shop, bicycle coalition, or bicycle educators. In this way, no time will be needed at the cycling skills clinic for basic maintenance. By providing a variety of sizes of bicycles the participants will wait for their size bicycles to become available before entering the skills course. This will avoid the need to adjust the sizing of the bicycle to the participant. - Provide additional activities for participants if there is a backup. Activities could include: fun safety quizzes (see Appendix F), bicycle safety videos, or a practice/warm-up area. **Time:** Less than 10 minutes per group (6-12 participants). **Discussion With Participants:** - Discuss using a bicycle that fits you now, not one that you grow into. - Discuss the importance of and how to check a bicycle before riding. Procedure: 1. Fitting the Bicycle: - Have the child straddle the bike. Make sure the child can stand with both feet flat on the ground with about a 1-inch clearance between themselves and the top tube of the bicycle. Many bicycles today have sloped tubes. To access proper sizing, the child should be measured using a bicycle with a traditional top tube. Correlate the sizing determined on this bicycle and use the same size in a sloped tube bicycle. - Since this station will have an experienced mechanic or a qualified bicyclist, it is likely that the determination can be made easily. The balls of both feet should touch the ground when the child is sitting on the seat of the bicycle; adjust the height of the seat as needed. If the seat is to its lowest position and the feet aren’t touching, the bicycle is too big for the child. 2. Bicycle Inspection: - Look over the bike for disconnected brakes and missing parts. - Check the tightness of the bolts holding the seat and handlebars. - Make sure that each bike has properly inflated tires and that the chain is not too loose or rusty. - Check to make sure the brakes stop the bike when they are applied. See Appendix E for Bicycle Safety Checks Station Objective: - To teach participants how to start and stop their bicycles safely and efficiently. - To show participants how to stop and dismount efficiently. Those who bicycle in traffic would benefit greatly from learning how to perform an emergency stop. While it won’t be covered in the cycling skills clinic because it is a more advanced skill, it bears mentioning to volunteers and to parents, if they are present, that this skill exists and learning it can enhance the safety of the cyclists. An emergency stop is applied when a bicyclist needs to act very quickly and decisively to prevent a crash. A couple examples would be if a bicyclist is not able to safely swerve around an obstacle in the roadway and must stop, or if a motorists cuts in front of a bicyclist’s path. By performing an emergency stop procedure versus a regular stop procedure, it is less likely that the bicyclist will fly over the handlebars, as would otherwise be the case. Station Description: Participants will practice starting the bicycle, ride a distance to practice balance, and then come to a complete stop at a marked location. The rider will then start again, make both turns on the course and continue on the course to the next marked spot for stopping. Once again the rider will start and continue back to the starting point, getting behind the last person in line to repeat the station. The participant should repeat the course three times if time permits. Traffic Safety Implications: Starting with power and confidence is important to be able to ride without wobbling. The best way to start is by putting the pedal in an “up” position and pushing down on the pedal as one moves up onto the seat. Properly stopping the bike means not skidding the bike to a stop or dragging one’s feet to stop. This skill is usually overlooked by people as it is a basic for bicycle riders. These maneuvers will make for much more controlled riding and help to avoid crashes during the clinic. - **Coaster brakes** – Make sure that the rider knows to pedal backwards to stop the bike. - **Hand brakes** – Make sure that the rider knows to stop by squeezing both brakes evenly together and that the rider’s hands are big enough and strong enough to grasp the brake levers. Note: Hand brakes are usually not on children’s bicycles because their hands are not yet big enough. **Equipment and Supplies:** - Station sign - Materials to create the layout as shown in the diagram: - Chalk or tape to mark the lanes and to mark the starting and stopping points. - Measuring tape to establish the width and length of the lanes as shown in the diagram. - Four cones or items to use to designate the starting and ending points of the station. Place two cones at the start and two at the end, far enough away from the course to keep the children from running over them even with training wheels. - Pens/pencils for volunteers to sign progress cards. **Station Staffing:** Station leader and one assistant; station leader at the beginning and another volunteer at the end of this station. **Time:** Approximately 1 minute per loop. A loop consists of going through Stations 4 and 5 and back to the beginning of Station 4. Each participant does 3 loops. **Station Setup:** - With chalk or tape, mark 2 parallel lines 18 inches apart and ideally 80 to 100 feet long. If space is limited the length can be reduced to 60 feet. - Mark a designated spot using tape or chalk where the participants will come to a stop before the end of the pathway. (Displaying handmade stop signs or props are ideal but not essential.) - Position a volunteer at the stopping point in Station 4 to direct the traffic into Station 5. Discussion With Participants: - Pedal position for starting and why it is important. - Importance of practicing starting and stopping in a safe environment. Procedure: - The leader demonstrates going through the station while everyone watches, showing starting and stopping at the marked locations on the station course. - Allow riders to practice the procedure for starting. - Line participants up side-by-side to allow each of them to practice the steps below before going through the course. - Straddle the bicycle with both feet on the ground – do not sit on the seat. - Raise one pedal in an up position (at about 2 o’clock); this allows the bicyclist to push down on the pedal to start. (See below for more detailed instructions.) Either the left or right pedal can be used, depending on preference. - With one foot on a pedal and one foot on the ground, push off with the foot that is on the ground and at the same time stand on the raised pedal—do not pedal after pushing off. - Coast to a stop while standing on the pedal that has been pushed down. When the bicyclists are comfortable with this procedure, have them place their second foot on the pedals, their backsides on the seats, and keep pedaling to the end of the station. - Once the participants have practiced this a few times, line them up at the starting position to go through the course. - Once participants have practiced starting a few times, return riders to the side-by-side position and allow them to practice the procedure for stopping. - Discourage stops that are executed by dragging feet. - For coaster brake bikes, make sure the rider knows how to pedal backward to apply pressure to stop the bike. - For hand brakes, make sure the rider squeezes the brake levers evenly with both hands. They need to know that using only one brake is not the best way to stop and can be dangerous, possibly causing them to be thrown over the bicycle or to lose control of the bicycle. Hand brakes are not the best choice for small children because their hands are too small to grip and brake adequately. - Once participants have practiced stopping a few times, determine if you want them to practice the start and stop with bicycle dismount. This is based on your time and the level of the rider. Tell the rider the following; - Slow down by using the brakes. - As the bike nears a stop, slide off the seat and put your weight on a pedal in the “down” position. - Take your other foot off of the pedal and prepare to place it on the ground when you’re going slowly enough. If you’re using hand brakes, be sure and keep pressure on the brake levers. - Remind riders how to go through the course. - Instruct children that the leader will start the riders through the course one at a time by touching their helmets. - When the participant’s helmet is touched, the participant will ride as straight as possible to the marked locations, come to a complete stop and put their foot down on the pavement. - The assistant will direct them to turn back and to the end of the line to repeat the station. - Let children go one at a time and leave enough space so they don’t stack up in the course. - Have children do the complete loop as many as three times if time allows. - Recognize that kids are likely arriving with start and stop habits that are different than what you are teaching. Expect that kids will be nervous so accepting a new approach will be stressful. Gently encourage them to try this stop and start approach. - The first loop of going through Stations 4 and then 5 should include a discussion and demonstration of each station separately. For the second and third loops, when riders have a greater understanding and comfort, they should be spaced so they can do the two stations as a continuous loop. **Practicing Stops With Bicycle Dismount: (optional)** - Slow down by using the brakes. - As the bike nears a stop, slide off the seat and put your weight on a pedal in the “down” position. - Take your other foot off of the pedal and prepare to place it on the ground when you’re going slowly enough. If you’re using hand brakes, be sure and keep pressure on the brake levers. Some people are more comfortable starting with the left foot; let the participant choose what is most comfortable and adjust the instructions accordingly. Station Objective: - To teach cyclists control and balance, and how to avoid hazards in their path while riding. Station Description: Participants will practice avoiding a hazard and return riding in a straight line. Traffic Related Implications: Children frequently fail to notice a hazard, notice a hazard too late to avoid it, or, in an attempt to avoid a hazard, they swerve too far, lose control, and crash, or end up in traffic. Equipment and Supplies: - Station sign - Materials to create the layout as shown in the diagram: - Select materials to use for “X” and “hazards” based on availability. Consider using tape, chalk, halved tennis balls, bean bags, or dampened sponges. It does not matter whether the X and hazards are the same or different; however, it may be easier to mark X’s with tape and tell the children to ride in between the X’s and avoid the sponges (for example). - Measuring tape to establish the distance between the X and the distance between the hazards as shown in the diagram. - Pens/pencils for volunteers to sign progress cards. Station Staffing: Station leader and one assistant; station leader at the beginning and one volunteer at the end of the station. Time: Approximately 1 minute per loop (3 loops per participant). Station Setup: - This station is designed to simulate a situation where a cyclist is traveling at a good speed down the roadway and suddenly encounters an obstacle. It happens fast, and can’t be practiced at a slow speed. To simulate this, and if space allows, this station can be as long as 80-100 feet, with 2-3 hazards for the rider to avoid. With more limited space, this station can have as few as one hazard. Allow at least 20 feet of riding before placing the first hazard. - If space and volunteers permit, multiple courses of this station can run side-by side. This can allow for more than one rider can proceed at the same time or you can have one course for younger participants, and one course for older participants. - Have a volunteer in the area of the hazards to rearrange them when they get knocked over or moved. The distance (between the X and the obstacle) is 2–3’ for children > 10 years old 3–5’ for children < 10 years old giving them more room to manipulate around the obstacle The distance between the X’s is 3-6” for children > 10 years old 6-12” for children < 10 years old Discussion With Participants: - Discuss the kinds of hazards a bicyclist might encounter when riding (glass, rocks, drain grates, sand, etc.). - Discuss why a bicyclist needs to stay alert and avoid hazards (to avoid falls, flat tires, open car doors). How to Avoid Hazards: - Have participants practice looking beyond the hazards in the direction they want to ride. - Have participants weave carefully between the hazards, staying between the sponges or items used in the X positions in the diagram shown next to Station Setup. Procedure: - Children will ride straight toward the object and steer around it at the last moment. They should steer by turning the handlebars first one way (to avoid the object), then turning back the other way to put the bike back in the intended line of travel. - The biggest mistake people make with this exercise is not going fast enough toward the hazard, or making the maneuver too slowly. - The placement of pairs of items such as tennis balls, sponges, etc., used before and after the hazard, are designed to make sure the cyclist doesn’t simply make a big swerve around the hazard (think rocks or other items in the roadway). Station 6: Scan and Signal **Station Objectives:** To teach participants the standard turn signals. To demonstrate control of the bicycle (riding in a straight line) while scanning for potential dangers (traffic or obstacles). To demonstrate control of the bicycle while scanning over the left shoulder and then the right shoulder to identify an object. **Station Description:** This station teaches bicyclists to maintain a straight path while looking over their shoulders to see if traffic is behind them. Looking for traffic is the first step prior to changing lane positions or turning, or signaling intent to turn. Maintaining a straight path without swerving under these conditions takes practice. This will be the most advanced station in terms of skills required for a young or inexperienced rider. All riders need to be able to turn their head long enough to register and identify what they see. **Traffic Safety Implications:** Many young cyclists looking back to check for traffic, swerve in the same direction as they are looking. Being able to maintain a straight path increases the riders’ safety. **Equipment and Supplies:** - Station sign - Materials to create the layout as shown in the diagram - Chalk or tape to mark out the lanes and to mark the starting and stopping points - Measuring tape to establish the width and length of the lanes as shown in the diagram - Four cones, two at the start and two at the end, placed far enough away from the course to keep the children from running over them even with training wheels If participants are comfortable looking over their shoulders while riding, proceed to the next step of having them practice doing the same thing while taking one hand off the handlebar. This skill will prepare them to be able to eventually ride with one hand on the handlebar while signaling with the other hand. Ensure participants understand that riding with one hand on the handlebar is merely practice so eventually they can practice using turn signals while riding. All bicyclists should ride with two hands on the handlebars at all other times except when signaling turns. • Cardboard “car” (optional) (Appendix K) • Pens/pencils for volunteers to sign progress cards **Station Staffing:** Three volunteers: one at the beginning, one in the middle, and one at the end of this station. **Time:** 3-4 minutes per participant. Participants can file through one after the other but they may need multiple practice attempts to learn the drill. **Station Setup:** • With chalk or tape, mark two parallel lines, 3 feet apart and ideally 80 to 100 feet long. If space is limited the length can be reduced to 60 feet. Create a “U” shape to allow for riders to ride in one direction, turn, and ride back to the starting point. • Alternatively use the “zig zag” shape. Both shapes are suitable for practicing this skill. Choose the shape that best suits your available space. • Provide at least 40 feet of riding before requiring the rider to turn. Discussion With Participants: - Discuss the need to look behind (over their shoulder) when bicycling for the presence of motorized vehicles, other bicycles, and at times, pedestrians before changing lane positions. - Place a greater emphasis on scanning than giving hand signals; the natural tendency is to swerve left when scanning behind. The ability to maintain a straight line while looking over the shoulder takes practice. Discuss the need for children and their families to practice this skill together in empty parking lots. Once the child is more comfortable with maintaining a straight line and scanning, signaling can be added. - While children should be taught to signal a right turn by extending the right arm straight out, it is worth mentioning the alternative method so children are able to interpret the signal if seen. The alternative right-turn hand signal is indicated by extending the left arm out and bending at the elbow to form a 90-degree angle. Point out and demonstrate the alternative right-hand turn signal occasionally used by motorists or bicyclists. This method may be used by motorists if their turn signals are not working, or by older bicyclists. Hand Signals It is important to teach children what the hand signals are. However, riding and signaling should only be practiced when the child is able to first maintain a straight line when riding, then able to maintain a straight line when riding and looking over the left shoulder and riding and looking over the right shoulder. Next, the child can practice riding and taking one hand off the handlebar. | Front View | Hand Signal | |------------|-------------| | ![Left Turn](image) | **Left Turn** Extend your left arm out sideways | | ![Right Turn](image) | **Right Turn** Extend your left arm out sideways bent at a ninety – degree angle at the elbow joint, hand pointing upwards and the palm of hand facing forward. | | ![Alternative Right Turn](image) | **Alternative Right Turn** Extend your right arm out straight. | | ![Stopping or Slowing](image) | **Stopping or Slowing** Extend your left arm sideways and have a ninety degree angle at the elbow joint and hand pointing downwards and the palm of your hand facing backwards. | See Appendix P for the Hand Signals handout Procedure: - The leader demonstrates the hand signals. - Allow participants an opportunity to practice hand signals (see diagram shown) while waiting their turn to ride. - Describe the scanning procedure by first telling them and walking them through what they will be doing. Each participant will ride a bicycle three times through this station (as time permits). - **First run:** Take the participant through the station one at a time. Ask the participant to concentrate on riding in a straight line. For the less experienced, this alone may be a big challenge. - **Second run:** Have children ride straight and practice looking over their shoulders. Both hands should remain on the handlebars. - **Third run:** As each child rides tell the child you are going to call the child’s name (or say “look”) and the child is to look behind and tell you whether or not there is a car coming by saying “no car” or “car.” The skill here is to encourage riders to look and to look long enough to process the information to see if a car is coming. Hold the cardboard car sign in front of you when there is a car coming and to your side when there is no car. (If you are short on signs, you can hold your hands high over your head or down to your sides, and have the participant say “up” or “down.”) Stand about 10 feet behind the cyclist. Note: Adjustments may be needed for those with hearing impairments. - **During the third run:** If the child has demonstrated proficiency, ask the child to scan, looking behind them while trying to maintain a straight line, signal, then return hand to the handlebars and then make a turn. - If bicyclists still needs practice scanning for traffic and riding straight, do not add the signaling; simply encourage them to keep practicing riding straight and scanning. **Note:** Although it’s important to be predictable and signal turns, it’s more important to maintain control of the bicycle. Bicyclists should not attempt to signal if they fear losing control of the bicycle. Station Objective: To practice turning and yielding to other vehicles. Station Description: Participants will practice turning in different directions and yielding to the rider on the right. This is the first station teaching actual traffic skills, rather than bike handling skills. Traffic Safety Implications: Traffic frequently demands that a bicycle rider change direction without warning. This station tests the ability of a rider to shift their balance and their direction. Equipment and Supplies: - Station sign - Materials to draw the layout as shown in the diagram: - Chalk or tape to mark out the lanes and to mark the starting and stopping points - Measuring tape for the desired diameters of the circles as shown in the diagram Station Staffing: Station leader and three volunteers Time: Less than 2 minutes per participant for each ride through the course (ideally participants will repeat the course at this station three times before proceeding to the next station). Station Setup: This is a complex station: Be sure to review the diagram. - Mark the starting point with tape or chalk, allowing 5 feet of riding before the bicyclists enters the figure-8 at the opening shown in the diagram. - Have two touching circles, each 15 feet in diameter; two inside circles 12 feet in diameter. Discussion With Participants: - Discuss the difference between yield and stop. - Discuss the concept of yielding to traffic with or without a yield sign. In this course a rider’s possible need to yield can be demonstrated by two volunteers as they walk the course. Procedure: - Riders are to enter the course one at a time. - Riders should enter the figure-8 to the right and maneuver through the circles in a figure-8. - Riders should return to the end of the starting line and repeat the skill a total of three times, if time allows. Age Alert: - For participants up to 3rd grade, each participant should ride the figure-8 without any other cyclist in the course. - For participants 9 and older the exercise could incorporate a more challenging approach: - Instruct the older students to keep riding the figure-8 until you tell them to exit. - Keep adding riders until you have four riding the course at the same time. - Participants should have the experience of having to YIELD to one another and negotiate the traffic pattern. - Remind them to always yield to the rider on their right. Station 8: Enter a Roadway Station Objectives: - To give participants practice in entering a street as they would from a driveway or side street. - To practice riding on the right side of the street, in the same direction as other traffic. Station Description: This station teaches participants how to enter a roadway safely. Participants will be asked to pretend this is their driveway or a side street. They are to come to the end of the driveway, stop, look left, right, and left again for traffic, wait until there is no traffic, and then turn into the “street.” Traffic Safety Implications: Riding out of a driveway without stopping is one of the major causes of injury-producing car/bicycle crashes for children. Most often, children do not consider the risks involved with riding out of their own driveways. Equipment and Supplies: - Station sign - Materials to create the layout as shown in the diagram: - Chalk or tape - Measuring tape to establish the width and length of the lanes as shown in the diagram - Cardboard “car” or have a volunteer use their arms in the up position or down position to mean a car - Cardboard “fence” and “bush” (optional) - Pens/pencils for volunteers to sign progress cards Remind participants that they should check for themselves to make sure the roadway is clear and not simply follow a friend into the street. Station Staffing: Three volunteers: one at the “driveway” and one at the end of the “road,” and a third volunteer to either walk or ride a bike through the course with a sign that looks like a car or a truck to simulate traffic. Time: 3-5 minutes per participant (3 times through station). Station Setup: - This setup creates a “driveway” leading into a “street.” Make the lanes and sidewalks as realistic as possible by following the measurements provided. - Mark a 10-foot width for the “driveway,” with 5-foot sidewalks. - Insert a parked car by either drawing a car with chalk, or taping an X, etc. - A volunteer will be needed to indicate verbally or using the car prop (Appendix K) whether a car is coming or not. See procedure below for more discussion. - Post or have volunteers hold fence prop and bush prop on either side of “driveway” (Appendix K) to create visual challenges requiring the rider to really look for cars before entering the roadway. Discussion With Participants: - Discuss the need to stop at the end of a driveway to look for traffic before entering a road. - Discuss the importance of stopping at the end of the driveway to look for traffic. - Discuss why a motorist may not see a bicyclist (obstacles, not looking your way). - Encourage a discussion of participants’ own driveways or items in the neighborhood that block their view of the street. Procedure: - Explain to participants to pretend that they are coming out of a driveway. Have each rider stop at the end of the driveway, look left, right, and then left again, and then proceed when it is clear. - One way to do this is to hold a cardboard sign up if a car is present and have the bicyclist yell out, “car.” Once the car has passed, the bicyclist should look left, right, left again for traffic. This time, the volunteer will put the car sign down, indicating no car is present. - Less experienced riders should make a right-hand turn out of the driveway. More experienced riders can make a left-hand turn out of the driveway when clear. Whichever way the bicyclist is turning, remind them to position themselves on the right hand side of the street after their turn. - A volunteer at the end of the street will ask the cyclist to turn and move into the next station. Age Alert: - This station is an opportunity for children of all ages to practice riding skills and learn safe ways of riding in traffic. Children should understand, however, that those under age 10 should not ride in the street. It is recommended that children under 10 ride on the sidewalk or in areas not associated with traffic. - Most children are not capable of bicycling in traffic until they are about 10. The complexities of traffic are simply too advanced for their developing bodies and minds. For this reason, many communities allow sidewalk bicycling for children. Young children should be accompanied by adults to help them navigate through hazards such as driveways and other intersections. It would be a mistake to presume that sidewalks are completely safe from traffic. Station Objectives: - To teach young riders to successfully negotiate an intersection, including searching for motorized and non-motorized traffic and making safe decisions based on traffic conditions. - To teach cyclists to stop at stop signs; look in all directions for traffic; position pedal for a power takeoff; and go when there is no conflicting traffic. Station Description: This drill allows participants to practice turning right, going straight, and turning left through an intersection. Traffic Safety Implications: Many crashes occur when bicyclists are turning at signed or signaled intersections. Children often don’t think through the risk involved in not stopping at an intersection, or the importance of scanning in all directions for oncoming traffic. Children must learn to negotiate intersections safely by stopping, scanning for traffic, being seen, and signaling, if necessary, before going through an intersection. Equipment and Supplies: - Station sign - Four STOP signs, one placed at each corner of the intersection - Materials to create the layout as shown in the diagram: - Chalk or tape to mark the layout and where the rider should stop at the stop signs. - Measuring tape to establish the width and length of the lanes as shown in the diagram. - Pens/pencils for volunteers to sign progress cards Station Staffing: Two volunteers are needed; one volunteer directs the riders through the intersection, the second volunteer either walks or rides a bike through the course with a sign that looks like a car or a truck to simulate traffic. Time: 3-5 minutes per participant. Station Setup: - This is a simulated intersection, with traffic lanes and sidewalks. Because children do not understand abstract concepts well, it is important to make the lanes and sidewalks as close to real life as possible, with 10-foot lanes and 5-foot sidewalks. The layout is a short street leading to a four-way intersection that allows children the ability to ride through the intersection three different ways. Discussion With Participants: - Pursue with participants what they should be looking for at intersections (vehicles backing up out of driveways; the presence of a stop or yield sign or a traffic light; other road users (pedestrians, bicyclists, motorists). - Discuss how they should look (include looking left-right-left again at a four-way intersection; look with their eyes and their ears, and not talk on cell phones or listen to music). - Discuss what they should do when riding and their vision of a traffic sign or signal is blocked (a bicyclist must stop and then move ahead to where they can see, stop again, and look for traffic before proceeding). - Discuss what they can look and listen for that will tell them a vehicle is backing up (white back-up lights, beeping sound, exhaust coming out of back of a car). Procedure: - Instruct the rider to stop at the stop sign, look left-right-left again. They should check sidewalks and crosswalks for pedestrians and proceed through the intersection when clear. - Riders should stop and wait behind the “stop line” if anyone is about to cross. - Riders should signal a right turn, and when it is clear, make the turn. - Have the rider make a u-turn, go to the stop sign, and look left, right, and left again, and when it is clear, proceed through the intersection. - Have the rider make a u-turn, proceed to the stop sign, and make a left turn, reminding them that they are to position themselves in the roadway correctly for the turn. To achieve this positioning, they will: - Move to the left side of the lane. Remind them to stop at the stop sign and look left-right-left for traffic and make the turn only when it is clear. Remind the rider to get in the proper position to make a left-hand turn following the description below. Simplify the process based on the participant’s level of experience and comfort. - There are two ways to make a left-hand turn: - as a car would turn (vehicular left turn); or - as a pedestrian would turn (pedestrian left turn). - Both are lawful ways to turn, the decision of which one to choose is made by the A vehicular left turn is more complicated. Less experienced cyclists should consider using the pedestrian left turn where they cross in a crosswalk while using the pedestrian crossing signal. Both left turns are illustrated and described below. **Vehicular Left Turn** 1. Look over your left shoulder for cars (shoulder check). 2. Signal your desire to change lanes or position. 3. Shoulder check again. 4. Return both hands to the handlebars and if clear, move to the left side of the lane or to the left lane and signal again. 5. With both hands on the handlebars, make the turn. **Pedestrian Left Turn** 1. Dismount your bicycle and move onto the sidewalk to prepare to cross at the crosswalk. 2. Walk your bicycle in the crosswalk, just like a pedestrian, following the pedestrian signal. 3. Walk your bicycle in the *next* crosswalk, just like a pedestrian, following the pedestrian signal. 4. Return to position on the roadway to continue your journey. At a stop sign, the cyclist should pull far enough forward to get a good view of traffic, put one pedal in the proper position for a power takeoff, wait until it is clear, signal if turning and proceed. Each subsequent rider must stop and look for traffic in the same manner; it is not safe to follow a friend through the stop sign without looking yourself. Each rider must stop and look for traffic. As each cyclist approaches the intersection, vary your instructions, telling some cyclists to go straight, and some to turn left. Less experienced cyclists should be encouraged to use the simpler alternative for making a left hand turn by dismounting their bicycle and walking their bicycle in the crosswalk like a pedestrian, using the pedestrian signals. Station Objective: - To allow participants to put together all of their bicycling skills, by practicing all the things they’ve learned. - To reinforce the importance of safe bicycling behavior and skills needed to prevent some of the most common causes of child-related bicycle crashes. Station Description: This station allows participants to practice bicycle safety skills necessary to deal with assorted roadway situations. Take advantage of the most natural-looking road environment possible. Consider a portion of a long driveway or a section of a street (temporarily blocked from traffic). Use natural objects whenever possible (real cars, stop signs, etc.). Be sure to include as many of the following skills and situations for participants to negotiate as possible: - Stopping at a stop sign - Looking left, right, and left for traffic before proceeding - Preparing for a power take-off - Positioning self to the right side of the roadway after turning - Riding straight in a lane (balance and control) - Making left-hand and right-hand turns - Scanning to the front and over their shoulder for obstacles and traffic before changing lanes - Avoiding hazards in the roadway - Obstructions (parked cars, bushes, fences, dumpsters) Traffic Safety Implications: Child bicycle crashes are most often a result of the child’s behavior versus the motorist’s. There are four common causes of child- and motorist-related bicycle crashes: 1. **Ride-out.** - **What happens:** Bicyclist rides into street from a residential driveway, a sidewalk, or off a curb without stopping and is hit by a passing car; 2. **Left turn or swerve.** - **What happens:** Bicyclist moves left without looking over the shoulder and yielding to other traffic, and is hit by an overtaking car; 3. **Stop sign ride-out.** - **What happens:** Child passes through a stop sign without stopping and is hit by a passing motorist; and 4. **Wrong-way riding.** - **What happens:** Child is riding against the flow of traffic and is hit by a motorist. A common scenario is when a right-turning car pulls around a corner and hits a bicyclist riding against traffic. Equipment and Supplies: - Station sign - Materials to simulate an intersection and driveway (tape, chalk, or spray chalk) or use a real intersection or driveway if law enforcement officers will allow the roadway to be closed off for this exercise - Hazards (use bathmat to simulate a drain grate, cones, damp sponges, halved tennis balls, etc.) - Stop sign if creating an intersection Station Staffing: Three volunteers are needed. One volunteer controls riders entering the course, one tells the riders what to do while on the course, and one rides a bike through the course or on the street with a sign that looks like a car, truck or school bus to simulate traffic. Time: Whether using the simulated clinic course or the roadway, participant should be allowed to practice three times, if time allows. This will take approximately 5 minutes per participant. Station Setup: This is a simulated intersection with traffic lanes and sidewalks. Because children cannot visualize a real traffic situation, it is important to make the lanes and sidewalks as realistic as possible: - Use 10-foot-wide lanes. - Use 5-foot-wide sidewalks. - If it is possible to have full-size traffic signs, place them 7 feet above the ground to make it closer to reality. - This layout needs to have white lines, because using cones doesn’t allow children to have the full effect of lanes. Discussion With Participants: - Emphasize riding your bicycle defensively; always look out for the other guy, and err on the side of safety. **Procedure:** - Explain to participants that this station gives them a chance to put together all of their bicycling skills. - Look over each hang tag to note any special comments and make adjustments to this station accordingly. - While one volunteer tells the participants how this station works, another volunteer demonstrates on a bicycle so the instructions are heard and seen. - Volunteer #1 will instruct participants to enter the course through the driveway. Make sure riders are starting with their pedals in the power-pedal position, as well as stopping, looking left-right-left and then proceeding only after it is clear. Participants should stop at the end of the driveway and look left, right, and left again for traffic. They may enter the course when it is clear of traffic. - Volunteer #2 will stand halfway down the center median and instruct cyclists when to turn right and when to turn left. Every other rider should be instructed to turn right to keep from causing congestion in the side streets. Volunteer #2 should instruct them to make a left turn by scanning, signaling, and moving into the proper left-turn position, then turning into the driveway. - Volunteer #3 is riding on the bike, and should be communicating with the young riders and making sure that they scan and signal before swerving around the obstacle and before turning left. A rider should be taught to allow a vehicle to pass rather than turning in front of the moving vehicle. - Finally, participants will yield to crossing traffic at the end of a driveway or cross-street before exiting. **Major Points to Reinforce:** - Ride on the right side of the street, with traffic. - Scan and signal before swerving around the hazard and return to the right side of the lane. - Come to a complete stop at the stop sign before turning right. Station Objective: - To allow students, parents, and volunteers to celebrate a successful day of learning. Reinforce to everyone that bicyclists of all ages should wear helmets every time they ride and follow the safety rules of the road that they learned in the cycling skills clinic. - To encourage participants to share take-home educational material and safety messages with their parents, caregivers, family members, and friends. Station Description: Make sure each child’s progress card is complete. Personalize and present the certificate, and hand out any additional educational material and goody bags people have donated. Traffic Safety Implications: Traffic safety behaviors related to bicycling are not learned by a one-time cycling skills clinic. Parents and caregivers must reinforce the safety messages and their expectations for their children’s behavior in and around traffic. Correct behaviors must be expressed and modeled by all those who care for a child. Through practice and experience, safe behaviors can become habits. Whether the parent/caregiver was present or not at the cycling skills clinic, a summary of what was covered in this educational forum and the safety behaviors expected of parents/caregivers as role models for their children should be given in hand-outs. Equipment and Supplies: - Tables - Certificates and/or progress cards - Pens/thin-lined markers - Water and healthy refreshments (optional) Station Staffing: Everyone participates! After each station is finished by all the riders, the volunteers from that station move to this last station. At the end, all volunteers, riders, and parents should be here. Time: As long as people want to stay and celebrate! Volunteer Instructions: - Enjoy a successful day! - Participate in a debriefing with the event coordinator to share what worked and what didn’t work. U.S. Department of Transportation National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
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Learning about climate change the Pacific way A guide for Pacific teachers Vanuatu Learning about climate change the Pacific way A guide for Pacific teachers Vanuatu Compiled by Coping with Climate Change in the Pacific Island Region Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) and Secretariat of the Pacific Community Secretariat of the Pacific Community Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) 2013 All rights for commercial/for profit reproduction or translation, in any form, reserved. SPC and GIZ authorise the partial reproduction or translation of this material for scientific, educational or research purposes, provided that SPC, GIZ, and the source document are properly acknowledged. Permission to reproduce the document and/or translate in whole, in any form, whether for commercial/for profit or non-profit purposes, must be requested in writing. Original SPC/GIZ artwork may not be altered or separately published without permission. Original text: English Secretariat of the Pacific Community Cataloguing-in-publication data Learning about climate change the Pacific way: a guide for Pacific teachers – Vanuatu / Compiled by Secretariat of the Pacific Community and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) 1. Climatic changes — Oceania. 2. Environment — Management — Oceania. 3. Climatic changes — Management — Oceania. I. Title II. Secretariat of the Pacific Community III. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit 577.22 AACR2 ISBN: 978-982-00-0655-3 This publication was produced with funding from the Pacific-Australia Climate Change Science and Adaptation Planning (PACCSAP) program of the Australian Government, the SPC/GIZ Coping with Climate Change in the Pacific Island Region program (CCCPiR) on behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and the SPC/USAID Vegetation and Land Cover Mapping and Improving Food Security for Building Resilience to a Changing Climate in Pacific Island Communities program. Authors: Jipe Lebars, SPC; Hanna Sabass, SPC/GIZ Coping with Climate Change in the Pacific Island Region programme (CCCPiR); Carol Young, University of Auckland. Editing, layout, printing and distribution: Frances Pene, Muriel Borderie and Duane Sutton – SPC Publications Section. Secretariat of the Pacific Community BP D5 98848 Noumea Cedex New Caledonia Tel. +687 26 20 00 Fax. +687 26 38 18 spc@ spc.int www.spc.int SPC/GIZ Coping with Climate Change in the Pacific Island Region Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH P.O. Box 14041 Suva, Fiji Tel. +679 3305 983; Fax. +670 3315 446 # Contents Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ vi Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 Using this guide ........................................................................................................... 3 Vanuatu curriculum links ............................................................................................ 4 Curriculum links to the pictures .................................................................................. 5 Introducing the topic ................................................................................................... 6 Teaching and learning activities: Postbox, Shrinking islands and Cooperative grid, Fishbones .... 6 Pictures, student outcomes, background information, teaching and learning activities (see the table below) Definition roll-up ....................................................................................................... 87 Crossword competition .............................................................................................. 88 Glossary ....................................................................................................................... 92 Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 98 | Picture | Possible student learning outcomes Students will be able to… | Background information | Teaching and learning activities | Page | |---------|---------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------|---------------------------------|------| | **Picture 1**<br> Pasifika | … identify aspects of their own country in the picture; … identify possible risks as a result of climate change and unsustainable practices. | | Picture interpretation with guiding questions Imagine the future | 10 | | **Picture 2**<br> The water cycle | … describe the processes of evaporation, condensation and precipitation; … describe the role of the sun in the water cycle; … label a diagram of the water cycle. | The water cycle | Discussion on the importance of water to life The water cycle – An experiential learning activity Water cycle picture dictation Investigating evaporation The water cycle song Investigating what happens to water when it is heated Investigating the effect of melting floating ice on sea level | 11 | | **Picture 3**<br> Climate in the Pacific | … differentiate between weather and climate; … describe the climate of their own country using local language; … link seasonal changes in their country to growing and harvesting of crops and collection of seafood. | Weather and climate<br>The Pacific climate on a large scale<br>Climate features in selected countries: atmospheric pressure, wind, the trade winds, South Pacific Convergence Zone, Intertropical Convergence Zone and convergence<br>Local terminology<br>The climate of Vanuatu | Picture interpretation with guiding questions Seasons in Vanuatu Rainfall and mountains Say-it grid | 20 | | Picture 4 | Global climate | … label a diagram of climate zones of the globe correctly; … link temperature ranges on the earth to the angle of incident sunlight. | Climate zones | Picture interpretation with guiding questions The heating effect of the sun on the earth’s surface Climate zones An alternative activity on climate zones Practical investigation: What is air pressure? | 26 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Picture 5 | ENSO and climate variability | … describe the expected weather patterns in their country during El Niño and La Niña; … link these weather patterns to changes in wind and current strength and direction. | Climate variability and climate change El Niño and La Niña | Picture interpretation with guiding questions Make your own El Niño | 31 | | Picture 6 | Causes of climate change | … name the major greenhouse gases; … describe some significant causes of climate change; … explain why the term ‘greenhouse’ is used. | The greenhouse effect The main greenhouse gases Global warming and climate change | Picture interpretation with guiding questions How well does the sun heat the earth? | 35 | | Picture 7 | Inter-relationships | … identify some interrelationships between the ocean and land; … identify some of the possible effects of climate change and unsustainable practices on those interrelationships; … identify some of the possible effects of climate change and unsustainable practices on carbon pathways. | Vulnerability and resilience Coastal changes and sea-level rise Ocean acidification and coral bleaching Carbon sink Carbon sequestration Salt water intrusion The carbon cycle and photosynthesis | Picture interpretation with guiding questions Ocean acidification exercise Build a tree What makes sea water different? Comparing the behaviour of warm water and cold water | 42 | | Picture 8 | Changing climate in Vanuatu | … describe the observed and predicted changes to Vanuatu’s climate; … describe some effects of climate change in Vanuatu. … | Vanuatu’s changing climate Climate projections for Vanuatu | Interpretation of the climate data with guiding questions Mix and match Web of life and sustainability | 50 | | Picture 9 | Pasifika after a cyclone or severe storm | … identify probable outcomes of a cyclone or severe storm; … identify possible risks in their own community; … identify some measures that their community could take to reduce the likelihood of damage. | Short-term and longer-term effects What is a tropical cyclone? Cyclone severity Cyclone storm warning Prepare for a severe storm or a cyclone Remain as safe as possible After the storm Beware the eye of the storm | Picture interpretation and discussion Y-charts Sequencing | 54 | | Picture 10 | Pasifika during a drought | … identify probable outcomes of a drought; … identify possible risks in their own community; … identify some measures that their community could take to reduce the likelihood of damage. | Drought How to prepare for a drought | Picture interpretation with guiding questions Consequence wheel | 58 | | Picture 11 | ... differentiate between adaptation and mitigation actions; ... work in a group to plan a possible adaptation or mitigation action; ... implement a group or individual action. | Adaptation Mitigation of emissions | Discussion based on picture interpretation Planning an action | 61 | | Picture 12 | ... identify a range of sustainable agricultural and horticultural practices; ... explain one sustainable practice in detail. | Gardening and livestock in the Pacific island region How climate change affects gardening and livestock Some emission mitigation and adaptation actions that are being developed in Pacific countries | Discussion and picture interpretation Home and expert School gardening | 65 | | Picture 13 | ... identify a range of sustainable forestry practices; ... explain one sustainable practice in detail. | Forests and biodiversity How forests help in reducing CO$_2$ emissions in the Pacific region Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Forests and food production Typically utilised species in agroforestry systems How climate change affects forests Some emission mitigation and adaptation actions that are being developed in Pacific countries | Discussion and picture interpretation with guiding questions Home and expert Identify and plant trees, shrubs and/or grass | 69 | | Picture 14 | ... identify a range of sustainable fishing practices; ... explain one sustainable fishing practice in detail; ... explain why one fishing practice is unsustainable. | What is seafood? Mangroves and coral reefs Fish farming A profile of the coast of a high island Forms of marine life Marine habitats The effects of climate change Some adaptation and mitigation practices that are being developed in Pacific countries | Questions about fishing and seafood with picture interpretation Home and expert Who eats it? One fish, two fish, red fish, few fish Discover marine species Protected area activities | 73 | | Picture 15 | ... identify a range of sustainable practices in an urban environment; ... explain one sustainable practice in detail; ... explain one unsustainable practice. | Towns The effects of climate change on towns Some adaptation and emission mitigation practices that are being developed in Pacific countries | Picture interpretation and discussion Media search Waste time line | 81 | | Picture 16 | ... identify a range of sustainable practices; explain one sustainable practice in detail. | | Picture interpretation and discussion RiQ (Recall, insight, question) strategy | 85 | Acknowledgements The Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) wish to acknowledge the work of the following people and institutions: Authors: Jipé Le-Bars, SPC; Hanna Sabass, SPC/GIZ Coping with Climate Change in the Pacific Island Region programme (CCCIPR); Carol Young, University of Auckland. Contributors: Saula Baleikabaj, Education Expert, Fiji; Eileen Fonua, Institute of Education, University of the South Pacific (IOE, USP); Charles Pierce, Vanuatu Institute of Teacher Education; Ane Teiaua, Kiribati Teachers’ College; Duane Leewai, illustrator. Reviewers in Fiji: Pene Aropi, Ministry of Education; Raj Chand, Ministry of Education; Nemani Dianimoto, Ministry of Education; Keleto Kadi, Ministry of Fisheries and Forests; Manasa Katonivualiku, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation; Jiuta Korovulavula, Foundation of the Peoples of the South Pacific International; Josefa Lalabalavu, Live and Learn Environmental Education; Dr Francis Mani, Fiji National University; Metuisela Mua, Translation Consultant; Miriama Namosimalu, Ministry of Education; Alisi Pulini, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation; Sera Rokolekai, Ministry of Education; Maikel Savena, Ministry of Education; Elena Seninawarawa, Ministry of Education; Cedric Serri, Environmental Education Expert; Simione Sevudredre, iTaukei Institute of Language & Culture; Luisa Sigawale, Ministry of Education; Anasa Tawake, Ministry of iTaukei Affairs; Vilame Tikotani, Ministry of Information; Alumeci Tuisawau, Ministry of Education; Mikaele Vakasilimiratu, Ministry of Education; Lanieti Veibataki, Ministry of Education; Temalesi Waqainabete, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization; Kelera Yalidole, Ministry of Education; Lautoka Central Primary School, Lautoka Lovu Sangam School; Holy Trinity Anglican School; Nakelo District School. Reviewers in Kiribati: Riibeta Abeta, Ministry of Environment, Lands, Agriculture and Development; Nautonga Anterea, Ministry of Environment, Lands, Agriculture and Development; Karibanang Aram, Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources Development; Ioketan Binataake, Ministry of Education; Bibiana Bureimoa, Ministry of Education; Tebete England, Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources Development; Teeta Kabiriera, Ministry of Education; Meronga Taru, Ministry of Education; Tebikau Tibwe, Ministry of Health and Medical Services; Katarina Tofinga, Kiribati Chamber of Commerce and Industry; Ueneta Toorua, Kiribati Meteorological Services; Kiritmati Junior Secondary School. Reviewers in Samoa: Fai Faletafa, Apia Primary School; Faamau Leaso, Ministry of Education, Sports & Culture; Sitivenisone Lelei, Apia Primary School; Maaloalomaivaio Iotu, Apia Primary School; Tamasoali Saivaise, Ministry of Education, Sports & Culture; Tuiole Schuster, Ministry of Natural Resources & Environment; Savelio Itopo, Ministry of Education, Sports & Culture. Reviewers in Tonga: Emalie Latu, Ministry of Education and Training; Siaosi Fifita, Kolovai Middle School; Losena Filihia, Kolovai Middle School; Talahiva Fine, Ministry of Education and Training; Penisomani Soakimi, Talafou' Middle School; Heufanga Soakimi, Talafou' Middle School; Tali Vakalahi, Tonga Institute of Technology; Kolovai Middle School; Talafou' Middle School; Tonga Institute of Technology. Reviewers in Vanuatu: Bani William Arudovo, University of the South Pacific; Emmanuel Aru, Ministry of Education; Jessynta Bule, Vila East School; Bryan Forau, Central School; Misael Garae, Save the Children; Serah Henry, Central School; Andrea Hinge, Vanuatu Institute of Teacher Education; Jimmy John, Mele Maat School; Peter Kaiar, Vila East School; Peter Kalmos, Vanuatu Rural Development Department; Virana Lini, Ministry of Education; Alexandrine Luan, Freswota School; Cindy Mala, Freswota School; Philip Malsale, Vanuatu Meteorology & Geohazards Department; James Melteres, Ministry of Education; Jack Morris, Kawenu School; Kylie Mullins, Vanuatu Meteorology & Geohazards Department; Adelyn Nelson, Adventist Development & Relief Agency; Florence Oiul, Mele Maat School; Anne Pakoa, Vanuatu Education Policy Advocacy Coalition; Robert Reggie, Shefa Province; François Sakarma, Freswota School; Pamina Tari, Kawenu School; Josiane Vira, Live and Learn Environmental Education; Daniel Cobboge Vorbach, Red Cross; Mark Vurobaravu, Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. Conceptual development and review (from the region): Ethan Allen, Pacific Resources for Education and Learning; Dr Christopher Bartlett, SPC/GIZ CCCPIR; Dr Johann Bell, SPC; Lindsay Chapman, SPC; Dr Helene Jacot des Combes, USP Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development; Brian Dawson, SPC; Seema Deo, Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme; Dr Rachel Dempsey, SPREP/SPC/GIZ CCCPIR; Dr. Seu’ula Johansson Fua, IOE, USP; Christine Fung, SPC/GIZ CCCPIR; Dr Wulf Killmann, SPC/GIZ CCCPIR; Peniamina Leavai, SPREP; Rebecca McNaught, Red Cross Red Crescent Climate Centre; Dr Brad Murphy, Bureau of Meteorology; Jill Rischbieth, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation; Katerina Syngellakis, SPC/GIZ CCCPIR; Apenisa Tamani, SPC/GIZ CCCPIR; Dr Susan Vize, UNESCO; Dr Arthur Webb, SPC Applied Geoscience and Technology Division; Purdey Wong, Pacific-Australia Climate Change Science and Adaptation Planning program. Editing, layout, printing and distribution: Frances Pene, Muriel Borderie and Duane Sutton, SPC Publications Section. Introduction Rationale Many educational resources available on climate change focus on its causes and its mitigation by reducing the emission of greenhouse gases. There are very few educational resources that address adaptation measures that are specific to Pacific islands. The focus of this resource is on the effects of changes in air and sea-surface temperature, rainfall, sea-level rise and extreme weather events on island environments, economies and people. It is vital to enhance individual and community skills to adapt to these changes – in other words, to reduce risks and maximise potential benefits. Ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions at the local level are also explored in this resource – this is everybody’s responsibility: it is important to slow down globally. Expert knowledge has grown during the last decade on the vulnerabilities of Pacific Island countries to the effects of climate change, and on how climate change affects not only a range of sectors (such as agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, water and sanitation, forestry, health and infrastructure), but also communities and different groups in society (such as women, men, children, the elderly, and people with disabilities), as well as Pacific Island cultures. Aim The aim of this guide is to deliver nationally prioritised key messages relevant to climate change science, the effects of climate change on the Pacific and options to mitigate its causes and to adapt to expected changes. Development In 2011, a regional Climate Change Education Planning workshop was held in Nadi, Fiji. This was part of the Coping with Climate Change in the Pacific Island Region (CCCPIR) programme, implemented by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH on behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ). The workshop was organised in collaboration with the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP) and the University of the South Pacific’s Institute of Education and Pacific Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development. Education representatives from Fiji, Tonga, Samoa, Vanuatu and Kiribati attended the workshop and identified the need to develop new education resources to enhance learning about climate change in Pacific schools and training institutions. The Pacific-Australia Climate Change Science and Adaptation Planning (PACCSAP) programme commissioned SPC to develop this resource on climate change for the education sector, in collaboration with SPC/GIZ CCCPIR. In addition to the work of education and climate change experts, there are inputs from representatives of each of the five pilot countries (Fiji, Kiribati, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu) to ensure that the material and information are culturally relevant to their teachers and students, and the Pacific Climate Change Science Program (PCCSP) of the Australian Government produced country-specific reports on the science and impacts of climate change – information crucial to this resource. A country-specific version of the guide will be distributed to schools, providers of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) and libraries in the pilot countries. It will be used through the SPC/GIZ CCCPIR programme in its education-related activities to strengthen capacity-building in education ministries, training institutions and schools, as well as to provide education on climate change adaptation and mitigation in the five participating countries. It is hoped that the resource will find further support and use at other levels of education and in other Pacific Island countries. **Approach** For most people, personalised and culturally relevant illustrations are often more appealing than texts and scientific graphs, which can be intimidating and overwhelming. Pictures convey meaning that words cannot. They accommodate the interests of a range of people, and they allow exploration, creativity and storytelling. For this reason, it was decided to make a picture-based resource and to have minimal text in the pictures. This would make them accessible to a wide range of students, from pre-school to TVET, and it is hoped that the pictures can also be used to foster discussion with community groups. The learning activities and suggested outcomes, however, are specifically designed for students at Years 7 and 8; Pacific education ministries perceived this as an appropriate time to introduce students to the science of climate change. In order for it to be useful in many countries in the Pacific, the guide is published in both English and French, and most of its content is generalised. Pictures 3 and 8 are, however, specifically about the climate of your country, now and in the future. Using this guide *Learning about climate change the Pacific way: A guide for Pacific teachers* was developed to support you, as a teacher, trainer or lecturer, when you teach your students about climate change and increase their resilience to the effects of global warming. The resource consists of a set of 16 colourful pictures and a country-specific guide for you. The guide has a description of each picture, suggested learning outcomes, suggestions for teaching and learning activities, definitions (in white boxes) and background information (in grey boxes) for you. A glossary of key terminology is provided at the end of this guide. Whether you are a subject teacher or a class teacher, you can use the resource to supplement and complement the work you are doing on topics related to climate change in your science, social science and/or geography classes. To help you select the topic/picture and related activities, the links between your school curriculum and this resource are set out in the next section. The decision to have separate pictures that can be used in multiple ways was a deliberate move to make the resource as user-friendly and flexible as possible. No teaching resource is used by all teachers in the same way. This resource suggests different learning strategies and activities that you can choose from, depending on the needs and readiness of your students. **Learning outcomes** The learning outcomes for this guide are based on the pillars of education advocated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Delors 1998). If you use all the pictures and do some of the suggested learning activities, students should be able to do the following: | Pillar of education | Learning outcomes – students will be able to: | |---------------------|-----------------------------------------------| | Learning to know | • describe the causes of climate change | | | • link Pacific weather and climate to latitude, the water cycle, El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), ocean currents and winds | | | • describe the observed and predicted effects of climate change in their own country and in the Pacific region | | | • explain how increasing levels of greenhouse gases and rising temperatures can affect local ecosystems | | Learning to do | • differentiate between adaptation and mitigation activities | | | • interpret maps, graphs and statistics on climate change | | | • plan and participate in the implementation of an adaptation or mitigation activity with their class | | Learning to live together | • discuss some possible adaptation and mitigation activities suitable for their community | | Learning to be | • make a commitment to a personal adaptation and mitigation action | **Teachers:** this guide contains a great deal of information that is designed to make the concepts more understandable to you. It is not intended that Year 7 and 8 students need this depth or breadth of knowledge. Use the learning outcomes and your own curriculum documents to guide you. Vanuatu curriculum links A new curriculum is being developed in Vanuatu to cover Kindergarten to Year 13. Curriculum writers are working at four levels: pre-school, primary (Years 1 to 6), junior secondary (Years 7 to 10) and senior secondary (Years 11 to 13). The new programme is fully harmonised, with exactly the same curricula in English and French, and is expected to be introduced into schools at the start of 2014. The new programme features climate change and disaster risk management at all levels, and there are clear links with this climate change resource. At Year 7–8 level, the links are strongest in SOCIAL SCIENCE and BASIC SCIENCE. Draft syllabus documents have already been produced, and details are as follows: SOCIAL SCIENCE The syllabus has four learning strands: A. Living in Vanuatu B. History of Vanuatu C. Environments, hazards and people D. Using and managing resources Climate change and disaster risk management feature in learning strand C: | STRAND | YR 7 SUBSTRAND and relevant pictures | YR 8 SUBSTRAND and relevant pictures | |---------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | C. ENVIRONMENTS, HAZARDS AND PEOPLE | **SSC7.3.1** The earth’s climatic environment Identify and locate the earth’s climate zones. *Picture 4* **SSC7.3.2** The earth’s natural environments and hazards Identify different natural environments and hazards in Vanuatu and the world. *Pictures 1, 7, 8, 9, 10* | **SSC8.3.1** Fragile environments and hazard zones Identify and describe fragile areas and hazard zones in Vanuatu and the Pacific. **SSC8.3.2** Surviving in different environments State the differences between needs and wants, and describe ways of surviving in, and adapting to different environments and disaster areas. | BASIC SCIENCE The syllabus has four learning strands: SC1: Physical science SC2: Chemical science SC3: Biological science SC4: Earth science Climate change and disaster risk management feature in SC4 Earth science: | STRAND | YR 7 SUBSTRAND and relevant pictures | YR 8 SUBSTRAND and relevant pictures | |-----------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | SCI4 Earth science | **SCI7.4.1 The earth in the universe** Identify and describe the earth and the solar system. *Picture 4* **SCI7.4.2 Weather patterns** Develop an understanding and differentiate between atmosphere, weather and climate. *Pictures 3, 4* **SCI7.4.3 Energy** Identify and describe energy and different sources of energy. *Pictures 6, 11, 15* **SCI7.4.4 Water in the environment** Explain the sources of water and the environment and describe its uses. *Pictures 2, 7* | **SCI8.4.1 The earth in the universe** Describe the earth’s motion in space and outline its origin and age. **SCI8.4.2 Climate change** Describe and explain climate change, its effects and ways of mitigating and adapting to the changes. *Pictures 7–16* **SCI8.4.3 Renewable and non-renewable energies** Identify and differentiate between renewable and non-renewable energy. *Pictures 6, 11, 15* **SCI8.4.4 Water in the environment** Describe the cycle of water in the environment. *Picture 2* | Introducing the topic Try to introduce the topic of climate change in an interesting way in order to arouse the students’ curiosity. One way to do this is to put some of the pictures up in the classroom and give your students time to have a good look. Then do any of the activities described below. Not only will this help to establish the prior knowledge of your class, but it will be fun for the students. Teaching and learning strategies 1. Postbox Place the 16 pictures, or as many as you want to use, around the classroom. If your students are not used to this strategy then it would be wise to select no more than eight pictures. Make some ‘postboxes’ from used ice-cream containers or small boxes with lids and a slot for students to ‘post’ their responses. If you want, you can label the postboxes Picture 1, 2, 3, etc. Then: Either: • under each picture, place a card with one or two questions on it, such as: ➢ What is happening in this picture? ➢ What does this picture tell you? ➢ What are people doing in this picture? ➢ What do you think is going to happen to the people/land in this picture? and ask the students to write their answers on a piece of paper and ‘post’ them. Or: • ask the students to write at least one question about each picture on a piece of paper and ‘post’ it. Give the students time to look at the pictures and write their answers or questions and post them. Then group the students evenly (no more than four to a group, depending on how many boxes you have) and give each group one box. They will read all the questions/answers and work out a way to categorise or group the responses. To help students with this, give each group a large piece of paper to put all the responses on; the students can move the responses around and glue them into place. Each group can then present their findings to the class. If you have asked for student questions, decide if each group has to come up with the answers or whether the questions are going to be collated and answered during the unit of work. 2. Shrinking islands Divide the class into groups – five or six students in a group – and tell them that they are going to draw an imaginary Pacific island. Materials 1. One piece of plain white or brown paper, about one metre square, per group 2. Felt-tipped pens or crayons – three or four colours per group Instructions 1. Discuss with the students what they would find on a Pacific island. Draw out the natural features – such as mountains, rivers and trees – and the needs of the people – church, school, houses and shops. How do people get to the island? What crops do they grow and where? Do they have forest plantations? How do they get from place to place? Use your knowledge of your students to decide how much of this discussion will happen first as a class and how much each group needs to think about on their own. 2. Each group then draws their own imaginary island on their piece of paper. Each island should have two or three villages and whatever else they think is necessary. It has to be like a map, or ‘birds eye’ view, and have a small compass rose to indicate north, south, east and west. They can use symbols and a key, or they can draw pictures. They should use as much of the paper as possible. Groups should name their island. Encourage them to make their islands as self-sufficient and safe as possible. 3. Bring the groups into an open space, each holding up their island. Ask each group to report on why their island is self-sufficient and safe. What is the most important feature on their island? 4. Lay the islands on the ground, all with north facing the same way, and explain that the island they have drawn is their home and it supports them, so they all have to stand on the island. They cannot have their feet in the sea. They can hold onto each other if necessary to balance on the island. 5. Ask them to get off the island and talk about the big cyclone that hit their island from the north-west. The waves were very rough and washed away a lot of land. Houses were damaged, trees fell and roads were blocked. The north-west corner disappeared, so they need to fold over the NW corner of their paper – Figure 1. 6. Now they need to look at their island – what have they lost? Ask each group if they have lost roads – who is cut off? Have they lost taro patches, wharves, schools, health centres, power lines, …? 7. Now ask them to stand on their island again. There will be students who won’t fit – where will they go? You will need to have a refugee corner – ask the refugees how they feel? Who are they – the young or the old? Those that lived close to the shore or in unstable buildings? Why were they the ones to leave? How do the ones left feel about being separated from family members? 8. The next scenario is rising sea levels, so the students fold down a strip all around their island’s shallow coast – Figure 2. 9. What have they lost this time? How many people can fit on the island now? The displaced group is probably getting quite large. Are they in another part of their country or in another country? 10. You can continue with different scenarios one or two more times, depending on the size of the groups and their islands. For example: - The water supply under the island has been contaminated with sea water and people must leave as there is no longer enough water for them to live – take away a quarter or third of the population. 11. You can discuss the outcome in various ways with your students. How did they feel about losing their land? Having to be parted from their friends and family? What could they do to protect themselves? It would be valuable to bring all the displaced people back to their island – would they build in different places if given another chance? Did they have higher land they could have used? Are any of these suggestions applicable locally? It is important to clarify with your students that there are many things they can do in reality to avoid having to leave their islands (build on higher ground, protect coasts, look after the natural resources, etc.) 3. Cooperative grid Copy the cooperative grid in Figure 3 on the board. If you want, you can change the questions to suit your context. Then give each student a piece of paper and tell them to copy the grid. Students first write down their own answers to each question. They then find a classmate, ask him or her one of the questions, and write the answer in one of the ‘Others’ boxes. They can try to do this twelve times, with different classmates, so that the boxes are filled. They must listen to the other student’s answer and write it down themselves. This improves their listening skills as well as writing skills. They can ask how to spell a word or ask the other student to repeat an answer if necessary, but they do not ask the other students to write their own answers. All the writing on the sheet will be by one person. The students have the opportunity to think of their own ideas and then hear from others and write down their ideas and knowledge. They can then craft much deeper answers to the questions, having learned from other students. They can work in pairs to create paragraphs about each question. They may come back to their grid later and add knowledge that they have gained. Figure 3 Cooperative grid | | Me | Others | Others | Others | |--------------------------------------|----|--------|--------|--------| | What do you know about climate change?| | | | | | What are the main human activities that contribute to climate change?| | | | | | What actions could be taken to adapt to climate change in my country?| | | | | | What are some likely effects of climate change in my country?| | | | | 4. Fishbones - Have the students work in groups. Give each group two sheets of plain paper – A4 is a good size. Ask the students to draw the outline of a fish on each sheet. They can draw fins and a tail to make it look realistic. Then draw a spine with three ribs up and three ribs down. (Figure 4) - On one sheet, the students create six questions about the topic that they would like to find out about and write them down, one on each rib. You may need to check the questions and also give prompts for students to use the five Ws and an H (What, When, Where, Why, Who and How) to develop their questions. They could be given these as a requirement at the start of the activity. Also, guide the students into asking open-ended questions that their group is unable to answer. Questions on climate change would be better if they were like this: How do we know what is going to happen? or Who can help us adapt? (rather than: When did it start? or: What is it?) Over the course of the unit of work, the students will gather information and at the end they record what they have learnt by answering the questions on the second fish. It is very effective to have each group go back and write their answers on the matching fish so that the two can be stapled together and stuffed, decorated and hung in the classroom. This will show the students what they have learnt. (Adapted from SEREAD) This picture is an imaginary Pacific scene: a place we will call Pasifika. Pasifika is ‘everywhere’ whilst being nowhere specific. Common landforms found in Pacific islands can be seen – a raised volcanic island and an atoll. There are some things in the picture that are specific to certain countries, such as the *fale*, *bure*, *te kiakia* and *nakamal*. | Possible student learning outcomes Students will be able to… | Teaching and learning strategies | |---------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------| | • identify aspects of their own country in the picture; | Picture interpretation with guiding questions | | • identify possible risks as a result of climate change | Imagine the future | | and unsustainable practices. | | **Discussion** Hold the picture up or place it on a wall or table for groups of students to examine and interpret. Stimulate discussion with questions like the ones below. - Where do you think this is? - What buildings do you see? - What parts of the picture are similar to where you live? - What are the girls and boys doing and why? - What are the men and women doing and why? - What is happening on the hills? …on the coast? …near the river? …in the village? …in the town? - What animals do you see? What does this tell you? - What plants do you see? What does this tell you? - What is the weather like? What does this tell you? - Are there activities happening that may be damaging to Pasifika over time? **Note on traditional knowledge:** The frigate birds hovering over the land are a sign of bad weather coming. The clump of three breadfruit on a branch is also recognised as a sign of bad weather/drought in the future in many Pacific countries. **Teaching and learning activities – 1** **1.1 Imagine the future** Allocate students to someone in the picture and/or an area of the picture and ask them to develop a story about the person, their family and their way of life, or about the piece of land, what it is used for and who it belongs to. You could use this to start a discussion about what might be going to happen in the future. Here are some questions to help you. - What do you think will happen in Pasifika in the next six months? (This will bring out their knowledge of seasonal changes.) - What assets do the people of Pasifika have (strengths, sources of food, income, supportive village community, resilience to disaster, etc.)? - What issues might the people face in two or three years’ time? - Could the issues be different for men and women? If yes, explain. - What might happen in ten years’ time? …twenty years’ time (in relation to ways of farming and fishing, fresh water, forests and houses)? **Note** Climate change may have been mentioned but their ideas are likely to focus on sea-level rise. This will lead into Picture 2 as a revision of weather. Picture 2 – The water cycle This picture shows the water cycle in Pasifika. The key words here are: sunshine, rain, wind, clouds and temperature. The important concepts behind this picture are: (a) that the heat energy of the sun is the main driver of weather and (b) that the water cycle consists of the processes of evaporation, condensation and precipitation. The arrows in the picture indicate the movement of water molecules in the form of liquid (precipitation as raindrops) and gas (water vapour). | Possible student learning outcomes | Teaching and learning strategies | |------------------------------------|---------------------------------| | Students will be able to… | | | • describe the processes of | Discussion on the importance of | | evaporation, condensation | water to life | | and precipitation; | The water cycle – An experiential| | • describe the role of the sun | learning activity | | in the water cycle; | Water cycle picture dictation | | • label a diagram of the water | Investigating evaporation | | cycle. | The water cycle song | | | Investigating what happens to | | | water when it is heated | | | Investigating the effect of | | | melting floating ice on sea-level| Ask your students to describe what they see on the picture. If they know what the words evaporation, condensation and precipitation mean, ask them to explain the cycle. If they don’t, let them try and guess what the words mean from the picture. The first discussions on this picture might centre on the importance of water to life. - Why is water important? - How do people use water? - How do plants use water? - How do you get water at your house? - Where has this water come from? - Who fetches the water (if not from a tap)? - Do you have different words for different types of water? **The water cycle** This is how you can explain the water cycle step by step, starting by pointing at the sun and the ocean: **Step 1:** Heat from the sun warms the liquid water that is on the earth’s surface. Most of this water is in the oceans, but it is also in lakes, rivers, soil and plants. **Step 2:** The liquid water is turned into a gas, usually invisible, which we call water vapour. The warm molecules of water vapour rise in the air. This is called evaporation. If the water vapour comes from plants it is called transpiration. Evapotranspiration is used for all water vapour coming from a land area with vegetation. **Step 3:** As warm air rises, the water vapour cools, and changes back from gas into tiny droplets of liquid water. This process is called condensation. We see these droplets condensing together as clouds. **Step 4:** When the clouds get full of water they become darker in colour. When the water droplets become too heavy, they fall as precipitation – in the South Pacific usually as rain, in colder climates or high altitudes also as snow or hail. **Step 5:** Rain water soaks into the ground, filters through the soil and ‘accumulates’ in an aquifer, or water lens, or ends up in a river. Fresh water is again used by plants and animals or ends up in the ocean (either directly or via a river). The amount of evaporation depends on the amount of heat energy coming from the sun, cloudiness and wind speed. Children find it hard to comprehend the water cycle just as a picture. Children understand concepts better when they are actively involved in building their own knowledge of the concept. Hands-on investigations are good learning experiences for this reason. Using an experiential learning activity such as the one described below, and having the students act as water molecules makes it much more understandable to them. The scientific terms are more likely to be remembered if they are associated in students’ minds with saying the words and acting out the movement of the molecules in different states. It is important, however, to stress that the following activity is a model and all models have limitations. The time frame for water molecules to complete this cycle can be as long as 100 years. Some water will be locked up as ice or snow for even longer than that. **Teaching and learning activities – 2** 2.1. The water cycle – an experiential learning activity In this activity students are invited to act as water molecules and act out the processes of evaporation, condensation and precipitation in the water cycle. **Starter activity** Call four students up to the front and stand them in a line with their left arms on the next person’s right shoulder. Then ask four more students to stand in a row behind them with their right arms on the right shoulder of the person in front and their left arms on the next person right shoulder. (Figure 2.1) ![Diagram](image) *Figure 2.1* Now line up the class behind these two rows. Ask the students if they know what they represent. If not, explain that they are molecules of water in an ice crystal. Then ask the following questions. - Are you moving? (*If they don’t know then demonstrate how they are shivering while staying joined together.* Link being cold and shivering with the actions of the molecules.) - What is in the spaces between the molecules? (*Air is in the spaces between the molecules. This is important for later when they discuss melting ice but it is better not to go into details at this time.*) - What will happen if we add energy in the form of heat? (*Find out if they know the bonds will break and they will move apart. Draw a line on the floor or use desks as the boundary of their container and pretend to add heat and ‘melt’ the ice.*) - What do water molecules do? (*Have them move relatively slowly, bouncing off the walls of the container and each other.*) - What will happen to the molecules when you add more heat? (*Introduce/remind them about evaporation. Talk about water vapour rather than steam, then add the energy.*) **Note:** Students will be running around the room at this stage – and could escape out of any open doors. Now explain they are going to act out the entire water cycle as water molecules in all three states, liquid, solid, gas. The water cycle activity For 20 students, you need a space about half the size of a classroom. This can be inside the classroom or outside on concrete or grass. - Draw a line on the floor or concrete about two metres from the wall or edge. The sea is behind the line. - Draw the outline of a cloud shape above the sea – large enough for four or five children to stand in. - On the other side of the space, draw the outline of a mountain and a river leading to the sea. Draw a sun in a corner or place a chair for a student to stand on. (Figure 2.2) - If you are on grass, use a rope for the sea and mountain and a smaller length of rope or a large cloth for the cloud. Organise the students as shown below. The numbers are given for a class of 20 (Figure 2.3) and a class of 30. Adjust the numbers proportionately if there are more or fewer students in the class. | Class of 20 | Class of 30 | |-------------|-------------| | 2 | 4 | children stand in the cloud | | 4 | 6 | children stand on the mountain | | 4 | 6 | children stand in the river | | 9 | 13 | children stand in a line in the ocean | | 1 | 1 | child is the sun | Figure 2.3 The ‘sun’ beats his/her arms up and down slowly. This is the sun providing heat energy to warm up the ocean. At each beat of the sun, and at the same time: - the students in the sea take one step to their left and the student at the left end moves towards the cloud; - the students on the mountain take one step towards the river; - the students in the river take one step towards the sea. When there are six students in the cloud, four of them move to the mountain, leaving two in the cloud. These two wait until the cloud has built up to six again and repeat the process. (Figure 2.4) Keep this going until all the students have been around the cycle several times and know what to do. The cloud is the hardest part to keep accurate. Now add the sounds – for each step, students need to say what they are doing – evaporating, condensing, precipitating, melting and flowing. Next step – introduce the actions of the molecules – fast with lots of energy when evaporating, shivering for condensing, raindrops – floating down, swimming down the river and slowing down in the sea. Keep the sounds going at the same time as the actions. The final cycles will be very noisy and have lots of student action which they will enjoy. Questions 1. Where did the energy for the water movement come from? 2. Where did the water molecules spend most of their time? Something extra to try Try the same activity with the sun being brighter – bigger movements – relate this to the seasons with the sun directly overhead. Ask the students what changes will occur. - Will evaporation speed up? Yes – so need to move faster. - Will precipitation speed up? No – there will be more clouds, perhaps - Will melting speed up? Yes – move faster - Will the flowing of the river speed up? Tricky – not because of the heat from the sun but maybe because of more water. This is where some discussion might need to happen on the use of the floor model. In nature, the distance and time over which this occurs are huge so we cannot be entirely accurate in a model. Use your professional judgement about your students for this. Suggestions - The students in the sea take two steps per beat. - The cloud fills to four, then loses two. - The students on the mountain take two steps per beat. - The river movement stays the same. Similarly, the action can be slowed to represent cloudy conditions. This could be followed by students drawing their own water cycle diagram. 2.2. Water cycle picture dictation Another way to refresh students’ understanding is to use the picture dictation strategy. How to use this strategy - Ask the students to draw six numbered boxes in a circle, one box for each statement. Leave a space for a caption underneath (Figure 2.5). - Read out each of the steps of the water cycle below, and ask the students to draw their own simple picture for that section. Tell the students that a perfect picture is not required and they don’t have much time to draw. - Tell the students to connect Step 6 to Step 1 with an arrow, to show that the cycle is repeated. Then they can connect the other boxes with arrows to show the cycle. - In pairs, the students take it in turns to translate each picture back to words. - Individually, the students write a caption for each picture and then read their caption to their partner. | STEP 1: | Heat from the sun warms the liquid water that is on the earth’s surface. Most of this water is in the oceans. | |---------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | STEP 2: | The liquid water is turned into an invisible gas, which we call water vapour. The water vapour rises into the air. This is evaporation. | | STEP 3: | As it gets higher the water vapour cools, and changes back into tiny drops of liquid water, which start to crowd together. This is when they form a cloud. This is condensation. | | STEP 4: | The clouds are blown over the ocean by wind. When they reach land they are forced higher into the sky. The higher the clouds go the colder it gets. | | STEP 5: | As the clouds get colder the tiny droplets of water join together and become so heavy that they cannot stay up. They fall down to the ground as rain, hail or snow. This is precipitation. | | STEP 6: | When the water reaches the ground, it soaks into the soil. A lot of the water ends up in streams, which flow into rivers, which then flow into the oceans. | **Why use this strategy?** - It uses all the communication modes (listening, speaking, reading and writing). - Children have to listen carefully to the statements. - It takes what is said and transforms that information into pictures. - It orally puts the pictures back into words. - The children have to write captions to match. - They have to read the captions. - They learn about sequence in a process. - They have to focus on key ideas. Depending on the students’ level of prior knowledge, you may need to do some simple experiments on evaporation and condensation to reinforce their understanding. It is important to emphasise that the water vapour does not ‘disappear’. **2.3. Investigating evaporation** Do this activity on a sunny day. Ask your students to get two containers – beakers are fine but any clear plastic or glass container will do. Fill the containers half full of water and mark the level on the outside. Place the containers on a window sill in the sun or outside. Put a lid on top of one container or cover the top with foil. **Ask the students:** - What will happen to the water level in each container? - Why do you think this will happen? Once the water has significantly evaporated, ask further questions: - Why has the water gone down in the container without a lid? - Where has the water gone? - Can we get it back? - Why has the level not changed in the container with the lid? ➢ If the students do not come up with the word ‘condensation’, bring out several cold cans or bottles from a fridge. Place them where the students can see and ask them about the water droplets on the outside of the cans. ➢ Where did this water come from? (Students have been known to say it has seeped through from the inside of the can. If you use a coke or lemonade can, they can taste the condensed water to disprove that idea. What happens: Water vapour from the air condenses when it gets in contact with the cold can or bottle.) - Where else do they see condensation? (Can they link this to the condensation in clouds?) 2.4 The water cycle song This would be a good time to introduce the water cycle song. If you know the tune of ‘Clementine’ use that, or make up your own tune. | Évaporation, Condensation, Précipitation tout autour, Accumulation, Évaporation, Répétition du cycle d’eau | Velasia Suavaia Timuia Fa’soloataa Fa’atupulaia toe Velasia Ta’amiloga ale vai | | --- | --- | | Te buanerake Te nimatenen Te baka ni karau ni katobibi Te bwairikoriko Te buanerake Butin te ran ni katobibi | Evaporation Condensation Precipitation all around Accumulation Evaporation The water cycle goes round and round Students can do the actions for each line: Evaporation – lifting arms with palms out from knee level to above their heads Condensation – arms wrapped around themselves, shivering Precipitation – fingers wriggling, arms going up and down as rain Accumulation – arms outspread, crouching down then gathering together Evaporation – rising up again Water cycle – arms circling 2.5. Investigating what happens to water when it is heated What we want children to learn: - When water gets warm it expands because the water particles have more energy so they need to occupy more space as they move around more. Predict: Ask the students: What do you think will happen to the level of the water in a bottle when it is heated? (They can discuss their ideas in a group and write down their group explanation.) This experiment may help them answer the question and confirm their ideas. Experiment (another sunny/hot day experiment) Materials: A flask or clear plastic drink bottle with a lid or stopper, a stopper, a glass tube or straw, food colouring, some Blu-Tack or plasticine. What you do Take off the stopper or lid and make a small hole in it. Put the tube or straw through the hole and seal it carefully in place underneath and on top with a small amount of Blu-Tack or plasticine. Fill the flask almost to the brim with water and add a drop of colouring. Put on the stopper/lid. Seal it on carefully with Blu-Tack if necessary (Figure 2.6). Result Water should rise up the tube. When it has stopped rising, mark the water level on the tube/straw with a marker pen. Put the flask out in the sun. After ten minutes, show the students the flask. Measure: How far up the tube is the water level now? Explain: Why has the water moved in this way? Something to think about: Can you redesign the experiment to measure how far the water travels for every 2°C? 2.6 Investigating the effect of melting floating ice on sea level What we want children to learn: - When an iceberg or floating ice melts it will not increase the amount of water in the oceans as the water that originated from the ice merely takes up the volume originally occupied by the ice. What you will need: A polystyrene or paper cup or tumbler, some ice cubes What you do: Fill the container with water. Add 10–12 ice cubes. Dry the side of the container after the water has spilled over. Now let the ice cubes melt. Predict: What do you think will happen? Measure: Has the height of the water changed since the ice cubes melted? Explain: Was there as much change as you expected? Can you explain what has happened? Question: We know that the greenhouse effect is warming the oceans and melting land-based and floating ice caps. What do you think will have the greater effect in your lifetime on sea levels? (The melting of land-based ice and thermal expansion as a result of global warming cause the sea-level to rise. The melting of floating ice has no effect on sea level. You can find more information on oceans in Picture 7.) What evidence do you have to support your answer? (Refer back to your experiment.) Extension Fill a big basin three-quarters full of water. This represents the ocean. Place a large block (e.g. a rock) inside the basin of water. This represents a land mass. Mark the level of the water on the side of the basin once the water is still. On the block place a large number of ice cubes. (This represents an ice sheet such as the one that covers Antarctica.) Let the ice melt. Does the water level rise? What would be the effect on the oceans if all of the ice on the Antarctic land mass melted? (The sea-level is now rising because of melting ice coming from the land-based ice sheets in the Antarctic, Greenland and Northern Canada, and also from land-based glaciers.) (Adapted from SEREAD) Picture 3 – Climate in the Pacific The picture shows the typical position of important climate features from November to April: trade winds, the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ) and the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a warm pool over Papua New Guinea, high pressure zones and the West Pacific Monsoon (between Australia and Papua New Guinea). Climate graphs are shown for a number of Pacific Island countries. The climate graphs contain two pieces of information: precipitation (the amount of rainfall) and the temperature at a certain location in each country over the course of a year. The blue rods show the amount of rainfall per month (in millimetres). Three of the graph lines show the average temperature of the air: red is the maximum, black is the mean and blue is the minimum. The green line is the sea-surface temperature. The figures for the climate graphs are calculated as an average over 29 years (1961–1990). | Possible student learning outcomes | Teaching and learning strategies | |------------------------------------|---------------------------------| | Students will be able to…. | | | • differentiate between weather and climate; | Picture interpretation with guiding questions | | • describe the climate of Vanuatu using local language; | Seasons in our country | | • link seasonal changes in Vanuatu to growing and harvesting of crops and collection of seafood. | Rainfall and mountains | | | Say-it grid | Discussion You need to decide how much detail you want to discuss with your students. As a first step, ask your class what this picture shows. Check that they can locate their country and island on the map, see the trade winds (yellow arrows), the high pressure and the climate graphs for each country, and the years for these statistics. Pictures 3 (Climate in the Pacific), 4 (Global climate) and 5 (ENSO and climate variability) could be used together as they all contribute to information about climate in the Pacific and the factors that influence weather patterns. Start talking about weather, climate and climate variability from the start as it is important that the students understand the differences. Ask your students to look at or copy the climate graph for their country and answer the following questions: - Which month has the highest maximum temperature? - Which month has the lowest minimum temperature? - Is the sea-surface temperature warmer or colder than the mean temperature? - Which month has the highest amount of rainfall? - Which month has the lowest amount of rainfall? - Which countries have similar climate graphs? It is important to talk with the students about traditional ways of describing climate patterns. You can ask the students as a whole class or in small groups: - What are the local terms for the wet and dry seasons? - When do they start and end? - Does the climate graph for our country show the seasons? - What changes happen during those seasons? - Are there differences in available fresh water? And in available food on the land and in the ocean? - What is your favourite season? Why? - What influences the climate in our country? Perhaps you can make a class excursion to a weather station, if there is one close by. Explain to the students the key difference between weather and climate: Climate is a long-term description of weather patterns of usually 30 years, whereas weather describes the current situation or predictions for the next few days (what is happening today). Weather: The effects of atmospheric conditions, at a specific time and place, in terms of variables such as temperature, rainfall and wind. Compared with climate, which is a long-term description, weather describes the current situation or predictions for the next few days. Apart from daily weather, also seasonal and annual weather patterns are described and sometimes referred to as the ‘prevailing climate’. **Climate** is a term used by scientists as a **long-term description** of the weather (usually over at least 30 years) in terms of variables such as temperature, rain and wind. (SPREP 2012) --- **The Pacific climate on a large scale** The climate of the Pacific Island region is tropical and humid. As the sun is almost directly overhead the amount of incoming solar radiation (energy – heat and light – emitted from the sun in rays or waves) is high and changes only very slightly throughout the year. That means temperatures also vary little throughout the year. On the islands, air temperatures are also strongly influenced by the temperatures of the surrounding Pacific Ocean because land areas are very small. Ocean and atmosphere strongly influence each other in the region. While large-scale atmospheric circulations drive the ocean currents and greatly influence temperature, the ocean in turn strongly affects rainfall, winds and temperature as well. This results in significant variations in temperature and rainfall patterns within the region as a whole. Westerly ocean currents, for example, result in warmer waters in the western Pacific, the Philippines and Indonesia, while the eastern Pacific is significantly cooler. Further differences in temperature exist between countries close to the equator and those closer to the sub-tropics. While most countries experience only slight temperature variations throughout the year, seasonal changes in rainfall are considerable, resulting in pronounced wet and dry seasons. Regions of particularly high rainfall during the wet season are the ones under the influence of the West Pacific Monsoon (WPM) over the West Pacific Warm Pool (e.g. Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands), the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ), stretching from Solomon Islands to Cook Islands, and the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), just north of the equator (see Picture 3). Significant rainfall also comes from storms and tropical cyclones that are mostly occurring between the latitudes of 10° and 25° North and South. Locally, islands with higher mountains usually have drier and wetter sides, according to the main wind directions. Other influences on the climate of the Pacific Island region include subtropical high-pressure systems and the trade winds (see Table 3.1). The regularity of these seasons has a large impact on life in the region and has led to long-held traditional knowledge of the seasons, reflected in the languages of the peoples of the Pacific. Each country has one or several names for the two seasons (see Table 3.2), which usually refer to the wet and dry periods, the time of planting and harvesting crops, or the changes in the prevailing winds between the seasons. (ABM–CSIRO 2011 Vol 1) If you decide to explain all the climate features shown in Picture 3 you first need to explain **atmospheric pressure**, wind, the **trade winds** and **convergence**: The sun heats up some areas of the planet more than others. Where the land or ocean becomes hot, air is warmed and becomes less dense (fewer air molecules per m$^3$) and rises, creating an area of low **atmospheric pressure**. Where the land or ocean is cold, air sinks and there is high atmospheric pressure because there are more air molecules per m$^3$. The differences in atmospheric pressure from place to place give rise to **wind**. Air moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure to try to maintain a balance or equilibrium. Wind direction is also affected by the spinning of the earth. For example, the **trade winds** south of the equator blow from a south-easterly direction and north of the equator from a north-easterly direction – both towards the west and towards the equator. A **convergence zone** is an area where winds flow from different directions toward each other, thus meeting at one point or along one line (like the ITCZ or SPCZ). Convergence zones could be called ‘**cloud meeting places**’ (ABM-CSIRO-RCCC 2013). After this you can introduce the following climate features: **The West Pacific Monsoon (WPM)** moves north to mainland Asia during the Northern Hemisphere summer and south to Australia in the Southern Hemisphere summer. The seasonal arrival of the monsoon usually brings a switch from very dry to very wet conditions. It affects countries in the far western Pacific. **The South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ)** is a band of high rainfall stretching approximately from the Solomon Islands to the east of the Cook Islands. It is a persistent and greatly elongated zone of low-level convergence. It is strongest in the Southern Hemisphere summer and affects most countries in the South Pacific. **The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)** is a band of high rainfall that stretches across the Pacific just north of the equator. It is an East-West band of low-level wind convergence near the equator where the southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere meet the northeast trade winds of the northern hemisphere. ITCZ is strongest in the Northern Hemisphere summer and affects most countries on, or north of, the equator. (ABM-CSIRO 2011 Vol 1: 37) Table 3.1: Main climate features and influences for selected Pacific Island countries | Country | Main climate features and influences | |--------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Cook Islands | SPCZ, subtropical highs, trade winds, tropical cyclones, topography | | East Timor | WPM, topography | | Federated States of Micronesia | ITCZ, WPM, trade winds | | Fiji | SPCZ, trade winds, subtropical highs, tropical cyclones, topography | | Kiribati | ITCZ, SPCZ, trade winds | | Marshall Islands | ITCZ, WPM (in some years), tropical cyclones | | Nauru | ITCZ, SPCZ, trade winds | | Niue | SPCZ, trade winds, subtropical highs, tropical cyclones | | Palau | WPM, ITCZ, trade winds | | Papua New Guinea | WPM, ITCZ, topography | | Samoa | SPCZ, trade winds, subtropical highs, tropical cyclones, topography | | Solomon Islands | SPCZ, WPM, tropical cyclones | | Tonga | SPCZ, trade winds, subtropical highs, tropical cyclones, topography | | Tuvalu | WPM, SPCZ, trade winds, subtropical highs, tropical cyclones | | Vanuatu | SPCZ, trade winds, subtropical highs, tropical cyclones, topography | (Adapted from ABM-CSIRO; 2011 Vol; 1:41) Table 3.2: Local terminology for wet and dry season | Country | Wet season | Dry season | |--------------------------------|------------------|----------------| | Cook Islands | tuatau mauu | tuatau maro | | East Timor | udanben | bailoron | | Federated States of Micronesia | | | | Chuuk | nukuchochun | pwas | | Yap | nuw | yale | | Fiji | | | | i-Taukei | suasua | mamaca | | Fiji Hindi | gila mausam | ihura mausam | | Kiribati | ameang | aumaiaki | | Marshall Islands | mejleb | anrieneanri | | Nauru | luai | aré | | Niue | vahā mafana | vaha mokomoko | | Palau | kemintm | sechal el ongos| | Papua New Guinea | | | | Pidgin | taim bilong ren | taim bilong san| | Motu | medu ena nega | dina ena nega | | Samoa | vaipalolo / tau susu | vaifoelau / tau mugala | | Solomon Islands | komburu | ara | | Tonga | fa'ahita'u 'uha | fa'ahita'u la'al'a'a | | Tuvalu | 'tau' moko | tau yela | | Vanuatu (Bislama) | ren taem | san taem | (Adapted from ABM-CSIRO; 2011 Vol 1:36) The climate of Vanuatu - There are two distinct seasons – warm and wet from November to April, and cooler and drier from May to October. The wet season is the season for cyclones, with an average of two or three each year. - Temperatures decrease from north to south in Vanuatu because of the effect of latitude (see map in Picture 8). Annual average temperatures are between 27.5°C in the northern islands and 23.5°C in the southern islands. - Temperatures also decrease as you go higher, so mountainous areas such as the middle of Santo and Tanna, have temperatures that are several degrees lower than coastal areas (Figure 3.3). - Rainfall in Vanuatu is affected by the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ), a band of heavy rainfall caused when the ocean is heated, air rises and winds converge. During the wet season, SPCZ brings higher rainfall to Vanuatu. The low pressure systems in this band of heavy rainfall may develop into tropical cyclones. During the dry season, SPCZ moves away to the north and east of Vanuatu. In general, rainfall is higher in the northern islands of Vanuatu and decreases as you move southwards. It is also higher in mountainous areas (Figure 3.4). - For most of the year, the islands of Vanuatu receive the south-east trade winds, which bring more rain to the windward sides of islands. The north-west sides of the larger islands (Santo, Malakula, Efate, Erromango, Tanna, Anetiyum) are much drier, and may experience droughts. - A very important factor affecting Vanuatu’s climate is the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which brings changes to winds and ocean currents in the Pacific Ocean. During an El Niño period, SPCZ moves eastwards of Vanuatu, resulting in drier weather. During a La Niña period, SPCZ moves back over Vanuatu bringing warmer weather with more cyclones. - Vanuatu generally experiences between two and three tropical cyclones each year, although the number varies widely from year to year, with none in some seasons but as many as six in others. - The seasons greatly affect the planting, cultivation and harvesting of many crops. Although bananas and coconuts grow and bear fruit throughout the year, crops such as mangoes, pineapples, breadfruit, avocado and peaches (Tanna) are available only in the hot, wet season, while crops such as tomatoes, lettuce, round cabbage, potatoes (Tanna) and *nagavika* are available only in cooler, drier months. Yams are normally planted in August–September, and are ready for harvesting in March–June of the following year. Taro and kumala (sweet potato) can be planted and harvested at any time. - During the dry season, semi-deciduous trees such as the acacia (Christmas tree) and frangipani lose their leaves and flowers. - Major influences on climate in Vanuatu are its tropical latitude (meaning that sunrays are received at a high angle and temperatures are high), the moderating influence of the oceans on climate, the presence of the SPCZ, the prevailing south-east trade winds, and the ENSO effect. (Siméoni 2010) 3.1 Seasons in Vanuatu 1. Ask your students to draw a circle and divide it up into 12 sectors, each representing one month of the year. They then shade their diagram in two colours, one to represent the warm, wet season, and the other to represent the cooler, drier season in their country. 2. Ask your students the following questions: - What does ‘drought’ mean? When might we have droughts in our country? - What problems do people face in a) the warm, wet season, and b) the cooler, drier season? - When are different crops planted? - When are the crops harvested? - When are different seafoods in season? - When are different fruits harvested? 3. Ask your students to draw or write (in their circle) the crops, fruits and seafoods in the months when they are planted, harvested or gathered. 3.2 Rainfall and mountains 1. Ask your students to draw a large picture of your island. They can then label the following on their diagram: windward side, leeward side, prevailing south-east trade winds, reef, heavy rain. Tell them to add places where they might find thick rain forest. 2. Ask them: Which side of the island might experience more droughts? 3.3 Say-it grid Say-it grids can be applied to any context, as an interactive way of processing information that has been discussed. Say-it grids can also be an effective lead into writing, because the students have had time to process the information before they begin writing. | | A | B | |---|------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------| | 1.| You are 15 years old. You live in an area where there are no public water pipes. Explain how you will help your family during a drought. | You are a police officer. Explain how you will help people during a flood. | | 2.| You are a grandparent who looks after the family garden. Explain how you will look after your garden during a drought. | You are a politician. Explain to the local community how spending money on a new drainage system will protect them from floods. | - Divide the class into groups of four. - Divide students into A and B and then into 1 and 2 in each group so they know their speech topic. - Students are given time to research and note the main points of their argument. - Next, students take turns to speak in their group, one box at a time. - This could be followed up by a piece of writing. Picture 4 – Global climate The picture on global climate shows global climate zones in a very simplified way, taking into account global temperature patterns only. Children from different countries in a specific climate zone are shown wearing different clothing. Also typical plants and animals are shown as examples for some countries. | Possible student learning outcomes | Teaching and learning strategies | |------------------------------------|---------------------------------| | Students will be able to… | | | • label a diagram of climate zones of the globe correctly; | Picture interpretation with guiding questions | | • link temperature ranges on the earth to the angle of incident sunlight. | The heating effect of the sun on earth’s surface | | | Climate zones | | | An alternative activity on climate zones | | | Practical investigation: What is air pressure? | Discussion You can ask the students to describe what they see and to develop some questions on the picture on global climate. Discuss the picture with your students. See how much they know about the different climate zones, help them out with your knowledge and label each zone in the globe correctly. Talk about the different clothes the children in the picture are wearing. Do they know the basic principles of how the earth is divided into degrees of longitude and latitude? You can ask the students the following questions: - In which latitude is your country located and what climate zone do you live in? (See box below.) - Which climate zone has the coldest climate? (cold zone) - What difference would you be likely to notice if you went from a tropical zone to a temperate zone in clothing?... in housing?... in vegetation? - Which zones have a climate that changes very little during the year? (tropical and cold) - Which zones have the most variation in their climate over a year? (temperate) - Between which latitudes is the Southern Hemisphere? (0° the equator, to 90°, the South Pole) - Which zone has the longest days in its hemisphere’s summer and the longest nights in its hemisphere’s winter? (cold zone) Note that the climate zones shown in Picture 4 are simplified. In the picture, Fiji, Vanuatu, Samoa and Tonga seem to be in the subtropical zone, but they are in fact tropical countries, since they are located between the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn. Climate zones Scientists have divided the earth into zones as a means of describing different climates found in these areas. Climate refers to the average weather conditions over a long period of time, based mainly on measurements of temperature and precipitation. It is affected by latitude, altitude and proximity to the ocean. The following simplified categories shown in Picture 4 are based solely on latitude patterns. **Tropical zones from 0°–23.5°**: In the regions north and south of the equator (between the two tropics) the solar radiation reaches the ground nearly vertically at noontime during most of the year. Therefore, it is very warm in these regions. Because of the high temperatures, more water evaporates, so the air is often moist. The resulting frequent and dense cloud cover reduces the effect of solar radiation on ground temperature and can help keep temperatures cooler. **Subtropical zones from 23.5°–40°**: The subtropical zones receive the highest radiation in summer (in the northern hemisphere in July, in the southern hemisphere in December), since then the sun’s angle at noon is almost vertical, whilst the cloud cover is relatively thin. These regions usually receive less moisture from evaporation and trade winds, which increases the effect of radiation. Therefore, most of the world’s deserts are situated in this zone. In the respective winter seasons the regions’ radiation decreases significantly and it can be temporarily very cool and moister. **Temperate zones from 40°–60°**: In the temperate zones, the solar radiation arrives at a smaller angle, and average temperatures are much cooler than in the subtropical zones. The seasons and day-lengths differ significantly over the course of a year. The climate is characterised by less frequent extremes and a more regular distribution of precipitation over the year: hence the term ‘temperate’. **Cold zones from 60°–90°**: The subpolar and polar areas between 60° latitude and the poles receive least heat through solar radiation, since the sunlight is spread over a very flat angle to the ground. Because of the changes of angle of the incident sunlight, the day-lengths vary most in these zones. In the respective winters the sun shines very briefly – and in the regions closest to the poles for some time not at all. On the contrary, in the respective summers polar days of 24 hours of continuous sunshine occur. Plant growth is possible during only a few months per year and even then often sparsely. The conditions for life in these regions are very hard. Climate zones influence flora and fauna, our local sources of food, the way we build our houses and the way we dress ourselves. 4.1. The heating effect of the sun on the earth’s surface sources This activity will help your students understand the heating effect of the sun on the surface of the earth and why some places are warmer than others. What you will need: A large ball, such as a soccer ball, covered in white paper or a white balloon. (This will represent the surface of the earth.) You will also need a tin of yellow spray paint, or hairspray. A torch will also work for this activity if your classroom can be made dark enough. What to do: Draw a line around the middle of the ball. This represents the equator. Hold the spray can about 20 cm from the ball and point the nozzle at the equator, just as the picture shows. Squirt just enough paint to cover an area. (A short burst should do!) Mark with a pen and measure the area the paint covers. Predict: Ask your students: What do you think would happen if I did exactly the same thing but holding the can below the equator? Now hold can of spray lower down, just as the picture shows. Spray the area for the same length of time and from the same distance as before. Observe: Tell the students to observe how big an area the paint covers this time. Measure it. Help your students to explain why there is a difference in the area that the paint covers; Discuss these questions with your class. - Can you compare the yellow colour of the paint to the distribution of heat from the sun? - How do you think this shows how much heat the earth receives from the sun? - Why do you think it is warmer around the equator than further south towards the polar regions? - Which areas of the planet have the warmest seas? - What difference do you think the warmer temperature makes to the amount of water that evaporates from the surface of the sea? - Which parts of the planet do you think have the highest rainfall and the highest temperatures? 4.2. Climate zones Draw the diagram on the right on the blackboard or a large piece of paper. Draw just the globe and equator, if you can’t draw the map. Use the words below to label it: sun North Pole sun’s rays South Pole equator Colour the coldest areas of the globe blue. Colour the hottest areas red. A step further: We recognise that the weather changes at certain times of the year. We call these seasons. Some places have a wet and dry season, others have four seasons: spring summer, winter and autumn. Why do we have different seasons? The earth actually goes around (orbits) the sun on a tilt. Draw the diagram on the right on the blackboard or a large piece of paper. Draw just the globe and equator, if you can’t draw the map. Colour the coldest areas of the world blue. Colour in the hottest areas red. How different is it from the first picture you coloured in? Write summer, south of the equator, and write winter, north of the equator. Now six months later the earth is half way around the sun in its orbit. The picture on the right shows the earth in its new position as it travels around the sun. Draw the picture on the board or on paper for your students. Colour the coldest areas of the world blue. Colour in the hottest areas red. How different is it from your first picture you coloured in and the second picture? Can you explain why there are differences in the hot and cold areas of the earth? What is the result? 4.3. An alternative activity on climate zones What you want your students to learn: The position of the sun over the earth’s surface changes through the year. This change occurs because the earth rotates on a 22.5 degree angle as it orbits around the sun. One complete orbit of the sun is equivalent to one year. The movement of the sun over the earth’s surface creates seasonal weather patterns and climatic regions on the planet. Tell your students to copy Picture 4, including the equator and latitudes, and put their country on the map. Using the pictures they drew in the previous exercise, they can colour the different zones: red for tropical, orange for subtropical, green for temperate and blue for polar. 4.4. Practical investigation: What is air pressure? These activities will show students that air has mass and exerts pressure. Activity to find out if air has weight What you will need: two balloons, a stick or length of bamboo about 45 cm long, string, a piece of Sellotape, a measuring cylinder, a piece of tubing What to do: Blow up the balloons so they are about the same size. Suspend the stick from the piece of string by tying it in the middle. Carefully put a piece of Sellotape on each balloon. Tie the balloons onto the stick. Move the balloons so they balance each other. Prick one of the balloons carefully through the Sellotape – this takes care and practice but can be done so that the air just seeps out. As the air moves out of one balloon, it gets lighter so the other balloon goes down. Ask the students what they observe: What has changed? Did they expect this to happen? Can they explain why it has happened? (Adapted from SEREAD) Picture 5 – ENSO and climate variability The picture shows the ENSO — El Niño Southern Oscillation — as an important variation of climate in the Pacific. There are three illustrations showing the weather conditions that are associated with normal years, El Niño years, and La Niña years. | Possible student learning outcomes Students will be able to… | Teaching and learning strategies | |---------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------| | • describe the expected weather patterns in their country during El Niño and La Niña; • link these weather patterns to changes in wind and current strength and direction. | Picture interpretation with guiding questions Make your own El Niño | Discussion Ask your students to look at the three illustrations and ask them the following questions: - What are some differences in the three illustrations? - What do El Niño and La Niña mean in your own language? - Have you ever heard someone talking about El Niño or La Niña? If yes, in relation to what? - What happens during El Niño and La Niña years in your country? - Where can you get weather forecast information? - How can you prepare for an El Niño and La Niña year? Explain to the students what the difference between climate variability and climate change is. You could show Picture 5 together with Pictures 2 (The water cycle), 3 (Climate in the Pacific) and 6 (Causes of climate change). It is not at all easy to explain ENSO. One way of doing it is by building on the answers of your students and going with them through the three illustrations one by one (see box below). And, if possible, try to link El Niño and La Niña events to personal experiences. Don’t expect your students to be able to describe exactly what happens. What matters is that they find out typical weather patterns in their country during the different events. Depending on where they are located, their island can experience very wet or very dry conditions. These can result in floods or droughts with accompanying effects on food and water supplies, houses, bridges, roads and health. The resource text for Pictures 9 (Pasifika after a cyclone or severe storm) and 10 (Pasifika during a drought) provide many ideas. If you have a computer or laptop you can show the film *The climate crab* that helps in communicating the science of El Niño and La Niña and the effects. (You can find it at www.pacificclimatechangescience.org/climatecrab or on a DVD.) A second short film called *Cloud Nasara* focuses on Vanuatu www.pacificclimatechangescience.org/animations/cloudnasara/. (ABM-CSIRO-RCCC 2013) Climate variability describes variations in the mean state of climate occurring over months, years and decades (SPREP 2012). Warm and cold, wet and dry seasons are not the same from one year to the next. This natural phenomenon is called climate variability. When the observed differences are more than what has been commonly observed and create a long-term trend, this is called climate change. El Niño and La Niña A very important variation (or variability) in the Pacific region is ENSO – El Niño Southern Oscillation. ENSO has always been a feature of climate in the Pacific and typically has a three to seven year cycle. The name ‘El Niño’ comes from Peruvian fisher folk, who noticed that sometimes the anchovy fishing was very poor just before Christmas with an associated large-scale climate pattern, so they named it in Spanish El Niño after the Christ child. The opposite climate pattern brought very good fishing – La Niña or little girl. ENSO affects the weather worldwide, as changes in sea temperature of a few degrees take place over a large area, resulting in big changes to global weather patterns. ENSO is known as a ‘coupled’ phenomenon, as it involves strong interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere. Under neutral conditions In the western Pacific, a pool of warm water goes deep into the ocean; the heat makes the water molecules spread farther apart, increasing the water volume. Since the extra volume cannot go through the floor of the ocean, it expands upward, causing the sea-level to rise in the western Pacific (close to the equator). Strong equatorial trade winds blow east to west and keep the water piled up. The warm pool also puts a lot of warm, moist air into the atmosphere (evaporation, see cloud with rain in the illustration, also Picture 2 for evaporation and the warm pool in Picture 3). This leads to the development of thunderstorms and cyclones in the western Pacific (Gombus, Atkinson and Wongbusarakum 2011). El Niño conditions El Niño occurs when there is a weakening of the easterly trade winds blowing along the equator. Normally, these winds blow from east to west, but sometimes they weaken or even change direction and blow from west to east. The South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ) moves to the north and east of its normal position. Weaker trade winds slow down the movement of warm water being pushed across the Pacific towards the west. It also prevents the upwelling of cold water along the western coast of South America. In effect, the ‘pile’ of warm water that would normally be in the western Pacific moves back east across the Pacific, and some of it stays along the west coast of South America. The result is a cooler western Pacific, with droughts in Australia and western Pacific islands, and warmer, wetter weather for the central Pacific and the west coast of South America, which may experience severe storms and floods. In some years, usually when El Niño is very strong, the SPCZ moves a long way from its normal position and sits almost along the equator, having serious impacts on many Pacific Island countries. La Niña conditions La Niña is the cool phase of ENSO, when the eastern Pacific Ocean is cooler than usual. The trade winds are stronger and blow more warm water into the western Pacific. The SPCZ moves back to the south and west, so that there are wetter conditions in tropical Australia, New Zealand and the western Pacific Islands, with more cyclones and flooding and an increase in the mean height of sea levels on their shores. On the other side, fisher folk in South America have a very good fishing season. By using existing climatic records and predicting future changes with the aid of computers, climate scientists believe that these events may occur up to twice as often by the end of the 21st century than in the 20th century. (ABM-CSIRO 2011 and SPREP 2012) 5.1. Make your own El Niño Purpose: You can set up a demonstration of what happens to the trade winds in an El Niño cycle and the effect it has on ocean ‘upwelling’. This is best done when the students have a basic understanding of El Niño. Materials: Clear plastic oblong container such as an aquarium (approx. 45 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm) (if not available, a clear plastic food container will do), water, cooking oil (something like clear turps or mineral oil will also work), blue food colouring, a hair dryer, a map of the Pacific Ocean How to set the demonstration up: Fill the tray with water to within 2 cm of the top. Add blue food colouring to the water to give the effect of a blue ocean. Do not stir the food colouring but allow some to settle on the bottom to give a darker colour. This will show the upwelling. Gently pour the oil over the surface of the water. Allow it to settle so that you have two layers. Mark one end of the container west (Indonesia) and the other end east (South America.) Plug in the hair dryer. Note: keep it away from any water spills. Explain to your students that: - the liquids in the plastic container represent a slice across the equatorial southern Pacific Ocean; - the oil represents the warm layer of surface water that has been heated by the sun; - the blue water represents the colder water below the surface warm layer which has travelled through from the colder southern regions; - the hair dryer represents the trade winds. Can the students predict what you are going to do? What to do: Turn on the hair dryer, so giving a strong blast of air (no heat needed) and direct the ‘wind’ across the surface of the oil-topped water from the east (South America) to the west (Indonesia) (Figure 5.1). After the wind has been blowing for a period of time, add a few drops of food colouring to the ‘west’ end of the tank. (It should sink to the bottom.) Question: Ask your students: What effect does this have on the ‘warm’ and ‘cold’ water? Discuss their answers. Ask your students to draw what is happening. (It should be possible to show the upwelling of cold water to the surface.) Predict: What would happen if the ‘trade winds’ do not blow or are not as strong? Turn off the ‘trade winds’ Do this by turning down the speed of the hair dryer or moving it further away from the surface of the ‘ocean’ to represent weaker winds. What is happening when the trade winds are not as strong? Do the observations fit the predictions? Ask your students to draw what is happening. El Niño: the explanation If necessary, tell the students what is happening as you do this demonstration. The ‘warm’ water is pushed across the Pacific and piles up in the west (Indonesia) as it is blown by the ‘trade winds’ (hair dryer). This is what we would normally expect to happen in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. The blue food colouring represents the cold water and your students may notice that the bottom moves upwards towards the surface at the eastern end (South America). This is upwelling which, in the Pacific Ocean, brings nutrient-rich bottom waters to the surface. Plankton feed on the nutrients and, in turn, fish feed on the plankton, so these areas tend to be rich in fish and other sea life. When the trade winds do not happen or are weaker, the ‘warm’ water moves back across the ‘ocean’ from the west (Indonesia) to the east (South America). This movement of warm water is what happens in the ocean during an El Niño condition. (You may need to do this several times to observe the movement.) This stops the upwelling and prevents the nutrients flowing to the plankton. The result is poor fishing. The warm water also deflects up and down the coastline of South and North America, and this creates other problems. Extension: Some more questions to discuss with your students How do you think the warm water is moved across the world’s oceans? What do you think will happen to the air above the warm water in terms of how much moisture the air can hold? (The air warms and holds more moisture from the evaporation of seawater – the water cycle.) If the body of warm water spreads across the Pacific Ocean, what will happen to the number of cyclones that could occur in our region? (Adapted from SEREAD) Picture 6 – Causes of climate change This picture shows the enhanced greenhouse effect and has been drawn to focus on a Pacific perspective. In the picture you can see a range of sources of greenhouse gas emissions. Factories, trucks, boats, planes and cars are emitting carbon dioxide and some of them also nitrous oxide as they burn fossil fuels. There is a forest fire and an open landfill, and trees have been cut down – all of which release carbon dioxide. The rice fields and ruminants (cows, goats) emit methane. The greenhouse gases are shown as little molecules. Globally, including in the Pacific, the main source of emissions is the burning of fossil fuels for energy. Organic waste, deforestation, agriculture and livestock, and volcanic eruptions also contribute to emissions. | Possible student learning outcomes Students will be able to…. | Teaching and learning strategies | |---------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------| | • name the major greenhouse gases; • describe some significant causes of climate change; • explain why the term ‘greenhouse’ is used. | Picture interpretation with guiding questions How well does the sun heat the earth? | Discussion Ask your students to look at the picture and describe what they see. Ask if they have heard about the atmosphere and solar radiation. Do they know what a factory is and what combustion is? Have they ever thought about where electricity in their homes comes from? What is fossil fuel? What is carbon dioxide? What is a greenhouse? And what are greenhouse gases? You can explain these things, if necessary, using the background information in the next few pages. When their questions are clarified and the basic concept of the greenhouse effect is understood, you can refer them to the picture and ask them the following questions: - What is producing the emissions of greenhouse gases? (Distinguish between human causes and natural causes, such as bush fires and volcanoes.) - What parts of the world are they coming from? - What is the consequence of the enhanced greenhouse effect? (global warming) - How can we stop or slow down this process (reduce emissions/mitigation) …individually? …as a country? …all over the world? Suggest to your students that they ask their parents and grandparents what changes they have seen in weather patterns over the years. The responses will probably be informative. The greenhouse effect The mix of gases in the atmosphere allows a portion of solar radiation directed at the Earth to reach the surface, as well as limiting the amount of long-wave radiation that escapes back into the atmosphere. This heat-trapping function is known as the ‘greenhouse effect’ and it has kept the temperature suitable for life for millennia. Without these gases, the temperature on the surface of the earth would be –18°C. The greenhouse gases (GHGs) keep the average temperature at 15°C. The term ‘greenhouse’ is used to describe this phenomenon, since these gases act in a similar way to the glass of a greenhouse that is used for growing vegetables and flowers in cooler places. The idea behind the greenhouse, which is actually a glasshouse, is to trap heat and maintain higher interior temperatures than occur outside. It is like the inside of a car that is left in the sun with all the windows closed. However, it is important to mention that the effect in a greenhouse or car is different from the atmosphere: the car or the glass of a greenhouse traps heat by preventing convection, whilst the greenhouse effect in our atmosphere reduces radiation loss. This is how you can explain the greenhouse effect step by step, following the arrows in Picture 6 from left to right: 1. Solar radiation comes in (incoming solar radiation 343 Watt/m²). 2. Some of the solar radiation gets reflected by the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface (outgoing solar radiation 103 Watt/m²). 3. Solar energy is absorbed by the Earth’s surface and warms it (169 Watt/m²). 4. Solar energy is converted into heat, causing the emission of long-wave (infrared) radiation back to the atmosphere. 5. Some of the infrared radiation is absorbed and re-emitted by the greenhouse gas molecules. The direct effect is the warming of the Earth’s surface and the troposphere. 6. The Earth’s surface gains more heat and infrared radiation is emitted again. 7. Some of the infrared radiation passes through the atmosphere and is lost in space (net outgoing infrared radiation: 240 Watt/m²). (Rekacewicz 2005) Enhanced greenhouse effect leads to global warming What creates a lot of concern now is the fact that, over the past 250 years, humans have been raising the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at an ever-increasing rate, mostly by burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests without replanting, and increasing agriculture emissions. Extra greenhouse gases have enhanced the greenhouse effect and resulted in global warming, leading to climate change. Emphasise to your students that these gases are very important and need to be present. They are natural gases that we depend on to keep our planet habitable. The problem of global warming is caused by excess amounts of these gases and the enhanced greenhouse effect. The increase in temperature is also leading to other effects on the climate system. Together, these effects are known as anthropogenic (human caused) climate change. The main greenhouse gases (GHGs) (WMO): **Carbon dioxide (CO₂).** This is actually only a small component of atmospheric gases, but it is one of the most significant. CO₂ is released naturally into the atmosphere through volcanic eruptions, natural fire, and animal and plant respiration. It is also released through human activities such as deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels for energy. CO₂ spends a long time in the atmosphere, increasing its effect. CO₂ is the largest single contributor to global warming, accounting for three-quarters of emissions today. Since the industrial revolution, humans have increased the atmospheric CO₂ concentration by 40% (EPA 2010). CO₂ contributes around 60% of the overall warming. **Methane (CH₄).** The second most important GHG is produced both naturally and through human activities. The most significant source of methane is from the decomposition of organic matter, e.g. in landfills and in agriculture, especially in the production of rice. Another large source is from the digestion of ruminants (cows, goats, etc.). Methane is a stronger GHG than CO₂ because it can absorb more heat. However, it is much less abundant in the atmosphere. **Nitrous oxide (N₂O).** A very powerful greenhouse gas produced in massive quantities by the agriculture sector, specifically in the production and use of chemical fertilisers. It is also produced when burning fossil fuels and treating waste. **Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).** These man-made compounds were produced for industrial use, mainly in refrigerants and air conditioners. They are now regulated under the Montreal Protocol due to their adverse affect on the ozone layer. **Water vapour (H₂O) and aerosols influence the greenhouse effect:** Water vapour (H₂O) is the most abundant gas. It has the same effect as a GHG but is not considered as such, because it spends only a short time in the atmosphere, and human activity has very little influence on the amount of water in the atmosphere. An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas. Examples are clouds, and air pollutants, such as smog and smoke. Aerosols can scatter or absorb solar radiation. The scattering of solar radiation acts to cool the planet, while absorption warms the air directly. Human activity contributes to the amount of aerosols in the atmosphere. For examples, aerosols are formed from dust particles released by agricultural activities, and organic and soot particles from burning biomass (e.g. wood). In addition, industrial production processes and exhaust emissions from transport generate a mix of pollutants that are either aerosols, or are converted by chemical reactions in the atmosphere to form aerosols. **Emission:** The release of a gas into the atmosphere (SPREP 2012). Global warming and climate change Throughout its long history, Earth has warmed and cooled several times. The climate changed when the planet received more or less sunlight due to subtle shifts in its orbit, when the atmosphere or surface changed, or when the energy of the sun varied (NASA 2013). Since the beginning of the 20th century, industrial activity has grown forty-fold, and the emission of greenhouse gases has grown ten-fold. Transportation, electricity, heating and industry rely mostly on burning fossil fuel. The amount of CO\textsubscript{2} in the atmosphere was 280 parts per million (ppm) at the beginning of the century. This year, 2013, it has nearly reached 400 ppm (Dr Pieter Tans, NOAA/ESRL & Dr. Ralph Keeling 2013). The upper limit for CO\textsubscript{2}, according to scientists and climate experts, is 350 ppm. Similarly, methane (CH\textsubscript{4}) rose from a preindustrial atmospheric concentration of around 700 parts per billion (ppb) to about 1,789 ppb by 2007 (see Figure 6.1). Global warming is the unusually rapid increase in the Earth’s average surface temperature over the past century, primarily due to the greenhouse gases released as people burn fossil fuels. ‘The global average surface temperature rose 0.6 to 0.9 degrees Celsius (1.1 to 1.6° F) between 1906 and 2005, and the rate of temperature increase has nearly doubled in the last 50 years. Temperatures are certain to go up further.’ (See Figure 6.2; NASA 2013) Climate change is a term used by scientists, politicians and experts to describe changes in the Earth’s climate due to human activities (anthropogenic climate change) or natural processes that are already occurring or predicted to occur. These include increasing air and sea-surface temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, sea-level rise, ocean acidification, and changes in frequency and intensity of extreme events such as droughts, floods and tropical cyclones. Anthropogenic climate change is expected to happen much more rapidly than natural changes in the climate, posing an enormous challenge to both natural and human systems (SPREP 2012). Figure 6.1: Increases in GHGs since 1750 (Forster et al. 2007; Blasing 2008) Figure 6.2: Global mean surface temperature (NASA/Earth Observatory 2013) Figure 6.3: Diagram to show factors that affect climate change (IPCC 2007) Figure 6.3 shows some of the complexity and interconnectedness of the factors that contribute to climate change. If possible, photocopy this for your students. It can be used in conjunction with Picture 6. 6.1. How well does the sun heat the earth? What we want children to learn: - Water can hold more heat energy than sand or earth. - This is why it heats up more slowly and cools more slowly. - The oceans hold a lot of heat energy. (In fact the amount of heat energy in the top three metres of ocean is roughly equivalent to the same amount of heat energy in the whole of the atmosphere.) - What might this mean for the earth if more ice melts and there is more ocean to warm up? What you will need for each group: two jars, sand, water, two thermometers. Method for each group: 1. Fill up the two jars; one with sand, the other one with water ('land' and 'sea') 2. Put a thermometer into the jar of sand. The bulb of the thermometer should be 3-4 cm into the sand. 3. Put the thermometer into the jar of water. The bulb of the thermometer should be held 3-4 cm into the water. A piece of cardboard with a small hole in the centre, Sellotaped to the jar will do this if you don't have a clamp stand. 4. Place both jars in the sun. Predict: Which jar will heat up the fastest – land or sea? Observations 1. Ask each group to record the temperature at the start. 2. Make a grid on the blackboard so each group can record their numbers. 3. Ask them to record the temperature after 10 minutes. 4. Do this until you end up with the temperature after 40 minutes for each group. Question: Was your prediction correct? Which jar had the greatest increase in temperature? Students can graph these figures – their own group's figures compared to the average for the class. What effect do you think this has on our climate, particularly places by the sea? Extensions Predict: If the jars are moved into the shade or somewhere cool, which one would show the greatest drop in temperature? Observe: Move them to a shady place and record the temperature of the two jars, and then leave them for 10 minutes. Measure the temperature. Do this again two more times, so they have been left for 30 minutes. Question: Was your prediction correct? Can you explain what happened and why? What effect do you think this has on our climate, particularly places by the sea? What would happen if we wrapped the ‘earth’ in a blanket? Find two big, clear plastic bags. Place the jars inside them and tie the tops so that they are airtight. Now repeat the experiment. Predict: What do you think will happen to the temperature rise this time? Why? What do you think will happen when the jars are moved to the shade? Why? Observe: Record the measurements as before, and discuss the result. (Adapted from SEREAD) This may be one of the most difficult pictures to interpret with students, yet it is possibly the most important. It shows some of the interrelationships between the land, the atmosphere and the ocean. It shows the fresh water lens being contaminated by improper sanitation, cemeteries, and animal and solid waste. With higher sea levels and a higher consumption of water, salt water intrudes into the fresh water lens. The taro pit shows some healthy plants and some affected by salt-water intrusion. On the shore, the picture shows how the mining of beaches causes coastal erosion. Also, sea-level rise will contribute to coastal erosion. Carbon dioxide molecules are shown being emitted by the burning of waste and cutting down of trees, but also being used by plants for photosynthesis and being absorbed by oceans. On the right-hand side, the carbon dioxide and carbonic acid molecules in the ocean indicate ocean acidification. The ocean temperature symbol and whitening coral indicate the effect of higher sea-surface temperature on coral reefs (leading to bleaching). In the ocean on the left-hand side, the effects of contamination and waste disposal are shown. | Possible student learning outcomes | Teaching and learning activities | |-----------------------------------|---------------------------------| | Students will be able to…. | | | • identify some interrelationships between the ocean and land; | Picture interpretation with guiding questions | | • Identify some of the possible effects of climate change and unsustainable practices on those interrelationships; | Ocean acidification exercise | | • identify some of the possible effects of climate change and unsustainable practices on carbon pathways. | Build a tree | | | What makes sea water different? | | | Comparing the behaviour of warm water to cold water | **Discussion** Ask the students to explain what they can see in the picture. Possible questions you can ask, with answers after each question: - **What can you see happening in the picture?** - Throwing rubbish into the ocean results in high levels of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, entering the ecosystem and promoting algal growth, which can kill plankton and some small fish and shellfish. It also introduces bacteria into the water, such as e-coli, which are harmful to people. Burning rubbish causes more carbon dioxide emissions and can also affect health. Fetching drinking water is important and has no adverse effect if water is managed properly, but pollution can contaminate drinking water, droughts and/or overuse can reduce the amount of fresh water available in the water lens, and salt water can intrude due to a shrinking water lens or wave over topping during storm surges. - **What do you think the thermometers show?** - Temperature rises in the atmosphere and on the surface of the sea because of climate change or climate variability. In the ocean, the higher temperature causes corals to bleach. That means fewer coastal fish. - **Where do the carbon dioxide molecules go from the air?** - Those above the plants go into the leaves – photosynthesis. Those above the ocean go into the ocean water. Both plants and oceans are carbon sinks. - **Where do the plants get what they need to grow?** - Besides light and water and nutrients from the ground, plants take carbon dioxide from the air and convert it into solid material – starch. • What happens to carbon dioxide molecules in the ocean water? (Some remain as they are, some dissolve in sea water: carbon dioxide molecules combine with water \((H_2O)\) to form carbonic acid \((H_2CO_3)\). The carbonic acid reduces the available amount of calcium carbonate that corals and molluscs need to build their skeletons and shells. That affects molluscs and corals negatively, as they need calcium carbonates to build their skeletons.) • What do you think causes sea-level rise and coastal erosion? (Many things, as described below. For example, tides, ENSO, seasons. One of them is climate change – thermal expansion due to higher ocean temperatures and an increase in volume because of melting land-based ice. But also our own actions, such as mining sand on our beaches, lead to coastal erosion.) • Where does the fresh water come from on the land? (The water lens. Correct answers could also be: rainwater, tap, etc.) • What happened to the taro-pit? Why do some plants look healthy and others not? (Taro plants that get water that is too salty will die.) Specific topics 1. Coastal changes and sea-level rise Many naturally occurring processes cause coastal and sea-level changes. Soft shores (sand and gravel beaches) are dynamic and change all the time. Ask the students to interview older people in their community to find out what they remember. • Has the beach changed over time and how? • Are there places where land has been washed away (erosion)? • Is there land in places where there was none before (deposition or accretion)? • Have they seen sea water flooding the coast? • Was it during a storm or during calm weather? 2. Food security Discuss the students’ experiences of: • drought, when water is prioritised for drinking and washing; • salt infiltrating the fresh water lens, making it unsuitable for drinking; • salt infiltrating soil, making it unsuitable for growing plants; • coral reefs damaged by storms and/or bleaching, and hence supporting fewer lagoon fish; • extreme storms damaging and uprooting plants such as bananas, coconut and breadfruit. 3. Human actions Be sure that the students appreciate that wherever humans live, they have an impact on the environment. Pictures 9 to 14 provide more information and discussion on drought, fresh water and terrestrial and marine environments. Human actions can increase the vulnerability of our ecosystems to climate change. If we manage our natural resources in a sustainable way, our ecosystems are more resilient to the effects of climate change. Ask your students if they can give some good and bad examples from their own community. **Vulnerability** is the level of susceptibility of an individual, a community, an organisation or a system to adverse conditions, emergencies or disasters; a measure of its ability, or inability, to cope. **Resilience** is the capacity of a community, society or natural system to maintain its structure and functioning through stress or change. (SPREP 2012) If we protect our environment from pollution and waste, we reduce the stress on ecosystems and increase their resilience to climate change. Coastal changes and sea-level rise Global warming leads to higher ocean temperatures because the oceans act as a heat sink and absorb heat energy (See Picture 2, The Water Cycle). This results in the (thermal) expansion of the water. The melting of land-based snow and ice also contributes to sea-level rise (IPCC Synthesis Report Glossary). In the Pacific region, most people live in low-lying coastal areas. Low-lying atoll islands, such as Kiribati, Republic of the Marshall Islands and Tuvalu, and coastal communities on higher islands are most vulnerable to sea-level rise, surges and associated coastal erosion. Today, many coastal vulnerability and flooding problems are made worse when structures are built without fully understanding how this might affect the coastal environment and by removing mangroves and mining beaches. These are already big environmental and social problems. However, climate change and sea-level rise will make these problems far worse. Soft beaches and sea levels have always been subject to change. This is caused by various natural processes, listed below. - The positions of the Earth, moon and sun change periodically, causing daily tides, monthly spring and neap tides and changes on an annual basis. In the Pacific Island region, tides are often higher in the early part of the year. - Changes in the ocean-atmosphere system (such as ENSO, see Picture 5) can also cause large-scale changes in sea level. For example, during El Niño events, sea levels can rise up to 20–30 cm (ABM and CSIRO 2011). - Longer-term seasonal temperature changes can also cause expansion or shrinking of the ocean waters, leading to higher and lower sea levels. - Sinking or lifting of land masses because of geological events (plate tectonic processes) changes the relative height of the sea in relation to land. - Seasonal changes in ocean currents, waves, wind and rain can also cause sandy shores to change (natural erosion and accretion of sediments). Some islands in Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati and Tuvalu have been shown to increase in size over the last 19–61 years. - Extreme waves caused by storms or tsunamis change sea levels briefly but significantly and affect shorelines. - Many sandy shores in the tropical Pacific islands are protected by coral reefs, and the sand on the beach is also made from once-living reef material. Any change in the reef systems can affect beaches by either less or more sediment supply and the way the reef blocks wave energy. Ocean acidification and coral bleaching The ocean absorbs 25% to 30% of the additional carbon dioxide (CO₂) produced by human populations. As this additional CO₂ dissolves in sea water it reacts in such a way that in the end the amount of calcium carbonate that corals and molluscs need to build their skeletons and shells is not sufficient. The smaller the organism, the less protection it has, so many species of plankton are already being badly affected. (In more detail: As additional CO₂ dissolves in sea water it forms carbonic acid (H₂CO₃), which in turn breaks down into bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) and hydrogen ions (H⁺). The hydrogen ions then combine with carbonate ions (CO₃²⁻), which means that there are fewer carbonate ions available in sea water to combine with calcium to form the calcium carbonate that corals and molluscs need to build their skeletons and shells.) (Bell, Johnson and Hobday 2011) Also changes in ocean temperature create big problems for coral. Coral reefs are made up of millions of very small animals called coral polyps which are related to, and look like, miniature jellyfish. These polyps live in huge colonies and create complex skeletons (using calcium carbonate as described above), which are the building blocks of the coral reefs. Each coral polyp has microscopic algae living inside it, which give the coral its colour and use energy from the sun to provide the polyp with the sugars it needs to grow. When the sea temperature rises, the corals become stressed and spit out the algae. This turns the corals white in a process known as ‘coral bleaching’. The coral that have turned white cannot survive for very long without their algae, and will slowly starve to death if the water temperature remains too high for too long (Findlay and Hinge 2010: 98). Global warming increases ocean acidification and coral bleaching, thus degrading coral reefs. This will reduce the reefs’ capacity to support the fish that are so important to the people of the Pacific Islands. Carbon sequestration: The removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and its long-term storage in reservoirs. (SPREP 2012) Carbon sink: A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that takes up and stores carbon. Trees, plants, oceans, rocks and soils are natural sinks, while landfills are artificial sinks (SPREP 2012). Salt water intrusion It is important to understand that the way we manage water has considerable effects on its availability and quality. Where the sea-level has risen, salt water enters the underground freshwater lens (salt water intrusion). When large quantities of fresh water are removed for human use, seawater seeps in from the bottom of the lens and eventually mixes with the freshwater to form brackish water, which is unfit for humans to drink and for plants to survive. The carbon cycle and photosynthesis The carbon cycle describes the circulation of carbon between living organisms and the atmosphere, oceans and land. Plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and build more complex compounds (sugars and starch). When animals eat plants, the carbon is used to build different compounds and carbon is stored in the body. Some of the carbon is released back to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide during respiration (breathing), and more is released when plants and animals die and decompose. When dead plant and animal matter is buried, carbon is stored in the earth. Humans can use this material as an important source of energy (fossil fuel). Burning fossil fuels releases carbon back to the atmosphere. (SPREP 2012). Teaching and learning strategies - 7 Simple experiments students can do to show the effects on sea-level from heating water and melting ice can be found in the Teaching activities for Picture 2 – the Water Cycle. These are worth considering as they use empty drink bottles, straws and cardboard cups – not laboratory equipment. 7.1. Ocean acidification exercise The effects of ocean acidification can be shown easily if students collect small pieces of shell or coral and wash them carefully. Tell your students to do the following. 1. Wrap a piece of Sellotape closely around part of the shell. 2. Make a 50% solution of vinegar and water or squeeze some lemon or lime juice into the water – make sure it tastes ‘sour’. (Students could also make carbonic acid in water by blowing into the water through a straw, but this will take a while.) 3. Place the wrapped shell in the acid solution and leave it overnight. 4. Unwrap the shell – it should look white and smooth on the part that was not covered and, under the Sellotape, it should be the original colour and roughness. You may need to experiment beforehand to get the right strength that will erode the shell or coral. Shells vary in their hardness. If you want to make it very effective use eggshell – it may disappear altogether! This is what can happen to plankton skeletons in acidic water. If you have the sheets of plastic covering used for covering exercise books and shelves, students can cut themselves a piece and then cut out their initial inside the square. When they put their plastic over a shell and leave it in the acidic water overnight, their initial will appear on the surface of the shell, etched by the acid. 7.2. Build a tree This activity works best with at least 15 students. What do trees need? What do trees do? Brainstorm with students – trees need sunlight, water, soil, oxygen (air). They need roots, leaves, branches, flowers. They grow tall, make their own food, provide food and shelter for humans and other animals, and transpire. Explain that the students are going to ‘build’ a tree by becoming parts of the tree and acting out their roles. This is best done somewhere where students won’t mind lying on the ground. The numbers are based on a class size between 18 and 30 and can be flexible. 1. **What do you see when you look at a tree?** Ask for a volunteer to be the trunk – they may need to stand on a chair. They need to stretch their branches (arms) high, and move their leaves (fingers) in the sun. 2. **Where is the sun?** Ask for a volunteer to be the sun standing a few metres away from the trunk. The volunteer may also need to be on a chair. 3. **What keeps the tree up?** Students will say roots so ask for three or four volunteers to lie on their stomachs facing out from the trunk. 4. **What do the roots do?** When they refer to getting water from the soil, ask the roots to wriggle their root hairs (fingers) and make slurping noises to show they are taking in water. 5. **How does the water get up the stem?** If they know what a xylem is or mention tubes or pipes ask for three to five volunteers to be xylem. They stand around the trunk, facing outwards and holding hands. They need to crouch down, then make a sipping noise as they rise – lifting their hands up to carry water to the leaves, then back down again for the next load. 6. **What are the leaves doing with the water?** Making food. How does the food travel around the plant and down to the roots? Four to six volunteers will be needed for the phloem, facing in towards the xylem, holding hands. They will make a ‘whish’ noise as they carry food downwards, then rise again to repeat. 7. **What protects these tubes?** Bark – Five to seven volunteers stand facing outwards, holding hands. When danger approaches they will ‘bark’ and try to repel them. 8. **What do the trees do with carbon dioxide (CO₂)?** The leaves absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen. The branches, trunk and roots store carbon. 9. **What do trees need protection from?** The answer may well be humans but look for birds and insects, some of which are harmful to trees. Two or three students can be invaders. The tree now needs to ‘come to life’. The sun starts to ‘beat’ and actions start. Everyone needs to make his or her noises and move accordingly. The tree should be very active and noisy. **Processing** - Why does the tree need so many parts? - Lots of different things need to happen. Water and food are going in different directions – they need different paths. - What happens if one part doesn’t work properly? - The rest won’t work properly either. - Which part is the most important? - None – they are all important – students will usually claim the part they acted. This is good as they have a deeper understanding when they have an emotional attachment. - What stops the bark being effective? - Being cut or damaged. Extension What will happen if the roots are damaged due to erosion? - Remove one root. What happens to the trunk? What happens if there is very little water in the soil? - Each root has to hold one hand still against their side. What effect does this have on the xylem? It makes them move more slowly. What effect will this have on the leaves? What happens if there is salt in the soil? - The roots go ‘Phhhhhgh’ and curl up. - The xylem sinks down as water flows out. - The phloem crumples with no water or food. - The trunk collapses. What would happen if all the trees in the world were cut down? - There would not be enough oxygen for humans and animals to breathe, because trees are most important in photosynthesis. - Carbon would not get stored and oxygen would not be released any more by trees. Instead, carbon dioxide would accumulate in the atmosphere and the oceans, so the greenhouse effect would be greater – it would get hotter and hotter and the oceans would become even more acidic. 7.3 What makes sea water different? What we want children to learn: - Sea water is denser, and therefore heavier, than fresh water. - When it rains, the fresh water reduces the salinity of the salt water on the surface. Predict: Will sea water and fresh water mix? What you will need: 2 x 250 ml beakers or large glass jars, salt, blue and green food colouring, two small clear containers, about 50 ml will do, two droppers, a tablespoon, a marker pen. What to do: Pour water into the large glass containers so they are half full. Put a tablespoon of salt into one of the containers and stir until the salt has dissolved. Write salt water on this container. Write fresh water on the other container. Pour some of the salty water into one of the small containers so it is 3/4 full. Add green colouring to this salty water until it is dark green. Label the small container ‘Salt Water’. Pour some fresh water into the other small container until it is 3/4 full. Add the blue food colouring so that the water turns light blue. Label it ‘Fresh Water’. Use a dropper and gently add some drops of the ‘green’ salt water to the large container of clear fresh water. Observe: Draw what happens to the green salt water. Does it mix with the fresh water? Does it float or sink? Use colours in your drawing to show what is happening. Now use a clean dropper and add some drops of blue fresh water to the clear salt water in the large container. Observe: Draw what happens to the blue fresh water. Does it mix with the salt water? Does it float or sink? Use colours in your drawing to show what is happening. Explain: Can you think of a reason for what you see happening when fresh water and salt water come together? Questions: What do you think happens when it rains out at sea? Do the rain water and sea water mix straight away? 7.4 Comparing the behaviour of warm water to cold water The temperature of sea water varies all over the world. The ocean waters near the Arctic and Antarctic will be considerably colder than the water near the equator. The temperature of water affects its density. This in turn affects how water moves in the ocean, and the way deep ocean currents move. What we want children to learn: Cold water sinks below warm water. It is more dense. Warm water will sit on top of cold water. Wind will mix up the layers of warm and cold water. Predict: What do you think will happen when warm and cold water meet each other? What you will need: iced water, very hot water, a large clear container (500 ml beaker), two small containers (30 ml beakers), red and blue food colouring, two droppers. What to do: Fill the large container 3/4 full with tap water and place it on a table to allow the water to reach the same temperature as the room. Pour some hot water into one of the small containers so that it is half full. Put some drops of RED food colouring into the hot water to make it dark red. Pour some iced water into the other container. Put some drops of BLUE food colouring into the iced water to make it dark blue. Using the dropper, gently add some drops of hot red water to the water in the large container. Then add drops of blue iced water to the same large container of water. Observe: What happens to the hot and cold water? Do they mix? Draw pictures using red and blue colouring pencils to show what happens to the water. You may need to do several pictures over a period of time. Explain: What happens to the cold water? Why do you think this happens? What happens to the warm water? Why do you think this happens? What do you think will happen when cold water from the polar regions meets up with warmer water from the equator? Extension: Hold a straw at the edge of the top of the beaker so that it is parallel to the water surface. Blow gently through the straw. What happens to the water? (Adapted from SEREAD) The top part of this picture shows the effects of cyclones, flooding and coastal erosion. The lower part shows how the climate patterns in Vanuatu have changed in the past and will change in the future. There are two charts for Port Vila that show how temperatures have increased and rainfall has decreased in the past. The symbols show what is predicted for the future. | Possible student learning outcomes | Teaching and learning activities | |-----------------------------------|---------------------------------| | Students will be able to…. | | | • describe the observed and predicted changes to Vanuatu’s climate; | Interpretation of the climate data with guiding questions | | • describe some effects of climate change in Vanuatu. | Mix and match | | | Web of life and sustainability | **Discussion** Ask your students to describe the effects of a cyclone, flooding and coastal erosion that they can see in the photographs. **Charts of temperature and rainfall in Port Vila** Check that your students can ‘read’ the charts. If necessary, explain that in the temperature chart, the dots show the average yearly temperature – red dots in an El Niño year, orange dots in a La Niña year and grey dots in a normal year – and in the rainfall chart, the bars represent the average annual rainfall – the light blue bars in an El Niño year, the dark blue bars in La Niña year and the grey bars in a normal year. In both charts, the red line shows the trend. Ask your students to use the charts to answer the questions below. They can work in small groups. (See Picture 5 for background information.) 1. What was the average annual temperature in Port Vila in 1950 and in 2005? 2. In general, what do you notice about Port Vila’s average temperatures during an El Niño year (red dots)? 3. In general, what do you notice about Port Vila average temperatures during a La Niña year (orange dots)? 4. Does an El Niño year have more or less rainfall than usual? 5. Does a La Niña year have more or less rainfall than usual? 6. What do you think happens to the South Pacific Convergence Zone during an El Niño year, and during a La Niña year? 7. If Vanuatu’s temperatures are increasing, suggest three things that may happen as a result. **Map of Vanuatu showing the average temperatures decrease from north to south** Ask your students to draw a graph comparing the average temperatures for January and July in Sola, Port Vila and Anelcauhat. **The symbols** Now look at the symbols. In pairs or groups, your students can discuss and note down at least one likely effect on your island of the change shown with each symbol. Vanuatu’s changing climate - Records show that annual maximum and minimum temperatures have increased in both Port Vila and Aneityum since 1950. - Data for Port Vila since 1950 show that rainfall during the wet season has decreased. However, there are no clear trends in annual and dry season rainfall for Port Vila over the same period. For Aneityum, too, there are no clear trends. - There has been considerable variation in rainfall totals from year to year, associated with El Niño and La Niña years, and variation also in the number of cyclones. - Because of rising temperatures worldwide, ocean waters have expanded, and there is evidence that the sea-level in Vanuatu has risen by about 6 mm a year since 1993. This is greater than the global average of 2.8–3.6 mm a year. - There is evidence that ocean acidification has been increasing in Vanuatu, following a worldwide trend of increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Such acidification is likely to affect the growth of coral and other organisms that build their skeletons out of carbonate minerals. Climate projections for Vanuatu - **Temperatures will continue to rise**: If human emissions of greenhouse gases continue to rise at current rates, temperatures are likely to rise by between 0.4 and 1.0°C between now and 2030. - **There will be more very hot days**: The increases in average temperatures will also result in a rise in the number of hot days and warm nights. - **Changing rainfall patterns**: There is a lot of uncertainty about what is likely to happen with rainfall. But it is likely that, during the present century, there will be a decrease in dry season rainfall and an increase in wet season rainfall. So we may have more droughts and more floods. - **More occurrences of heavy rainfall**: Projections show that we are likely to have more days with very high rainfall totals, and more days with no rainfall. - **Lower frequency but higher intensity of tropical cyclones**: It is likely that as the present century progresses, Vanuatu will receive fewer and fewer cyclones and tropical storms per year, but they will be more intense (that is, at the level of category 4 or 5). - **The sea-level will continue to rise**: Vanuatu is likely to experience a sea-level rise of between 5 and 17 cm by 2030, and between 17’ and 63 cm by 2090. This will increase the impact of storm surges and coastal flooding. - **Ocean acidification will continue**: Evidence suggests that the process of ocean acidification will continue in Vanuatu waters. This will clearly lead to the deterioration of reef ecosystems. (ABM-CSIRO 2011 Vol 2:16 & Vanuatu Country Brochure) 8.1. Mix and match This is an exercise on El Niño and La Niña. The table below shows some of the differences between the two in terms of features and importance: Make 5-10 copies of the table (depending on class size), then cut up each sheet into its component cells and put the pieces into an envelope. Organise your students into groups of four. Each group will receive one envelope containing labels and sentences that relate to the two pictures at the top of Picture 8. Each group must try to sort out the sentences/labels under each of two headings – EL NIÑO and LA NIÑA – then ask another group to check its work. When the group is satisfied with its classification, they take a large piece of butcher paper and at the top, draw large copies of the two pictures and label the features. Then, under each picture, they place the two headings and the relevant labels, and stick them on to the butcher paper. For an extra activity, the group could draw arrows on its chart to show how some things lead to others (cause and effect). | LA NIÑA | EL NIÑO | |----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------| | SPCZ over Vanuatu | SPCZ moves north and east of Vanuatu. | | Tropical cyclones occur. | Periods of drought and tropical cyclones occur. | | Temperatures are higher than normal. | Temperatures are lower than normal. | | North-west of Tanna, Efate, Erromango, Malakula, Santo. | South-east of Tanna, Efate, Erromango, Malakula, Santo. | | Heavy rainfall in mountainous areas causes rivers to flood. | Bush fires may occur in forested areas. | | High islands receive more rainfall. | Low, flat islands experience less rainfall. | | Rainfall will become more variable. | Rainfall will become more variable. | | There will be more very hot days. | There will be more very hot days. | | Sea levels will continue to rise and ocean acidification will continue. | Sea levels will continue to rise and ocean acidification will continue. | | Sea levels will be temporarily lower. | Sea levels will be temporarily higher. | 8.2 Web of life and sustainability Issues of sustainability affect many aspects of life. To make sustainable decisions and actions we need to consider four things: the environment, food sources, society and the economy. Purpose • To demonstrate the links between the four aspects of sustainability Instructions • Ask each student to divide their page into four squares and label each square with the words: environment, food sources, society and economy. | Food sources | Environment | |--------------|-------------| | Society | Economy | • Tell the students to think of words that relate to these labels. Perhaps give a few examples. Give students a few minutes to write down their words in the right section of their page. • Divide the class into four groups: environment, food sources, society and economy. Tell each student to choose one word from their list and write it on a card in large writing. Make sure you have words from each of the groups, and that everyone has a different word. • Get the whole class to stand in a circle and hold their word in front of them. As the teacher, you can stand in the middle of the circle with a ball of wool or string. • Ask a student to describe a link between the word on his/her card (e.g. resources) and another word in the circle (e.g. products). The response might be: You need resources to make products to sell. • Join the cards together by linking the string to the fingers of the two students holding the cards. • Ask the student holding products to link to another word (e.g. garden) in the circle with another sentence. For example: The products we make can come from our garden. • Link the products string to garden and continue to make links until all the words in the circle are linked together. Some words may be linked more than once. Reflection: Ask the students these questions: 1. What have we created with our string? (a web) 2. Could we continue to make more links and connections? (yes) 3. If we continued, what would happen to our web? (make it stronger) 4. What happens when you pull a string? (it affects many others) 5. What happens when you let one string go? 6. How does this activity help us to understand sustainability? 7. What connections have you learnt from this activity? 8. What did you like about this activity? Can you write an explanation for sustainability? And for sustainable living and sustainable development? This activity also works very well in other contexts. When studying an ecosystem, students can make cards with all the plants and animals and words such as eats, weather, birds and make a complex web from them. (Adapted from SEREAD) Picture 9 – Pasifika after a cyclone or severe storm The picture shows Pasifika after a cyclone or severe storm. Roofs have been ripped off, trees have been blown down, the river is flooding, and there are queues of people at the health clinic. | Possible student learning outcomes | Teaching and learning activities | |------------------------------------|---------------------------------| | Students will be able to… | | | • identify probable outcomes of a cyclone or severe storm; | Picture interpretation and discussion | | • identify possible risks in their own community; | Y-charts | | • identify some measures that their community could take to reduce the likelihood of damage. | Sequencing | Discussion You can use the following questions: • What has happened to the people? • What happened to their food sources – gardens, livestock? • What happened to their houses? • Is their water source or supply affected? • What damage would there be to cash crops, such as coconut, vanilla, sugar-cane or squash? • What other damage can you see? • What seems to have caused the most damage – wind or rain? • Can they make links to their own village and talk about similar consequences? • What are some of the long-term and short-term effects of a cyclone or severe storm? Once they have established the effects, students could work in groups and discuss how Pasifika could have prepared itself for the cyclone/storm and prevented some of the damage. Is there anyone they could talk to about this? Is there a local disaster management committee or police officer or Red Cross specialist who could visit your class? **Short-term effects:** trees blown down, buildings destroyed, injuries, loss of life, roofs blown off, severe flooding, rivers changing course, power lines down, seawalls destroyed, boulders swept into the lagoon, erosion of coastal and river bank land. **Longer-term effects:** lack of power for cooking and lighting; lack of fresh water for drinking and cleaning, causing food loss and likelihood of disease; lack of shelter, causing people to leave their homes; gardens and fruit trees destroyed, causing ongoing food shortages; silt, debris and possibly sewage being washed onto roads and into houses. What is a tropical cyclone? A tropical cyclone (also known as a typhoon or hurricane) is a violent rotating windstorm that develops over tropical waters warmer than 26.5°C and located between 5° and 15° latitude. There are times when the air rising over the warm regions of ocean form areas of extreme low pressure. The convection currents start spiralling around this low-pressure centre, causing rotation. Cyclones begin as thunderstorms. The winds spiral clockwise (southern hemisphere) and anticlockwise (northern hemisphere) in towards the centre of the low-pressure area. They pick up more moisture from the sea. At the centre, the air rises upwards, with the water vapour condensing to give high cloud formations and heavy rainfall. As the cyclone becomes organised, a calm clear area called the ‘eye’ forms at its centre. As long as the low-pressure centre remains over the warm ocean, there will always be energy to continue feeding the system (see Figure 9.1). These storms rise up to 10 km into the atmosphere and can be up to 2,000 km across. The eye is typically 10–50 km wide and is surrounded by a dense ring of cloud known as the eye wall, which marks the belt of strongest winds. When the tropical cyclone moves over land or cooler water, there is no energy to feed the system and the cyclone dies away. In the meantime the amount of energy and rain can do a great deal of damage. The cyclone season in the southern hemisphere runs from October to May and in the northern hemisphere from May to October but some cyclones do occur outside the season. (SEREAD and SOPAC 2006) With climate change, cyclones and storms are likely to become less frequent but more severe, but there is uncertainty in predictions (ABM-CSIRO 2011 Vol 1). The types of damage from severe storms or cyclones, particularly when associated with king tides, are very similar. Cyclone and storm warning There is a well established network of cyclone warning centres throughout the region. The Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre (RSMC) in Nadi, Fiji, monitors, tracks and names tropical cyclones and severe storms, as well as providing warning services to Pacific Island countries. Similar services are provided for Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology’s Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres. French-speaking countries are looked after by Météo-France, and American affiliated states by the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. (SOPAC 2006) CYCLONE SEVERITY: SAFFIR-SIMPSON HURRICANE SCALE | Category | Wind speed (km/h) | Damage | Storm surge (m) | |----------|-------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------| | 1 | 119-153 | Minimal: No real damage to buildings. Coastal road flooding and minor pier damage. | 1-1.5 | | 2 | 154-177 | Moderate: Damage to roof, window, door. Piers, shrubs and trees damaged and low-lying escape routes flood. Craft break moorings. | 1.5-2.5 | | 3 | 178-209 | Extensive: Structural damage to houses; utility buildings. Shrubs stripped, large trees felled. Low-lying escape routes cut off. Terrain less than 1.5 m above sea-level flooded. Coastal evacuation. | 2.5-3.5 | | 4 | 210-246 | Extreme: Extensive curtainwall failures, roofing failures on many houses. Extensive damage to doors, windows. Low-lying escape routes cut off. Major damage to lower floors of nearshore structures. Terrain lower than 3 m above sea-level may flood. Massive evacuation up to 10 km inland. | 3.5-5.5 | | 5 | > 250 | Catastrophic: Complete roof failures, complete destruction of utility buildings below wave, severe and extensive window and door damage. Low-lying escape routes cut off. Major damage to lower floors of all structures less than 4.5 m above sea level. Massive evacuation up to 16 km inland. | >5.5 | Figure 9.2: Cyclone Severity: Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale Before Prepare for a severe storm or cyclone - Be aware of warnings about cyclones or storm surges (local radio, TV, etc.). - Know which areas are prone to flooding and evacuate to safer ground if necessary (in the case of flooding). - Fix any loose parts of the school and home. - Cut off old branches from trees near buildings. - Identify the safest room in your house or school, or a safe area, (e.g. high ground). - Clear the school/house compound of loose objects. - Prepare an emergency kit for the family and the school containing: a portable radio with spare batteries, a torch, kerosene lamp, candles, matches, water containers, canned food with opener, spare clothes, masking tape for windows, plastic bags, first aid necessities, etc. - Clear all drains and waterways. - Ensure the school/ house has proper protection against lightning strikes. - Make sure everyone is safe. The elderly, very young, and people with disabilities may need special care. (Have emergency plans in place, which everyone is aware of.) During Remain as safe as possible during a severe storm or cyclone - Disconnect all electrical appliances but listen to your battery-powered radio for further information. - Open louvres/windows on the side away from the wind to reduce the pull force of the wind on the roof. - Remain calm, stay indoors but clear of doors and windows. Remain in the strongest part of the building. - Use the telephone for only very urgent calls. - If the building breaks up, protect yourself with rugs or mattresses under a strong table/bench or hold onto a solid fixture (e.g. a water pipe). After After the severe storm or cyclone has passed - Don’t go outside until officially advised it is safe (listen to the radio). - Don’t attempt to drive and don’t allow children to roam around outside. - Beware of fallen power lines, damaged buildings, trees and flooded waterways. - After a flood take extra care in washing hands. - Check drinking wells for contamination. - Boil drinking water if possible. (SOPAC 2006) BEWARE THE EYE OF THE STORM! When the cyclone eye passes over, there is a calm period, a lull, which may last up to two hours. The other side of the cyclone then hits and winds resume with equal strength but blowing from the other direction. It is vitally important to remain inside during and after the eye passes. Teaching and learning strategies – 9 Students could brainstorm the types of damage likely to occur in their village or town. 9.1. Y-charts Some students will have experienced a cyclone, most of them will have experienced a severe storm. Ask students in groups to draw a large Y on a piece of paper and label it as in the diagram. Students can write in the gaps what they think they would / did see, hear and feel during a cyclone or severe storm. They could use another colour pen to then add what they might see, hear and feel when they step outside after the cyclone or storm. Each group can then talk about their responses with the class. 9.2. Sequencing Putting a jumbled set of steps into the correct order requires students to read for meaning. The sequence of a cyclone is given below. The steps could be written on the board in the incorrect order or copied onto recycled paper and cut into single sentences or printed out with double spacing between the lines and then cut up and each set placed in an old envelope. Whichever method you use, ask the students to put the sentences in the correct order. Sentences for sequencing: Cyclones - There are times when the air rising over the warm regions of ocean can form areas of extreme low pressure. - This happens when the sea temperatures are above 26.5°C. - The convection currents start spiralling around this low-pressure centre, causing rotation. - The winds spiral clockwise towards the centre of the low-pressure area, picking up more moisture from the sea. - At the centre, the air rises upwards, with the water vapour condensing to give high cloud formations and heavy rainfall. - As long as the low-pressure centre remains over the warm ocean, there will always be energy to continue feeding the system. - The amount of water in the system builds up and wind and rain intensify and the system becomes a tropical cyclone. - When the tropical cyclone has moved over land or cooler water, there is no energy to feed the system and the cyclone will die away. - In the meantime, the amount of energy and rain can do a great deal of damage. (Adapted from SEREAD) Picture 10 – Pasifika during a drought This picture shows Pasifika during a drought. What are the effects of the drought? Can they make links to their own village and talk about similar consequences? | Possible student learning outcomes: Students will be able to…. | Teaching and learning activities | |---------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------| | • identify probable outcomes of a drought; | Picture interpretation with guiding questions | | • identify possible risks in their own community; | Consequence wheel | | • identify some measures that their community could take to reduce the likelihood of damage. | Discussion Once the students have established the effects of a drought, they can discuss how the village could have prepared itself for the drought and prevented some of the damage. • What are some of the effects of the drought that you can see in the picture? • Do you think all people are affected in the same way by the drought? (Get your students thinking about gender, age and disability.) • What could have been put in place to reduce the risks and be better prepared? Ask students to think about the consequences of a drought in their village. What measures could they take to counteract or prepare for the expected effects? Make a list. Have the groups compare lists. Drought A drought is a long period with no rain during a time when rain would be expected. It results in reduced groundwater, and a shortage of water for drinking, sanitation and watering plants. It is a slow-onset phenomenon – which means it does not happen suddenly, caused by one single event like a storm or cyclone, but emerges gradually over time. People might notice it too late and early warnings are not always issued. The consequences of a long drought vary in different regions. Crops always suffer, causing food shortages that continue after the drought has ended. In some places, forest fire is a likely consequence of a drought. Lack of fresh water is the most serious issue for small Pacific islands. Keeping sufficient water clean in water tanks can be a problem. Many houses do not have their own water tanks and are dependent on well water which may become brackish or run dry. Bottled water and desalinator plants can be flown in but that is costly and increases waste. Desalinator plants mostly use diesel fuel. Predictions for the future suggest there are likely to be more periods of drought in many countries because the rainfall is likely to come in more severe events rather than being spread throughout the year. Much of the water coming from heavy rain will flow into the sea rather than being stored on land. More days of excessive heat – higher temperatures for longer periods – will cause water from the land to evaporate. The availability of water and the likelihood of forest fires depend to a large extent on people behaving responsibly. (SPREP 2012 and IFRC 2013) How to prepare for a drought and reduce possible effects - Be aware of weather forecasts (radio, newspaper, television, traditional knowledge). - Cover wells and keep rubbish and livestock away to prevent evaporation and contamination. - Protect water catchment areas: do not litter; if you cut trees down, make sure you re-plant; don’t build in these areas, if possible. - Ration water during a drought (two litres/adult person/day) and food (2,100 calories/adult person/day). - Preserve and store food (a combination of a basic staple such as rice, taro, wheat flour; a concentrated source of energy (oil or another fat) and a concentrated source of protein, such as legumes (beans, peas, lentils) or preserved fish. Fruits and vegetables can be preserved as well. - Inspect pipes and outdoor taps for leaks, and repair them. - Harvest rainwater from suitable roofs in tanks and keep roofs, gutters and tanks clean. (Note: the water may need purification treatment before it is safe to drink.) - Use alternatives to water (e.g. sand for washing the dishes). - Recycle household ‘grey water’ (used water, such as the washing-up water) for the toilet, and for irrigation and home gardens. - Look after livestock (especially females and their young). - Conserve water at home, for example: - turn off taps when brushing teeth or shaving; - take shorter showers; - clean vegetables in a basin rather than under running water; - install composting toilets or low-volume toilets; - wash dishes using two basins rather than doing it under running water; - in washing machines, match the load setting to the amount of laundry, or wash full loads only. (IFRC 2013) 10.1 A consequence wheel Students use a consequence wheel by writing an event in the centre, and then writing consequences of this event in the surrounding two spaces. Consequences arising from these go in the next four spaces and so on until the wheel is complete. More layers may be added. Students can draw their wheels on scrap paper to start with. They could then make good copies as posters. If the centre was filled in with *Long drought*, there will be many consequences. - Drinking water must be boiled → This requires costly fuel for boiling the water → Families have less money for food - No water for gardens → Less fresh fruit and vegetables → People may go hungry This exercise can be put into local context by asking the students to think about the consequences in their own community. This exercise can be used for other events. Where appropriate, you can make each consequence lead to a positive and a negative consequence; this helps students focus their thoughts. (Adapted from SEREAD) Picture 11 – Adaptation and mitigation The pictures show actions that are mitigating, actions that are adaptive and actions that fit into both categories. **Mitigation** refers to efforts to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, either by limiting the sources or by enhancing the sinks. **Adaptations** are actions that are taken to moderate harm or explore potential benefits of climate change for sustainable development. Students will need to use these terms in several different activities to be confident in their meaning. | Possible student learning outcomes | Teaching and learning activities | |-----------------------------------|---------------------------------| | Students will be able to…. | | | • differentiate between adaptation and mitigation actions; | Discussion based on picture interpretation | | • work in a group to plan a possible adaptation or mitigation action; | Planning an action | | • implement a group or individual action. | | **Discussion** Questions for your students: - Can you name all the actions in Picture 11? - Can you explain how each mitigation action reduces the levels of GHGs? - Can you explain how each adaptation reduces the effects? - Can you explain the actions that are in the centre of the picture? In groups, ask students to brainstorm some ideas about adaptation and/or mitigation activities at a personal, community and national level. You can then get them to categorise their ideas and introduce a Venn diagram as an effective tool. Remind them of the cyclone and drought pictures – what could be done to reduce the effects? You can also introduce them to pictures 12 to 16 that all show adaptation and mitigation in different contexts: gardening, livestock, forestry, fishing and living in the town. Remind students about reduce, reuse, recycle. Ask them to come up with other re-words about actions they could take (e.g. refuse, redesign, repair). Are they adaptation or mitigation actions? Or both? Reinforce the idea that the first steps start with each individual. What could students do to reduce, reuse or recycle? This can lead to taking action for climate change – individual and/or group. The reduction, reusing and recycling of what would otherwise be thrown away as waste is a mitigation action because it reduces emissions of carbon dioxide (CO$_2$), nitrous oxide (N$_2$O) and methane (CH$_4$). Composting organic waste improves the retention of carbon in the soil profile. If we protect our environment from pollution and waste, this is an adaptation. We reduce the stress on ecosystems and increase their resilience to climate change. We can reduce our carbon dioxide emissions by using less fossil fuel through such measures as walking or riding instead of travelling by car, and saving electricity by using energy efficient appliances and lights, closing windows and doors of rooms being air-conditioned, and turning out the lights when no longer needed. **Adaptation:** Making changes in order to reduce the vulnerability of a community, society or system to the negative effects of climate change, or make the most of potential positive effects. It includes building skills and knowledge, as well as making practical changes, such as strengthening coastal infrastructure, adjusting farming systems, and improving water management (Adapted from SPREP 2012). **Mitigation of emissions:** Efforts to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, either by limiting the sources or by enhancing the sinks. Examples include using fossil fuels more efficiently, switching to renewable energy sources such as solar energy and hydro-power, and expanding forests and other sinks to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (Adapted from SPREP 2012). **Teaching and learning strategies – 11** **11.1 – Planning an action** Students can usually come up with ideas but working out how to put them into practice is harder. In groups, students list some actions the whole class could take. These could be **mitigation activities** (turning off lights, walking instead of going by car, planting trees), **adaptation actions** (planting a garden, using cloth shopping bags instead of plastic) or **risk reduction actions** (planting mangroves, develop an emergency plan for the school). Then they need to consider how they can prioritise their ideas to come up with one action that is possible and will have an effect. - Whose permission would they need? - Who should be involved? - What resources are needed (funds, materials, labour, equipment)? - Who could help them with funds, materials and equipment? - What skills would they need? - Is there anyone in their community who could help? - Who would benefit? (Try to get your students to consider all groups in society, e.g. the elderly, men and women, persons with disabilities.) - Are there any risks involved in taking this action? Would it be safe in cyclone or drought conditions? - Is there any potential harm to someone or something when the idea is put into practice? (This can help in prioritising ideas and ensuring no harm is done unintentionally.) - How long would it take? - What else do they need to research about their action? Give students time to research answers in their groups, before making a decision on a class action. It can be helpful to allocate values to the actions: 1 = very difficult (expensive, needs lots of skills, there’s no help, etc.) 2 = moderate 3 = easy/best (cheap, low skills, etc.) If each group does this for each proposed action, they can use the scores to decide which action to carry out. Different roles can then be allocated to each group or to students with specific skills. (e.g. research, fund-raising, writing letters, planning, and measuring out land). These will depend on the action, such as planting a vegetable garden, putting in a water tank, putting on a play for the community, etc. Picture 12 may give some useful suggestions. Action planning template: Example 1 What we want to do... How can we let people know about this? Why did we choose this action? What information, resources & skills do we need? Where can we find information? Where will our project be? Who can help us with information resources and skills? Who can influence the decision? Who do we have to ask permission from? When can we meet with the principal to discuss our ideas? When is the best time to do this project? Who makes the final decision? How can we get funding for this? How can we find out what others think about this? (Adapted from TKI) Action planning template: Example 2 What’s the issue? (the effects of climate change) What do we want to achieve? (something to bring about adaptation, mitigation or risk reduction) ACTION What are we going to do? Plan: What? When? Where? Who? What skills and resources will we need? What information do we need and where will we find it? How can we make people aware of the benefits of our action? How will we get support for our action? Evaluation How successful was our action? How will we find out what people think and feel about the issue and action? Picture 12 – Gardening and livestock This picture has people carrying out gardening and livestock care practices – planting a wide range of crop varieties that are tolerant to drought, salt, heat or heavy rain, using sustainable practices such as conserving water, composting, using traditional tools and methods, and providing protection for their crops and animals against drought and cyclone or severe storm. | Possible student learning outcomes | Teaching and learning activities | |-----------------------------------|---------------------------------| | Students will be able to…. | | | • identify a range of sustainable agricultural and horticultural practices; | Discussion and picture interpretation | | • explain one sustainable practice in detail. | Home and expert | | | School gardening | Discussion You can ask the students to look closely at Picture 12 and answer the following questions. • What crops, fruits and livestock do they recognise? • What practices can students identify that they know and that they don’t know? • Are the practices different from what they know? • Why might it be better to grow different species of banana or taro, for example? (Some species are more salt tolerant; others need less water. Some can withstand wide ranges of temperature and will withstand the extremely hot days. Some are more flexible and will bounce back after cyclone winds.) This picture could be used with Pictures 13, 14 and 15 as the stimulus for a ‘Home and expert’ activity so students can research the changes. Discuss how these activities can be actions for both adaptation and mitigation. Gardening and livestock in the Pacific Island region Many families depend on growing roots crops in their gardens and smallholdings – the roots and leaves provide valuable energy, nutrients, fibre, calcium, iron, Vitamins A, C and B1. - Taro (*Colocasia esculenta*) – known as *dalo* in Fijian, *te taororo* in Kiribati, *talo* in Samoa and Tonga and *aelan taro* in Vanuatu - Giant swamp taro (*Cyrtosperma charmissionis*) – known as *via kan* in Fiji, *te babai* in Kiribati, *pulu’a* in Samoa and *navia* in Vanuatu - Giant taro (*Alocasia macrorrhiza*) – known as *via* in Fiji, *te kabe* in Kiribati, *ta’aru* in Samoa, *kape* in Tonga and *pia* in Vanuatu - Tannia (*Canthosoma sagittifolium*) – known as *te tannia* in Kiribati, *talo palagi* in Samoa, *dryland taro* or *talo futuna* in Tonga and *taro Fiji* in Samoa - Cassava (*Manihot esculenta*) – known as *tapioca* or *tavioka* in Fiji, *manioka* in Samoa and *manioc* in Vanuatu - Sweet potato (*Ipomoea batatas*) – known as *kumala* in Fiji and Tonga, *umala* in Samoa and *kumwara* in Kiribati - Yam (Dioscorea family) – known as *uvi* in Fiji and *ufi* in Samoa. In many countries, taro is one of the most common and popular root crops and a mainstay of Pacific Island cultures. It is considered a prestige crop and is used for traditional feasts, gifts and for fulfilling social obligations. Other important ground crops include sugar cane, hibiscus spinach, pumpkin, pineapple, maize, chilli peppers, cabbages and beans. For traditional practices kava (*Piper methysticum*) and tobacco are grown. To weave traditional mats, produce tapas, jewellery and other handicrafts, paper mulberry (*Broussonetia papyrifera*), coconut and various Pandanus cultivars are very important species. Livestock production is important for protein and income. Throughout the Pacific region, chickens and pigs are raised for small-scale consumption. In larger countries like Fiji, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu, pigs and poultry, as well as cattle, sheep and goats, are produced commercially. The quality of pasture is usually poor as it is unimproved and poorly managed. Agriculture, harvesting wild growing fruits, nuts and crops, and livestock are crucial for subsistence and commercial use – agriculture is also the backbone of many economies (e.g. copra and sugar production). (FAO 2010) How climate change affects gardening and livestock - Increases in the intensity and frequency of droughts and floods are posing a risk to livestock and crops. - Productivity declines due to heat stress, drought conditions, water-logging, increased flooding and/or soil erosion and accelerated nutrient loss. - Higher temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns and wind direction can lead to outbreaks of pests and diseases (even those that were not known previously). - Sea-level rise, combined with drought and potential overuse of fresh water, results in saltwater intrusion. The water gets brackish and eventually freshwater lenses are contaminated. If no proper sanitation and sewage systems are in place, this risk is even higher. This can result in a lack of fresh water for plants and animals and a decrease in yields and productivity. - Increased temperatures and extreme rainfall patterns alter the soil structure, easily triggering erosion and accelerating the loss of nutrients – the productivity of soil decreases. Some emission mitigation and adaptation actions that are being developed in Pacific countries and that everybody can contribute to: - planting a range of different types of vegetables and food crops in your garden. If one crop or vegetable is destroyed, there are others to be eaten (adaptation); - planting a variety of crops, including selected types of yam, taro, kumala and cabbage that can withstand very hot days, long periods of drought, salt-water and excessive rainfall that leads to flooding (adaptation); - choosing varieties of yam, banana and kumala that can propagate quickly because they generate many shoots from the mother plant (adaptation); - planting trees and shrubs along contour lines for better erosion control on slopes (adaptation and mitigation); - making compost from leaves and vegetable and fruit remains, as this reduces emissions (mitigation) and makes the soil more fertile (adaptation); - drying fruits and vegetables such as manioc, bananas and kumala using solar power. Such sun-dried produce can be sold to generate income (adaptation and mitigation); - adjusting current methods and times of planting and growing water melon, cucumber, tomato and other species to a more variable, hotter climate (adaptation); - making compost from crown of thorns starfish (threatens reefs), using this compost both as a fertiliser and in composting toilets (adaptation example from Vanuatu); - protecting your livestock animals from heavy rainfall, flooding, storm, direct sun radiation and drought by providing them with shelter (in case of storm), shade (roof or trees) and fresh drinking water (adaptation); - cross-breeding local pigs with foreign pigs to produce varieties that can withstand warmer, drier conditions and at the same time produce more meat (adaptation); - improving the husbandry of honey bees so that they can flourish in warmer, more extreme conditions (adaptation example from Vanuatu); - not using too much fertiliser and, if needed, opting for organic fertilisers (mitigation); - using solar water heating, solar food driers and solar panels (PV) for lighting; - using biogas instead of wood as fuel, or closed fire ovens instead of an open fire in villages (mitigation). (FAO 2010; SPC/GIZ 2012; SPC/GIZ; Sansom 2012; VMGD 2013) 12.1. Home and expert This strategy could be used with the individual pictures or with Pictures 12, 13, 14 and 15. 1. Number the students in the class 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3 etc. until everybody has a number. Ask them to form themselves into home groups, each group containing one 1, one 2, one 3 and one 4. 2. Ask all the 1s to go to one corner at the back of the room, the 2s to the opposite corner, the 3s to a corner at the front and the 4s to the opposite corner. 3. Give the 1s picture 12 and the 2s Picture 13. Give them Picture 1 as well, so they can compare how it is different from their Picture 12 or 13. 4. Give the 3s Picture 14 and the 4s Picture 15. 5. Each group is to research the practices they can identify, discussing whether they are good or bad practices and why. Set them a reasonable time limit to have one A4 page of notes about their picture. 6. Each member of the group then has to become an ‘expert’ on the practices in their picture, so they will need to teach each other. 7. Students then go back to their home groups and teach each other about what is happening in their picture. They have become ‘expert’ about the recommended practices in one area and know some facts about recommended good practices in the other three pictures. (Adapted from SEREAD) 12.2. School gardening Students can identify and plant crops and fruits on the school grounds, so they can harvest and eat them within a year. 1. Guide the students to an area in the school ground where they can create a garden. 2. Students can interview elders about what crops and fruits grow well. They can also approach an agriculture extension officer or the closest agriculture department for recommendations and sources of seeds. 3. Take a guided tour of a successful local garden to show practical ways of planting. 4. Students can be asked to list the crop and fruit species and collect additional information on a table like the one below. | Name of crop or fruit (local, English or French) | When is a good time for planting? | When is the fruiting and harvesting season? | Where can we get seedlings? | Were changes in fruiting and harvesting seasons observed? | |-------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------|---------------------------------------------|-----------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------| | Taro | | | | | | Coconut | | | | | | Etc. | | | | | 5. Seedlings can be donated, or purchased, or collected by students at home. 6. Students plant crops and fruits with advice on the best place, planting season and technique. 7. Plants need to be looked after and watered regularly. Students can organise themselves in shifts (three or four each day) or they can adopt certain plants or garden plots. 8. Students can harvest crops and plants and prepare their own food. This picture shows practices in forestry and agro-forestry that absorb carbon from the atmosphere (mitigate emissions), conserve resources, prevent erosion and make the forests, crop production and animal husbandry more sustainable (adaptation to climate change). | Possible student learning outcomes | Teaching and learning activities | |------------------------------------|----------------------------------| | Students will be able to…. | | | • identify a range of sustainable forestry practices; | Discussion and picture interpretation with guiding questions | | • explain one sustainable practice in detail. | | **Discussion** You can ask the students to look closely at Picture 13 and answer these questions: - Which trees, fruits, crops and livestock can you identify? - What practices can you identify that you know and that you don’t know? - Are any of the practices done in your community? - Why might it be better to plant crops underneath trees? (Trees provide shade and reduce evaporation, thereby keeping more water in the soil. Roots can also help in retaining water. They protect the soil from erosion during heavy rain, so nutrients are kept in the soil.) - How does planting trees help in reducing emissions? (Trees need carbon dioxide to grow/for photosynthesis and are an important carbon sink.) - What other benefits can you identify from planting trees? (They provide shade for livestock and help to minimise erosion on slopes and on coasts. They provide firewood, fruits and logs for building houses and furniture, etc. They are important for our islands’ biodiversity, our birds, insects and plants.) This picture could be used with Pictures 12, 14 and 15 as the stimulus for a Home and expert activity so students can research the differences. Discuss how these activities can be actions for both adaptation and mitigation. **Forests and biodiversity** Apart from releasing more carbon dioxide into our atmosphere and enhancing the greenhouse effect, the cutting down and burning of forests and trees also affects our environment. - Trees and forests provide an important habitat for various plant and animal species. Cutting down forests reduces this variety and number and contributes to a loss of biodiversity. - Forests play a vital role in water catchments, as they help keep fresh water in the soil, they reduce evaporation and they prevent soil erosion. **How forests help reduce greenhouse gases in our atmosphere** Plants, particularly trees, need carbon to grow. When we plant new trees (through afforestation and/or reforestation) we remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (carbon sequestration), because forests take in a lot of carbon to build new cells. When we cut down trees and leave them to decay, they emit gases, including two greenhouse gases —carbon dioxide and methane. The accumulation of these two gases in the atmosphere contributes to the greenhouse effect and thus to global warming. When we conserve forests, reduce deforestation and forest degradation, and manage our forests in a more sustainable way, we reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases. Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation In forest-rich Pacific Island countries such as Fiji and Vanuatu, new forest and mitigation projects have begun, such as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) and Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) projects. Their basic idea is to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and increase the sequestration of carbon. The main activities that are promoted are to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conserve forests, manage forests sustainably and enhance the carbon stock. Table 13.1: Typically utilised species in agroforestry systems | Agroforestry crops | Fruit tree species | Tree crops and other trees | |--------------------|--------------------|----------------------------| | Taro | Banana | Breadfruit trees | | Giant taro | Citrus trees | Coconut palms | | Xanthosoma taro | Pawpaw | Sago palms | | Cassava | Mangoes | Nut trees | | Sweet potato | Avocado | Betelnut (Areca) | | Pineapple | Papaya | other palms | | Sugarcane | Soursop | | | Hibiscus spinach | Sweetsop | | | Pumpkin | | | FAO 2010 Forests and food production Many Pacific communities harvest and plant tree species, both for subsistence and commercial use. ‘In the Pacific region, farmers who practise agroforestry grow crops … with fruit trees … and tree crops. This provides them with different kinds of food throughout the year. Planting crops and trees together keeps the soil healthy and prevents it from being washed away into the sea or rivers, where it muddies the water and destroys the homes of the fish and other creatures that live there. ‘An agroforestry farm has fewer pests and diseases than a farm with only one crop. If only one crop is planted, the insects feeding on this crop spread very fast. But if there are many different crops and trees planted together, it is more difficult for the pests to find the crop they want to feed off. Farmers can also get firewood and other wood products from an agroforestry farm so they do not need to cut down the forests unnecessarily’ (Sansom 2012:20). Also, pigs and chickens or other livestock can be kept underneath trees to protect them from sun radiation, heavy rain or other severe conditions (typically under coconut plantations). How climate change affects forests - Higher temperatures will make forests more vulnerable to fires. - Changes in water levels in the soil, temperature and CO\textsubscript{2} concentrations can affect photosynthetic efficiency and tree growth. - Higher temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns may lead to increased occurrence of invasive species and pests. - Forest health could be damaged by salt water intrusion, coastal and river bank erosion and exposure to salt water sprays and heat stress on soils. - Floods, droughts and cyclones may physically damage forest plantations, natural forest and associated infrastructure. - Loss of arable land due to climate change places added deforestation pressure on forest areas. Pacific Island countries promote agroforestry, afforestation and erosion control to help our forests adapt to the effects of climate change and to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. On slopes, the roots of plants help to prevent possible landslides as a result of heavy rain and cyclones (that are related to climate), and also due to earthquakes or volcanic eruptions (that are related to tectonic processes inside the earth). Some emission mitigation and adaptation actions that are being developed by Pacific countries and that everybody can contribute to: - preventing the conversion of forestland to other land use types (like completely clearing a forest for agriculture); - reducing the degradation and destructive utilisation of our forests, (e.g. practising fewer destructive logging practices); - conserving old and high value forests; - practising agroforestry by growing crops and vegetables with different kinds of trees; - planting strong-smelling vegetables such as onion, garlic and coriander, and strong-smelling flowers and plants such as marigold, basil, lemon grass and island musk (\textit{uhi} in Tongan, \textit{uci} in Fijian and \textit{usi} in Samoan) to help protect your trees and crops against pests and harmful insects; - Practising alley cropping – alternating belts of forest and fruit tree species and root crops; - planting and replanting trees; - when planting on slopes, removing as little vegetation as possible; - eliminating invasive weeds to reduce forest degradation; - planting selected tree, shrub and grass species on slopes and coasts, (e.g. mangroves in suitable areas); - promoting more forest nurseries in rural areas; - not burning wood, roots and leaves, using leaves for composting purposes instead. Additional benefits such as better soil outweigh the increase in carbon dioxide originating from decomposition; - promoting sustainable agriculture and forestry practices and sustainable land management technologies to ease the pressure off forest areas. (GoF2012;FAO2010;SPC/GIZ2012;Sansom2012;GoT2010.) Teaching and learning activities – 13 13.1 Home and expert Students form groups and do the same exercise as for Picture 12. 13.2. Identify and plant trees, shrubs and/or grass Students can identify and plant trees, shrubs or grass species as a practical outdoor exercise (either as part of the classroom syllabus or as an extra-curricular activity). 1. Ask the students to identify an area in which the class or school wants to plant trees, shrubs, grasses and perhaps crops. This could be the school compound, a hill slope or a coastal area. 2. Ensure that the community gives permission for the planting project. 3. Students can interview elders about what plant species grow well in the selected area. They should also approach a forestry extension officer or the closest forestry department for recommendations. Look for a local expert who is keen to provide a guided tour to learn more about local trees and forests. 4. Students can be asked to list the species and collect additional information in a table like the one below/ | Name of tree/shrub/grass species (local, English or French) | Where does it grow best? (e.g. hill slope, plains, lagoon side /ocean side, forest) | What part of the tree/shrub/grass can be used and for what purpose? | Planting time | Fruiting and harvesting time, where applicable | |-------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------|-----------------------------------------------| | Breadfruit | Can grow well in our village and gardens | Breadfruit for eating Wood for construction of houses | | | | Coconut | Lagoon side and ocean side | Coconut for eating its flesh and coconut milk Coconut shells for jewellery and kava bowls Leaves for mat weaving Wood for construction of houses Bark for…. Etc. | | | 5. Seedlings can be donated or purchased, or students can collect them. (On Tarawa, for example, the seedlings for mangrove planting were collected by students themselves in a dense mangrove area. In Tonga, the Department of Forestry advised what species to plant and climate change programmes donated seedlings.) 6. Students plant seedlings. Perhaps the forest officer or local expert can volunteer to advise them on the best place, planting season and technique. 7. Check on the well-being of the newly planted trees on a regular basis, water them and protect them from damage. It is a good idea to ask students to adopt one of the trees (in pairs). Picture 14 – Fishing The upper right-hand corner of this picture shows traditional and modern practices of fishing that are sustainable and protect marine and fresh water ecosystems, (e.g. the hand collection of seafood during low tide, cast nets that are used commonly for bait fish, spearfishing). The lower left-hand corner shows unsustainable practices, such as dynamite fishing, the use of large nets inside the reef, and dumping rubbish and sewage into the reef area. Students living in coastal villages may have many questions about these things. Examples of aquaculture on land are also shown. | Possible student learning outcomes | Teaching and learning activities | |-----------------------------------|---------------------------------| | Students will be able to… | | | • identify a range of sustainable fishing practices; | Questions about fishing and seafood with picture interpretation | | • explain one sustainable fishing practice in detail; | Home and expert | | • explain how climate change can affect reefs; | Who am I? | | • explain why one fishing practice is unsustainable. | One fish, two fish, red fish, few fish | | | Discover marine species | | | Protected area activities | Discussion Marine ecosystems and fishing • How often do you eat seafood? • What type of seafood do you eat? • Where does the seafood come from? • What type of fishing techniques do you see in Picture 14? • Do you go fishing yourself? With whom? (mother, father, friends) Where? (ocean, lagoon, reef, river, estuary…) • How do you fish and what do you catch? Ocean acidification and coral bleaching Look at the background information for Picture 7. If you use Pictures 14 and 7 together, you can discuss the impacts of climate change on fisheries. • Why are coral reefs important? • How do you feel about the threat to coral reefs? • What would change in your community if you didn’t have coral reefs? • What changes could your community make so that it could survive without coral reefs? (Findlay and Hinge 2010). • What could your community do to keep the coral reef healthy? What is seafood? Sea food is food we eat that comes from the sea. There are, of course, also creatures in the sea that we would rather not eat. Scientists summarise them all together as ‘marine life’, shown in Table 14.1 and Figure 14.1. Traditionally, seafood has been the most important source of protein for people living on Pacific islands. There are many different traditional fishing techniques, and men and women, as well as youth, are involved in fishing. Seafood is one of the most important natural resources for commercial exploitation in Pacific Island countries, especially tuna fish, which is in great demand from foreign fishing fleets from the USA, Japan, the People’s Republic of China, Korea and Spain. The governments of Pacific Island countries sell fishing licences that allow foreign fleets to fish in their exclusive economic zones (EEZs). Commercial fishing is done with vessels that catch the fish on long lines with many hooks or with enormously big nets (purse-seine vessels). The fossil fuel used by vessels and motor boats contributes to the emission of carbon dioxide; 2.3% of global emissions come from railways and shipping. Mangroves and coral reefs Mangrove forests are of great importance as fishing grounds for coastal communities, and coral, shells and pearls are used for jewellery. Tourists from all over the world are attracted to the beauty of coral reefs. At the same time, coral reefs and mangroves are of great importance for biodiversity because their diversity and density of species is very high. Both types of ecosystems are sensitive and it is important to protect them from pollution, damage and over-exploitation. Volcanic islands, such as Fiji, Samoa, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, have rivers and creeks in which men, women and children go fishing for freshwater fish, mussels and snails. Fish farming Recently, fish ponds have been built along fresh water streams on volcanic islands and in sandy areas on atoll islands. New species have been introduced; tilapia in many Pacific countries and trout in the highlands of Papua New Guinea are two examples. It is still under discussion whether the introduction of new fish species into fresh water streams is beneficial enough to outweigh the ecological costs. In Kiribati, for example, tilapia is not recommended but milkfish is. However, there is no doubt that fish raised and harvested from ponds is beneficial for generating income and food. (Adapted from King 2004) Figure 14.1: A profile of the coast of a high island showing the ocean, barrier coral reef, lagoon and either a mangrove forest (above) or a sandy beach (below) (King 2004) Table 14.1: Forms of marine life | Forms of marine life (phylum) | Families | |-------------------------------|----------| | crustaceans | shrimps, prawns, lobsters, crabs | | molluscs | clams, oysters, mussels, sea snails, octopuses, sea worms | | echinoderms | sea urchins, sea cucumbers, sea stars | | fish | inshore fishes (e.g. milkfish and rabbitfish), coral reef fishes (e.g. groupers or parrotfish) and offshore fish (e.g. tuna, mahi-mahi and trevally) | | other marine vertebrates | snakes, turtles, dugongs, whales, sharks | | plants | mangroves, sea lettuce | | algae | seaweeds | | birds | e.g. tern, noddy, frigate bird | **Marine habitats** Different species usually have a preferred marine environment in which they live. In the Pacific islands, these environments are typically: mangrove forest, sandy beach, lagoon, barrier coral reef, sea grass, tidal flats and the open ocean (see Figure 14.1). Mangroves and sea grasses are of special interest to coastal fisheries worldwide because of the role they play in providing nursery areas for commonly harvested fish and invertebrates, as well as providing feeding habitats for many species of adult demersal fish, some of which reside on reefs during the day and forage over sea grasses and intertidal flats at night. Sea grasses and intertidal flats are also permanent habitats for several species of sea cucumbers, the main group of invertebrates eaten and targeted as an export commodity in the region, and for a wide range of molluscs collected for subsistence. Increases in the turbidity [muddiness] of coastal waters and higher rates of sedimentation, resulting from poor land management in the catchments of high islands, are reducing the area and health of sea grass habitats. Further losses are expected to occur as a result of greater heat stress, increased sedimentation and turbidity due to higher rates of run-off, changes in suitable sites for growth of mangroves and sea grasses due to rising sea levels, and possibly more physical damage from the combination of sea-level rise and more severe cyclones and storms. (King 2004) The effects of climate change Climate change will have effects on coastal, ocean and freshwater fishing in many ways. The most important are listed below. - Higher ocean temperatures will lead to more frequent coral bleaching. - Increasing the acidity of ocean water will cause coral reefs, crustaceans and molluscs to have weaker or damaged skeletons and shells. - More severe storms and cyclones will cause physical damage to coral reefs. - Higher sea-surface temperatures will increase the risk of fish and invertebrates being exposed to diseases. - Changes to coral reefs (more dead coral and seaweed) will increase the incidence of ciguatera fish poisoning. - Alterations in ocean temperatures, currents and food chains are projected to affect the location and abundance of tuna species that will be increasingly required to support food security and livelihoods of coastal communities. (In Kiribati it is expected that there will be more skipjack tuna!) - Higher water temperatures and ocean acidification are expected to reduce the efficiency of most coastal aquaculture operations. - Increased rainfall will increase river flows and the extent of floodplain fish habitats, improving conditions for the life cycle of many freshwater fish species and increasing freshwater fish productivity in catchments where vegetation is well managed. When coastal ecosystems degrade, the productivity of coastal subsistence and commercial fisheries declines. In countries with limited areas of reef per person and high rates of population growth, coastal fisheries based on coral reefs will not be able to supply the fish required for good nutrition, especially in Pacific Island countries. (Bell, Johnson and Hobday 2011; SPC 2011; SPC/GIZ 2012; VMGD 2013) Some adaptation and mitigation practices that are being developed in Pacific countries - improving access to other sources of fish to reduce the pressure on coral reefs or to provide a substitute for coastal fish if a reef has bleached (adaptation). This includes: - catching oceanic fish such as tuna around near-shore fish aggregating devices (FADs); - harvesting small pelagic fish; - growing tilapia (or freshwater prawns) in pools fed by river water (not recommended in Kiribati); - farming milkfish caught from the wild as juveniles; - replanting mangroves or other coastal vegetation in suitable areas (mitigation and adaptation; see also Picture 13 Forestry); - stop cutting off shark fins and release sharks if caught (adaptation); - building open causeways between islands to allow water exchange, and modify existing causeways to bring back lost marine and terrestrial resources (adaptation); - preventing sediment entering rivers and oceans from coastal or hill erosion (caused, for example, by deforestation and poor land management practices) (adaptation); - not destroying coral reefs; not using dynamite for fishing, not using coral for building and construction (adaptation); - not dumping waste and sewage into rivers and the ocean (adaptation). - establishing areas (or imposing taboos) to protect marine ecosystems (adaptation); - managing fish resources in a sustainable way (adaptation); - using canoes instead of motor boats or, when using outboard motors, use small economical ones (mitigation). 14.1 Home and expert Students form groups and identify what adaptations and mitigations they see in the picture to stimulate discussion. They could do the same exercise as for Picture 12. 14.2 Who am I? This activity is designed to get students to ask accurate, focused questions. Put a card on the back of each student, with a word or a picture on it. You can use the list below to make the cards. Be careful not to let the student see the card. The cards can be pinned with safety pins or put on a string long enough to go around the student’s neck so the card hangs down the back. Students have to find out who they are by asking questions of other students – but there are rules. 1. They may ask only one question at a time from a student. They then move on to the next student to ask their next question. 2. Students can answer ONLY Yes or No, so all questions must be able to be answered by Yes or No. This is called the Suchman technique. It forces students to think carefully about their questions and remember the answers they are given. Discussions with students before the activity could focus on the types of questions to ask. For example, they can ask: Am I an animal? (Not: Am I a plant or an animal? as this cannot be answered by Yes or No. You can suggest that students respond to a wrongly worded question by saying ‘Invalid question’) It also requires concentration on the part of the listener – not to blurt out the answer to a wrongly worded question. Here is a list of examples. If you are near a beach, you can do the activity before or after a visit to the beach. The list can be adapted to suit your class. | coral | turtle | sand | sea-grass | tuna | boat | |-------|--------|------|-----------|------|------| | rock | lobster| outrigger canoe | fishing trawler | waves | rubbish | | coconuts | shark | mangrove | crab | clam | sea star | | whale | rabbitfish | salt water | frigate bird | fish trap | hand line | | tern | snail | dugong | mussel | trevally | mahimahi | You can opt for more generic family names such as ‘shark’ or more specific species such as ‘white tip reef shark’ or ‘white shark’. Detailed information on species can be found at http://www.spc.int/coastfish/en/publications/technical-manuals.html. SPC has provided manuals and identification cards for deep bottom, coastal and reef fish that can be downloaded for free. (Adapted from SEREAD) 14.3 ONE FISH, TWO FISH, RED FISH, FEW FISH* *with acknowledgements to Dr Seuss. Objective This experiential activity is designed to show students the effect humans can have on marine ecosystems. This is how we suggest you organise the activity. - Explain clearly how they will play the game (see below). - Facilitate the first run through of the game. - Support students to reflect on the experience. - Give students the opportunity to add to the game with new ideas and then trial them. - You could use the experience to explain: - the difference between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors; - the influence of biotic and abiotic factors on a community; - the connections between living things within a community, particularly with respect to feeding relationships, energy flows and nutrient cycles. Students will: - listen to the instructions; - participate in the experience; - reflect on what happens and describe what that means; - suggest new ideas to play the game to create more sustainable fisheries; - play new versions of the game and compare the changes; - reflect on the experience. Aim of the game – To reach a level of sustainable fisheries. Resources: netball court/playing field, four+ area-markers (cones) or a long rope, ten+ ice-cream container lids or pieces of card, two+ sponge balls, a picture of a longliner fishing boat, a turtle, hula hoops or loops of rope (for simulated marine reserves), arm bands, pegs. What to do: - Explain to the students that longliners sometimes catch more fish than they are licensed to catch. For this reason, Pacific governments employ observers to travel on the boats and monitor their fishing activities. - Define the playing area: e.g half a netball court for 20 pupils initially. Explain that the marked playing area represents the marine habitat. - All except two students are fish, but these fish can walk (and ONLY walk! No running is allowed). If a fish leaves the playing area then they become longliners. - Pick two volunteers as longliners. They wait outside the playing area ('in port') until the game starts. Then they chase fish and 'tag' them. The tagged fish then become longliners and must hold hands/link arms with the longliner that tagged them to form a chain, and together pursue the other fish. 1. Start the game and play until there are no fish left. Usually, this takes only two or three minutes. 2. Stop the game and gather in the students, still in their chains. Say, with a suitably horrified tone: Look what you have done! You have just made all fish life extinct! How are you going to feed your families or provide for your village? This is not sustainable! How can we change the rules of this game so that we are more sustainable? Students come up with suggestions (see next page) and rules, and for each new rule, you play the game again. Introduce only one new rule per round or it becomes too confusing. At the end of each round, ask for a show of hands to see how many fish and how many longliners there are. Keep a record of this. Also, time each round to show how long it takes to catch the fish using different sustainable strategies. Here are some suggestions the students might come up with. a) **Make marine reserves or conservation areas.** Discuss with students how you could represent marine reserves with the items you can find, (e.g. hoops, pieces of string, sticks. What rule can we make? Rule: Fish are allowed in the marine reserve for 20 seconds only). b) **Use the appropriate mesh size for nets or for fish hooks, so that small fish or breeding fish are not caught.** Select some students to be small fish and identify them with arm bands or pegs. Rule: these fish cannot be tagged. c) **Use a quota system.** What rule can we create? Rule: After the quota has been tagged, no more fish can be tagged. For example, once a longliner has tagged three fish it must retire to a port, (i.e. outside the game area). d) **Put observers on longliners.** One or two students act as Ministry of Fishery (MoF) observers. When they see the longliner catching too many fish, they make a report. This is acted out here by throwing a sponge ball or soft toy at the longliner. Rule: If hit, the longliner breaks from the chain and becomes a fish again. (The remaining longliners in that chain must join hands again). The MoF observer then retrieves the ball and does one complete lap of the playing area before being allowed to make another report. The game continues for four or five minutes or until all the fish have become longliners. e) **Turtle impact.** Discuss how nets also trap turtles, and longlining hooks catch birds, so fishing at night, not throwing fish offal overboard, redesigning hooks or adding sinkers keep mortality down. Make up rules for sustainable fishing practices. **Reflection** - What happened to the longliner numbers during the game? What happened to the fish numbers? ('Hands up all the longliners, hands up all the fish.') - Why did this occur? (Longliners keep increasing/fish decreasing.) - How did the MoF observer feel? Why did the MoF observer have to do a lap before shooting? (Track down prey again.) The students, with your help, can come up with some variations (e.g. longliner numbers, MoF observer numbers, fish numbers, area size, different MoF observer techniques) to control exploitation, and then play the game again. Some variations are shown below. **Variations** Run a trial using a larger area: - What happened to the longliner numbers? - How hard was it for longliners to catch fish? Why harder? (Resource distribution.) - How was it different for the MoF observer? Why was this? **Introduce more MoF observers:** - What happened to the longliner numbers? - How hard was it for the MoF observers this time? - What did the MoF observers have to do to 'control' longliners effectively? (Cooperative strategies for MoF observers.) - What other techniques do we use to control exploitation? Discussion Here are some questions to stimulate discussion. - How did the fish avoid being caught? - What strategies did the longliners develop to catch fish? - What strategies does the MoF observer develop to monitor and control the longliners’ fishing activities? - Are there any other resources in your country that are threatened by unsustainable practices (e.g. coral reefs, turtles, land, water…)? - Are there any ways that you and I are contributing to this problem (e.g. buying unsustainably fished species, polluting the water, polluting the land)? - Is there anything that we can do to reduce this problem (e.g. assist in replanting areas in mangroves and natives trees, minimise our resource use in general to lessen habitat destruction, buy local produce)? - What is ecology? (The study of living things and their environment) (adapted from SEREAD) 14.4 Discover marine species Students go on a small excursion to a fishing place (mangroves, coral reef, river or fish pond) they have identified and discover the marine environment. Provide them with a table and ask them to find and identify at least five marine or river plant and animal species. You could ask your students to design a poster showing one or several species in their natural habitat, with notes of their observations. | Local name of plant or animal | Scientific name of plant or animal | Found in which ecosystem (reef, mangrove, sea grass bed, river, estuary, or artificial pond)? | Is it originally from your home country or has it been introduced? | |-------------------------------|----------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 14.5 Protected area activities Protecting marine areas is one of the most significant adaptations a country can make to protect breeding stocks and habitats. Each country has its own protocols and processes to set up these protected areas. Possible activities for your students include: - visit a protected area and a non-protected area to observe any differences; - discuss changes in fish supply with local fishermen several years after an area has been declared a protected area; - research national and/or local protected areas or protected species. Picture 15 – The town This picture shows two very different scenes in terms of modes of transport, the generation of electricity, waste generation, the products for sale, etc. Students can compare these, noticing such things as solar panels, the number of cars, people walking and cycling, and the amount of rubbish, particularly plastic. It may take some directing for students to notice the transport differences. The top half also shows the development of local markets, stocking produce not wrapped in plastic and shoppers with handmade bags walking to the shops. | Possible student learning outcomes | Teaching and learning activities | |-----------------------------------|---------------------------------| | Students will be able to…. | | | • identify a range of sustainable practices in an urban environment; | Picture interpretation and discussion | | • explain one sustainable practice in detail; | Media search | | • explain one unsustainable practice. | Waste time line | Discussion Ask the students to look at Picture 15 and identify different adaptation and mitigation actions. Perhaps they can identify good and bad practices from their country’s towns. Towns A town/urban centre is a human settlement, larger than a village, with the higher population living closer together. It is likely to have schools, a hospital, a harbour and roads. Most government institutions, as well as private sector services, are located in a town. All over the world and in the Pacific region, urban centres are growing, due to population growth and the fact that people from remote outer islands and rural areas migrate to towns for jobs and education. This causes problems with informal settlements developing, some in vulnerable areas, such as places too close to the sea or river. The biggest town in the South Pacific is Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea (2000 census: population 254,158), followed by Suva in Fiji (88,271 in 2009). Other urban areas/towns are Port Vila in Vanuatu, Nuku’alofa in Tonga, Betio in Kiribati and Apia in Samoa. In most towns, traditional culture is combined with modern culture. Towns are usually the place where most greenhouse gas emissions from energy use are created – from the burning of fossil fuel in cars, buses, planes and motor boats. Most Pacific Island countries get their electricity from burning diesel, which is imported at high cost. The consumption of electricity is highest in towns. Shops, offices, restaurants, manufacturing enterprises and factories, as well as private households, need energy for lighting, air-conditioning, production purposes, computers and radios, TVs, cooking and cleaning. The effects of climate change on towns are complex, due to the linking of many different social and economic factors. One thing leads to another, as you can see in this example. - Most towns in the Pacific are located near oceans or rivers and people have altered natural coastal features, making the towns more liable to be flooded (e.g., Nadi town in Fiji has been flooded several times recently). They are more vulnerable to high ocean waves during storm surges and cyclones. Sea-level rise and more days of extreme rain caused by climate variability or change will in future worsen the situation. - This causes damage to infrastructure (bridges, roads, houses, hospitals, schools, shops, etc.) and power cuts that can affect the whole country. - This leads to a situation where school children cannot access schools and, generally, communication and transport are affected. - During flooding events, the risk of loss of life, injury and disease, such as typhoid or other water-borne diseases, increases. - Shop owners and producers who provide commodities to the towns’ markets lose income during extreme events. - Tourists can get stuck if transport is not available. Some adaptation and emission mitigation practices that are being developed in Pacific countries - promoting low energy light bulbs in all retail stores (mitigation) - using solar energy for water heating and electricity production (mitigation) - using wind energy for the energy supply (mitigation) - designing and building of low-energy buildings (mitigation) - switching off lights, TV, etc. when not in use (mitigation) - using more decomposable bags, such as local bags made from pandanus leaves, and enacting legislation against the use of plastic bags (mitigation and adaptation) - avoiding water leakages and saving water, e.g. by turning off the tap whilst brushing teeth or taking short showers (adaptation) - harvesting rainwater from roofs and collecting it in water tanks, keeping water tanks and gutters clean (adaptation) - installing rain gauges (adaptation) - constructing higher sea-walls, roads and bridges (adaptation) - following the advice of town planners and not building in flood-prone areas (adaptation/prevention) - having evacuation plans and following instructions during cyclone or flooding events (adaptation/preparedness) - monitoring ground water (adaptation) - breeding tilapia in water tanks in backyards (adaptation example from Vanuatu) - growing fruits and crops in backyards (adaptation and mitigation) - protecting old trees and planting new ones (adaptation and mitigation) - trying to avoid uncontrolled or illegal sandmining (adaptation) - buying more local produce to reduce imports that create emissions (mitigation) - practising sports regularly and eating plenty of fruit and vegetables to be fit (adaptation) Teaching and learning activities – 15 15.1 Media search Students can do some research about sustainable practices or adaptation and mitigation activities in their local town/community. They can find information from the radio, newspapers, television and local people, and write up what they have found out. Some pointers - What is the sustainable practice? - Is it an adaptation or mitigation practice? Or both? - Who is doing it? - Who is making decisions? - Who or what benefits from this practice? - Does anyone oppose it? Why? - Where did you find this information? 15.2 Waste time line Objective: To give students a visual representation of the time it takes for various materials to break down so they understand that (a) rubbish stays in the environment for a long time and does not just go away, and (b) that people can reduce the amount of rubbish in the environment. Materials for each group - a piece of coloured string, 10 m long - a metre ruler or tape measure - some clothes pegs - a variety of waste materials - card with the real times (see next page) Here’s what you do - Organise your students into groups of three or four and give each group a length of rope and some clothes pegs. - Guide the groups to organise a time line using the rope, and ask questions to check they understand scale. They need to mark out every hundred years (1 m = 100 years) with the clothes pegs. - Give out the waste materials and encourage the students to guess how many years they take to break down and then place them in the corresponding place on the time line. - Now give each group the card showing the real times for the articles to break down so the students can compare their guesses with the right answers and move the items if necessary. - Then ask the students to remove all the articles they can reuse and/or recycle. - Ask the reflective questions (on the next page) to get students thinking about waste and what happens to it in the environment. In groups, your students will: - place a 10 m time line across the room or along one wall (or use chalk and draw a line along the concrete); - mark out every 100 years on the time line (1 m = 100 years), using the clothes pegs; - label the beginning of the line TODAY; - discuss and decide how long they think it will take the waste items to break down and place them on the time line; - compare their ideas with the times on the card and change their placement, if they all agree; - remove the articles that can be reused or recycled; - reflect on what they have learnt as they answer the reflective questions. The real times | Article | Time to break down | Article | Time to break down | |-----------------------|-----------------------------|-----------------------|--------------------------| | apple core | 2 months (in water) | orange or banana peel | up to 2 years | | aluminium cans | 200–500 years | plastic bags | 20-1000 years | | cardboard box | 2 months (in water) | plastic bottles | forever | | cigarette butts | 1–5 years | plastic-coated paper | 5 years | | disposable nappy | 450 years (in water) | plastic film containers| 20-30 years | | fishing line | 600 years (in water) | plastic | 100 years | | glass bottles | forever | styrofoam/ polystyrene| forever | | leather | up to 50 years | tin cans | 50 years | | nylon fabric | 30–40 years | clothes | 1-5 years | Reflective questions 1. How long are most people expected to live? 2. How does this age compare with the total length of the time line? 3. What skills did you use to create the time line? 4. How did you estimate the time for the waste materials to rot? 5. When you learned the correct time, what surprised you? 6. What materials were left on your line after you removed all those you can reuse and/or recycle? 7. What could you do with these materials? 8. What did you learn from this activity? 9. How could you use this knowledge? Your reflection / evaluation of the activity 1. What was the purpose of doing the activity? 2. What skills were practised and developed in the activity? 3. How could you modify this activity to use it: (a) with younger children? (b) with teachers or educators? (c) with other adults (community groups)? (TKI) Picture 16 – Pasifika with adaptations in place This picture shows Pasifika from a slightly different angle with sustainable practices in place. These practices represent those shown in detail in Pictures 12–15. | Possible student learning outcomes | Teaching and learning activities | |-----------------------------------|---------------------------------| | Students will be able to…. | | | • identify a range of sustainable practices; | Picture interpretation and discussion | | • explain one sustainable practice in detail. | RIQ Strategy | Discussion You can use this picture as the finale of the unit of work or it could be used at the beginning with Picture 1 to develop student questions about the reason for the changes. You can ask your students: • Which picture would you prefer to live in? Why? • Which part looks most like your village/town/island? • What sustainable practices can you see that are also shown in Pictures 11 to 15? • Can you practise any of them in your school or home? • Do you know of any such practices in your community? • Who makes decisions about new practices in your community? • Can you provide information on climate change and the predicted consequences for your country to the local decision-makers? • What are your next steps to support your community to put sustainable practices in place? Teaching and learning strategies – 16 16.1 An RIQ (Recalls, Insights, Questions) strategy Background Since students can effectively process one-way lecture style information for only 8-12 minutes, time should regularly be set aside for students to process and make sense of new information. The 3:2:1 RIQ strategy assists students to process new information. After reading a poem, novel or short story or after watching a video or as a review of a lesson, a practical activity or a topic, a 3:2:1 RIQ is completed individually by students. Teaching about climate change will have taken place over an extended time frame. This is a valuable tool to use at the end of a topic. Process Step 1 Ask each student to write on a piece of paper: 3 Recalls: Students write three important facts they can recall. 2 Insights: This can be such things as why the material is relevant or interesting, who it affects, the implications, how it relates to themselves/society/school, and identifying correlations, connections and patterns. 1 Question: For example - What is the reason for...? - How does this affect...? - In the future, what will ...? - What is the relevance of ...? - How does this relate to...? Step 2 Class recall (optional) Ask for some recalls, insights, questions as a class. This may be effective feedback to ensure that students have recalled the main concepts, as well as to ascertain whether some concepts require re-visiting in order to facilitate better student understanding. (Adapted from SEREAD) Definition roll up This is a useful activity for students to construct group definitions of difficult terms. 1. Draw up a set of words that are new to students or difficult to define. You can use the set below if it suits your class. a. Water cycle: evaporation, condensation, precipitation, accumulation, transpiration b. Climate zones: tropical zone, subtropical zone, temperate zone, cold zone c. Science of climate change: weather, climate, climate variability, climate change d. Greenhouse gas effect: greenhouse gas, emission, atmosphere, solar radiation, infrared radiation e. Impacts and responses to climate change: vulnerability, resilience, impact, adaptation, mitigation 2. Have one sheet of paper for each student. Write one word from your list at the top of each piece of paper. Go through the list once and then start again. 3. Seat the students in small groups of five or six, depending on the set of words and size of the class. 4. Give each student in each group a piece of paper, making sure that each student in the group has a different word. 5. The students each write a definition of their word at the bottom of the page, fold over the bottom of the page so their definition is covered, and pass it to another member of the group. This is repeated until each student in the group has defined each word. 6. When all words are defined, the students unfold the papers and in their group they decide on the best definition for each word from their group. 7. The groups then share their definitions with the class and the teacher helps in selecting the best ones. (Adapted from SEREAD) Win a small weather station for your school compound! Crossword and Jumbled Words Competition **Crossword:** Photocopy the grid on this page and the clues on the next page and ask your students to fill in all the squares (except the grey ones) by solving the clues. The black bars indicate the end or beginning of a word. **Jumbled words competition:** The details for this are on the next page. | Clues across | Clues down | |--------------|------------| | 4. A long period without rain where rain is expected | 1. Making changes in order to reduce the vulnerability of a community to the negative effects of climate change, or make the most of potential positive effects. | | 9. A mass of water droplets in the sky | 2. This insect can spread disease | | 10. Abbreviation for ante meridian | 3. The eruption of matter and gas from underground in the form of lava and ash, which make fertile soil when cool | | 12. A large mass of water | 5. Make something warm | | 14. Fresh water that has soaked through the ground and collected there | 6. Frozen water | | 15. A scientific word for rain | 7. Weather patterns over long periods, 30 years or more | | 16. The liquid form of hydrogen dioxide | 8. A house made of glass for growing plants that need warm temperatures; the term is now used to describe the effect that the gases in the upper layer of our atmosphere have on earth's temperature | | 17. A Pacific country | 9. Kirimati Island's other name | | 19. A heavenly body that radiates heat | 11. To reduce or lessen something, such as the emission of CO₂ | | 20. A domestic animal, a favourite at Pacific feasts | 13. El Niño's female counterpart, a little girl (2 words) | | 21. Where householders plants crops, trees and flowers | 18. A violent tropical storm with wind blowing spirally | | 22. The abbreviation for November | 26. A tropical tree used for food and drink, shelter, handicraft and jewellery | | 23. The current conditions of temperature, humidity and rainfall | 27. A Pacific country | | 24. A Pacific country | 31. It rises and falls according to the position of the moon | | 25. They give us shade, timber and food and protect slopes and shores from erosion | 36. Egg-shaped | | 28. The solid portion of the Earth | 38. Cash income | | 29. We can get this from the sun, from wind, from water, from fuel, from nuclear reactors and muscles | 40. A Pacific country | | 30. The abbreviation of October | 46. A rule, decree, or regulation | **Jumbled words competition** Twenty-one squares in the crossword grid have an asterisk (*). When you have completed the crossword, write down the letters in the squares with an asterisk and rearrange them to make three words. The first word has 7 letters, the second word has 6 letters and the third word has 8 letters. Clue: Perhaps you are one. • Each school can submit one entry only. • The winning schools will be determined with a simple draw from correct entries – one draw for each country listed above, conducted by two staff members of SPC/GIZ CCCPIR. This will be done once in 2014 and once in 2015. The decision of SPC/GIZ is final. • The winning schools will be notified by SPC/GIZ CCCPIR, by 30 June 2014 or 30 June 2015. • The prize will be awarded to the winning school, not to an individual. • The prize will be delivered to the address stated in the submission. • SPC/GIZ CCCPIR will be responsible for delivering the prize to the schools. • The responsibility for assembling the prize will be the sole responsibility of the winning schools and not SPC/GIZ CCCPIR. • If, for any reason, the prize cannot be delivered to your school, it will be sent to the Curriculum Development Unit of the Ministry of Education in your country. • SPC/GIZ CCCPIR is not liable for any delayed, damaged, lost or misdirected mail (both for entry submission and prize delivery). • Solutions submitted after the due date will not be considered. **Important** The school’s entry must be signed by the school Head Teacher/Principal thus: I hereby confirm that I have read and understood the terms and conditions of entry and that I agree with them. I further confirm that the Jumbled Words Competition is the work of students in this school, and was completed without assistance. Signed .................................................................................................................................. School Head Teacher/Principal Date................................................................................................................................. **Glossary** **Accretion** A process where layers of materials, such as coastal sediments, are formed as amounts are added over time. **Adaptation** Adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities (UNFCCC 2013). Simplified definition: Making changes in order to reduce the vulnerability of a community, society or system to the negative effects of climate change, or make the most of potential positive effects. It includes building skills and knowledge, as well as making practical changes, such as strengthening coastal infrastructure, adjusting farming systems, and improving water management (adapted from SPREP 2012). **Aerosols** A collection of airborne solid or liquid particles, with a typical size between 0.01 and 10 micrometer (a millionth of a meter) that reside in the atmosphere for at least several hours. Aerosols may be of either natural or anthropogenic origin. Aerosols may influence climate in several ways: directly through scattering and absorbing radiation, and indirectly through acting as cloud condensation nuclei or modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds (IPCC 2007). **Afforestation** Establishment of forest through planting and/or deliberate seeding on land that, until then, was not classified as forest (FAO 2010). **Anthropogenic** Resulting from or produced by human beings (IPCC 2007). **Aragonite** A form of calcium carbonate that makes up the shells and skeletons of key organisms in reef ecosystems, including reef-building corals (ABM & CSIRO 2011 Vol. 1: 244). **Atmosphere** The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth. The dry atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.1% volume mixing ratio) and oxygen (20.9% volume mixing ratio), together with a number of trace gases, such as argon (0.93% volume mixing ratio), helium and radiatively active greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (0.035% volume mixing ratio) and ozone. In addition, the atmosphere contains the greenhouse gas water vapour, whose amounts are highly variable but typically around 1% volume mixing ratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds and aerosols. (IPCC 2007). **Biodiversity or Biological diversity** The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (CBD 2013). **Carbon cycle** The term used to describe the flow of carbon (in various forms, e.g. as carbon dioxide) through the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial biosphere and lithosphere (IPCC 2007). **Carbon sequestration** The process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a reservoir (UNFCCC 2013). **Carbon sink** A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that takes up and stores carbon. Trees, plants, oceans, rocks and soils are natural sinks, while landfills are artificial sinks (SPREP 2012). **Climate** Climate refers to the average weather conditions over a long period of time (usually over at least 30 years), based mainly on measurements of temperature, precipitation and wind (SPREP 2012). It is affected by latitude, altitude and proximity to the ocean. **Climate change** Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Note that the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, defines climate change as: ‘a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between climate change attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric composition, and climate variability attributable to natural causes (IPCC 2013). Simplified definition: Changes in the Earth’s climate due to human activities (anthropogenic climate change) or natural processes that are already occurring or predicted to occur. These include increasing air and sea-surface temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, sea-level rise, ocean acidification, and changes in frequency and intensity of extreme events such as droughts, floods and tropical cyclones. Anthropogenic climate change is expected to happen much more rapidly than natural changes in the climate, posing an enormous challenge to both natural and human systems (adapted from SPREP 2012). Climate variability Variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes) of the climate on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may be due to natural internal processes within the climate system (internal variability), or to variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing (external variability) (IPCC 2013). Convergence zone A convergence zone is an area where winds flow from different directions toward each other, thus meeting at one point or along one line (like the ITCZ or SPCZ). Convergence zones could be called ‘cloud meeting places’ (ABMCSIRO-RCCC 2013). Similarly, in oceanography, where water currents flow toward each other and meet. Horizontal convergence usually forces vertical motion to occur, such as convection (ABM & CSIRO 2011 Vol. 1: 245). Coral bleaching The paling in colour which results if a coral loses its symbiotic, energy providing organism (IPCC 2007). Cyclone A tropical cyclone (also known as a typhoon or hurricane) is a violent rotating windstorm that develops over tropical waters warmer than 26.5°C and located between 5° and 15° latitude (SOPAC 2006). Deforestation The conversion of forest to other land use or the long-term reduction of the tree canopy cover below the minimum 10 per cent threshold (FAO 2010). Deposition Deposition is the process by which sediments, soil, rock and other matter are laying down / added to a landform or land mass such as a soft beach or coast. Disaster A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources (UNISDR 2009). Disaster management Policy and administrative decisions and operational activities at all levels to ensure preparedness for, response to and recovery from potential disaster events (Pacific Disaster Net 2012). Disaster risk management The systematic process of using administrative directives, organisations, and operational skills and capacities to implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster (UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction, 2009). Drought A period of abnormally dry weather long enough to cause a serious hydrological imbalance. Drought is a relative term, therefore any discussion in terms of precipitation deficit must refer to the particular precipitation-related activity that is under discussion. For example, shortage of precipitation during the growing season impinges on crop production or ecosystem function in general (due to soil moisture drought, also termed agricultural drought) and, during the runoff and percolation season, primarily affects water supplies (hydrological drought). Storage changes in soil moisture and groundwater are also affected by increases in actual evapotranspiration in addition to reductions in precipitation. A period with an abnormal precipitation deficit is defined as a meteorological drought. A megadrought is a very lengthy and pervasive drought, lasting much longer than normal, usually a decade or more (IPCC 2013). Simplified definition: A drought is a long period with no rain during a time when rain would be expected. It results in reduced groundwater, and a shortage of water for drinking, sanitation and watering plants. It is a slow-onset phenomenon – which means it does not happen suddenly, caused by one single event like a storm or cyclone, but emerges gradually over time (SPREP 2012 and IFRC 2013). Ecosystem A complex set of relationships of living organisms functioning as a unit and interacting with their physical environment. The boundaries of what could be called an ecosystem are somewhat arbitrary, depending on the focus of interest or study. Thus the extent of an ecosystem may range from very small spatial scales to, ultimately, the entire Earth (IPCC 2001). A community of plants and animals, and their relationships and interactions with each other and with their physical environment (SPREP 2012). Emission The release of a gas into the atmosphere (SPREP 2012). ENSO The term El Niño was initially used to describe a warm-water current that periodically flows along the coast of Ecuador and Peru, disrupting the local fishery. It has since become identified with a basin-wide warming of the tropical Pacific Ocean east of the dateline. This oceanic event is associated with a fluctuation of a global-scale tropical and subtropical surface pressure pattern called the Southern Oscillation. This coupled atmosphere-ocean phenomenon, with preferred time scales of two to about seven years, is known as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). It is often measured by the surface pressure anomaly difference between Darwin and Tahiti or the sea-surface temperatures in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific. During an ENSO event, the prevailing trade winds weaken, reducing upwelling and altering ocean currents such that the sea-surface temperatures warm, further weakening the trade winds. This event has a great impact on the wind, sea-surface temperature and precipitation patterns in the tropical Pacific. It has climatic effects throughout the Pacific region and in many other parts of the world, through global teleconnections. The cold phase of ENSO is called La Niña (IPCC 2013). Erosion Erosion is the process by which soil and rock are removed from the Earth’s surface by wind or water flow, and then transported and deposited in other locations. Evaporation The conversion of water from a liquid into a gas. Evapotranspiration The combined process of evaporation from the Earth’s surface and transpiration from vegetation (IPCC 2013). Fauna Animal life occurring in a specific region. Flora Plant life occurring in a specific region. Forest Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 per cent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use (FAO 2010). Forest degradation The reduction of the capacity of a forest to provide goods and services (FAO 2010). Fossil fuels Carbon-based fuels from fossil hydrocarbon deposits, including coal, peat, oil, and natural gas (IPCC 2007). Global warming The increase in average global temperature that has occurred since industrialisation, due to increased levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Since the early 20th century, the average surface temperature of Earth has increased by 0.8°C, and it is predicted to continue to rise, with the actual amount depending on mitigation measures taken in the coming years (SPREP 2012). Greenhouse A greenhouse is a glasshouse in which plants are grown. It is usually used in colder climates to trap heat and moisture for plants, especially vegetables and flowers, to grow better than outside. Greenhouse effect The infrared radiative effect of all infrared-absorbing constituents in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases, clouds, and (to a small extent) aerosols absorb terrestrial radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface and elsewhere in the atmosphere. These substances emit infrared radiation in all directions, but, everything else being equal, the net amount emitted to space is normally less than would have been emitted in the absence of these absorbers because of the decline of temperature with altitude in the troposphere and the consequent weakening of emission. An increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases increases the magnitude of this effect; the difference is sometimes called the enhanced greenhouse effect. The change in a greenhouse gas concentration because of anthropogenic emissions contributes to an instantaneous radiative forcing surface temperature and troposphere warm in response to this forcing, gradually restoring the radiative balance at the top of the atmosphere (IPCC 2013). Simplified definition: Heating of the Earth’s surface as a result of certain gases in the atmosphere, which radiate heat back to the Earth (SPREP 2012). Greenhouse gases Greenhouse gases are those gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of terrestrial radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere itself, and by clouds. This property causes the greenhouse effect. Water vapour (H₂O), carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrous oxide (N₂O), methane (CH₄) and ozone (O₃) are the primary greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. Moreover, there are a number of entirely human-made greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons and other chlorine- and bromine-containing substances, dealt with under the Montreal Protocol. Beside CO₂, N₂O and CH₄, the Kyoto Protocol deals with the greenhouse gases sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) (IPCC 2013). Hazard A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage (UNISDR 2009). IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ITCZ Intertropical Convergence Zone: The ITCZ is a band of high rainfall that stretches across the Pacific just north of the equator. It is an East-West band of low-level wind convergence near the equator where the southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere meet the northeast trade winds of the northern hemisphere. ITCZ is strongest in the Northern Hemisphere summer and affects most countries on, or north of, the equator. (adapted from ABM & CSIRO 2011 Vol. 1: 247). Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, at the Third Session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC. It contains legally binding commitments, in addition to those included in the UNFCCC. Countries included in Annex B of the Protocol (most Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development countries and countries with economies in transition) agreed to reduce their anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulphur hexafluoride) by at least 5% below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012. The Kyoto Protocol entered into force on 16 February 2005 (IPCC 2013). Mitigation (of disaster risks) The lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters (UNISDR 2009). Mitigation (of emissions) A human intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases (IPCC 2013). Efforts to reduce the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, either by limiting the sources or by enhancing the sinks. Examples include using fossil fuels more efficiently, switching to renewable energy sources such as solar energy and hydro-power, and expanding forests and other sinks to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (SPREP 2012). Molecule A group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. For example Carbon Dioxide is a chemical bond of one carbon and two oxygen atoms (CO₂). Ocean acidification A reduction in the pH of the ocean over an extended period, typically decades or longer, which is caused primarily by uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but can also be caused by other chemical additions or subtractions from the ocean. Anthropogenic ocean acidification refers to the component of pH reduction that is caused by human activity (IPCC, 2011, p. 37). Simplified definition: An ongoing rise in acidity of ocean and sea waters. This is due to higher levels of dissolved carbon dioxide, which are a direct result of increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Acidification is likely to damage ocean ecosystems (SPREP 2012). The pH of Earth’s oceans is decreasing, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Lower pH makes the oceans more acidic (adapted from ABM & CSIRO 2011 Vol 1: 248). pH A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, numerically equal to 7 for neutral solutions, increasing with increasing alkalinity and decreasing with increasing acidity. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 (ABM & CSIRO 2011 Vol. 1: 249). | Term | Definition | |-----------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Photosynthesis | The process by which plants take carbon dioxide from the air (or bicarbonate in water) to build carbohydrates, releasing oxygen in the process. There are several pathways of photosynthesis with different responses to atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations (IPCC 2013). | | Preparedness | The knowledge and capacities developed by governments, professional response and recovery organisations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover from, the impacts of likely imminent or current hazard events or conditions (UNISDR 2009). | | Prevention | The outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters (UNISDR 2009). | | Reforestation | Re-establishment of forest through planting and/or deliberate seeding on land classified as forest (FAO 2010). | | Renewable energy | Energy that comes from sources that are not depleted or can be easily replenished, for example, hydro-power, solar energy and biofuels. | | Resilience | Resilience is the capacity of a community, society or natural system to maintain its structure and functioning through stress or change (SPREP 2012). | | Run-off | That part of precipitation that does not evaporate and is not transpired, but flows through the ground or over the ground surface and returns to bodies of water (IPCC 2013). | | Salt water intrusion | Displacement of freshwater by saltwater in coastal areas or estuaries (SPREP 2012). Salt water enters the underground freshwater lens as an effect of sea-level rise, storm surges, periods of low rainfall and high temperatures and when large quantities of fresh water are removed for human use. Seawater seeps in from the bottom of the lens and eventually mixes with the freshwater to form brackish water, which is unfit for humans to drink and for plants to survive. | | Sea-surface temperature | The temperature of the ocean surface. It is representing the temperature of the upper few metres of the ocean as opposed to the skin temperature, which is the temperature of the upper few centimetres (ABM & CSIRO 2011 Vol. 1: 249). | | Sink | Any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere. Forests and other vegetation are considered sinks because they remove carbon dioxide through photosynthesis (UNFCCC 2013). | | SPCZ | South Pacific Convergence Zone: a band of high rainfall stretching approximately from Solomon Islands to the east of Cook Islands. It is a persistent and greatly elongated zone of low level convergence. It is strongest in the Southern Hemisphere summer and affects most countries in the South Pacific. A persistent and greatly elongated zone of low-level convergence extending from approximately 140°E near the equator to approximately 120°W at 30°S. The zone is not quite linear, but is oriented more west to east near the equator and has a more diagonal orientation (northwest to southeast) at higher latitudes (ABM & CSIRO 2011 Vol. 1: 250). | | Sustainable development | Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (UNFCCC). | | Thermal expansion | The increase in volume (and decrease in density) that results from warming water (ABM & CSIRO 2011 Vol. 1: 250). | | Trade winds | The wind system, occupying most of the tropics that blow from the subtropical high pressure areas toward the equator (ABM & CSIRO 2011 Vol. 1: 250). | | Transpiration | The process where water contained in liquid form in plants is converted to vapour and released to the atmosphere. | | UNFCCC | United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change | | Vulnerability | The degree to which a system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity (UNFCCC 2013; note this definition is in the climate change context only). | Simplified definition and combined with the disaster context: Vulnerability is the level of susceptibility of an individual, a community, an organisation or a system to adverse conditions, emergencies or disasters; a measure of its ability, or inability, to cope (SPREP 2012). (West Pacific Warm Pool) An extensive pool of the world’s warmest water, with temperatures higher than 28-29°C ranging from the central Pacific to the far eastern Indian Ocean (ABM & CSIRO 2011 Vol. 1: 250). The effects of atmospheric conditions, at a specific time and place, in terms of variables such as temperature, rainfall and wind. Compared with climate, which is a long-term description, weather describes the current situation or predictions for the next few days. Apart from daily weather, also seasonal and annual weather patterns are described and sometimes referred to as the ‘prevailing climate’. The West Pacific Monsoon (WPM) moves north to mainland Asia during the Northern Hemisphere summer and south to Australia in the Southern Hemisphere summer. The seasonal arrival of the monsoon usually brings a switch from very dry to very wet conditions. It affects countries in the far western Pacific. Bibliography ABM-CSIRO (Australian Bureau of Meteorology and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation). 2011. Climate change in the Pacific: Scientific assessment and new research, Volume 1: Regional Overview, Volume 2: Country Reports. http://www.pacificclimatechangescience.org/publications/reports/. Accessed 04 October 2013. ABM–CSIRO–RCCC (Australian Bureau of Meteorology, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation and the Red Cross Climate Centre). 2013. 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Synthesis Report Glossary. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/annexesannex-ii.html. Accessed 20 June 2013. King, M. 2004. Mangroves to coral reefs. Apia, Samoa: Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme. NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) Earth Observatory. 2013: Global mean surface temperatures. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/GlobalWarming/page2.php. Accessed 20 June 2013. National Statistical Office of Papua New Guinea. 2000. Population and Housing Census. http://www.spc.int/prism/country/pg/stats/2000_Census/census.htm. Accessed 4 Oct 2013. Rekacewicz, Philippe. 2005. UNEP/GRID Arendal: Vital Climate Graphics. http://www.grida.no/publications/vg/climate/page/3058.aspx. Accessed 20 June 2013. Sansom, Dorn. 2012. Pou and Miri learn about climate change and growing food crops. Suva, Fiji: Secretariat of the Pacific Community. Seread Publications. n.d. What is weather, what is climate, oceans rising, teaching and learning strategies. http://www.argo.ucsd.edu/SEREAD.html. Accessed 20 February 2013. Siméoni, P., 2010. Atlas du Vanouatou (Vanuatu). Port Vila, Vanuatu: Editions Géo-consulte. SOPAC (Applied Geoscience and Technology Division of the Secretariat of the Pacific Community). 2006. Tropical cyclones, natural hazards in the Pacific – Factsheet 1, Reducing Vulnerability of Pacific ACP States. Suva, Fiji: SOPAC. SPC/GIZ (Secretariat of the Pacific Community and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit). 2012. Draft key messages and learning outcomes on climate change and disaster risk management. Suva, Fiji: SPC/GIZ. SPREP (Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme). 2012. Pacific Climate Change Portal. Glossary. http://www.pacificclimatechange.net/. Accessed 20 June 2013. Tans, Pieter and Keeling, Ralph. 2013. NOAA/ESRL. Recent Monthly Average Mauna Loa CO2. www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/ & scrippscso2.ucsd.edu/. Accessed on 4 October 2013. TKI (Te Kete Ipurangi—Education for Sustainability). n.d. Action Planner: http://efs.tki.org.nz/Curriculum-resources-and-tools/Action-Planner. Accessed 20 May 2013. Waste time line: http://efs.tki.org.nz/Curriculum-resources-and-tools/Waste-timeline. Accessed: 20 June 2013. VMGD (Vanuatu Meteorology and Geo-hazards Department) 2013. National Advisory Port Portal. http://www.nab.vu/. Accessed 20 March 2013. WMO (World Meteorological Organization). 2013. Causes of Climate Change. http://www.wmo.int/pages/themes/climate/causes_of_climate_change.php Pacific Village with Adaptations Le village avec ses moyens d’adaptation Source: Claude Pierce
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JAPANESE BEETLE—LIFE HISTORY AND CONTROL by John C. Schread Bulletin 505 May, 1947 CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT Most insect species have one or more parasites or predators which live at their expense; the Japanese beetle (*Popillia japonica* Newm.) is no exception to the general rule. This insect, during both the larval and adult stages, has a number of natural enemies—certain insects, bacteria, fungi, birds and insectivorous mammals—that prey upon it. Extermination of the Japanese beetle over any large area by means of any single natural agency cannot be expected. However, insect parasites and predators, as well as other organisms, especially bacteria, may in time reduce Japanese beetle populations to a relatively innocuous level, or at least to the extent that other means of control will become more practical and economical. Hence, it is desirable to utilize all the natural enemies available. In the following pages parasites and diseases of the Japanese beetle and their practical utilization under Connecticut conditions are discussed, together with information concerning insecticidal controls known to be practical and economical. Several bulletins and short papers on the subject of the Japanese beetle have been published by this Station.\(^1\) This bulletin brings information up to date in both the biological and chemical control fields. \(^1\) Bulletin 411, "The Japanese Beetle in Connecticut" by W. E. Britton and J. P. Johnson, June, 1938; Circular 157, "Control of the Japanese Beetle" by J. P. Johnson, June, 1943; Bulletin 491, "Studies on the Milky Disease of Japanese Beetle Larva" by R. L. Beard, August, 1945, and articles in the Connecticut State Entomologist's Reports for a number of years. # CONTENTS | Section | Page | |----------------------------------------------|------| | INTRODUCTION | 5 | | LIFE HISTORY, HABITS AND INJURIOUSNESS | 5 | | CONTROL | 6 | | Insecticidal | 6 | | Lead Arsenate | 6 | | DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) | 9 | | "Milky" Disease of Japanese Beetle Grubs | 10 | | Insect Parasites of the Japanese Beetle | 13 | | *Tiphia vernalis* Rohwer | 14 | | *Tiphia popilliavora* Rohwer | 15 | | *Centeter cinerea* Ald. | 17 | | SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION | 19 | Figure 1. Distribution of the Japanese beetle in Connecticut during 1945. JAPANESE BEETLE— LIFE HISTORY AND CONTROL JOHN C. SCHREAD The Japanese beetle was found in the United States for the first time at Riverton, N. J., in 1916. Since then it has multiplied and spread from New Jersey into other Atlantic seaboard states, as far north as Maine and south to Florida. To date its progress west has not been beyond the states of Iowa and Missouri. In Connecticut this insect has been found in almost all parts of the State. It occurs in greatest abundance in the more densely populated areas, such as the cities of Hartford, New Haven and Bridgeport and their adjoining towns (Figure 1), but many of the smaller cities and towns are moderately to heavily infested. With the exception of certain towns in Litchfield, Windham and Middlesex counties (Figure 1), our surveys have shown a trace to a fairly heavy beetle population occurring in rural areas. It can be expected that the Japanese beetle will ultimately spread into all parts of Connecticut now uninfested, and its increase in these areas seems certain in view of past performances in the earlier infested towns. In parts of Fairfield County and in certain areas in the cities of New Haven and Hartford, which number among the earliest Japanese beetle infestations in the State, there has been a noticeable decline in beetle population during the last several years. There is apparently a normal sequence of increase and decline, attributable to natural causes, in Japanese beetle abundance over a period of years. LIFE HISTORY, HABITS AND INJURIOUSNESS The first emergence of adult beetles may be expected to occur in Connecticut about June 20, the population becoming more abundant as the season progresses. By late July and early August in a normal season, the adult population will reach its peak. From then until early September its numbers dwindle and, as the days grow cooler, the adults disappear entirely. When warm weather persists into the autumn, an occasional beetle may be seen as late as October 22, our latest record. As the adults emerge from the ground, they crawl or fly to nearby vegetation and begin to feed. Both foliage and flowers and, in some cases, early ripening fruits are subject to severe damage. When the weather is warm and clear, the beetles are extremely active. They fly from plant to plant or sometimes congregate in large numbers on one plant, disregarding nearby vegetation of the same species or of other species equally attractive. Mating begins soon after emergence and continues throughout the season. Females prefer to deposit their eggs in thrifty, well kept turf, such as is commonly found on golf courses, parks and lawns. However, eggs are occasionally laid in cultivated ground, especially flower beds. The average female produces about 50 eggs during her life span of four to five weeks. The eggs hatch into white grubs in ten days to two weeks or longer, depending on soil temperature. The larvae feed on roots of grass and other plants close to the surface of the soil. Each of the first two larval instars (stages) requires a feeding period of about three weeks. The third instar is reached in early fall and the larva remains in this stage until it pupates in June of the following year, although it becomes larger in size as it feeds during the spring months preceding transformation. Occasionally, a larva passes the winter in the second instar, but rarely in the first. After completing their feeding period in the spring and prior to pupation, the larvae enter a 10-day prepupal condition. From this stage the pupa develops. After a pupal period of one to three weeks, the adult breaks the pupal skin, works its way to the surface of the ground, and crawls or flies away. One year is necessary for the completion of the entire life cycle. When Japanese beetle grubs are sufficiently abundant in turf (100 or more per square yard), the grass turns brown and dies, owing to the destruction of the root system. Severe damage is especially noticeable during dry periods. Injury is seldom noticeable when there are 50 grubs or less per square yard of turf. Adult Japanese beetles feed on a wide variety of vegetation. Some 250 to 300 plants are known to be attacked, including herbaceous plants, shrubs and trees. When the beetles are present in abundance, they may completely defoliate them or destroy the flowers or fruit. Between 200 and 250 beetles have been counted on a single peach. **CONTROL** There are two recommended approaches to control of Japanese beetles: destruction of the grubs in the soil before they transform to the adult stage and leave the ground, and destruction of the adult beetles after they have emerged from the soil. This discussion will, for the most part, be confined to the former. The destruction of the grubs is accomplished by two methods: chemical (the use of insecticides) and biological (the utilization of natural agencies such as diseases and parasites). Lead arsenate and DDT are the most widely recommended insecticides for grub control. **Insecticidal** **Lead Arsenate** Lead arsenate is satisfactory for the treatment of turf under most conditions. In 1923 Leach\(^1\) first made use of this insecticide for Japanese beetle control. It has been used constantly since then, a period of virtually 25 years. When --- \(^1\) Jour. Agric. Res. Vol. 33, No. 1, 8 pp. 1926. applied to the soil as a dust or spray, it will not prevent adult beetles from laying their eggs but it will kill the grubs after they hatch. The time required for a grub to acquire a lethal dose of this insecticide depends on its distribution in the soil, the type of soil, soil temperature and the date of application, as well as on the lead arsenate concentration in the soil. When the material is evenly distributed throughout the upper one or two inches of soil in which grubs are feeding, several weeks may be necessary for them to eat sufficient poison to cause death. Some of the grubs located lower than the first two inches of soil may escape poisoning for the time being and live for some time before coming in contact with the insecticide. Fleming, Baker and Koblitsky\(^1\) studied the effectiveness of acid lead arsenate in 15 types of soil. It was seen that there was a difference in the action of the insecticide in these soils. This was probably due to the reaction of the arsenate with salts in the soil, forming arsenates of varying degrees of toxicity. Acid lead arsenate is generally more effective in acid than in alkaline soils. The influence of temperature on the feeding activity and on the movement of the grubs both vertically and horizontally in the soil is quite significant and may be a limiting factor in their control by the use of insecticides. The normal distribution of grubs throughout the year is shown in Table 1, which gives soil temperatures at one, three and six-inch levels and the average abundance and depth of Japanese beetle grubs in five separate localities in southern Connecticut at weekly intervals. In the south and southwestern part of the State about 85 per cent of the Japanese beetle grub population hibernates within four inches of the surface. The remaining 15 per cent hibernates at a depth from four to eight inches below the surface. It appears from further examination of Table 1 that a considerable mortality occurs among hibernating grubs, virtually 70 per cent. This is probably not entirely due to winter injury, as 20.1 per cent of the grubs during the fall and spring were infected with types A and B of the "milky disease". The disease is not active, however, when the temperature is below about 60°F. After September 7 Japanese beetle grubs begin to move downward in the soil from the first two-inch level where they have been feeding on grass roots during the summer months. By early November most of the grubs are out of the zone in which susceptibility to poison is greatest and remain at deeper soil levels, where no feeding is done, until the following April (Table 1) when they migrate upward into the upper two inches of soil. When the larvae hatch in the middle of summer, they are very readily killed by the lead arsenate in the soil. After they have entered the third instar which occurs later in the season when the temperature is lower, a large part of the population may escape poisoning. According to Fleming and Maines\(^2\) in Moores- --- \(^1\) Jour. Agr. Res. 53, No. 10: 770-779, 1936. \(^2\) E-series-624, U.S.D.A., Bul. Ent. Pl. Qu. 1944. ### Table 1. Relation of Soil Temperature to Depth of Japanese Beetle Larvae in the Soil at Five Localities in New Haven, North Haven and Hamden in 1943 and 1944 | Date | Average soil temperature (°F.) | Average number of larvae per square foot at 2-inch levels | Grub totals per square foot | |----------|---------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------| | | 1 inch | 3 inches | 6 inches | 1st level | 2nd level | 3rd level | 4th level | | | Aug. 30 | 71.2 | 32 | 3.0 | 0 | 0 | 35 | Late summer and early fall feeding. | | Sept. 7 | 71.4 | 35 | 2.3 | 0 | 0 | 37 | | | Sept. 13 | 64.0 | 28 | 3.6 | 0 | 0 | 32 | | | Sept. 20 | 62.4 | 38 | 3.7 | 0 | 0 | 42 | | | Sept. 27 | 59.3 | 29 | 2.3 | 0 | 0 | 31 | | | Oct. 4 | 55.8 | 29 | 3.9 | 0 | 0 | 32 | | | Oct. 11 | 54.7 | 16.8 | 12.0 | 2.5 | 0 | 31 | Downward movement of larvae for hibernation. | | Oct. 19 | 48.8 | 14.4 | 12.1 | 4.8 | 2.0 | 33 | | | Oct. 27 | 51.0 | 12.3 | 16.8 | 4.4 | 2.5 | 36 | | | Nov. 4 | 46.9 | 10.9 | 11.5 | 1.8 | 0 | 24 | | | Nov. 10 | 48.2 | 7.0 | 6.2 | 1.5 | 0 | 16 | | | Nov. 18 | 37.3 | 4.6 | 11.6 | 2.4 | 1 | 20 | | | Nov. 26 | 40.4 | 5.0 | 11.1 | 2.2 | 1 | 19 | | | Apr. 3 | 45.8 | 40.9 | 36.9 | 6.0 | 12.4 | 2.0 | 1 | Upward movement of larvae in the spring to resume feeding. | | Apr. 12 | 41.0 | 40.3 | 39.0 | 13.0 | 10.9 | 3.0 | 1 | | | Apr. 19 | 50.0 | 47.4 | 45.0 | 13.8 | 8.1 | 1.2 | 0 | | | Apr. 26 | 51.2 | 53.4 | 47.5 | 16.4 | 3.8 | 1.6 | 0 | | | May 3 | 64.3 | 61.0 | 55.5 | 16.1 | 1.3 | 1.0 | 0 | 18 | Spring feeding of larvae. | | May 10 | 72.9 | 68.0 | 60.0 | 19.9 | 1.2 | 0 | 0 | 23 | | | May 17 | 85.1 | 82.4 | 74.4 | 12.8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 13 | | | May 27 | 66.9 | 65.9 | 63.0 | 14.0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 | | | June 1 | 74.7 | 75.2 | 72.7 | 14.5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 15 | | | June 8 | 85.4 | 80.0 | 69.7 | 9.0 | 1.7 | 0 | 0 | 11 | | | June 13 | 83.8 | 7.1 | 70.6 | 10.6 | 1.8 | 0 | 0 | 12 | | | June 21 | 69.5 | 68.6 | 67.5 | 10.3 | 2.3 | 0 | 0 | 13 | | | June 29 | 84.5 | 77.1 | 73.0 | 9.0 | 4.0 | 0 | 0 | 13 | | | July 7 | 87.2 | 80.2 | 73.4 | 4.1 | 1.0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | | | July 12 | 86.5 | 80.9 | 76.7 | 2.3 | 1.0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | | | July 18 | 89.7 | 85.7 | 77.6 | 2.9 | 2.0 | 0 | 0 | 5 | | | July 26 | 93.4 | 84.6 | 77.3 | 1.2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | | | Aug. 1 | 87.9 | 83.3 | 79.4 | 15.7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 16 | | | Aug. 8 | 85.5 | 77.0 | 71.0 | 9.0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 9 | | | Aug. 16 | 82.3 | 81.0 | 76.5 | 14.4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 14 | | | Aug. 22 | 79.2 | 75.2 | 71.2 | 16.3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 16 | | For effective control, lead arsenate should be applied at the rate of one pound to 100 square feet of ground area. Although a heavy grub population may not be entirely exterminated, the bulk of the population will be destroyed by this treatment, thus preventing noticeable and permanent damage to the turf. A light infestation may disappear completely. The object is to use only enough lead arsenate to kill the grubs and not enough to damage the plants growing in the soil. The material may be applied at any time, preferably in the spring when temperatures are high and the ground is not frozen, or in the early summer before Japanese beetle eggs hatch. Application of lead arsenate to turf as a --- 1 Bul. 501, Conn. Agri. Expt. Sta., pp. 71-74. 1946. 2 E-series-624, U.S.D.A., Bul. Ent. Pl. Qu. 1944. spray under pressure or as a dust, watered in with a garden hose, are methods which have proved equally successful. As in the case of DDT, lead arsenate cannot be used if the soil is not kept in turf because of the adverse effect on certain plants. Consequently, soil treated with either of these insecticides should not be planted to vegetables or flowers. **DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)** DDT is now recommended as a soil insecticide to reduce Japanese beetle grub populations (Fleming\(^1\)). A 10 per cent DDT dust used in one of our experiments at the rate of 250 pounds per acre when applied in May resulted in 72 per cent mortality in five weeks (Table 2). At the time of the treatment the **Table 2. Japanese Beetle Grub Control in Plot Treated with DDT** | No. of digging | Grub population before treatment | Number of grubs per square foot following treatment | |----------------|----------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------| | | | 14 days | 25 days | 36 days | | 1 | 59 | 36 | 33 | 18 | | 2 | 59 | 46 | 23 | 27 | | 3 | 77 | 48 | 27 | 16 | | 4 | 42 | 41 | 28 | 20 | | 5 | 68 | 33 | 37 | 18 | | 6 | 86 | 30 | 32 | 6 | | 7 | 45 | 38 | 24 | 16 | | 8 | 89 | 48 | 24 | 27 | | 9 | 73 | 38 | 15 | 19 | | 10 | 75 | 38 | 11 | 6 | | 11 | 46 | 44 | 19 | 13 | | 12 | 25 | 48 | 21 | 29 | | Average | 62.8 | 48 | 24.5 | 17.9 | grubs averaged 62.8 per square foot of turf; 14 days later the population was down to 48 per square foot, and on June 26, 36 days after treatment, the population had been reduced to an average of 17.9 grubs and pupae per square foot of turf. In the succeeding Japanese beetle grub generation, hatching during July and August, the residual power of the DDT treatment reduced the grub population from a high of 72-75 average per square foot of turf to two by September 18. Concurrently, an average of 79 grubs per square foot of turf existed in the control blocks. In smaller areas, DDT (10 per cent dust) may be applied at the rate of 6 pounds per 1,000 square feet for control of grubs. Three to five pounds of 50 per cent wettable DDT powder in 100 gallons of water or 2 tablespoonfuls to one gallon of water when sprayed on vegetation will protect foliage from adult Japanese beetle attack for seven to 10 days. Repeated applications should be made at about weekly --- \(^1\) E-series-716, U.S.D.A., Bul. Ent. Pl. Qu. 1947. intervals throughout the season. Leafy vegetables and small fruits, such as raspberries and blackberries, should not be sprayed nor dusted with DDT within two weeks of consumption. "Milky" Disease of Japanese Beetle Grubs A number of bacterial organisms are responsible for the destruction of Japanese beetle grubs in the soil and have played a major role in reducing grub populations where they have become established. Among the known forms, *Bacillus popilliae* Dutky, commonly known as the organism causing "milky" disease of Japanese beetle grubs, is the most important. Its practical utilization was developed by the United States Department of Agriculture and in the beginning it was distributed by Federal and State agencies only. Since rapid establishment and dispersion of this organism in beetle-infested areas of Connecticut Figure 2. Grub in advanced stage of "milky" disease showing uniform opacity in all parts of body. has been deemed advisable, this Station has cooperated with the Federal Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine in distributing it throughout the State. In recent years, a number of commercial concerns have been granted permission to manufacture the "milky" disease spore dust and it can now be obtained from retailers in the beetle-infested area. The spores of the "milky" disease are incorporated in talc to facilitate application. This spore dust mixture contains approximately 100 million spores per gram of material, a standardization set by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The customary method of application of the spore dust is to spot the material at five-foot intervals in rows five feet apart, using a level teaspoonful or approximately two grams (two million spores) of the dust to each spot. A supplementary method of application consists of mixing the spore dust with loam, sand, lime, fertilizer or soil insecticide and broadcasting it evenly over the surface of the ground, at the rate of one pound of spore dust to 4,000 square feet of turf. If application is not made preceding rain, the spore dust should be washed into the soil with a garden hose, thus assuring greatest survival of the bacteria. Applications of spore dust may be made at any time of the year when the ground is not frozen. However, for best results, early fall application is preferred. The bacteria spread in the soil from points of inoculation, principally by the movement of grubs and other soil-inhabiting organisms. Diseased grubs may move around while feeding and before the bacteria render them inactive. Thus, they may die and disintegrate some distance from where they first ingested the spores. The bacterium is, in the spore stage, strongly resistant to variations in temperature\(^1,2\) and moisture and will, even if Japanese beetle grubs are not present, persist in the soil for long periods of time. White\(^3\) states—"the effect of heat alone on the potency of *Bacillus popillia* is of minor importance under field conditions". After a period of hours following application of spore dust, rays from the sun may cause some mortality of the spores\(^1,2,3\). White states that—"sunlight does not materially reduce the viability of the spores in the standard "milky" disease spore dust mixture applied for the control of grubs" when the spot method of application is followed. However, when the spore dust is broadcast in a thin film over the surface of the ground, considerable reduction of spore viability may result. When most of the dust is deposited on the turf or soil in layers of sufficient thickness, damage is prevented to any of the spores excepting those composing the thin top-most layer. Not until after the middle of May in Connecticut is the temperature in the upper two inches of soil sufficiently high for rapid "milky" disease development in grubs. Although the bacteria are ineffective at temperatures as low as 60°F., for best results 80°F. is necessary. With the appearance of grubs of the Japanese beetle and their ingestion of the spore dust, the "milky" disease becomes active and the grub population begins to decline. Because of the fact that some species of native white grubs, the adults of which are June beetles, are susceptible to --- 1 Beard, R. L., Conn. Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 491, pp. 505-583, 1945. 2 Dutky, S. R., Jour. Agri. Res. 61, pp. 57-68, 1940. 3 White, R. T., U.S.D.A., B.E.P.Q., E-703, 1946. the "milky" disease, an occasional turnover of the Bacillus is reasonably assured even in soils where the Japanese beetle grub population is absent or negligible. Population density is important in determining the rapidity of establishment and spread of the disease subsequent to soil inoculation. The more intense grub populations result in more rapid increase of infection and ultimately higher disease rate. When the grub population is low, the use of an amount of spore dust equal to that employed where the grub population is high will in all probability necessitate a longer time for the disease to become established. This may be accompanied by a slower build-up in percentage of diseased grubs. By varying the amount of spore dust, it was found that an application of from one-quarter to one-half pound to 1,000 square feet in the fall resulted in an increase in the incidence of disease from an average of 6 per cent in late May to 100 per cent in early July of the following year. However, the latter figure may not have been an accurate picture of disease incidence, for many healthy grubs had transformed to the adult stage by that time (July 5). Beard\(^1\) has demonstrated the effect of spore dose on incidence of disease and states that the "probability of a grub becoming infected increases with the spore dose". He also states that the three larval instars are equally susceptible. The bacterium may be a little slow in getting established in certain localities (as long as two to three years). The problem arises whether to use the "milky" disease spore dust to control a Japanese beetle infestation or resort to control by an insecticide. Such a decision will depend on the extent of the grub population and the purpose for which the grass area will be used. When the grub population is high (25 to 100 or more per square foot) and the damage to the grass is extensive, immediate control of the situation necessitates the use of the lead arsenate or DDT. If, however, one is willing to wait and overlook the damage to the grass for a number of months to a year or longer, the "milky" disease should eventually give the desired control. In either case, reseeding of the grass may be necessary. If an infestation is light (one to five grubs per square foot of turf) it would be advisable to use the "milky" disease organism. This would permit a build-up and spread of the organism in the soil on a rising grub population which would be eventually checked. It is not advisable, however, to use the "milky" disease spore dust when the Japanese beetle first makes its appearance in a locality. There may not be enough grubs in any single lawn area to support or warrant such a precaution. It is better to wait until there is at least one grub per square foot of turf. As it is known that lead arsenate and DDT treatment are tem- \(^1\)Beard, R. L., Conn. Agri. Expt. Sta. Bul. 491, pp. 505-583, 1945. porary controls, their effectiveness lasting three to five years at the doses usually applied, it is advisable to follow up an application of the poison about four years later with a "milky" disease spore dust treatment, thus providing a permanent control agency to supplant the poison as its effectiveness diminishes. Insect Parasites of the Japanese Beetle The natural enemies of the Japanese beetle include a number of insect parasites, the importation of which from the native habitats of the beetle in Japan and Korea represents a significant phase of the problem of control in the United States. A few of the more important species are given below. All of them have become established in various parts of the general area of beetle infestation in the United States. Parasites of the adult beetle: - *Centeter cinerea* Ald. (Diptera) Parasites of the larva: - *Tiphia vernalis* Roh. (Hymenoptera) - *Tiphia popilliavora* Roh. (Hymenoptera) - *Dexia ventralis* Ald. (Diptera) - *Prosenia siberita* Fab. (Diptera) Prior to their introduction into this country, an exhaustive study of these and other parasites and predators and their relation to the Japanese beetle population in the Orient was made by the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine of the United States Department of Agriculture. Breeding and colonization of the parasites were necessarily important steps in handling the insects when they reached this country. Subsequent to establishment of the parasites in certain localities in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, collections were made for the purpose of redistribution in advanced areas of general beetle infestation, including Connecticut. Commencing in 1936, some of the parasite species which attack Japanese beetles were released each year in this State. By the end of 1946, 133 colonizations of *Tiphia vernalis* and 26 of *Tiphia popilliavora*, both wasps; and eight **Table 3. Parasite Colonization in Connecticut, 200 Individuals Per Colony** | Year colonized | No. colonies *Tiphia vernalis* | No. colonies *Tiphia popilliavora* | No. colonies *Centeter cinerea* | |----------------|-------------------------------|----------------------------------|--------------------------------| | 1927 | 0 | 0 | 2 | | 1936 | 4 | 0 | 0 | | 1937 | 5 | 5 | 1 | | 1938 | 15 | 18 | 0 | | 1939 | 25 | 0 | 0 | | 1940 | 14 | 0 | 0 | | 1941 | 16 | 0 | 0 | | 1942 | 4 | 0 | 0 | | 1943 | 10 | 1 | 0 | | 1944 | 12 | 0 | 0 | | 1945 | 14 | 2 | 2 | | 1946 | 14 | 0 | 3 | | Totals | 133 | 26 | 8 | of *Centeter cinerea*, a fly, had been made. Virtually all of the parasites were liberated in Fairfield, New Haven and Hartford counties, the areas of heaviest and oldest Japanese beetle infestation. The number and years of colonizations are given in Table 3. The progress of the colonies has been followed from year to year and, in certain instances, the establishment and annual increase of the parasites has been sufficiently progressive to assure their survival within reasonable limits. It is expected that ultimately the parasites may account for a large reduction of the beetle population in localities where their presence is of long standing. **Tiphia vernalis** Rohwer *Tiphia vernalis*, the spring Tiphia, so called because it occurs in the adult stage in the spring, may be seen on clear warm days from early May through early June. It feeds on honeydew secreted by aphids on maple, oak, chestnut, pine and other trees. It is most active from the middle of the morning until early afternoon and then may be collected by hand for recolonization. It is most abundant for about one week in the latter part of May, at which time there is usually a preponderance of females. The adults seem to be more or less confined to a limited locality in which they had been released, although parasitism of the grubs has been found to occur over a wide area in the vicinity of the colonization. This would indicate a greater distribution of the species than the mere obvious localized presence of the adults reveals. The parasite lays its eggs on the ventral or lower surface of the Japanese beetle grub. The duration of the egg stage varies with temperature, but a week to 10 days is about the usual length of incubation. The larva of the parasite begins to feed at once, completes its development in about 24 days, and spins a cocoon in which the winter is passed. The relative abundance of Japanese beetle larvae and *Tiphia vernalis* cocoons has been studied at a number of colonization sites. Between 60 and 70 per cent of all the colony sites in Connecticut were examined in the spring of 1945 for grubs and parasite cocoons. Forty per cent of them contained *Tiphia vernalis* cocoons. Although the ratio of grubs to cocoons varied considerably, the older colony sites showed the presence of the greatest number of parasites. In the 1936 colonization localities, 45.83 per cent of the total grub and parasite individuals removed from the soil were Tiphia cocoons. The 1938 colony sites gave 9.3 per cent cocoons on the same basis. At more recent colonization sites, the percentage of cocoons was less than five. The average number of grubs per square foot of soil was much less at the oldest Tiphia colony sites in comparison with the more recent colonizations. According to White,\(^1\) who has studied the relationship of "milky" disease incidence to Tiphia survival, although some of the Tiphia larvae fail to survive on grubs infected with the "milky" disease, in general, these two biological agencies are compatible. Adults of *Tiphia vernalis* were present in 1945 and 1946 in several localities in this State in sufficient numbers for collecting and redistribution. A sufficient concentration of adults on trees where they feed on honeydew did not always \(^1\) White, R. T., J. N.Y. Ent. Soc. 51, pp. 213-218, 1943. occur at the older colony sites, but frequently at colony sites of but three or four years' standing. This is explained by the presence of a greater Japanese beetle grub population in the vicinity of some of the more recent colonizations and, hence, more host material for the parasites to attack. **Tiphia popilliavora** Rohwer *Tiphia popilliavora* (Figure 3) closely resembles *Tiphia vernalis* in appearance. However, biologically they differ considerably. This species appears in the adult stage about the middle of August and can be found to a greater or lesser extent from then until the middle of September, reaching maximum abundance the latter part of August. Because of its habits, it is referred to as the fall *Tiphia*. The wasps appear on clear days at about the middle of the morning and feed exclusively on wild carrot blossoms, usually until early afternoon. On cool days they may be found until late in the day. When adult females are through feeding for the day, they search for grubs of the Japanese beetle on which to oviposit. **Figure 3.** *Tiphia popilliavora*, female. (Photograph courtesy of U.S. Department of Agriculture.) Eggs are deposited on the ventral surface of the host and hatch in from a few days to a week, depending on temperature. Feeding begins at once (Figure 4) and continues until after the death of the host. The parasite larval stage is from two to four weeks in length. Immediately after the larva has finished feeding, it forms a cocoon. *Tiphia popillivora* passes the dormant part of its life cycle in the larval stage in the cocoon and does not pupate until shortly before the adults appear in August of the following year. ![Image](image) **Figure 4.** Japanese beetle larva with young *Tiphia popillivora* larva attached and feeding. Enlarged three times. (Photograph courtesy of U.S. Department of Agriculture.) Less work has been done in Connecticut with this parasite than with *T. verinalis*, but it is potentially a valuable contribution to our Japanese beetle parasites. Large colonies have developed in several towns in Fairfield County from which considerable material has been collected for redistribution. All of the colony sites of *T. popillivora* have been visited at one time or another since their inception. Parasites were observed at 35 per cent of them, and of this number 27 per cent were the 1938 colonizations. The question arises whether to use insecticides or "milky" disease in an area where the larval parasites have been released.\(^1\) In a localized grass plot where adult parasites can be found in numbers and the cocoon population exceeds or balances that of the grub population, it may not be necessary to resort to other methods of control unless the grub population is very high. It would appear that where the parasites are abundant the grub population is rapidly diminishing and, in consequence, this factor would obviate the necessity of additional treatment. In larger turf areas such as parks, golf courses and adjoining estates where the parasites have been established for some time and appear in some abundance during the adult season, the necessity of resorting to \(^1\) White, R. T., J.N.Y. Ent. Soc. 51, pp. 213-218, 1943. supplementary control measures would again depend on the grub population and whether or not there is existing turf injury. In the event localized or widespread turf injury unexpectedly appears the use of insecticides or "milky" disease may be resorted to without permanent injury to the parasite colony. White\(^1\) believes there may be some adverse effect of the "milky" disease on larvae of *T. popillavora* because, at the time of the year this parasite is active, soil temperature is more favorable for the disease. **Centeter cinerea Ald.** *Centeter cinerea*, a tachinid fly parasitic on adult Japanese beetles was brought to the United States from an area about 300 miles north of Tokyo, Japan, by the Federal Department of Agriculture. *Centeter* deposits its eggs on the upper surface of the Japanese beetle (Figure 5), in most cases on the thorax. The adult parasites live for about two weeks and may deposit upwards of 100 eggs each. Eggs hatch in about two days. The parasite larva chews directly through the shell of the egg into the thoracic cavity of the host, later migrating to the abdomen. The parasite breathes by attaching itself to the air sacs of the beetle. About nine days are necessary from the time of oviposition to the pupation of the parasite. A parasitized beetle buries itself in the soil shortly before death and the parasite in the pupal stage passes the dormant period of 10 to 11 months in the body of its victim. Since only one larva of this fly can mature in a single adult beetle, the fly's habit of frequently laying more than one egg on a host results in a potential waste. This is due to a lack of synchronization of the life cycles of the two insects. Should the parasite become more adjusted to its host, greater and more widespread parasitism of adult beetles may be expected. In 1937 one colony of *Centeter* was released at Riverside Park in Hartford where it became established and soon spread into nearby areas. This colony has been under observation every summer since. During the construction of a dike in the park and along the river front to prevent overflow of the Connecticut River, all low vegetation, with the exception of certain trees, was uprooted and destroyed. This presumably reduced the beetle population and, hence, deleteriously affected the parasite. With re-establishment of turf in the park at the completion of the dike, the beetle increased in abundance, as did the parasite. In 1944, because of extended spring and summer drought, the emergence of the bulk of the beetles was delayed for 10 days to two weeks. The parasite was likewise slower in initial appearance. In previous years, *Centeter* had emerged during the latter part of June and early July and, as the survival of the adult is of relatively short duration, the parasites died before Japanese beetles were present in any numbers. This, of course, was not conducive to high parasitism. In 1945 the situation was much the same as in 1944, so far as delay in beetle and parasite emergence was concerned. However, the delay in 1945 resulted --- \(^1\) White, R. T., J.N.Y. Ent. Soc. 51, pp. 213-218, 1943. from cold weather during spring and early summer. Centeter was present much later in July in 1945 in comparison with former years, and beetles became sufficiently abundant later in July to minimize superparasitism. Parasitized beetles were collected in July, 1945, for the purpose of establishing the parasite in other localities as shown in Table 4. Of the total number of beetles collected July 9, 31.8 per cent were superparasitized. The July 19 collection, 10 days later than the first collection, showed a superparasitism of only 10.5 per cent, virtually three times less than existed in the early part of the month. Figure 5. A female *Centeter cinerea* in the act of ovipositing upon Japanese beetle female. (Photograph courtesy of U.S. Department of Agriculture.) The parasitized beetles were released at two different localities on the Farmington River, one in the town of Farmington and the other in the town of Windsor, where environmental conditions are similar to Riverside Park and vicinity. On July 17, 1946, 4 per cent of the beetles collected at the site in Windsor were parasitized. **Table 4. Centeteter Parasitism of Adult Japanese Beetles, 1945** | Date collected | Number of beetles collected | Number of beetles with one egg | Number of beetles with two eggs | Number of beetles with three eggs | Number of beetles with four eggs | |----------------|----------------------------|--------------------------------|---------------------------------|----------------------------------|---------------------------------| | July 9 | 207 | 141 | 45 | 18 | 3 | | July 19 | 152 | 136 | 16 | 0 | 0 | Adverse weather conditions in 1946, extreme dryness following a cold wet spring, resulted in 10 days to two weeks delay in quantity emergence of the beetle in Riverside Park. The first beetles found were seen on June 29, none of them parasitized. On July 5, 84 adult beetles were observed in the Park, 60 of which were parasitized by Centeteter. Of this number, 36 were parasitized by one egg each; 21 by two eggs; two by three eggs, and one by four eggs. On July 11, 362 parasitized beetles and on July 18, 217 were taken from the park for redistribution. The individuals of both collections were released at two separate localities for establishment of the parasite, one at Orange Hills Country Club, Orange, and the other at Rolling Mill Athletic Field in Waterbury. Table 5 gives detailed information concerning the parasitized beetles. **Table 5. Centeteter Parasitism of Adult Japanese Beetles, 1946** | Date collected | Number of beetles collected | Number of beetles with one egg | Number of beetles with two eggs | Number of beetles with three eggs | Number of beetles with four eggs | Number of beetles with five eggs | |----------------|----------------------------|--------------------------------|---------------------------------|----------------------------------|---------------------------------|---------------------------------| | July 11 | 362 | 266 | 80 | 12 | 2 | 2 | | July 18 | 217 | 202 | 14 | 1 | 0 | 0 | Twenty-six and five-tenths per cent of the beetles collected July 11 were superparasitized. Of the July 18 collection 6.9 per cent were in this condition, virtually 20 per cent less than earlier in the month. Superparasitism was about 5 per cent less in 1946 than in 1945. Scouting in 1946 in the vicinity of the original colonization site at Riverside Park showed that the parasite had spread three miles north along the shore of the river on both sides, and for some distance back from the shore. **SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION** The Japanese beetle, although continuing to increase in some sections of Connecticut, has noticeably declined in parts of Fairfield County and in the cities of Hartford and New Haven, all of which number among the earliest and heaviest infestations in the State. The two approaches to control of Japanese beetle are (1) destruction of the grubs in the soil, and (2) destruction of the adults following their emergence during the summer. Grubs may be destroyed by the use of chemicals or by the employment of natural agencies. Lead arsenate and DDT are the best chemicals for control known at the present time; insect parasites and diseases are the usable biological agencies. Lead arsenate and DDT are satisfactory for the treatment of turf under most conditions. They may be applied as a dust or a spray during any season of the year that the ground is not frozen. When applied to frozen turf, the material may wash from the surface of the ground and be lost. When lead arsenate is used, the standard application is one pound to 100 square feet or 450 pounds to the acre. DDT, when applied as a 10 per cent dust, should be used at the rate of six pounds to 1,000 square feet or 250 pounds to the acre. Residual power of both chemicals will last for from three to five years. When used as a spray to control adults, apply five pounds of 50 per cent wettable DDT powder in 100 gallons of water. "Milky" disease spore-forming bacterium has played and will continue to play a major part in reducing Japanese beetle grub infestations in Connecticut. Over 3,000 separate colonizations of the spore dust have been made by this Station and many private property owners have also used the bacterium. The "milky" disease, although somewhat slow in effectiveness, is a permanent control measure. Once the soil is inoculated the bacterium persists indefinitely and in time may, of itself, hold Japanese beetle grub populations to a minimum. Insect parasites of both the grub and adult stages of the Japanese beetle have been released annually in Connecticut for a number of years. Two species of grub parasites, one known as the spring Tiphia and the second as the fall Tiphia, commonly referred to as solitary wasps, are the most important and best known at the present time. Each has but one generation a year and both are increasing in abundance in many places where early releases were made. A fly parasite is taking a toll of adult Japanese beetle populations in several localized sections of the State. All three parasites show considerable promise in aiding in effectual control of the beetle in the future.
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Pamlico County Primary School Parent/Student Handbook Crystal Dixon, Principal 323 Neal’s Creek Road Bayboro, North Carolina 28515 Telephone: (252) 745-3404 Fax: (252) 745-3118 # Table of Contents | Topic | Page | |--------------------------------------------|------| | Welcome Letter | 3 | | School Vision, Mission and Core Beliefs | 4 | | Pamlico County Board Of Education | 5 | | Facts About PCPS | 6 | | Entry Requirements | 7-8 | | **Policies and Procedures** | | | Accidents/Illness | 9 | | Arrival | 10 | | Attendance | 10-12| | Cancellation of the School Day | 12 | | Car Riders | 13 | | Child Custody | 13 | | Code of Student Conduct** | 13 | | Communication Folder | 14 | | Conferences | 14 | | Critical Response Drills | 14-15| | Discipline | 15-16| | Dress Code | 16 | | Early Pickups/Early Release | 16 | | Field Trips | 17 | | Head Lice | 17 | | Insurance | 17 | | Library | 18 | | Lost and Found | 18 | | Lunches/Child Nutrition Policies | 18 | | Money and Valuables | 19 | | Optional Fees | 19 | | PTO/PAC | 19 | | Physical Education | 20 | | Report Cards/Progress Reports | 20 | | Transportation – Conduct/Discipline | 20-23| | Transportation Policy – Return to School | 22-23| | Visitors and Volunteers | 23 | | What It Means to be a Title 1 School | 24-25| | Pamlico County Schools’ System-Wide Policies, Important letters, and Notifications** | INSERT | Dear Parents and Students, Welcome to Pamlico County Primary School! The purpose of this Parent-Student Handbook is to provide a quick reference guide to important information for our PCPS families. It contains essential information about our school, as well as important Board of Education policies. (Additional information and updates are available on our school website at: www.pcps.pamlicoschools.org). Please read the handbook carefully and put it in a safe place for future reference. Parents, after reading the handbook and discussing it with your child, please sign and return the acknowledgement form to your child’s teacher. It is our sincere desire to work with each of you to make this a productive and rewarding year for everyone. If you have questions, please feel free to call the school office at 252-745-3404. Our administrators, teachers, and staff are willing to discuss any concerns you have or opportunities to improve you may wish to share with us. Strong communication between school and home is vital to the success of students’ academic and social growth. We welcome your participation and support throughout the school year. Working together, we will reach the collective and individual goals set for our students. Sincerely, Crystal L. Dixon, Principal PCPS will be REVISITING our Vision and Mission Statements during the 2017-18 school year. If you would like to be a part of this process, please feel free to attend our School Improvement Team meetings the 3rd Tuesday of every month. Dates and times can be found on our school webpage www.pcps.pamlicoschools.org SCHOOL VISION, MISSION AND CORE BELIEFS School Vision: Pamlico County Primary Schools, in partnership with home and community, will prepare all students for further education and to be productive, responsible citizens who function effectively in a changing world. School Mission: “Learn to Read and Succeed!” Core Beliefs: • All students can and are expected to learn. • Students learn in different ways and are valued for their differences. • Challenge, but let them succeed! • Learning is a responsibility shared by students, teachers, parents and community. • Learning is essential for survival in today’s world. • Our personal improvement is essential for student growth. PAMLICO COUNTY BOARD OF EDUCATION At-Large Mr. Paul Delamar firstname.lastname@example.org At-Large Mrs. Judy Humphries email@example.com Township 1 Mr. John Prescott, Chairman firstname.lastname@example.org Township 2 Mrs. Kari Hammond email@example.com Township3 Gene Dudley, Vice-Chairman firstname.lastname@example.org Township 4 Mrs. Beatrice Mays email@example.com Township 5 Mr. John McCotter, III. firstname.lastname@example.org FACTS ABOUT PAMLICO PRIMARY SCHOOL School Opens 7:30 A.M. Breakfast Begins 7:30 A.M. Breakfast Ends/Tardy Bell Rings 7:50 A.M. School Announcements 7:55 A.M. Early Bus Students 2:30 P.M. Regular Bus/Car Rider Dismissal 2:45 P.M. Early Release Day Dismissal Time 11:30 A.M. ADDRESS: Pamlico County Primary School 323 Neals Creek Road Bayboro, North Carolina 28515 Telephone: (252) 745-3404 Fax: (252) 745-3118 Cafeteria: (252) 745-5572 Website: www.pcps.pamlicoschools.org ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF Principal Crystal Dixon Bookkeeper/Secretary Shannon Ellenberg Data Manager/Secretary Anita Harvill School Social Worker Mari Robinson School Nurse Crystal Smith PRE-K and KINDERGARTEN ENTRY REQUIREMENTS 1. A child must be 4 years of age on or before August 31st and meet other NCPreK guidelines to enter our Pre-Kindergarten program. 2. A child must be 5 years of age on or before August 31st to enter Kindergarten. The law requires Kindergarten children to be enrolled during the first month of the school year. 3. A certified birth certificate, social security card and immunization record must be presented at the time of registration. 4. All children must be in compliance with NC Immunization Law within 30 days after enrollment in school. Any student not in compliance after 30 days will be suspended until proof of compliance is received in the school. The State of North Carolina requires that children have the following immunizations: | Vaccine | Doses | |-------------------------------|-------| | DTaP (diptheria, tetanus and acellular pertussis) | 5 doses* | | Polio | 4 doses* | | Hib (haemophilus influenza type B) | 3-4 doses** | | Measles | 2 doses | | Mumps | 2 doses | | Rubella | 1 dose | | Hepatitis B | 3 doses | | Varicella (chickenpox) | 2 doses+ | *The last dose of DTaP and Polio must be given on/or after age 4. **Children beyond their 5th birthday are not required to have any Hib vaccine. +Vaccination is required unless documentation of disease history is provided by a health care provider. 5. All children entering kindergarten must be in compliance with NC Health Assessment (physical) requirements. Every child entering kindergarten in the public schools shall receive a health assessment. The health assessment shall be made no more than 12 months prior to the date of school entry. 6. Parents should present a proof of residence at the time of registration. This may be a contract, lease, utility bill, or a copy of driver’s license. 7. If a child is residing with someone other than the parent we must have appropriate documentation signed by a judge. Pamlico County Board of Education also requires that an Educational Power of Attorney and parent/Guardian Affidavit be on file for students not residing with his/her parent (forms may be obtained from PCPS office). ACCIDENTS AND ILLNESS AT SCHOOL When your child is injured at school, first aid will be administered. If the injury is determined serious by the school nurse, an immediate attempt will be made to contact the parents or emergency person listed for your child. It is our hope we will never have to administer first aid to your child. However, if the occasion does arise, we have instructions approved by the superintendent, as to what we are allowed to do. **It is imperative to keep phone numbers up to date in case of emergency.** 1. Temperature can be checked by mouth (parent is notified if temperature is at least 100 degrees or higher). A child with a temperature reading of 100 degrees or higher will not be allowed to remain in school; he/she should remain home until his/her temperature is normal for 24 hours without the aid of medication. 2. The school nurse keeps a list of students with severe allergies. Please alert the school nurse annually, or as conditions change. 3. Medications may not be administered to your child without a Doctor’s Authorization Form on file with the school nurse. You may obtain a copy of the form from the office. 4. You may come to school and administer medications to your child. 5. **Students are not permitted to transport medication to or from school. An adult must bring the medication to the school office.** If your child is going to be successful in school, he/she should be healthy and attend school regularly. However, it is not fair to your child or the other children if he/she comes to school when he/she is ill. We ask you to help us protect your child and the other children by keeping your child home when he/she is not well. ARRIVAL Our instructional school day begins at 7:55 am with the Morning Announcements. Students should be in class by 7:55 a.m.; those students arriving to school after 8:00 a.m. will be counted tardy. Students that are checked in by 11:30 a.m. are counted present. A parent must accompany their child to the front office and sign them in when arriving late. Breakfast is available for all students at Pamlico County Primary School from 7:30-7:50 a.m. in the cafeteria. We encourage you to take advantage of this opportunity by getting your child to school prior to 7:50 a.m. each day. ATTENDANCE Regular and consistent attendance for all students in K-2 is essential for receiving the maximum benefits of the instructional day. As a school, we will recognize perfect attendance every nine weeks by student and the classroom with the best overall attendance. If your child arrives to school before 11:30 he/she will be counted present for the day. If your child leaves before 11:30 they will be counted absent for the day. The following constitute valid conditions for excused absences: A. **Illness or Injury**: When the absence results from illness or injury that prevents the student from being physically able to attend school. B. **Quarantine**: When the State Board of Health or the local Health Officer orders isolation of your child. C. **Death in the Immediate Family**: When the absence results from the death of a member of the immediate family of the student. For the purpose of regulation immediate family includes parents, grandparents, brothers, and sisters. D. **Medical or Dental Appointments**: When the absence results from a medical or dental appointment for a student. E. **Court or Administrative Proceedings**: When the absence results from attendance of a student at the proceedings of a court or an administrative tribunal if the student is a party to the action or under subpoena as a witness. F. **Religious Observances**: When the student is absent due to a religious observance in accordance with local school board policy. G. **Educational Opportunity**: When it is demonstrated that the purpose of the absence is to take advantage of a valid education opportunity, such as travel. *Approval must be granted by the principal prior to the absence.* --- **School Attendance Policy** 1. All absences require a note from the parent/guardian or a medical provider in order for the absences to count as excused. The note must be received within three (3) days of the student’s return to school. 2. If an absence is for more than three (3) consecutive days due to illness, a note from a medical provider must be provided in order for the absence to count as an excused absence. 3. After six (6) unexcused absences the parent/guardian and the student will be asked to meet with the principal and the school social worker. Failure to do so will constitute an immediate referral to the Judicial Attendance Council. 4. After ten (10) unexcused absences the parent/guardian will be referred to the Judicial Attendance Council for review. The parent/guardian and student’s presence at the review is mandatory. 5. At the discretion of the principal, after five (5) excused absences the parent/guardian may be asked to meet with the principal and school social worker. 6. At the discretion of the principal, after ten (10) excused absences the parent/guardian and student may be referred to the Judicial Attendance Council. The parent/guardian and student’s presence at this review hearing is mandatory. 7. At the discretion of the principal, the parent/guardian and the student may be referred to the Judicial Attendance Council for partial days missed from school due to tardiness or early check out. If a tardy or early dismissal is due to a medical appointment, a note should be given to the child’s teacher upon his/her return to school. Appointments should be made on teacher’s workdays, after school or during vacation days whenever possible. **CANCELLATION OF THE SCHOOL DAY** If the school day must be cancelled for weather or other situations deemed necessary by the Superintendent of Schools, local radio and TV stations will make the announcement to the general public. | TELEVISION STATIONS | RADIO STATIONS | |---------------------|----------------| | WCTI-TV, New Bern | WTEB-Public Radio 89.3 | | WNCT-TV, Greenville | WRNS 95.1 | | WITN-TV, Washington | WILT 98.7 | | | WNCT 107.9 | | | WTKF 107.3 | | | WQSL/WQZL 92.3 and 101.1 | Pamlico County Schools also has an “ALERT NOW” System in place. The “ALERT NOW” System automatically calls parent(s)/guardian(s) concerning school delays, closings, or early dismissals. Please make immediate arrangements to pick up your child **if he/she does not ride a bus** for early dismissal days due to emergencies. Please ensure that other adults allowed to pick up your child are listed on their emergency contact information. **VERY IMPORTANT:** Below are the Transportation Procedures if there is an Emergency Cancellation of the School Day and/or the After-School Programs, while school is in session. If the school **and/or** any after-school programs (such as Heartworks) have to be cancelled because of severe weather and/or hazardous conditions, parents/guardians will be notified by our school’s ALERTNOW telephone system, and students will be transported to their afternoon locations as specified below: If the student has been assigned to a bus by the PCS Transportation Dept., the student will be placed on that bus. Bus assignments are requested by parents on the Bus Stop Location Information form completed at the beginning of the year. These forms can ONLY be approved by PCS Transportation Dept. and NOT Pamlico Primary School. If the student is driven to and from school by means other than a bus, arrangements must be made for the student to be picked up by the parent or their designee at the appointed time. If the student may possibly need emergency transportation, please discuss your situation with Mrs. Dixon or Mrs. Boyd PRIOR TO the closing or cancellation. NO TEMPORARY BUS ASSIGNMENTS WILL BE GRANTED ON THE DAY OF A CANCELLATION OR CLOSING. CAR RIDERS In the mornings, students may be dropped off beginning at 7:30am. Please do not prior to 7:30 as staff may not yet be in place to provide adequate supervision. Please wait until staff arrive under the covered walkway before allowing students to exit your vehicle. Car riders are dismissed each day at 2:45 p.m. PCPS staff will be on duty to assist car riding students to their vehicles. Anyone walking up at dismissal to retrieve a student will be asked to go in and sign the student out in the main office. FOR YOUR SAFETY AND THAT OF YOUR CHILD, PLEASE PULL ALL THE WAY TO THE FRONT OF THE LINE AND DO NOT EXIT YOUR VEHICLE. We will be happy to assist you. CHILD CUSTODY If there are special custody agreements for a child, the parent(s)/guardian(s) should provide a copy of the custody papers signed by a judge, law enforcement official, or DSS case worker to the office and notify the teacher. Without custody papers on file in our office, school personnel consider both parents to have equal access to the child. CODE OF STUDENT CONDUCT*** Please refer to Pamlico County Schools’ System-Wide Policies inserted at the end of the handbook. COMMUNICATION FOLDER Communication folders will be sent home every Tuesday containing important classroom and schoolwide information. Please make sure to check your child’s communication folder and send it back to school the following day. CONFERENCES Each year during the fall and spring, the teachers at Pamlico County Primary School will contact the parents of every child to arrange an individual conference. This conference is intended to provide you with the opportunity to meet and become acquainted with your child’s teacher, and to provide you with information about your child’s progress. Parents are encouraged to consult regularly with their children’s teachers in an effort to maintain a positive working relationship between the child, the home, and the school. We ask that conferences be made by appointment and held after the students have been dismissed for the day whenever possible. The principal will be available by appointment to attend parent teacher conferences when requested. Classroom observations may be arranged with the principal and/or teacher. Each student is handled as an individual; your question or concern will be handled as such by the appropriate school personnel. CRITICAL RESPONSE DRILLS (Fire, Tornado, & Emergency Situations) PCPS will conduct monthly fire drills. During a fire drill, the teacher will instruct students and visitors to follow the exit pattern posted in every classroom. Exit the building quickly, quietly, and without running. Never touch or in any way disturb the red fire alarm switches except in case of emergency. Teachers and staff will be notified of any tornado drills, watches, and/or warnings. A continuous tone will signal a tornado warning. During this warning, students will follow the directions of their teacher. Students should move away from windows and crouch down using their arms to protect their head, with backs to the wall. At times, PCPS must practice for the possibility of a critical incident. We understand these situations may be stressful for young students and teachers and staff will work to prepare classes well in advance of a drill. While our hope is we will never have to respond to a critical incident, the safety of our PCPS family is our foremost concern. Thus, we want to ensure our students are as prepared as possible to handle such situations with confidence. Parents will be notified in advance of a drill as well as at the conclusion of the practice. We encourage families to discuss the drill and practice to alleviate the stress associated with the incident. **DISCIPLINE** At PCPS we believe the purpose of discipline is to instruct students about the proper way to behave and interact with one another. As teachers, administrators, and support staff, we will work together with students and parents to help our “pups” learn to demonstrate appropriate behavior in all situations. During the first few days of school, students will learn more about our schoolwide behavior expectations and practice ways to demonstrate their ability to make good choices throughout the school day and school building. Each classroom teacher will establish, post, and thoroughly teach expectations for behavior and work with administration to develop age appropriate consequences for discipline issues. When serious discipline incidents occur, the PCS Student Code of Conduct will be followed at all times. Please refer to the policies listed in the insert section of this handbook for detailed discipline policies and consequences. **CHOICE** From time to time students at PCPS may need to be removed from the regular classroom setting in order to “reset” their behavior. For this purpose, we have added the CHOICE classroom. CHOICE will be used only after the classroom teacher has determined the consequences for classroom misbehavior have proved ineffective. Students may be assigned to CHOICE by the classroom teacher or administration for a period of time not to exceed 45 unless behavior warrants a more extensive stay. Students will work with the CHOICE teacher to reflect on their behavior and determine more appropriate ways to respond. Also, all students assigned to CHOICE will use that time to complete classroom assignments provided by the teacher in an effort to minimize the loss of instructional time. Parents will be notified by the teacher or administration of the CHOICE assignment on the same day. **DRESS CODE** Please refer to the Pamlico County Schools’ System-Wide Policies inserted at the end of the handbook. **EARLY PICKUPS/EARLY RELEASE** While we understand that circumstances may arise requiring the need to remove your child from school early, we encourage you to make every effort to allow your student to remain in school until the end of the instructional day whenever possible. **Students will be counted absent if they do not arrive to school or are signed out of class prior to 11:30am each day.** *When possible, please do not attempt to check your child out of school between 2:15 and 2:45pm. During this time we are dismissing students to early buses and assisting PreK and EC students with loading buses. It is crucial that our office staff be attentive during this time as to ensure all students are in the proper location for their dismissal.* When school is abruptly dismissed by the Board of Education, parents should note your child will ride the afternoon bus assigned to the student by the Transportation Department. If there are no transportation assignments for your student, it is your responsibility to make arrangements for your child to be picked up from school. New transportation requests will not be granted on these days. **NOTE:** When students are dismissed early for staff in-service (early release days), dismissal time is 11:30am. Staff in-service dates are listed below: - September 29, 2017 - November 9, 2017 - December 19, 2017 - March 9, 2018 - May 4, 2018 - June 8, 2018 FIELD TRIPS Throughout the year, students have an opportunity to participate in field trips off campus. Parents will be asked to sign a field trip permission form for each trip. Parents will be notified by the teacher the date, time, cost, destination, and mode of transportation for the field trip. Upon notification, if you do not want your child to participate, please send a written note to the teacher requesting exclusion. **Parents who wish to accompany their child’s class on field trips must complete a Volunteer Application and be approved by the Board of Education PRIOR TO the trip.** HEAD LICE Periodic checks for head lice are conducted in school. Students with nits will have their head rechecked daily after the initial nits are discovered. Parents/guardians will be notified and a letter will be sent out to all students in that classroom. Parents of students with live head lice will be contacted by school personnel to pick their child up from school. The parent will speak to the school nurse and be given a packet about nits/head lice. School personnel will follow the guidelines for head lice and nit procedures. School personnel will also follow steps to eliminate nits and lice in the classroom. Frequent and regular checks of your child’s hair at home will assist in preventing outbreaks at school. Please notify the school if your child has head lice. When lice are found, siblings in other classrooms will be checked as well. Parents must provide a form from their health care provider or the local health department, stating that your child is **lice free** before they can return to school. You may pick up a Head Lice Advice Packet from our front office for more information on PCS head lice prevention procedures. INSURANCE Accident insurance for the school day or for 24 hours is available and highly recommended. An enrollment period is established during August of each school year. LIBRARY Books are checked out for one week and may be renewed a second week. A fee will be charged for lost or damaged books. LOST AND FOUND Many articles of clothing end up on the lost and found rack located in the front office. Please get in a habit of marking your children’s clothing so it might be returned if lost. Items not claimed will be given to the Salvation Army at the end of the school year. LUNCHES AND FOOD FROM HOME All PCPS students will be provided FREE meals daily. Students can also bring a healthy bagged lunch from home. They may purchase fresh milk, fruit and other healthy food and snack items from the cafeteria as well. We encourage students to make healthy choices for lifelong wellness and academic success. We ask visitors not to bring fast food into the school for themselves or for the students. Lunch Prices: | Item | Price | |-----------------------|---------| | Student Lunch | FREE | | Adult Lunch | A La Carte | | Non Student Lunch | A La Carte | | Milk | $.65 | | A La Carte | Prices Vary | Pamlico County Schools Child Nutrition Policies Please refer to Pamlico County Schools’ System-Wide Policies inserted at the end of the handbook. MONEY AND VALUABLES It is important that each child remember to keep his/her money with him/her at all times. Desks are not the proper places for items that you or your child consider valuable. These items should be left at home. Items brought to school for show and tell purposes should be labeled and carried back home with your child at the end of the school day. Pocketknives and toy guns should never be brought to school. These items, if found on your child, will result in action being taken according to the Pamlico County Schools’ Discipline Policy. OPTIONAL FEES School pictures will be taken in the Fall and Spring. Picture proofs will be sent home for parents/guardians to select pictures they would like to purchase. PARENT TEACHER ORGANIZATION/PARENT ADVISORY COUNCIL PTO plays a vital role in providing resources and activities for our school. We encourage parents/guardians to join the PTO at the beginning of each the school year. PTO meetings will be held the 2nd Tuesday of every month from 5:30-6:30 unless other notification is sent to parents. PTO/PAC OFFICERS | Position | Name | |----------------|---------------| | President | Crystal Carey | | Vice-President | OPEN | | Secretary | OPEN | | Treasurer | OPEN | PHYSICAL EDUCATION Pamlico County Primary School strives to help all students become physically fit so that they can be productive students in and out of school. With the sharp rise in childhood obesity it is vital that all students and families are active daily. Being fit and healthy means performing exercises that will improve endurance, flexibility and strength. Individuals who are active and stay active are healthier, feel better and will perform better at school and work. Students will have 150 minutes of physical activity weekly while at school. Students are expected to participate in PE activities. Whenever your child is ill or has a condition that makes it necessary for them to be exempted from PE activities, please send in a note stating the modification and the length of time that they should be exempted. REPORT CARDS/PROGRESS REPORTS Report cards go home on the following dates. Please review your child’s report card/progress report, sign the report card sleeve and send it back to school the next day. | Progress Report Dates | Report Card Dates | |-----------------------|-------------------| | October 3, 2017 | November 7, 2017 | | December 12, 2017 | January 30, 2018 | | February 27, 2018 | April 10, 2018 | | May 8, 2018 | June 8, 2018 | TRANSPORTATION Our Philosophy Good behavior on school buses is equally as important as good behavior while at school. At Pamlico Primary, we believe riding the bus to and from school is a privilege. We believe all students can and should behave appropriately and safely while riding on a school bus. Pamlico County School and Pamlico Primary will not tolerate any student stopping drivers from doing their job safely or preventing other students from having safe transportation. The PCPS administration and the Pamlico County Board of Education believe that school bus discipline is necessary for health and safety of all passengers and drivers on the buses. In an effort to ensure that good discipline exists, the following statements of policy are hereby agreed upon and approved by the administration and the Pamlico County Board of Education. **Bus Conduct and Safety** All students will be taught the following school bus passenger safety rules within the first ten days of school, each school year: 1. If you have to walk along the road to your bus stop, you should walk on the left shoulder of the road facing traffic. When cars are coming toward, get as far on the shoulder of the road as possible to avoid danger of being struck by traffic. 2. Be at your bus stop on time and wait for the buses in a safe place—off the road. 3. If it is necessary to cross the road at the bus stop, do not begin to cross until the bus has come to a complete stop and the stop arm is out. **UNIVERSAL BUS HAND SIGNALS WILL BE USED. TRAINING WILL OCCUR FOR STAFF AND DRIVERS PRIOR TO THE START OF THE SCHOOL YEAR. TRAINING WILL BE PROVIDED FOR STUDENTS WITHIN THE FIRST 5 DAYS OF SCHOOL REGARDING CROSSING PROCEDURES. THIS TRAINING WILL BE REVISITED EACH SEMESTER.** 4. Walk when crossing the road at the bus stop. Cross in front of the bus where the driver can see you. 5. Obey the driver at all times. 6. Permission to open windows should always be obtained from the driver. 7. Keep your head, arms, and hands inside the bus at all times. Do not throw objects from the bus. 8. Keep your head, arms and hands out of the aisles. 9. Remain seated until the bus has reached your bus stop and has come to a complete stop. 10. Passengers who live on the right side of the road should immediately move away from the bus out of danger after unloading. 11. Report any misbehavior or vandalism to the driver. 12. In the event of an accident or emergency, passengers may have to unload the bus. They should follow the directions of the driver as to a safe location to remain until help has arrived. Bus Disciplinary Rules and Procedures PCS Student Code of Conduct Policy 6104.08 BUS MISBEHAVIOR: Students shall not engage in any type of behavior that interferes with the safe and efficient operation of the school bus and/or the safety of persons riding in the bus. Students at all times while riding a school bus or other school vehicle shall observe the directions of the school bus driver. **TO BE ALLOWED TO RIDE THE BUS IS A PRIVILEGE AND SHOULD BE TREATED AS SUCH.** All students are required to remain on their assigned bus during the entire bus trip with the exception of changing buses to continue their route or in an emergency situation. Grades K-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Conference with student and parent contact. **Up to three (3) days suspension from riding the bus.** SECOND OFFENSE: **Up to five (5) days suspension from riding the bus.** THIRD OFFENSE: **Suspension from riding bus for up to 10 days.** SUBSEQUENT OFFENSE: **Students may be suspended from riding the bus for the remainder of the school year.** TRANSPORTATION POLICY – RETURN TO SCHOOL Safety is our top priority both at school and in transporting your child to and from school. It is important that bus routes be planned, examined, and approved to guarantee that all bus stops are safe and that the buses are not overcrowded. While bus routes may need to be altered slightly due to the enrollment of new students or the withdrawal of students, few changes should take place once the routes are established. We must establish for your child one permanent morning stop and one permanent afternoon stop. For liability and especially for the safety of your child, **we cannot make temporary changes.** Therefore, we request that you indicate on the transportation form the physical addresses of the permanent morning and afternoon bus stops for your child. Parents are responsible for making any necessary alternate transportation arrangements if the assigned stops are not convenient on particular days. **BUS PASSES WILL NOT BE ISSUED.** You may change the assigned permanent morning or afternoon bus stop by going to the transportation department and completing the necessary form. A responsible adult must be home in the afternoon for students Pre-K-2 to be dropped off. If no one is home the student will be brought back to the PCS Board of Education and efforts will be made to contact parents/guardians. At the second occurrence and return to the BOE, the following schedule will be followed: 2\textsuperscript{nd} offense – Student suspended from bus for 5 days, $20 fee paid to BOE, and Pamlico County Schools will contact DSS. 3\textsuperscript{rd} offense – Student suspended from the bus for 10 days, $20 fee paid to BOE, and Pamlico County Schools will contact DSS. 4\textsuperscript{th} offense – Student is suspended from the bus until further notice and Pamlico County Schools will contact DSS. The safe transportation of your child is always our primary concern. We need your help to ensure every precaution is taken to keep your child safe. VISITORS AND VOLUNTEERS Visits to our school and classrooms are always welcomed. For safety purposes, all parents/guardians and visitors must sign in at the office and pick up a visitors pass. Anyone in the building without a visitor’s pass will be asked to report to the office. Volunteers are encouraged and welcomed in the classroom, school, and school trips. However, before a parent or others are allowed to volunteer a Volunteer Application Form must be completed and turned into the front office. The application process includes a criminal background check. Once all information has been verified the principal will notify you when you may begin volunteering in our school. Volunteer applications must be completed for all parents and family members who intend on participating in any school trips or classroom activities PRIOR TO THE EVENT. What it means to be a Title I School Title I Mission Statement Supporting the belief that all children can learn, Title I specialists are committed to assist students in developing effective reading and math strategies in order to become confident, independent learners. All Title I resources and personnel are dedicated to providing the best possible instruction and intervention to students in Title I schools. Overview of Title I The intent of the Title I program is to improve the academic achievement of the disadvantaged. This program provides financial assistance through state educational agencies (SEAs) to local educational agencies (LEAs) and public schools with high numbers or percentages of economically-disadvantaged children to help ensure that all children meet challenging state academic content and student academic achievement standards. LEAs target the Title I funds they receive to public schools with the highest percentages of children from low-income families. Unless a participating school is operation a schoolwide program, the school must focus Title I services on children who are most in need of intervention or failing to meet state academic standards. Schools enrolling at least 40 percent of economically disadvantaged students are eligible to use Title I funds for schoolwide programs that serve all children in the school, provided they meet schoolwide requirements. Title I reaches about 12.5 million students enrolled in both public and private schools. Title I funds may be used for children from preschool age to high school, but most of the students served (65%) are in grades 1 through 6; another 12% are in preschool and kindergarten programs. Title I is designed to support state and local school reform efforts tied to challenging state academic standards in order to reinforce and amplify efforts to improve teaching and learning for students farthest from meeting state standards. Individual public schools with poverty rates above 40% may use Title I funds, along with other federal, state, and local funds, to operate a “schoolwide program” to upgrade the instructional program for the whole school. Schools with poverty rates below 40% or those choosing not to operate a schoolwide program, offer a “targeted assistance program” in which the school identifies students who are in need of intervention or failing to meet the state’s challenging performance standards. Schools then design, in consultation with parents, staff, and district staff, an instructional program to meet the needs of those students. Both schoolwide and targeted assistance programs must be based on effective means of improving student achievement and include strategies to support parental involvement. **Components of Schoolwide Programs** - Comprehensive Needs Assessment - School reform strategies - Highly qualified staff - High quality and ongoing professional development - Teacher recruitment and placement - Parent involvement - Transition plans (PreK- K, Elementary-Middle, Middle-High) - Teacher involvement in assessment use - Instruction activities for identified students - Coordination of federal, state, and local services **Components of Targeted Assistance Programs** - Program resources - Organization and planning - Effective instructional strategies and methods - Coordinate with and support the regular education program - Highly qualified staff - High quality and ongoing professional development - Parent involvement - Coordination of federal, state, and local services *Pamlico County Schools offers the “schoolwide program”. Pamlico County Primary School and Fred A. Anderson Elementary School are designated as Title I schools.* The Title I program for Pamlico County Schools is committed to early academic intervention and serves students with the greatest need in grades K-5. Students in Title I schools receive instruction daily from certified intervention specialists who continuously participate in rigorous professional development. The foundation of instruction is based on the RtI framework, the balanced literacy framework, and on the essential literacy and math elements from the North Carolina Essential Standards and Common Core State Standards. The format of the comprehensive intervention lesson is organized to maximize student time on task and scaffold instruction. Title I specialists provide an additional layer of intense, explicit, and differentiated instruction one on one or in small group sessions. Instructional decisions are based on authentic, daily assessment of students’ progress to ensure that every student is a successful, independent learner and is making accelerated growth. Pamlico County Schools System-Wide Policies Important Letter And Notifications This inserted section contains information regarding the following: - Prohibition of Bullying, Harassment, and Discrimination - PCS Bullying, Harassment, and Discrimination Reporting Form - Parent Involvement Policy - Effective Discipline Policy - Student Code of Conduct - Student Dress Code - Student Wellness Policy - Attendance Policy (Revised August 7, 2017) - CEP Participation Guidelines - Pamlico County Schools (FERPA) - Request for Professional Qualifications of Teachers - Environmental Quality Assurances Notification - Information on Meningococcal Meningitis, Flu, and HPV PROHIBITION OF BULLYING, HARASSMENT AND DISCRIMINATION Bullying, harassment, and discrimination are prohibited in the Pamlico County schools. The Pamlico County schools and staff shall not tolerate any bullying, harassment, or discrimination on school property and grounds or at any school activity on or off campus. The board believes that all employees and students should be free of discrimination, harassment, and bullying as a part of a safe, orderly, caring and inviting working and learning environment. The board commits itself to nondiscrimination in all its educational and employment activities. The board also prohibits retaliation against an employee or student who has exercised any rights made available through state or federal law, including prohibiting retaliation for reporting violations of this policy. Any violation of this policy is considered a serious violation and appropriate action will be taken in response to a violation. 3037.1 APPLICATION OF POLICY 4037.1 8337.1 All persons, agencies, vendors, contractors and other persons and organizations doing business with or performing services for the school district must comply with all applicable federal and state laws and regulations regarding harassment, bullying, or discrimination. Visitors also are expected to comply with applicable laws, including the prohibition against discrimination, harassment and bullying of students or employees. This policy will apply in the following circumstances: 1. while in any school building or on any school premises before, during or after school hours; 2. while on any bus or other vehicle as part of any school activity; 3. while waiting at any bus stop; 4. during any school function, extracurricular activity or other activity or event; 5. when subject to the authority of school personnel; and 6. any time or place when the behavior has a direct and immediate effect on maintaining order and discipline in the schools. For purposes of this policy, the following definitions will apply. 1. **Discrimination.** As used in this policy, discrimination means unlawful differential treatment of others based solely on their membership in a protected group or category, such as race, color, national origin, sex, pregnancy, religion, age, or disability. Discrimination may be intentional or unintentional. 2. **Harassment and Bullying.** As used in this policy, harassing or bullying behavior refers to any pattern of gestures or written, electronic or verbal communications, or any physical act or threatening communication, that: 1. Places a student or school employee in actual and reasonable fear of harm to his or her person or damage to his or her property; or 2. Creates or is certain to create a hostile learning or working environment. A “hostile environment” means that the victim subjectively views the conduct as bullying or harassing behavior and the conduct is objectively severe or pervasive enough that a reasonable person would agree that is bullying or harassing behavior. Harassing or bullying behavior includes verbal or physical conduct that is intended to intimidate, injure, degrade, or disgrace another student or person, or that has such an effect. It may include a pattern of abuse over time and may involve a student being “picked on.” It can include a variety of behaviors, such as but not limited to the following: - Physical intimidation or assault - Derogatory verbal comments (e.g., name-calling, hostile teasing, cruel rumors, taunts, put-downs, epithets, false accusations, harassment or discriminatory acts, slurs and mean-spirited jokes) - Threatening gestures or actions; oral, cyber, or written threats - Extortion or stealing money and possessions - Shunning and exclusion from peer group - Hazing Harassing or bullying behavior includes, but is not limited to, behavior described above that is reasonably perceived as being motivated by an actual or perceived differentiating characteristic, such as race, color, religion, ancestry, national origin, gender, socioeconomic status, academic status, gender identity, physical appearance, sexual orientation, or mental, physical, developmental, or sensory disability, or by association with a person who has or is perceived to have one or more of these characteristics. 3037.3 REPORTING DISCRIMINATION, HARASSMENT OR BULLYING 1. Any student who believes that he or she has been harassed, bullied or discriminated against in violation of this policy should report such behavior immediately to a teacher, counselor or administrator at his or her school. In the case of alleged harassment or bullying of a student by a school employee, a report also may be made to the Superintendent or designee. 2. Any employee who believes that he or she has been harassed, bullied or discriminated against in violation of this policy should report such behavior promptly to his/her immediate supervisor and/or the Superintendent or designee. 3. Any school employee who observes or becomes aware of alleged harassing, bullying or discriminatory behavior shall promptly report the incident as follows: a. If the alleged perpetrator is a student, the report shall be made to the principal; b. If the alleged perpetrator is a school employee, the report shall be made to the alleged perpetrator's immediate supervisor and/or the Superintendent or designee; c. If the alleged perpetrator is some other person, the report may be made to the principal and/or the Superintendent or designee; d. Failure to make such a report required by this section may subject the employee to disciplinary action. 4. Any person may report an act of harassment, bullying or discrimination anonymously. However, formal disciplinary action may not be taken solely on the basis of an anonymous report. 5. If the person to whom a report should be made under this section is the alleged perpetrator, or in circumstances not otherwise provided above, a report of harassing, bullying or discriminatory behavior may be made to the Superintendent or designee or the Board attorney. 1. All reports of alleged harassment, bullying or discriminatory behavior shall be promptly and thoroughly investigated. 2. Investigation of alleged harassment, bullying or discriminatory behavior by a student shall be conducted by the principal or designee. 3. Investigation of alleged harassment, bullying or discriminatory behavior by an employee shall be conducted by the Superintendent or designee. 4. Investigation of alleged harassment, bullying or discriminatory behavior by a volunteer or visitor shall be conducted by the principal or designee if the behavior occurred on school grounds or at a school activity, and otherwise by the Superintendent or designee. 5. If the individual designated as investigator under this policy is the alleged perpetrator, the investigation shall be conducted by an appropriate person designated by the Superintendent. If the alleged perpetrator is the Superintendent or a member of the Board, the Board attorney shall be the investigator. 6. If at any time the investigator receives information alleging that the harassment, bullying or discriminatory behavior was based on sex or gender, the investigator shall notify the school system’s Title IX Coordinator. In such case, the procedures outlined in Board Policy 3035/4035/8335 (Sexual Harassment) shall be followed. 7. The school system shall notify law enforcement and other appropriate external agency if required by law or board policy. 1. The actions taken in response to harassment, bullying or discriminatory behavior should be reasonably calculated to end any harassment, bullying, or discrimination, eliminate a hostile environment if one has been created, and prevent harassment, bullying or discrimination from occurring again. In addition to taking disciplinary action as necessary, the principal or other school official shall take appropriate remedial action to address the conduct fully. 2. Violations of this policy shall be considered misconduct and will result in disciplinary action up to and including long-term suspension or expulsion in the case of students and disciplinary action up to and including dismissal in the case of employees. 3. This policy shall not be construed or applied so as to discipline students or other persons for expression protected by the First Amendment, or out of a desire to avoid the discomfort and unpleasantness that may accompany an unpopular viewpoint. 4. Nothing in this policy precludes the school system from taking appropriate disciplinary action against a student or employee where the evidence does not establish harassment, bullying or discrimination but the conduct fails to satisfy the school system’s high expectations for appropriate conduct. **3037.6 NON-RETALIATION** The board prohibits reprisal or retaliation against any person who reports an act of discrimination, harassment or bullying. The consequence and appropriate remedial action for a person who engages in reprisal or retaliation shall be determined by the principal or the appropriate supervisory personnel, after consideration of the nature and circumstances of the act, in accordance with applicable federal, state or local laws, policies and regulations. **3037.7 TRAINING AND PROGRAMS** The Superintendent shall designate an employee(s) to participate in training by the Department of Public Instruction pertaining to anti-discrimination, anti-harassment and anti-bullying. The designee shall provide leadership and training in the school district regarding this policy and state requirements. The board will provide training for students and staff regarding the board’s policy on discrimination, harassment and bullying and as appropriate will create programs to address these issues. To the extent funding is made available, the Superintendent shall provide additional training to school employees and volunteers who have significant contact with students. The Superintendent shall ensure that any training or programs provided will include identifying groups that may be the target of discrimination, harassment or bullying; identifying places at which such behavior may occur including within school buildings, at school bus stops, via the internet, etc.; and providing clear examples of behavior that constitutes discrimination, harassment or bullying. The Superintendent is responsible for providing effective notice of this policy to students, parents and employees. This policy shall be posted on the school system website, and copies of the policy should be readily available in the principal's office, the media center at each school and the Superintendent's office. Notice of this policy shall appear in all student and employee handbooks and in any school system publication that sets forth the comprehensive rules, procedures and standards of conduct for students and employees. The Superintendent or designee shall publish the names, addresses and phone numbers of the "Title IX coordinator" (for sex discrimination), "Section 504 coordinator" (for discrimination on the basis of disability) and the "ADA coordinator" (also for discrimination on the basis of disability) in a manner intended to ensure that employees, applicants, students, parents and other individuals who participate in the school district's program are aware of the coordinators. The purpose of the coordinator positions is to provide additional protection of nondiscrimination rights. The coordinator either must (1) implement a resolution to a discrimination, harassment or bullying complaint, to the extent a resolution can be reached and the coordinator has the authority to implement corrective action or (2) notify the Superintendent that intervention by other school officials is required to resolve the situation. The Superintendent or his or her designee shall maintain confidential records of complaints or reports of harassment, bullying, or discrimination. The records shall identify the names of any individuals accused of harassment, bullying, or discrimination and the resolution of such reports or complaints. The Superintendent also shall maintain records of training, corrective action or other steps taken by the district to help provide an environment free of harassment, bullying, or discrimination. The Superintendent shall report to the State Board of Education all verified cases of discrimination, harassment or bullying. The report will be made through the Discipline Data Collection Report or through other means required by the State Board of Education. Legal References: North Carolina School Violence Prevention Act, G.S. §115C-407.5 et seq.; State Board Policy HRS-A-007. Cross Reference: Policy 3035/4035/8335, Sexual Harassment; Rule 28, Policy 6401, Student Code of Conduct. Adopted: September 8, 2009 Revised: December 7, 2009 The Board of Education recognizes the importance of parental involvement in the education of every child. In order to build strong parental support, each school: - Shall help parents in understanding such topics as the State’s academic content standards and State student academic achievement standards, State and local academic assessments, the requirements of this policy, and how to monitor a child’s progress and work with educators to improve the achievement of their children. - Shall provide materials and training to parents to help them improve their children’s achievement. - Shall educate all staff to ensure all school personnel understand the value of parent involvement. - Shall, to the extent feasible and appropriate, coordinate and integrate parent involvement programs and activities with Head Start, More at Four Program, Pamlico Partnership for Children and other Pamlico County preschool programs. - Shall ensure that information related to school and parent programs, meetings, and other activities is sent to the parents of participating children in a format and, to the extent practicable, in a language the parents can understand. - May involve parents in the development of training for teachers, principals, and other educators to improve the effectiveness of such training. - May pay reasonable and necessary expenses associated with local parental involvement activities, including transportation and child care costs, to enable parents to participate in school-related meetings and training sessions. - May train parents to enhance the involvement of other parents. - May arrange school meetings at a variety of times, or conduct in-home conferences between teachers or other educators, who work directly with participating children, with parents who are unable to attend such conferences at school, in order to maximize parental involvement and participation. - May adopt and implement model approaches to improving parental involvement. - May develop appropriate roles for community-based organizations and businesses in parent involvement activities. - May provide such other reasonable support for parental involvement activities as parents may request. In accordance with the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Title I, section 1118 (a)(2), Pamlico County Schools shall actively involve parents in all Title I funded schools. Each school receiving Title I money: - Shall involve parents in the development of the Local Educational Agency (LEA) Title I Plan by using the PTO officers and Advisory Board members for review and input at each Title I funded school. - Shall provide coordination, technical assistance, and other support necessary to assist schools in planning and implementing effective parent involvement activities to improve student academic achievement and school performance. - Shall coordinate and integrate parental involvement in Pamlico County Schools. - Shall conduct an annual evaluation of this policy and of the strategies for parental involvement listed in the Title I application. - Shall ensure that parents are always involved in the schools’ activities including being a part of each school’s School Improvement Team (SIT). - Shall conduct an annual school-level meeting for parents of all eligible Title I children to discuss the Title I-funded programs and activities. - May provide necessary literacy training from funds received under Title I, part A if the local educational agency has exhausted all other reasonably available sources of funding for such training. The Board of Education may establish a district-wide parent advisory council to provide advice on all matters related to parental involvement in programs supported by Title I funds. Legal Ref.: No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Title I, section 1118 (a)(2); G.S. 115C-47(54). Adopted: February 6, 2006 Revised: November 1, 2010 INTRODUCTION The Pamlico County Board of Education is committed to discipline practices that encourage the development of self-control, personal responsibility and respect for the dignity of all individuals. The Board is committed to maintaining effective discipline in order to establish positive learning environments within which students have the opportunity to receive an appropriate public education. In order for effective discipline to be maintained in each school, the Board acknowledges that cooperative relationships must be established among students, parents and school personnel. Each individual is expected to work positively toward this goal and to respect the individuality and the rights of all people. Parents/Guardians, students and school personnel are also expected to deal effectively with behavioral concerns. To carry out this commitment, the Board established the following responsibilities and student behavior guidelines for all students system-wide in grades 6-12. This policy is to also serve as a guide for discipline in grades K-5. Additionally, a copy of the Student Code of Conduct and procedures shall be published and made available at the beginning of each school year to each student and his/her parent/guardian. Violation of Board policies, rules or regulations, these Rules of Student Conduct, codes or regulations issued by the individual school, or the North Carolina General Statutes may result in disciplinary action including suspension or expulsion of the student from the Pamlico County Schools pursuant to Board policies. During the period of time that a student is suspended or expelled, he or she is prohibited from entering the grounds of any school in the Pamlico County Schools and from attending any school-related functions without express permission of the school principal. During any expulsion, the expelled student is not considered a student of the Pamlico County Schools. Efforts will be made to ensure early identification of students at risk for potential disciplinary problems. When it is recognized that a student is behaving in a manner which indicates potential disciplinary problems, school personnel shall make reasonable efforts to initiate preventive measures. Preventive interventions should attempt to identify and address the sources and cause of the potential discipline problems. Possible preventive intervention procedures may include, but are not limited to: - change of educational setting - change of instructional methods - change of schedule or teacher - conferences with parents/guardians - conferences with student - referral to and/or consultation with community agencies - referral to appropriate support personnel (counselor, nurse, attendance counselor, school resource officer, school social worker, juvenile justice, etc.) - referral to Behavioral Management Teams (social worker, nurse, guidance counselor, parent, student, referring teacher, etc.) - referral to Pamlico Alternatives to Suspension (PATS) - referral to school assistance team - referral to the Pamlico Academic Center for Excellence - use of daily or weekly progress reports to parents - use of peer mediation - visit by parents in the classroom School personnel shall actively seek effective, positive methods and strategies to help each student learn to behave in a manner that is conducive to effective learning and that respects the rights of others. Each school principal shall systematically identify potential problem areas with his/her school that may contribute to discipline problems within the school. The Board encourages the administration to continue to work with appropriate community agencies in dealing with discipline problems. CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS A student with an identified disability as defined in the North Carolina Policies Governing Services for Children with Disabilities may be disciplined or suspended in accordance with those procedures, which are summarized briefly below. Before suspending a child for more than ten (10) days, the Individual Educational Program Team shall be convened to determine whether the conduct was a manifestation of the child's disability (i.e. was caused by or substantially or directly related to the disability). If the team determines that the behavior was a manifestation of the child's disability, the child may not be suspended except for weapons, drugs, or serious bodily injury offenses. Then the IEP team needs to complete a Functional Behavioral Assessment and a Behavior Intervention Plan. In all actions involving in-school or out-of-school suspensions in excess of ten (10) school days, the parties shall have available all the due process rights of the North Carolina Policies and 20 USC 1415. Nothing in this policy shall be regarded as affording any rights additional to those provided under the applicable federal and state laws and regulations. SYSTEMWIDE UNIFORM CONSEQUENCES FOR MISCONDUCT The principal or his designee shall investigate and deal with incidents of alleged misconduct of students whenever: - a student discipline problem is referred; - the alleged misconduct violates the Student Code of Conduct; or - the principal determines that a situation exists which could pose a danger to persons or property or which seriously disrupts the learning environment. The use of the following disciplinary consequences is based on the assumption that teachers and/or other student support personnel have utilized broad, reasonable, available discipline alternatives and preventive measures prior to referring the student to the principal or that the student's behavior presents harm or a significant risk of harm to others or property or a threat to the orderly operation of the school. The principal or his/her designee shall have the authority to suspend for ten (10) days or less any student who violates the Student Code of Conduct by applying the System-wide Uniform Consequences for Misconduct. The Superintendent or his/her designee shall have the authority to suspend a student for more than ten (10) days following an infraction of the Student Code of Conduct. School personnel may use reasonable force to control behavior or to remove a person from the scene in those situations when necessary: - to correct students; - to quell a disturbance threatening injury to others; - to obtain possession of weapons or other dangerous objects on the person or within the control of a student; - for self-defense; - for the protection of persons or property; and - to maintain order on educational property, in the classroom, or at a school-related activity on or off educational property. Infractions of the Student Code of Conduct are grouped by classes of offense. Class of offense relates to the degree to which the behavior disrupts the orderly educational process in the school in terms of their effect on the behavior of others and the degree to which the behavior presents a potential for harm to others. For each rule a range of consequences is provided as appropriate responses depending upon the judgment as to: - the degree to which the behavior disrupts the orderly educational process in the school; - the degree to which the behavior presents a potential for harm to others or property; - the degree to which the behavior harms others or property; - the student's unresponsiveness to reasonable available discipline alternatives and preventive measures prior to the referral to the principal or his/her designee; and - previous violations of the same code of conduct provisions. These factors may be deemed aggravating factors which elevate a minor offense to a serious offense. Long-term suspension and expulsion should be restricted to serious violations of the Student Code of Conduct that either threaten the safety of students, staff, or school visitors, or threaten to substantially disrupt the educational environment. Principals may, however, in their discretion, determine that aggravating circumstances justify treating a minor violation as a serious violation. The Superintendent and principals shall have authority to consider the student's intent, disciplinary and academic history, potential benefits to the student of alternative student suspension, and other mitigating and aggravating factors, when deciding to recommend or impose long-term suspension. GENERAL PROVISIONS AND DEFINITIONS A. Due Process: A student recommended for long-term suspension or expulsion shall be provided an opportunity for a hearing as provided in Policy 6516 and Policy 6517. B. Alternative Education Services: Pursuant to Policy 6516, the Superintendent shall offer alternative education services to any student who receives a long-term suspension or 365 day suspension unless the Superintendent provides a significant or important reason for declining to offer such services. The following may be significant or important reasons, depending on the circumstances and the nature and setting of the alternative education services: 1. The student exhibits violent behavior. 2. The student poses a threat to staff or other students. 3. The student substantially disrupts the learning process. 4. The student otherwise engaged in serious misconduct that makes the provision of alternative educational services not feasible. 5. Educationally appropriate alternative education services are not available in the local school administrative unit due to limited resources. 6. The student failed to comply with reasonable conditions for admittance into an alternative education program. For purposes of this policy, alternative education services means any part of full-time program, wherever situated, providing direct or computer-based instruction that allows a student to progress in one or more core academic classes. C. Assignment to the Pamlico Academic Center for Excellence (PACE) Program: A long-term suspension could be waived at the discretion of the Superintendent and a student could be assigned to PACE as an alternative to long-term suspension. Students in grades 6-12 who have repeated or subsequent offenses may be assigned to PACE. An assignment to PACE, full-time, is not a long-term D. **Expulsion:** Expulsion is the indefinite exclusion of a student from school enrollment for disciplinary purposes. The Pamlico County Board of Education policy regarding expulsion can be found at Policy 6517. E. **Immediate Removal from School (Summary Suspension):** The Pamlico County Board of Education policy regarding summary suspension can be found at Policy 6514. F. **In-School Suspension:** In-school suspension (CHOICE) is used as a disciplinary procedure which allows students to remain in the school environment where their conduct and academic progress can be closely supervised by school personnel. In-school suspension also prevents the student from accumulating excessive days of absence. Any student assigned to in-school suspension will not be allowed to participate in school sponsored activities during the time of his/her in-school suspension and may be required to perform "community service" type activities on the school campus. Parents should be notified of the suspension in a timely manner by letter or phone. G. **Long-Term Suspension:** A long-term suspension is the exclusion for more than ten (10) school days of a student from school attendance for disciplinary purposes from the school to which the student was assigned at the time of the disciplinary action. The Pamlico County Board of Education policy regarding long-term Suspension can be found at Policy 6516. H. **Pamlico Alternatives to Suspension (PATS):** PATS is designed to target students who have been suspended for three (3) to ten (10) days. Schools within the district and local agencies will combine community service with completing assigned schoolwork successfully in a structured environment. The decision to assign a student to PATS rests with the principal and is based on what is in the best interest of the student, assigned agency/school, student maturity, severity of infraction, cooperation of parent and student and discipline record. I. **Parent:** Parent is the parent(s), guardian(s), or individual(s) standing "in loco parentis," as appointed by a court of law, of a student. J. **Parent Visitation:** A student who breaks the Student Code of Conduct may be given the opportunity by the principal to have one of his/her parents attend school with him/her for a day and attend class with him/her. This disciplinary action is decided solely by the principal and will not be used when serious conduct infractions have occurred. K. Principal: Principal shall include assistant principals. L. Search of Student Lockers: Student lockers are school property and remain at all times under control of the schools; however, students are expected to assume full responsibility for the security of their lockers. Periodic general inspections of lockers may be conducted by school authorities for any reason at any time without notice, without student or parent consent, and without a search warrant. M. Short-Term Suspension: A short-term suspension is the exclusion of a student from school attendance for disciplinary purposes for up to ten (10) school days from the school to which the student was assigned at the time of the disciplinary action. The Pamlico County Board of Education policy regarding short-term suspension can be found at Policy 6515. N. Restitution: The replacement of, or payment for, property taken, damaged, or destroyed shall be sought, including discovery cost. (Reward money) O. Restrictions During Any Suspension 1. Student is not to be on any school campus in Pamlico County without special permission from the school principal. 2. Student cannot participate in or attend any school-sponsored activity without written permission from the school principal. Legal Reference: G.S. 115C-390.2, -390.3 Adopted: June 5, 2000 Revised: August 7, 2006 Revised: September 4, 2007 Revised: August 10, 2011 Revised: October 3, 2011 Revised: March 3, 3014 Back to Top The following list of rules for Pamlico County Schools is provided as guidance for students, parents, teachers and administrators. This cannot be an all-inclusive list; however, administrators shall use their discretion in dealing with all specific behavior that violates the principles set forth in this policy. Consideration is to be given to the student's cognitive and developmental ability to appreciate the significance of his/her behavior and to assume responsibility for behavior. Circumstances and degrees of involvement could mitigate an otherwise serious offense or make an otherwise minor offense more serious. The disciplinary measures specified in this Code shall be considered guidelines applicable to most cases. Particular facts and circumstances may justify a sanction that is more or less severe than the specified disciplinary measure, except as otherwise required by law. **A student who violates more than one section of this Code may be subject to more severe disciplinary action than is specified for any single violation. (It is expected that any subsequent infraction will build upon disciplinary actions of previous infractions.)** Each school staff will establish the need for acceptable social conduct. Each school staff will cooperatively develop a good school climate and positively directed rules and regulations, including a continuum of disciplinary consequences. - Schools will operate under existing federal, state, local and Board regulations. - Discipline is the responsibility of all personnel. - Principals will assign all authority roles. - Teachers and principals will develop procedures for communications concerning disciplinary action taken. When a school official learns or reasonably believes that any student has violated any Board or school policy, rule or regulation that may also be a criminal violation of the laws of the United States or the State of North Carolina, he shall determine whether it is necessary or appropriate to report such violation to the proper law enforcement agency. In such cases, school officials shall cooperate fully with the law enforcement agency; however, internal disciplinary proceedings shall proceed independently from the criminal investigation and prosecution. As required by G.S. § 115C-288(g), the principal shall immediately report to the appropriate local law enforcement agency when the principal has personal knowledge or actual notice from school personnel that any of the following acts has occurred on school property: 1. Assault resulting in serious personal injury (defined in G.S. §14-32.4); 2. Assault involving the use of a weapon (defined in G.S. §14-32 through 14-34.9); 3. Sexual assault (defined in G.S. §14-27.5A and 14-33(c)(2)); 4. Sexual offense (defined in G.S. §14-27.4 through 14-27.5 and 14-27.7A); 5. Rape (defined in G.S. §14-27.2 through 14-27.3 and 14-27.7A); 6. Kidnapping (defined in G.S. §14-39); 7. Indecent liberties with a minor (defined in G.S. §14-202.1, 14-202.2 and 14-202.4); 8. Possession of a firearm in violation of the law (defined in G.S. §14-269.2); 9. Possession of a weapon in violation of the law (defined in G.S. §14-269.2); 10. Possession of a controlled substance in violation of the law (defined in the North Carolina Controlled Substances Act in Article 5 of G.S. §90-86 through 90-113.8); Willful failure to make the required reports of the above acts may subject the principal to dismissal or demotion. In addition to those that are specifically spelled out in North Carolina General Statutes all larcenies, extortion as well as extortion attempts, robbery (armed or common law), hate crimes, stalking, possession of any explosive or incendiary device or arson/attempted arson should be immediately reported to law enforcement officials. The superintendent’s office shall be notified. This policy pertains to all students in the Pamlico County Schools while they are on the campus of any school in the Pamlico County School System, while they are participating in any activity sponsored by the Pamlico County Schools, while they are being transported in a vehicle owned or operated by the Pamlico County Schools, while they are awaiting pick-up at a bus stop, while going to or from a bus stop, in route to and from school or a school-sponsored activity, while they are representing Pamlico County Schools in any way, or while students are off campus if the student's conduct has or is reasonably expected to have a direct and immediate impact on the orderly and efficient operation of the school, or the safety of individuals in the school environment. In circumstances where student behavior indicates that the student's continued presence in the school constitutes a clear threat to the safety of employees or other students, a student may be suspended or expelled regardless of where the acts and conduct occur. Students have the responsibility to comply with the rules of their individual school and the school system to pursue the prescribed courses of study and to submit to the lawful authority of teachers or school officials and the law. Students will also be subject to random searches for weapons or contraband in accordance with state and federal law. In any case where out-of-school suspension is utilized, a parental conference with the principal and/or teacher(s) will be scheduled prior to the student’s re-entry into school. Parents are to be notified concerning any rule violation and should be informed of all out-of-school suspensions by phone if at all possible. If parents are not available by phone, a letter should be mailed in a timely manner. All rule infractions will be retained in the Pamlico County PowerSchool Database. CLASS I RULE 1 CLASSROOM AND EXTRACURRICULAR DISRUPTION OR DISTRACTION—LASER POINTERS OR SIMILAR DEVICES PROHIBITED The act of disruption or distraction which affects the normal education process or interferes with any school extracurricular activity, including, but not limited to, interrupting the class, provoking other students or talking excessively. Laser pointers are prohibited. If a student uses a laser pointer, or similar devices, in a way that reasonably could or does cause physical harm, the laser pointer may be considered a dangerous instrument and the student may be charged with the violation of assault. See Rules 25, 26, and 29. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFICE REFERRAL: Verbal warning up to two (2) days in-school suspension. SECOND OFFICE REFERRAL: Up to five (5) days in-school suspension. Special circumstances may warrant up to 2 days out-of-school suspension. THIRD & SUBSEQUENT OFFICE REFERRAL(S): Up to three (3) days out-of-school suspension. Special circumstances may warrant suspension for remainder of the year. RULE 2 BEING IN UNAUTHORIZED AREAS Students shall not be in unauthorized areas during the school day. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to one (1) day in-school suspension. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to three (3) days in-school suspension or up to two (2) days out-of-school suspension. THIRD OFFENSE: Up to five (5) days in-school suspension or up to five (5) days out-of-school suspension. RULE 3 SKIPPING (TRUANCY) SCHOOL ALL DAY OR ASSIGNED CLASSES DURING SCHOOL DAY Students shall be on campus and in their assigned classes unless they have been authorized to be elsewhere by authorized personnel. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to three (3) days in-school suspension. (Punishment may include but is not limited to before or after school detention, or lunch detention.) SECOND AND SUBSEQUENT OFFENSE(S): Up to five (5) days in-school suspension, loss of driving privileges. UNEXCUSED TARDIES TO SCHOOL OR ASSIGNED CLASSES It is imperative that students realize and recognize the importance of arriving at school on time and being punctual to class on a daily basis. Habits formed in school often determine habits after school. Punctuality is a habit that should be cultivated, practiced and endorsed. TARDY TO SCHOOL OR CLASS: (Grades K-8) The administration and teachers must be active in calling parents any time a child is absent. It should be stressed that good attendance will usually mean good grades. When appropriate, schools may also utilize lunch detention, before or after school detention, possible revocation of a student transfer if applicable, suspension of extracurricular opportunities, or in-school suspension as a means to emphasize the importance of attendance. Schools shall not use out-of-school suspensions as punishment for being tardy to school. Other methods of dealing with students who are tardy to school should also be explored by each school. TARDY TO SCHOOL OR CLASS: (Grades 9-12) - Students tardy to school will check in at the office and be issued a pass. - Teachers will refer students who are tardy to class to an administrator. FIRST OFFENSE (1 –5 Tardies): Up to one (1) day in-school suspension (ISS) (day/period) SECOND OFFENSE (5 – 10 Tardies): Up to two (2) days ISS and possible loss of driving privileges THIRD OFFENSE (10+ Tardies): Up to three (3) days ISS, loss of driving privileges, mandatory parent conference RULE 4 NON-COMPLIANCE WITH DIRECTIONS OF TEACHERS AND OTHER SCHOOL PERSONNEL OR PROVIDING FALSE INFORMATION Students shall comply with all lawful directions of teachers, substitute teachers, teacher assistants, student teachers and any other authorized school personnel during any period in which they are subject to school authority. At no time shall a student provide false information to a teacher or staff member. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to two (2) days out-of-school suspension. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to five (5) days out-of-school suspension based on the severity of the offense. Additional community service duties, such as picking up trash from the grounds, etc., may be assigned. THIRD AND SUBSEQUENT OFFENSE(S): Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. RULE 5 INAPPROPRIATE APPEARANCE OR CLOTHING Appearance or clothing which is disruptive, provocative, indecent, vulgar, obscene, or which advertises illegal drugs or displays obnoxious or indecent signs, symbols or drawings, or which endangers the health or safety of the student or others is prohibited. Articles of clothing, which are patently offensive to race, creed, color, or sex will not be permitted. See Pamlico County Schools Policy 6402 for complete School Dress Code. The school dress code also applies any time a student is participating in a school event, in the school library, and when being transported on a school bus. 1st Offense Student will be asked to correct the inappropriate attire while at school or parent will be called to come to the school and replace the unacceptable clothing. If parents are unable to come immediately, student will be required to wear available alternate clothing provided by the school for the remainder of the day. 2nd Offense Any further offenses will result in disciplinary action as deemed appropriate by the principal. RULE 6 CHEATING/INTEGRITY Students shall not cheat on tests/examinations, not copy the work of another student nor assist a student who is attempting to copy his/her work, nor plagiarize work, nor complete in a dishonest or deceptive manner, any type of academic assignment. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Teacher conference with administration, student and parent(s) and a grade of zero (0) for assignment. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to three (3) days in-school suspension and a grade of zero (0) for assignment. THIRD OFFENSE: Up to three (3) days out-of-school suspension and a grade of zero (0) for assignment will be given. RULE 7 INAPPROPRIATE INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIOR Inappropriate public displays of affection or indecent exposure, as determined by school personnel, are not allowed. Examples are, but are not limited to, kissing, inappropriate touching, mooning, etc. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Conference with students and parent(s). Up to two (2) days in-school suspension. Extremely inappropriate acts may result in out-of-school suspension for the remainder of the school year. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to four (4) days in-school suspension or up to two (2) days out-of-school suspension. Extremely inappropriate acts may result in out-of-school suspension for the remainder of the school year. THIRD OFFENSE: Up to five (5) days out-of-school suspension. Extremely inappropriate acts may result in out-of-school suspension for the remainder of the school year. RULE 8 BUS MISBEHAVIOR Students shall not engage in any type of behavior that interferes with the safe and efficient operation of the school bus and/or the safety of persons riding in the bus. Students at all times while riding a school bus or other school vehicle shall observe the directions of the school bus driver. TO BE ALLOWED TO RIDE THE BUS IS A PRIVILEGE AND SHOULD BE TREATED AS SUCH. All students are required to remain on their assigned bus during the entire bus trip with the exception of changing buses to continue their route or in an emergency situation. **Grades K-12** FIRST OFFENSE: Conference with student and parent contact. Up to three (3) days suspension from riding the bus. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to five (5) days suspension from riding the bus. THIRD OFFENSE: Suspension from riding bus for up to 10 days. SUBSEQUENT OFFENSE: Students may be suspended from riding the bus for the remainder of school year. **RULE 9 USE OF TOBACCO PRODUCTS** Students **shall not use or possess** any type of tobacco products on school property during the time school is open for the school day or for any supervised school activities, or when being transported to and from school in a school financed vehicle. (This includes school-sponsored events such as dances, field trips, athletic functions, etc. or while participating or being under the direct supervision of a school staff member.) This policy is in effect for any Pamlico County student on any campus of the Pamlico County Schools. For the purposes of this rule, “tobacco product” is defined to include cigarettes, cigars, blunts, bidis, pipes, chewing tobacco, snuff, electronic cigarettes and any other items containing, made or derived from, or reasonably resembling tobacco or tobacco products. “Use” of tobacco products includes, but is not limited to, smoking, chewing, or dipping. **Grades 6-12** FIRST OFFENSE: Up to three (3) days in-school suspension and enrollment and successful completion in a tobacco awareness program. Confiscate products. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to three (3) days out-of-school suspension. Confiscate products. **Loss of driving privileges for one semester.** THIRD OFFENSE: Up to five (5) days out-of-school suspension. Confiscate products. **Loss of driving privileges for one year.** FOURTH OFFENSE: Fourth violation of this rule may result in out-of-school suspension for remainder of year. **Loss of driving privileges for one year.** Confiscate products. RULE 9A USE OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION OR ELECTRONIC DEVICES Wireless Communication or Electronic Devices may include: Personal Entertainment Devices, Cell Phones, Pagers, Two-Way Radios, CD/MP3 Players, Electronic Game Players or Games, Media Players, and Similar Devices, etc. Wireless Communication or Electronic Devices will not be used during class time and need to be turned off or silent. Teachers may direct the use of Wireless Communication or Electronic Devices during class if the use is of an educational purpose related to the North Carolina Curricular Standards. Students may use Wireless Communication or Electronic Devices outside of class time, as designated by Administration for specific times and locations, provided it does not violate any sections of the Student Code of Conduct. Any wireless communication or electronic devices used inappropriately, displayed, or possessed in the “on” position will be confiscated. Confiscated devices will be labeled by student names and the date confiscated. At the end of the confiscation period, the device(s) will be returned to the parent/guardian. 1ST OFFENSE: Pre-K-5 Warning and contact parent 6-12 Warning and contact parent. 2ND OFFENSE: Pre-K-5 Confiscate device and require parent conference. Device will be returned to parent at conference 6-12 Confiscate device for three (3) days and return device to parent. SUBSEQUENT OFFENSES: Pre-K-5 Confiscate device for (5) days and require parent conference. Parent will retrieve device at conference. 6-12 Confiscate device for 5 days and require parent conference. Parent will retrieve device at conference. Student can be assigned up to (10) days in school suspension. NOTE: If the student has inappropriately used the Wireless Communication or Electronic device, the incident may be forwarded to law enforcement to determine if a crime has been committed. Principals may authorize individual students to possess and/or use for personal purposes wireless communication devices if, in the opinion of the principal, there is a reasonable need for such communication. Pamlico County Schools is not liable for any personal Wireless Communication or Electronic Device that may be stolen, lost or damaged. **CLASS II** **RULE 10 INSULTING, DISRESPECTFUL, ABUSIVE, PROFANE, OBSCENE WORDS, SIGNS, GESTURES, AND OTHER ACTS** Students shall not direct insulting, abusive, profane, obscene words, signs, gestures, and other acts toward other students, visitors, school employees, and other persons. *Grades 6-12* FIRST OFFENSE: Up to five (5) days out-of-school suspension. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. THIRD OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. Long-term suspension shall not be used unless the principal determines that aggravating factor(s) raise a violation of this provision from a minor offense to a major offense. **RULE 11 SEXUAL HARASSMENT** Students shall not direct unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or other inappropriate oral, written, or physical conduct of a sexual nature to another student. Harassing conduct that is not sexual in nature but is directed against another student based on his or her gender is also prohibited. All students must be allowed to learn and work in an environment free from such harassment. *Law enforcement officials may be notified.* *Grades 6-12* FIRST OFFENSE: Up to five (5) days out-of-school suspension. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. THIRD OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. **RULE 12 GAMBLING** Students shall not participate in any form of gambling or games of chance/skill for money and/or other items of value. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to five (5) days in-school suspension. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to three (3) days out-of-school suspension. THIRD OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. RULE 13 INAPPROPRIATE USE OF COMPUTERS/INTERNET/EMAIL/NETWORK/ETC. Students shall not violate the Pamlico County Public Schools Appropriate Internet Use Policy (5451) Grades K-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to five (5) days in-school suspension and loss of technology privileges. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to three (3) days out-of-school suspension and possible loss of technology privileges. THIRD OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension and possible loss of technology privileges. CLASS III Class III rules refer to student behaviors which are disruptive to the educational process and may have the potential for physical injury to others. In cases in which these behaviors are violations of North Carolina General Statutes, involvement of law enforcement officers will be required. Required Suspension of Driver's Permit Or License General Statute 20-11 requires a student’s driver’s permit or license to be suspended one year by the Department of Motor Vehicles if a student is given an expulsion/suspension for more than 10 consecutive days or an assignment to an alternative educational setting for more than 10 consecutive days for one of the following reasons: 1. The possession or sale of an alcoholic beverage or an illegal controlled substance on school property. 2. The possession or use on school property of a firearm or destructive device that resulted in disciplinary action under G.S. 115C-390.10 or that could have resulted in that disciplinary action if the conduct had occurred in a public school. 3. The physical assault on a teacher or other school personnel on school property. Violations of Class III offenses shall be considered on their own set of facts and circumstances. Appropriate punishment shall be determined by the principal, superintendent, and the school board where appropriate. The punishment set out under each Rule for first or second offenses is a guideline only. Any punishment, including expulsion of a student over 14 years of age, may be warranted in the circumstances, even for first offenses. Expulsion will be appropriate provided that the school board determines that the student's continued presence at school threatens the safety of other students or school staff. The expulsion process in Policy 6517 shall apply. RULE 14 TRESPASSING Students shall not willfully enter or remain in any school structure, conveyance or property without having been authorized or invited, nor refuse to depart after being directed to leave by authorized personnel. Law enforcement may be notified based on the severity of the act. - No student shall be on the campus of another school in the Pamlico County Schools during the school day without the knowledge and consent of the officials of the school he is visiting. - Students who loiter at any school after the close of the school day without specific need or supervision will be considered trespassers and may be prosecuted if they do not leave when instructed to do so. - Any student who has been suspended from school may be considered trespassing if he appears on school property during the suspension period without the express permission of the principal. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension depending on severity of the act. Special circumstances may warrant out-of-school suspension for the remainder of school year. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. RULE 15 MAKING AND/OR POSSESSING FIRECRACKERS OR SIMILAR DEVICES Students shall not make or possess firecrackers or similar pyrotechnic, explosive, incendiary, or smoke-creating devices. Law enforcement and parents shall be notified. For powerful explosives, see Rule 30. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to five (5) days out-of-school suspension. Special circumstances may warrant out-of-school suspension for remainder of school year. Confiscate device. SECOND OFFENSE: Confiscate device. Up to full period of long-term suspension. RULE 16 EXPLODING FIRECRACKERS OR IGNITING SIMILAR DEVICES Students shall not explode firecrackers or ignite pyrotechnic, explosive, incendiary, or other smoke-creating devices. **Law enforcement and parents shall be notified.** For powerful explosives, see Rule 30. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Confiscate device. Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. Special circumstances may warrant suspension for the remainder of the school year. SECOND OFFENSE: Confiscate device. Up to full period of long-term suspension. RULE 17 POSSESSION OR USE OF MARIJUANA, NARCOTICS, STIMULANTS, DEPRESSANTS, ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES, ANY OTHER UNAUTHORIZED OR ILLEGAL SUBSTANCE OR DRUG PARAPHERNALIA, AND COUNTERFEIT FORM OF SAID SUBSTANCES Students shall not possess or use marijuana, narcotics, stimulants, depressants, counterfeit form of an illegal substance, alcoholic beverages or any other unauthorized or illegal substance or drug paraphernalia. Prohibited substances include any synthetic substances that are listed on the schedules of controlled substances including but not limited to synthetic cannabinoids (K2 or Spice), MDPV (synthetic cocaine), MDPK (MTV, Magic, Maddie, Super Coke, PV) or Mephedrone (M4, meph, drone, MCAT). **Law enforcement and parents shall be notified.** Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Confiscate substance. Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension with a minimum of five (5) days required if student is allowed to return during current school year. Special circumstances may warrant suspension for remainder of the year. Active involvement in a substance abuse/chemical dependency program if student is allowed to return to school. SECOND OFFENSE: Confiscate substance. Up to full period of long-term suspension. RULE 18 SALE, DELIVERY, OR DISTRIBUTION OF MARIJUANA, NARCOTICS, STIMULANTS, DEPRESSANTS, ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES, AND ANY OTHER UNAUTHORIZED OR ILLEGAL SUBSTANCE, DRUG PARAPHERNALIA OR COUNTERFEIT FORM OF SAID SUBSTANCES Students shall not sell, deliver, or distribute marijuana, narcotics, stimulants, depressants, counterfeit form of an illegal substance, alcoholic beverages, or any other unauthorized or illegal substance or drug paraphernalia. Prohibited substances include any synthetic substances that are listed on the schedules of controlled substances including but not limited to synthetic cannabinoids (K2 or Spice), MDPV (synthetic cocaine), MDPK (MTV, Magic, Maddie, Super Coke, PV) or Mephedrone (M4, meph, drone, MCAT). Law enforcement and parents shall be notified. Grades 6-12 Confiscate substance. A student who sells, delivers, or distributes marijuana, narcotics, stimulants or any other unlawful or unauthorized substance, drug paraphernalia or counterfeit form of such substance may be suspended up to full period of long-term suspension. (Special circumstances may warrant expulsion.) RULE 19 MAJOR DISRUPTION OF THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT (INCITING OR PARTICIPATING IN A STUDENT DISORDER; i.e. riots, walk outs, sit-ins, assaults, etc.) Students shall not lead, participate in, or encourage others to participate in major group disruptions, which adversely affect the educational process. Law enforcement and parents shall be notified. FIRST OFFENSE: Minimum five (5) days out-of-school suspension, up to out-of-school for remainder of school year. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. RULE 20 PARTICIPATION IN A GANG OR GANG ACTIVITY THAT DISRUPTS THE NORMAL SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT No student shall commit any act that furthers gangs or gang-related activities. A gang is any ongoing organization, association, or group of three or more persons, whether formal or informal, having as one of its primary activities the commission of criminal acts and having a common name or common identifying sign, color, or symbols. Conduct prohibited includes: • Wearing, possessing, using, distributing, displaying, or selling any clothing, jewelry, emblems, badges, symbols, signs or other items with intent to convey membership or affiliation in any gang; • Communicating either verbally or non-verbally (gestures, handshakes, slogans, drawings, etc.) with the intent to convey membership or affiliation in a gang; • Tagging, or otherwise defacing school or personal property with symbols or slogans intended to convey membership in or affiliation with a gang; • Requiring payment of protection, insurance, or otherwise intimidating, or threatening any person related to gang activity; • Inciting other students to intimidate or to act with physical violence upon any other person related to gang activity; • Soliciting others for gang membership; • Conspiring to commit any violation of this policy or committing or conspiring to commit any other illegal act or other violation of school district policies that relates to gang activity Before being suspended for a first offense of wearing gang-related attire (when not involved in any kind of altercation), a student may receive a warning and be allowed to immediately change or remove the attire. **Law enforcement and parents shall be notified.** **Grades 6-12** FIRST OFFENSE: Minimum five (5) days out-of-school suspension, up to out-of-school for remainder of school year. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. **RULE 21 UNJUSTIFIED ACTIVATION OF A FIRE ALARM OR MAKING A FALSE REPORT OF AN EMERGENCY** Students shall not activate any fire alarm unless authorized to do so by school employees, or unless there are reasonable grounds for the student to believe an actual emergency condition exists. At no time shall a student call in or in any other manner communicate a false report concerning a bomb, other explosive device, or any emergency situation. **Law enforcement and parents shall be notified.** Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. Special circumstances may warrant out-of-school suspension for the remainder of the school year. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. BOMB HOAXES: THE BOARD OF EDUCATION MAY LONG-TERM SUSPEND ANY STUDENT WHO, BY ANY MEANS OF COMMUNICATION TO ANY PERSON OR GROUP OF PERSONS, MAKES A REPORT, KNOWING OR HAVING REASON TO KNOW THE REPORT IS FALSE, THAT THERE IS LOCATED ON EDUCATIONAL PROPERTY OR AT A SCHOOL SPONSORED ACTIVITY OFF EDUCATIONAL PROPERTY ANY DEVICE DESIGNED TO DESTROY OR DAMAGE PROPERTY BY EXPLOSION, BLASTING, OR BURNING, OR WHO, WITH INTENT TO PERPETRATE A HOAX, CONCEALS, PLACES, OR DISPLAYS ANY DEVICE, MACHINE, INSTRUMENT, OR ARTIFACT ON EDUCATIONAL PROPERTY OR AT A SCHOOL-RELATED ACTIVITY ON OR OFF EDUCATIONAL PROPERTY, SO AS TO CAUSE ANY PERSON REASONABLY TO BELIEVE THE SAME TO BE A BOMB OR OTHER DEVICE CAPABLE OF CAUSING INJURY TO PERSONS OR PROPERTY. UPON CONVICTION, THE COURTS MUST REVOKE THE PERMIT OR LICENSE OF A PERSON UNDER THE AGE OF 18 PER G.S. 20-13.2. STUDENTS AND PARENTS MAY BE HELD RESPONSIBLE FOR ACTUAL COMPENSATORY AND CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES RESULTING FROM THE DISRUPTION OR DISMISSAL OF SCHOOL OR THE SCHOOL-SPONSORED ACTIVITY. RULE 22 FIGHTING AMONG STUDENTS Students shall not fight other students. If a student is a victim of a sudden, unprovoked attack or fight, he/she may defend himself/herself long enough to disengage from fighting to report it to an appropriate school official. Students who instigate fights will be subject to the same consequences as those who are actually involved in fighting. Law enforcement may be contacted at the discretion of the principal or his/her designee and parents shall be notified. If the fight results in injury, see Rule 26. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. Special circumstances may warrant out-of-school suspension for the remainder of the school year. THIRD OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. Long-term suspension will not be used for minor physical altercations that do not involve weapons or injury unless the principal determines that aggravating factors justify treating the altercation as a serious offense. RULE 23 EXTORTION Students shall not obtain through verbal or physical threats, coercion, or intimidation anything of value (personal property, money or information) from any other student or school employee. **Law enforcement and parents shall be notified.** Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to five (5) days out-of-school suspension. Special circumstances may warrant out-of-school suspension for the remainder of the school year. SECOND OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. NOTE: FULL RESTITUTION WILL BE SOUGHT. RULE 24 THEFT, ROBBERY, BURGLARY OR DAMAGE TO SCHOOL OR PERSONAL PRIVATE PROPERTY OR POSSESSION OF STOLEN PROPERTY Students shall respect school property and the personal property of other students, school employees, and other persons. Students shall not steal, rob, attempt to burn or convert school property and property of any other person or entity, nor cause damage to such property. **Law enforcement and parents shall be notified.** Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to five (5) days out-of-school suspension. (Special circumstances may warrant out-of-school suspension for the remainder of the school year.) SECOND OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. (Special circumstances may warrant out-of-school suspension up to full period of long-term suspension). THIRD OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. NOTE: FULL RESTITUTION WILL BE SOUGHT. RULE 25 VERBAL OR PHYSICAL ASSAULT (INCLUDING THREATS) OR PHYSICAL INJURY TO SCHOOL PERSONNEL (THIS INCLUDES INJURY TO REAL OR PERSONAL PROPERTY) Students shall not cause, attempt to cause or threaten to cause injury or harm to school employees, volunteers or visitors, or their property. Use of a laser pointer or similar device in a way that reasonably could or does cause harm or injury will be considered a violation of this rule. **Law enforcement shall be notified** if there is a serious injury or at the discretion of the principal. Parents should be notified. **Grades K-12** FIRST OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. (Special circumstances may warrant expulsion). RULE 26 VERBAL OR PHYSICAL ASSAULT OR PHYSICAL INJURY TO STUDENTS Students shall not cause, attempt to cause or threaten to cause damage to property, physical or bodily injury to another student or her/his property. Use of a laser pointer or similar device in a way that reasonably could or does cause harm or injury will be considered a violation of this rule. Law enforcement shall be notified if there is a serious injury or at the discretion of the principal. **Parents should be notified.** **Grades K-12** FIRST OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. (Special circumstances may warrant out-of-school suspension for the remainder of the school year.) SECOND OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. Long-term suspension shall not be used for minor physical altercations unless the principal determines that aggravating circumstances make the offense a serious violation. (Special circumstances may warrant expulsion.) RULE 27 HAZING Students shall not commit any act of hazing. Hazing is defined as follows: "To subject another student to physical injury as part of an initiation, or a prerequisite to membership, into any organized school group, including any society, athletic team, fraternity or sorority, or similar group." Any student who aids or abets hazing shall be disciplined as a principle actor. **Law enforcement and parents shall be notified.** **Law enforcement notification is mandatory.** Hazing could result in criminal conviction. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. (Special circumstances may warrant expulsion.) SECOND OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. (Special circumstances may warrant expulsion.) RULE 28 BULLYING, HARASSMENT AND DISCRIMINATION Bullying, harassment, and discrimination are prohibited in the Pamlico County schools. The Pamlico County schools and staff shall not tolerate any bullying, harassment, or discrimination on school property and grounds or at any school activity on or off campus. A student shall not bully, harass or discriminate against another student, a staff member, a volunteer or any other person. Bullying, harassment and discrimination are defined in policy 3037/4037/8337, Prohibition of Bullying, Harassment and Discrimination. Students who have been subjected to bullying, harassment or discrimination shall report the behavior to the school principal or other person designated by that policy. Retaliation against any person for reporting bullying, harassment, or discrimination is prohibited and is considered a violation of this Rule 28. Any violation of this policy is considered a serious violation and appropriate action will be taken in response to a violation. Consequences for Grades K-12 • FIRST OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. (Special circumstances may warrant expulsion.) • SECOND OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. (Special circumstances may warrant expulsion.) RULE 29 WEAPONS AND/OR OTHER DANGEROUS INSTRUMENTS Students shall not possess, handle, transmit or conceal any weapon (as defined by NC General Statute 14-269.2) or any other instrument that could cause bodily harm or be used to threaten bodily harm. Use of a laser pointer or similar device in a way that reasonably could or does cause harm or injury will be considered a violation of this rule. Law enforcement and parents shall be notified. POSSESSION OF FIREARMS OR DESTRUCTIVE DEVICES SHALL BE GOVERNED BY RULE 30. A "weapon" includes any loaded or unloaded firearm, including a gun, pistol, or rifle; fireworks or explosives, including a bomb, grenade, or mine; ammunition; knife, including a pocket knife, bowie knife, switchblade, dirk, or dagger; or other weapon, including a slingshot, slungshot, leaded cane, blackjack, metal knuckles, BB gun, air rifle, air pistol, stun gun or other electric shock weapon, ice pick, razor or razor blade (except solely for personal shaving), or any sharp pointed or edged instrument except unaltered nail files and clips and tools used solely for preparation of food, instruction, and maintenance; or a facsimile of a gun, incendiary device, or other object that can reasonably be considered a weapon or dangerous instrument. No student shall knowingly or willfully cause, encourage, or aid any other student to possess, handle, or transmit any of the weapons or facsimiles of weapons listed above. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Confiscate weapon or device. Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. (Special circumstances involving an assault may warrant out-of-school suspension for up to full period of long-term suspension) SECOND OFFENSE: Confiscate weapon or device. Up to full period of long-term suspension. RULE 30 POSSESSION OF FIREARMS OR DESTRUCTIVE DEVICES Students shall not bring to school or possess, handle, transmit or conceal any firearm or destructive device. **Law enforcement and parents shall be notified.** For purposes of this rule, a "firearm" and "destructive device" have the meaning set out in G.S. 115C-390.1(b)(5) and (8) respectively, and include: - Any gun, rifle, pistol, or other firearm of any kind, except for a BB gun, stun gun, air rifle or air pistol; and - Any dynamite cartridge, bomb, grenade, mine, or powerful explosive, except for fireworks. This section shall not apply to pupils who are members of the Reserve Officer Training Corps and who are required to carry arms or weapons in the discharge of their official class duties; nor does this section apply to weapons used in school-approved instruction or ceremonies. If a student brings a weapon to school or possesses a weapon at school; confiscate firearm or weapon. Out-of-school suspension for 365 days (a calendar year) pursuant to GS 115C-390.10. However, the superintendent shall not impose a 365-day suspension if the superintendent determines that the student: 1. Took or received the firearm or destructive device from another person on educational property or at a school-sponsored event off educational property or found the firearm or destructive device on educational property or at a school-sponsored event off educational property; 2. Delivered or reported the firearm or destructive device as soon as practicable to a law enforcement officer or a school employee; and 3. Had no intent to use the firearm or destructive device in a harmful or threatening way. RULE 31 SEXUAL ASSAULT, SEXUAL OFFENSES, ETC. Students shall not commit any sexual offense, sexual assault or take indecent liberties with any students or any person. Law enforcement and parents shall be notified. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. (Special circumstances may warrant out-of-school suspension up to full period of long-term suspension or expulsion.) SECOND OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. (Special circumstances may warrant expulsion.) RULE 32 OTHER NORTH CAROLINA CRIMINAL STATUTES AND LOCAL ORDINANCES NOT PREVIOUSLY COVERED Students shall not violate any North Carolina Criminal Statute or local ordinances not previously covered. A student convicted of a felony or serious misdemeanor may be recommended for expulsion from Pamlico County Schools. (Any plea of nolo contendere or the entry of a "prayer for judgment" shall be deemed as a conviction for the purposes of this policy.) Law enforcement officials shall be notified. Grades 6-12 FIRST OFFENSE: Up to ten (10) days out-of-school suspension. (Special circumstances may warrant out-of-school suspension for the remainder of the school year and or exclusion from all extracurricular activities.) SECOND OFFENSE: Up to full period of long-term suspension. Legal Reference: G.S. 14-269.2; 20-11, -13.2; 115C-288, -390.5 through -390.11 Adopted: June 5, 2000 Revised: July 1, 2002 Revised: August 4, 2003 Revised: July 6, 2004 Revised: August 7, 2006 Revised: October 2, 2006 Revised: September 4, 2007 Revised: December 3, 2007 Revised: January 7, 2008 Revised: November 3, 2008 Revised: January 5, 2009 Revised: September 8, 2009 Revised: December 7, 2009 Revised: July 6, 2010 Revised: April 4, 2011 Revised: July 5, 2011 Revised: August 10, 2011 Revised: October 3, 2011 Revised: August 5, 2013 Revised: August 1, 2016 6402.1 Introduction A safe and disciplined learning environment is essential to maximize student achievement and to ensure that students reach their full potential. The Pamlico County Board of Education believes that a school dress code is a positive and cost effective way to create a more unified, positive, and safe school climate focused more strongly on the learning process. 6402.2 Student and Parent Notification It is the responsibility of the school principal to communicate the information contained in this policy so that students and parents are able to comply with the school dress code requirements. 6402.3 School Dress Code 6402.3.1 Shirts and Blouses 6402.3.1.1 Shirts and blouses must have sleeves. Pullover shirts, known as golf or polo shirts, turtlenecks, t-shirts, and button-down shirts or “oxford” shirts are acceptable. 6402.3.1.2 Baggy/oversized shirts and blouses are not permitted. 6402.3.2 Bottom Wear 6402.3.2.1 Boys may wear shorts, pants, or jeans. Girls may wear shorts, pants, skirts, skorts, capris, or jeans. Leggings, jeggings, and/or tights may not be worn in the place of pants. 6402.3.2.2 Any colored shorts, pants, skirts, skorts, or capris and jeans are approved for wear. 6402.3.2.3 Baggy/oversized pants are not permitted. 6402.3.2.4 All bottom wear must be worn at waist-level. 6402.3.2.5 The length of shorts, skirts, skorts, dresses, and jumpers cannot be shorter than mid-thigh when standing. 6402.3.3 Dresses/Jumpers 6402.3.3.1 Girls may wear dresses/jumpers that are any color. Dresses and jumpers must have sleeves. 6402.3.4 Sweaters, Sweatshirts, and Undershirts 6402.3.4.1 Sweaters, sweatshirts, and vests made of cloth or nylon may be worn over a shirt with sleeves. Clothing with hoods shall not cover head. 6402.3.4.2 Baggy/oversized sweaters, sweatshirts and vests are not permitted. 6402.3.5 Jackets/Coats Coats and jackets must be appropriately sized and may not be baggy or oversized. Jackets may be worn in the building if they follow the dress code. 6402.3.6 Headwear Headwear may not be worn inside the school building. This includes, but is not limited to: bandanas, rags, hoodies, headbands, scarves, hats, combs, etc. 6402.3.7 All clothing, to include shoes, must be the appropriate size for the student. For example, the waist of the bottom wear should not be bunched or overlapped when a belt is worn. The length of the crotch should be in close proximity of one’s crotch. Shirts, to include undershirts, should not be excessive in length and the shoulder seams should be within one (1) inch of the shoulder. 6402.3.8 Holes/tears in shirts/blouses, bottom wear, or any attire is prohibited. 6402.3.9 Extracurricular Activities 6402.3.9.1 Students participating as a member of a team and/or group in after school events continue to represent our community and Pamlico County Schools. Dressing inappropriately many times gives our community members or members of other communities a poor impression of the many positive things being accomplished by our students and our school system. 6402.3.9.2 Students participating in an event to include after school, weekend, and summer school sponsored activities to include, but not limited to athletic events, band/chorus performances, NJROTC events, are to comply with dress code policy. 6402.3.9.3 Coaches, directors, and event chairpersons are to ensure that students comply with the dress code policy. Students who do not comply will be reported to the school administration and disciplined in accordance with school discipline procedures, and discipline measures as stipulated by the school athletic policy. 6402.3.10 In grades 6-12, top wear (shirts, t-shirts, sweatshirts, etc.) shall not contain messages, emblems or other decorative designs other than school/college spirit wear or manufacturers’ logos or emblems. 6402.4 Discipline Compliance with this policy is mandatory. Generally, each school should strive to achieve full compliance with this policy through the use of positive reinforcement and incentive measures. A student in violation of the school dress code may be subject to various measures. For initial or minor violations, simply notifying the student of the violation and immediately correcting the problem may be sufficient. Violations also may result in the imposition of discipline, particularly for repeated or blatant violations that demonstrate a conscious decision not to adhere to the school dress code requirements. The principal or designee shall have discretion to determine whether a particular violation shall be handled informally or whether discipline shall be imposed. When discipline is deemed appropriate, the following disciplinary measures will generally apply: 6402.4.1 1st Disciplinary Offense Student will be asked to correct the inappropriate attire while at school or parent will be called to come to school and replace the unacceptable clothing. If parents are unable to come immediately, student will be required to wear available alternate clothing provided by the school for the remainder of the day. 6402.4.2 2nd Disciplinary Offense Any further offenses will result in disciplinary action as deemed appropriate by the principal. 6402.5 Special Considerations 6402.5.1 Religious or Medical Exemptions Principals shall exercise appropriate discretion in implementing this policy, including making reasonable accommodations on the basis of students' religious beliefs or medical conditions. The superintendent shall exempt a student from wearing the designated attire when it would impose a substantial burden on a medical condition or the exercise of a sincerely held religious belief, so long as the exemption does not result in a dangerous or disruptive situation. A parent, guardian or person in loco parentis of a student shall submit to the superintendent a written statement explaining the medical condition or religious belief and how it is affected by this policy. Examples of other circumstances in which the sincerity of the religious belief has been demonstrated may be submitted. If the superintendent has reason to believe the student does not qualify for the exemption, he shall refer the matter to the Board of Education attorney for further inquiry. 6402.5.2 Exercise of Free Speech A student wearing a nondisruptive button, armband or other accoutrement which constitutes a protected expression of free speech will not be in violation of this policy. The student may not wear such insignia as to circumvent the intentions of this policy. Administrators may regulate the size or style of such insignias to reduce disruption, but not to interfere with students' established legal rights. 6402.5.3 Financial Hardships Upon written request to the principal, Pamlico County Schools may assist compliance by families suffering financial hardships. Assistance will be given to those families that have substantial financial difficulty in adhering to this policy. 6402.5.4 Exceptions 6402.5.4.1 The school principal may approve certain items of clothing as spirit wear or encourage spirit apparel for particular school days or events. 6402.5.4.2 The school principal may allow students to wear athletic uniforms or jerseys that are related to school activities. 6402.5.5 Interpretation of Policy The school principal or designee shall have authority to make all reasonable decisions and interpretations regarding the implementation of this school dress code. If a student, parent or guardian has questions about whether a particular item of clothing satisfies the school dress code, the student, parent or guardian is encouraged to ask the school principal or designee. 6402.5.6 Staff and Community Involvement The Board of Education believes that a school dress code policy is most effective when it is developed and accepted by the majority of staff and parents. The school principal shall seek input from school staff and parents in connection with the school dress code policy. The school principals may bring recommendations to the Board of Education from time to time if the school principals feel that changes or adjustments to the policy are desirable. 6402.5.7 Additional Rules by School Principal School principals shall have the authority to make rules and regulations that are not inconsistent with this policy. 6402.5.8 General Prohibitions Students may not wear clothing that has a reasonable likelihood of causing a substantial disruption or a material interference with the learning process. Dress and/or appearance prohibited under this section includes, but is not limited to: 1. Any adornment such as chains, spike collars or spike wrist bands, etc. that reasonably could be perceived as or used as a weapon; 2. Any symbols, styles or attire (such as bandanas) frequently associated with intimidation, violence, gangs, or violent groups; 3. Articles of clothing that are patently offensive to race, creed, color, or sex; 4. Attire with messages or illustrations that are lewd, indecent, or vulgar; 5. Attire, jewelry, or buttons that display or promote drugs, smoking, alcohol, sex or violent behavior; 6. Belts with excessive metal rings/materials; 7. Excessively short or tight garments, such as, form fitting spandex material, nylons, denims are prohibited. Leggings, jeggings, and/or tights may not replace pants; 8. Excessively loose fitting clothing; 9. Exposed undergarments; 10. Head covering of any kind (hats, hoodies, do-rags, bandanas, etc.); 11. Holes/tears in any attire (usually not from wear); 12. Pajamas and/or lingerie; 13. Sagging pants - pants should not drag the ground when standing; 14. Skirts, shorts, skorts, jumpers, dresses shorter than mid-thigh when standing; 15. Sunglasses inside of school building to include on top of head; and 16. Tank tops, net shirts, see-through tops, halter tops, spaghetti-strap tops, and open midriff tops. Legal Reference: G.S. 115C-47, 390.2 Adopted: April 3, 2006 Revised: April 2, 2007 Revised: August 4, 2008 Revised: December 1, 2008 Revised: August 3, 2009 Revised: April 4, 2011 Revised: February 6, 2012 Revised: July 18, 2013 Revised: August 3, 2015 Revised: August 1, 2016 The Pamlico County Board of Education recognizes that the most effective discipline is preventive and not punitive in nature. However, there are times when corrective actions become necessary. Such actions should be reasonable and aimed at improvement of behavior. **Definitions:** The following definitions apply to this section: (1) "Assistive technology device" means any item, piece of equipment, or product system that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capacities of a child with a disability. (2) "Aversive procedure" means a systematic physical or sensory intervention program for modifying the behavior of a student with a disability which causes or reasonably may be expected to cause one or more of the following: a. Significant physical harm, such as tissue damage, physical illness, or death. b. Serious, foreseeable long-term psychological impairment. c. Obvious repulsion on the part of observers who cannot reconcile extreme procedures with acceptable, standard practice. (3) "Behavioral intervention" means the implementation of strategies to address behavior that is dangerous, disruptive, or otherwise impedes the learning of a student or others. (4) "IEP" means a student's Individualized Education Plan. (5) "Isolation" means a behavior management technique in which a student is placed alone in an enclosed space from which the student is not prevented from leaving. (6) "Law enforcement officer" means a sworn law enforcement officer with the power to arrest. (7) "Mechanical restraint" means the use of any device or material attached or adjacent to a student's body that restricts freedom of movement or normal access to any portion of the student's body and that the student cannot easily remove. (8) "Physical restraint" means the use of physical force to restrict the free movement of all or a portion of a student's body. (9) "School personnel" means: a. Employees of a local board of education. b. Any person working on school grounds or at a school function under a contract or written agreement with the public school system to provide educational or related services to students. c. Any person working on school grounds or at a school function for another agency providing educational or related services to students. (10) "Seclusion" means the confinement of a student alone in an enclosed space from which the student is: a. Physically prevented from leaving by locking hardware or other means. b. Not capable of leaving due to physical or intellectual incapacity. (11) "Time-out" means a behavior management technique in which a student is separated from other students for a limited period of time in a monitored setting. Corporal Punishment: The Pamlico County Board of Education prohibits the use of corporal punishment in its schools. Notwithstanding this prohibition on the use of corporal punishment, school personnel may use reasonable force and physical restraint consistent with applicable law and this policy. Reasonable Force: School personnel may use reasonable force to control behavior or to remove a person from the scene in those situations when necessary for any of the following reasons: - To correct students; - To quell a disturbance threatening injury to others; - To obtain possession of weapons or other dangerous objects on the person, or within the control, of a student; - For self-defense; - For the protection of persons or property, or; To maintain order on educational property, in the classroom, or at a school-related activity on or off educational property. **Physical Restraint:** Physical restraint of students by school personnel shall be considered a reasonable use of force in the following circumstances: - As reasonably needed to obtain possession of a weapon or other dangerous objects on a person or within the control of a person; - As reasonably needed to maintain order or prevent or break up a fight; - As reasonably needed for self-defense; - As reasonably needed to ensure safety of any student, school employee, volunteer, or other person present, to teach a skill, to calm or comfort a student, or to prevent self-injurious behavior; - As reasonably needed to escort students safely from one area to another; - If used as provided for in a student’s IEP or Section 504 plan, or behavior intervention plan; or, - As reasonably needed to prevent imminent destruction to school or another person’s property. Except in these circumstances, physical restraint shall not be considered a reasonable use of force, and its use is prohibited by the Pamlico County Board of Education. Physical restraint should not be considered a reasonable use of force when used solely as a disciplinary consequence. **Mechanical Restraint:** Mechanical restraint of students by school personnel is permissible only in the following circumstances: - When properly used as an assistive technology device included in the student’s IEP or Section 504 plan, or behavior intervention plan, or otherwise prescribed for the student by a medical or a related service provider; - When using seat belts or other safety restraints to secure students during transportation; • As reasonably needed to obtain possession of a weapon or other dangerous objects on a person or within the control of a person; • As reasonably needed for self-defense; or, • As reasonably needed to ensure the safety of any student, school employee, volunteer, or other person present. Except in these circumstances, mechanical restraint shall not be considered a reasonable use of force and is prohibited by the Pamlico County Board of Education. **Seclusion** Seclusion of students by school personnel may be used in the following circumstances: • As reasonably needed to respond to a person in control of a weapon or other dangerous object; • As reasonably needed to maintain order or prevent or break up a fight; • As reasonably needed for self-defense; • As reasonably needed when a student’s behavior poses a threat of imminent physical harm to himself or others or imminent substantial destruction of school or another’s property; or, • When used as specified in the student’s IEP, 504 Plan, or behavior intervention plan, and the student is: 1. Monitored in seclusion by an adult in close proximity who is able to see and hear the student at all times; 2. Released from seclusion upon cessation of behaviors that led to seclusion or as otherwise specified in the IEP, 504 Plan, or behavior intervention plan; 3. Confined in a space approved for such use by the Pamlico County Board of Education; and 4. The space is appropriately lighted, ventilated, heated or cooled, and free of objects that unreasonably expose the student or others to harm. Except in these circumstances, the use of seclusion is not a reasonable use of force and is not permitted by the Pamlico County Board of Education. Seclusion shall not be considered a reasonable use of force when used solely as a disciplinary consequence. **Isolation** Isolation is permitted as a behavior management technique provided that: - The space used for isolation is appropriately lighted, ventilated, and heated or cooled; - The duration of isolation is reasonable in light of the purpose of isolation; - The student is reasonably monitored while in isolation; and, - The isolation space is free of objects that unreasonably expose the student or others to harm. **Time-out:** Nothing in this policy prohibits or regulates the use of time-out. **Aversive Procedures:** An “aversive procedure” is a systematic physical or sensory intervention program for modifying behavior which causes or reasonably may be expected to cause: - significant physical harm, such as tissue damage, physical illness, or death; - serious, foreseeable long-term psychological impairment; or - obvious repulsion on the part of observers who cannot reconcile extreme procedures with acceptable, standard practice. The use of aversive procedures is prohibited in the Pamlico County Schools. **Reporting Requirements** School personnel must promptly notify the principal or designee of: - Any use of aversive procedures; - Any prohibited mechanical restraint; • Any use of physical restraint resulting in observable physical injury to a student; or, • Any prohibited use of seclusion or seclusion that exceeds ten minutes or the amount of time specified in the student’s behavior intervention plan. When the principal or designee has personal knowledge or actual notice of any of these events, the principal or designee shall promptly notify the Superintendent and then the student’s parent or guardian and provide the name of the school employee that the parent or guardian can contact regarding the incident. This notification should occur at the end of the workday during which the incident occurred when reasonably possible, but never later than the end of the following workday. Within a reasonable period of time, but no later than thirty (30) days after the incident, the student’s parent or guardian shall be provided with a written incident report that includes: • Date, time of day, location, duration and description of incident and interventions; • Events that led up to the incident; • Nature and extent of any injury to student; and, • Name of school employee to contact regarding incident. The Superintendent or designee will maintain a record of all incidents required to be reported under this policy and shall provide this information annually to the State Board of Education. The Pamlico County Board of Education and its employees are prohibited from retaliating against an employee for reporting an alleged violation of this policy unless the reporting employee knew or should have known the report was false. Nothing stated herein prohibits the use of physical restraint, mechanical restraint, seclusion or any other use of force by law enforcement officers. Nothing stated herein creates a private right of action against the Pamlico County Board of Education, its agents or employees. The Superintendent may adopt regulations to implement this policy. Legal Reference: G.S. 115C-47(45), -288, -307, -390.3, -391.1 Adopted: June 5, 2000 Revised: August 7, 2006 Revised: August 10, 2011 Revised: November 5, 2012 The Pamlico County Board of Education recognizes the importance of students maintaining physical health and proper nutrition in order to take advantage of educational opportunities. The board further recognizes that student wellness and proper nutrition are related to a student’s physical well-being, growth, development and readiness to learn. The board is committed to providing a school environment that promotes student wellness, proper nutrition, nutrition education, and regular physical activity as part of the total learning experience. The Pamlico County Board of Education is also concerned about the prevalence of childhood obesity and consequent health implications during the remainder of their lives. In the short-term, overweight children may exhibit compromised health, with effects on school attendance and academic performance. The Superintendent shall maintain procedures to carry out the goals of this policy, including a plan to evaluate the effectiveness of efforts to promote high-quality nutrition and physical activity programs. 6760.1 5051.1 School Health Advisory Council The board will appoint a School Health Advisory Council to help plan, implement, and monitor this policy as well as other health and nutrition issues within the school district. Of those appointed to the council, it is recommended that one representative from the following groups serve: school board member, school district administrator, district food service representative, student, parent/guardian, a member of the public, a local health department representative, and a representative from each of the following school health areas: physical/health education, staff wellness, and mental and social health. The council will assist the superintendent, or his designee, in creating an annual report, which includes the minutes of physical activity and the minutes of physical education and/or healthful living education received by students in the Pamlico County Schools each school year, and any other information required by the State Board of Education. 6760.2 5051.2 Nutrition Education Nutrition Education and Healthy Living Skills shall be taught as part of the regular instructional program in order to provide opportunity for all students to understand and practice concepts and skills related to health promotion and disease prevention. 6760.2.1 Nutrition education will be provided in accordance with the North Carolina Healthful Living Curriculum and can be integrated into other areas of the curriculum such as math, science, language arts and social studies. 6760.2.2 The school cafeteria is an integral part of the total school environment. It will serve as a “learning laboratory” to allow students to apply critical thinking skills taught in the classroom and to learn and practice healthy living skills. 6760.2.3 Nutrition education will be shared with families and the broader community to provide a positive impact on students and on the health of the community. (Examples include newsletters, brochures, participation in health fairs, etc.) 6760.2.4 Professional development opportunities will be made available to the staff responsible for nutrition education. 6760.3 Physical Education Physical education and physical activity shall be an essential element of each school’s instructional program. The program will provide the opportunity for all students to develop the skills, knowledge, and attitudes necessary to participate in a lifetime of healthful physical activity. Physical education programs will comply with state and local requirements. 6760.3.1 Time allotted for moderate to vigorous physical activity for students K-8 will meet the state requirement of 30 minutes each day as required by the North Carolina Healthy Active Children Policy, and grades 6-8 will work toward the goal of 225 minutes average per week. This can be achieved through regular physical education classes and/or through physical activities such as Classroom Energizers, Take 10, Awaken the Brain, or through use of walking areas and other activities. Physical education, Energizers and other forms of physical activity shall not be taken away from students as a form of punishment. In addition, severe and/or inappropriate exercise may not be used as a form of punishment for students. Physical education courses will be conducted in an environment where students learn, practice, and are assessed on developmentally appropriate motor skills, social skills, and knowledge as defined in the North Carolina Healthful Living Standard Course of Study. Class size will be in accordance with North Carolina State Board of Education standards. Physical education courses will be taught under the direction of a licensed physical education teacher. Schools will work toward having adequate equipment available for all students to participate in physical education and physical activity. Schools will work toward having safe physical activity facilities on campus. Schools are requested to encourage community members to make use of the school’s physical activity facilities outside of the normal school day. **Nutrition Guidelines** All foods available in the Pamlico County Schools during the school day will be offered to students with consideration for promoting student health, reducing childhood obesity, providing a variety of nutritional meals, and promoting life-long healthy eating habits. Foods and beverages available on each school campus shall meet all applicable current federal and state nutritional guidelines. Students with special dietary needs will be reasonably accommodated. The Student Health Advisory Council shall establish separate nutritional standards for those foods and beverages for which there are no mandatory state or federal guidelines. School Meals Meals served through the National School Lunch and Breakfast Programs will: 67188.8.131.52 Be served in clean and pleasant settings; 5051.4.1.1 67184.108.40.206 Meet, at a minimum, current nutrition requirements established by the state of NC, and federal statutes and regulations; 5051.4.1.2 67220.127.116.11 Offer a variety of fruits and vegetables; 5051.4.1.3 6718.104.22.168 Offer a variety of milk choices which include low fat (1%) and fat free milk and nutritionally-equivalent non-dairy alternatives (as defined by USDA); 5051.4.1.4 6722.214.171.124 Ensure that whole grains are served during the week; and, 5051.4.1.5 67126.96.36.199 Engage students as assessed through taste-tests and surveys. 5051.4.1.6 Breakfast To ensure that all children have breakfast, either at home or at school, in order to meet their nutritional needs and enhance their ability to learn: 67188.8.131.52 Schools will operate the School Breakfast Program. 5051.4.2.1 67184.108.40.206 Schools will, to the extent possible, arrange bus schedules, utilize methods such as “Grab and Go” or implement classroom breakfast to encourage participation. 5051.4.2.2 67220.127.116.11 Schools will encourage parents to provide a healthy breakfast for their children through newsletter articles, take-home materials, or other means. 5051.4.2.3 Food Allergies/Sharing: Students will be discouraged from sharing their foods or beverages with one another during meal or snack times to avoid life threatening situations due to food allergies. Safe Food Handling Practices: The school food service program will comply with sanitation regulations and the HACCP (Hazardous Analysis of Critical Control Points) principles to prevent food borne illnesses. Commercially Prepared Foods: Due to the increase of students with food allergies and increasing food safety concerns, all food items brought in from the outside for student(s)' consumption must be store bought and pre-packaged other than personal lunches. Homemade items are prohibited for all school functions, including but not limited to: before and after school programs, fundraisers, field days, classroom parties, and class projects. Competitive Foods and Other Foods and Beverages Available During the Instructional Day: The sale of competitive foods at each school must be in compliance with Option 1 of the "Smart Snacks Options Declaration Form," which is included in the Agreement Renewal to Administer the Federally-Funded School Nutrition Program for Pamlico County Schools, and should not come from Foods of Minimal Nutritional Value. Competitive foods are defined as foods offered at school other than through the National School Lunch or School Breakfast Programs and include a la carte foods, snacks and beverages, vending food, school store food, fundraisers, classroom parties, holiday celebrations; and food from home, excluding personal lunches. All foods and beverages sold to students must meet the current "Nutrition Standards for All Foods sold in School" as required by the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010". Smart Snack Standards include nutritional standards for foods, beverages, and other requirements. Fast foods should be prohibited. Foods of Minimal Nutritional Value, as defined in USDA regulation 7 CFR Parts 210 and 220, will not be available anytime during the school day. Foods of minimal nutritional value are: Soda Water, Water Ices, Chewing Gum, and Certain Candies (including Hard Candy, Jellies and Gums, Marshmallow Candies, Fondant, Licorice, Spun Candy, and Candy-Coated Popcorn). **Fundraisers:** All food items sold as fundraisers at the end of the school day must meet the current “Nutrition Standards for All Foods Sold in School” as required by the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010. Smart Snack Standards include nutritional standards for foods, beverages and other requirements. **Classroom Parties/Holiday Celebrations:** Classroom parties and celebrations, such as pizza parties, will be held after the last child has been served lunch. No celebrations will be held in food service areas during meal service periods. Schools will not encourage students to substitute “other foods” for a healthy meal. Classroom parties will offer minimal amount of foods (maximum 2-3 items) that contain added sugar as the first ingredient and will provide the following: 6718.104.22.168.1 Fresh fruits and vegetables, 5051.4.3.6.1 6722.214.171.124.2 Water, 100% fruit juice or milk. 5051.4.3.6.2 **Activities to Promote Wellness** In addition to the standards outlined above, the Pamlico County Board of Education adopts the following goals for school-based activities designed to promote wellness: 6760.5.1 Pamlico County Schools will provide an attractive, clean, and safe meal environment. 6760.5.2 Students will be provided adequate time to eat meals (15 minutes of seat time for breakfast and 20 minutes of seat time for lunch). 6760.5.3 Drinking water will be available at all meal periods and throughout the school day to include state testing days and sites. 6760.5.4 Professional development will be provided for district nutrition staff. 6760.5.5 To the extent possible, the Pamlico County Schools will utilize funding and outside programs to enhance staff and student wellness. 6760.5.6 Food should not be used in the Pamlico County Schools as a reward unless they meet the current Dietary Guidelines for Americans. 6760.5.7 As appropriate, the goals of this student wellness policy will be considered in planning all school-based activities. 6760.5.8 Administrators, teachers, food service personnel, students, parents/guardians, and community members will be encouraged to serve as positive role models to promote student wellness. 6760.5.9 Students will be encouraged to start each day with a healthy breakfast. The school breakfast program will be available at all schools. 6760.5.10 The School Health Advisory Council will work with local media to inform the community about health issues of school children and the programs that are in place at the schools to address such issues. 6760.5.11 All vending machines should meet the established current state and federal nutritional guidelines for healthier food choices and will only be operational after the last lunch is served. Vending machine products sold to students must meet the current “Nutrition Standards for All Foods Sold in School” as required by the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010. Smart Snack Standards include nutritional standards for foods, beverages, and other requirements. 6760.5.12 Advertising messages will be consistent with and reinforce the objectives of the education and nutrition environment goals of the school. 6760.5.13 Advertising of foods or beverages in the areas accessible to students during meal times must be consistent with established nutrition education standards. Guidelines For Reimbursable Meals The child nutrition supervisor will ensure that school district guidelines for reimbursable meals are not less restrictive than regulations and guidelines issued for schools in accordance with federal law. Monitoring And Review Of Policy The superintendent or his/her designee will be responsible for overseeing implementation of this policy and monitoring the Pamlico County Schools’ programs and curriculum to ensure compliance with this policy, related policies, and established guidelines or administrative regulations. In each school, the principal or designee will ensure compliance with this policy and will report on the school’s compliance to the superintendent or designee. Legal References: The Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004, 42 U.S.C. 1771, et seq.; National School Lunch Act, as amended, 42 U.S.C. § 1751, et seq.; G.S. § 115C-264.2, -264.3; G.S. § 115C-81(e); 7 C.F.R. Part 210, National School Lunch Program; 7 C.F.R. Part 200, School Breakfast Program; State Board of Education Policies GCS-S-000, TCS-S-000, and TCS-S-002. Cross References: School Health Education Program (Policy 5050, 6750), Free and Reduced Price Meals (Policy 6710, 7041), Health Services (Policy 6740); Child Nutrition (Policy 7000), Child Nutrition Programs (Policy 7040), Cooperation with Other Agencies (Policy 7042), Menu Preparation and School Food Service Purchasing (Policy 7050), Food Service Safety and Sanitary Practices (Policy 7060). Adopted: June 29, 2006 Revised: July 5, 2011 Revised: July 7, 2014 Revised: June 1, 2015 Revised: January 11, 2016 It is the policy of the Pamlico County Board of Education to enroll students in Pamlico County Schools in accordance with North Carolina General Statute 115C-378 (Compulsory Attendance) and the North Carolina Administrative Code governing school attendance and student accounting. Furthermore, it is the intent of this policy to ensure that the rules and regulations of the State Board of Education governing compulsory school attendance are enforced. Attendance in school is central to educational achievement and school success. Attendance and participation in class is an integral part of the teaching-learning process, and thereby a part of the grade earned. Additionally, regular attendance develops patterns of behavior essential to success in later life, both personal and business. While there are times when students must be absent from school due to physical inability to attend, it must be understood that parents or legal guardians have the responsibility for ensuring that students attend and remain at school daily. 6000.1 Teachers shall maintain accurate attendance records, both daily and by class where appropriate. 6000.2 Principals shall adhere to all conditions of the North Carolina Compulsory Attendance Law, and shall notify parents or guardians of their responsibility under the same law. **Grades K-12** The principal or designee shall provide written notification to the parent, guardian, or custodian of his or her child’s excessive absences when a student has accumulated three (3), six (6), and ten (10) unexcused absences in a school year. **First Notification** – three (3) unexcused daily absences in a school year. This notification may be sent by regular mail. **Second Notification** – six (6) unexcused daily absences in a school year. This letter will request a conference and give notice that the parent, guardian, or custodian may be in violation of the Compulsory Attendance Law and may be prosecuted if the absences cannot be justified. This notification may also be sent by regular mail but should be followed up by a phone call. The principal, child and family support team (CFST), success coordinator, teacher(s), parent(s), guardian(s), custodian(s) and the student will work together to analyze the causes of the absences and determine possible steps to eliminate the problem. Failure to respond to the request for a conference will result in a referral to the Judicial Attendance Council of Pamlico County for students under 16 years of age. Third Notification – After ten (10) days of accumulated unexcused absences in a school year, a certified letter will be mailed. In most instances, the principal or his designee shall utilize the Judicial Attendance Council of Pamlico County in conferring with the student under 16 years of age, parent(s), guardian(s), or custodian(s) to determine whether the parent(s), guardian(s) or custodian(s) has received the notices of excessive absences and made a good faith effort to comply with the law. If it is determined that a good faith effort was not made, the principal shall notify the district attorney and the director of social services in the county where the child resides. If it is determined that the parent(s), the guardian(s), or the custodian(s) made a good faith effort to comply with the law, a complaint should be filed with the Juvenile Court Counselor pursuant to Chapter 7B of the General Statutes that the child under 16 years of age is habitually absent from school without a valid excuse. 6000.3 All classroom activities are important and difficult, if not impossible, to replace if missed. School-related activities as outlined below, however, shall not be counted as absences from either class or school. It is the intention of the Board of Education that classes missed for such reasons be kept to an absolute minimum through close scrutiny and a monitoring system on the part of the principal. Assignments missed for these reasons shall be completed by students and are due on the day the student returns to class, unless granted additional time by the classroom teacher: a. Field trips sponsored by the school b. School-initiated and scheduled activities c. Athletic events requiring early dismissal from school d. Governor or legislative pages e. In-school suspension f. The student is participating in a job-shadow, Career and Technical Education student organization or other work-based opportunity as described in G.S. 115C-47(34a). 6000.4 Teachers shall notify the principal or his designee when a student accumulates excessive absences (excused/unexcused) from either homeroom or an individual class. • At the discretion of the principal, after five (5) excused absences the parent(s) may be asked to meet with the principal and the Child and Family Support Team. At the discretion of the principal, after ten (10) excused absences the parent(s) and student under 16 years of age may be referred to the Judicial Attendance Council. It is mandatory for the parent(s) and student to be present during the hearing. The school and teacher shall also notify parent(s)/guardian(s) or custodian(s) of the absences by means as considered appropriate. The notice to parent(s) or guardian(s) or custodian(s) shall include a warning of the possible consequences of additional absences and/or a copy of this policy. Students at any age who accumulate excessive absences may experience consequences ranging from extra make-up work to grade retention. 6000.5 Required Attendance for Course Credit Students in Grades K-8 Students in grades K-8 who are absent more than twenty (20) days during a year shall be referred to an Interdisciplinary Attendance Committee which shall determine if the student should be retained. The committee may substitute summer school or other approved experiences for retention if it determines them to be of greater educational benefit to the child than retention. The committee will also review any additional educational experiences that the child might have received during the absences as it makes its determinations. Students in Grades 9-12 A student who has a total of eleven (11) or more absences per course (excused/unexcused) shall fail that course and receive no credit unless a waiver is granted by the principal. A student who has a total of eleven (11) or more absences per course, who may have extenuating circumstances may appeal to the principal for a waiver of his/her absences, as specified in 6110.1 (illness/injury/disability, quarantine/isolation, death in immediate family, emergency medical, subpoena/witness, religious observance, educational opportunity), or his/her short-term out-of-school suspension. Waiver decisions will be maintained/filed with the principal. 6000.6 The principal shall appoint an Interdisciplinary Attendance Committee (administrator, CFST, counselor, teacher) to advise the principal whether the circumstances for each student who has exceeded the requisite number of days warrant waiver of the no-credit or retention provisions of this policy. Such hearings for each student shall be mandatory. The principal shall notify the student and his parent(s) or guardian(s) or custodian(s) concerning the time and place of such hearings and indicate that their presence is required. The principal shall have authority to waive the no-credit or retention provisions of the policy before or after a hearing by the committee. If the student has a passing grade but fails due to attendance, his/her grade will be recorded as a "59". 6000.7 The State Board of Education’s Ten-Day Rule states that when a student accumulates more than ten consecutive days of unlawful absences, he/she is to be withdrawn from funded membership as of the first day following his/her last day in attendance. The school district’s Student Information System (SIS) software automatically handles the administration of the ten-day rule. The software functions are as follows: 1. On the eleventh consecutive day of unlawful absence, the student in violation of the rule will no longer be counted in the calculation of ADM as of the first day of absence. However, he/she will continue in membership and will be counted as absent from school. 2. If and when the student returns to school, he/she is simply to be counted present for the days of attendance. Beginning on the first day of attendance, the student will once again be counted in the calculation of the school's ADM. 3. If and when it is determined that the student has withdrawn from school, the withdrawal is to be posted on the first day after the student’s last day in attendance. 4. Students under age 16 who are unlawfully absent for more than ten (10) consecutive absences are not to be withdrawn until their whereabouts are known or it is determined that they have left the attendance area. 5. If the student is in violation of the ten-day rule on the last day of the school year, the Student Information System (SIS) software requires that before submission of the Month 09 PMR, action must be taken to withdraw the student from membership on the first day after his/her last day in attendance. Absences caused by out-of-school suspension are not a factor in the administration of the ten-day rule or the compulsory attendance law. 6000.8 Exemption from Exams (PCHS only) Beginning in the 2013-14 academic year, no student shall be exempt from any local final exam or state required tests in any course in which s/he is enrolled. (Effective 2013-14 academic year). Legal Reference: G.S. 115C-47, -84, -378 through -383 Adopted: June 5, 2000 Revised: January 2, 2007 Revised: August 10, 2011 Revised: December 3, 2012 Revised: August 7, 2017 August 28, 2017 Dear Parent/Guardian: The Pamlico County Schools district will be continuing with the meal option called the Community Eligibility Provision (CEP) for the 2017-2018 school year, for Pre K – 8 students only. This special program is eligible for schools that participate in the National School Lunch and School Breakfast Programs and meet the federal CEP guidelines. All enrolled students of Pamlico County Primary School, Fred A. Anderson Elementary School and Pamlico County Middle School are eligible to receive a healthy breakfast and lunch during school hours, at no charge, to the household each day of the 2017-2018 school year. What does this mean for you and your children attending the school(s) identified above? No further action is required of you. Your child(ren) will be able to have nutritious meals without having to pay a fee and without submitting a meal application. This is great news for families and students. Pamlico County Schools believes this federally reimbursed program will help to reduce hunger. Please support CEP by encouraging your student(s) to eat the nutritious meals offered at school. For questions, please contact the Child Nutrition Department office at (252) 745-4171, ext. 638 or 639. Please note that Pamlico County High School (PCHS) students are not eligible to participate in CEP. However, parents/guardians are encouraged to submit School Meals Household Applications which are available on the Pamlico County Schools’ district website at www.pamlico.k12.nc.us or in the PCHS front office. Sincerely, Lisa F. Jackson Superintendent Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) (20 U.S.C. §1232g; 34CFR Part 99) is a Federal law that protects the privacy of student education records. The law applies to all schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education. FERPA gives parents certain rights with respect to their children’s education records. These rights transfer to the student when he or she reaches the age of 18 or attends a school beyond the high school level. Students to whom the rights have transferred are “eligible students.” - Parents or eligible students have the right to inspect and review the student’s education records maintained by the school. Schools are not required to provide copies of records unless, for reasons such as great distance, it is impossible for parents or eligible students to review the records. Schools may charge a fee for copies. - Parents or eligible students have the right to request that a school correct records which they believe to be inaccurate or misleading. If the school decides not to amend the record, the parent or eligible student then has the right to a formal hearing. After the hearing, if the school still decides not to amend the record, the parent or eligible student has the right to place a statement with the record setting forth his or her view about the contested information. - Generally, schools must have written permission from the parent or eligible student in order to release any information from a student’s education record. However, FERPA allows schools to disclose those records, without consent, to the following parties or under the following conditions (34 CFR §99.31): - School officials with legitimate educational interest; - Other schools to which a student is transferring; - Specified officials for audit or evaluation purposes; - Appropriate parties in connection with financial aid to a student; - Organizations conducting certain studies for or on behalf of the school; - Accrediting organizations; - To comply with a judicial order or lawfully issued subpoena; - Appropriate officials in cases of health and safety emergencies; and - State and local authorities, within a juvenile justice system, pursuant to specific State law. In addition, two federal laws require local education agencies (LEAs) receiving assistance under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA) to provide military recruiters, upon request, with the following information—names, addresses and telephone listings—unless parents have advised the LEA that they do not want their student’s information disclosed without their prior written consent. Pamlico County Schools may disclose “directory” information such as a student’s name, grade level, participation in officially recognized activities and sports, weight and height of members of athletic teams, dates of attendance, diplomas, certification and awards received, and most recent previous school or educational institution attended by the student. If you do not want Pamlico County Schools to disclose directory information from your child’s education records without your prior written consent, you must notify your child’s school in writing by the tenth day of each school year. Complaints about failure to comply with the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act may be made in writing to: Family Policy Compliance Office U.S. Department of Education 400 Maryland Avenue, SW Washington, D.C. 20202-5901 August 28, 2017 Dear Parents/Guardians: As a parent of a student in the Pamlico County School System, you have the right to know the professional qualifications of the classroom teachers who instruct your child. Federal law allows you to ask for certain information about your child’s classroom teachers, and requires us to give you this information in a timely manner if you request it. The information available to you regarding teachers will include their overall qualifications to include the status of their license, the field of undergraduate and (if applicable) graduate studies and the academic subjects in which they are certified. If your child has a teacher assistant, you can also receive information on that person’s qualifications, experience and training. If you wish to have this information, please contact the principal of your child’s school. As always, we welcome your suggestions, questions and comments. We value your continued involvement in the quality education of your child and look forward to an exciting year of continued excellence. Sincerely, Shakia J. Boone Personnel Director Environmental Quality Assurances Notification Pamlico County Schools has an Asbestos Management Plan for each school. Contained in this plan is a description of steps to be taken to inform workers and building occupants, or their legal guardians, about inspections, re-inspections, response actions, and post response action activities, including re-inspections and surveillance activities that are planned or in progress. Pamlico County Schools has a Pest Control Program for the district. Contained in this plan is a description of steps to be taken to prevent and remove pests from the schools and school property. Pamlico County Schools has an Air Quality Plan that applies to all school property as well as school buildings. The program includes the district wide tobacco free policy, a policy addressing vehicular exhaust, and the Indoor Air Quality Program. These plans are on file at each school, the Board of Education Building and also at the Maintenance Department. August 28, 2017 Dear Parents: Senate Bill 444, “Garrett’s Law,” mandates that at the beginning of every school year, local boards of education shall ensure that schools provide parents and guardians with information about meningococcal meningitis, influenza and about Human Papillomavirus (HPV) and the HPV vaccine. We have included an information document on meningococcal meningitis, influenza and HPV. The HPV information is provided to parents and guardians of students in grades 5-12 only. If you wish to talk with someone on the local level about this information, please contact the nurse at your child’s school. Sincerely, Lisa F. Jackson Superintendent What You Need to Know About Meningococcal Meningitis Meningococcal meningitis is a form of bacterial meningitis. People sometimes refer to it as spinal meningitis. It is a rare, but potentially fatal bacterial infection that can cause severe swelling of the fluid around the brain and spinal cord, or a serious blood infection. The disease is spread from person to person through air or by contact with saliva, usually through close, personal contact with an infected person. The disease can be spread through coughing, sneezing, kissing, or shared items like a drinking glass, utensils, or cigarettes. Symptoms can progress rapidly and may resemble the flu. They can include fever, headache, stiff neck, nausea, vomiting, confusion, sleepiness and sensitivity to light. Some people also develop a rash on their arms and legs. About 3,000 cases of meningococcal meningitis are diagnosed in the United States each year. One in ten cases is fatal. Because meningococcal meningitis can progress rapidly, often within hours, about 20 percent of those who survive suffer long-term effects that can include brain damage, seizures, or limb amputations. Studies show that certain college students, especially freshman living in dormitories are at an increased risk of meningococcal meningitis compared to other persons in the same age group. Certain social behaviors, including drinking, smoking, (both active and passive) and being in crowded situations like a dormitory may put college students at greater risk. A safe and effective vaccine is available to protect against four of the five most common types of meningitis. Studies show that up to 80 percent of cases that occur among college students can be prevented with vaccination. The vaccine protects for approximately three to five years. Both the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommend that college students, especially those living in dormitories, be educated about meningitis and the benefits of vaccination. The currently available meningococcal vaccine protects against four of the five most common types of meningococcal bacteria. In total, the vaccine can be expected to prevent about half of all cases of invasive meningococcal disease that occurs in the U.S. The meningococcal vaccine does not prevent other bacteria such as “strep” or HIB bacteria. The vaccine protects (for several years or longer) at least 85 percent of older children, adolescents, and young adults who receive it. More than half of the people who receive the vaccine have no side effects at all. Of those who do have a reaction, most have only a mild reaction. Mild reactions are experienced by up to 40 percent of the people receiving the vaccine. These reactions include pain and redness where the shot was given. In rare cases, about 2 percent of cases, people will have a moderate reaction to the vaccine. Moderate reactions are usually a fever lasting no more that 48 hours. Serious reactions are an allergic response to a part of the vaccine that can cause difficulty breathing. Some signs of serious allergic reaction can include difficulty breathing, weakness, hoarseness or wheezing, a fast heart beat, hives, dizziness, paleness, or swelling of the throat. If you do have a serious reaction, you should contact your doctor immediately. Aspirin-free pain reliever can be used to reduce fever and soreness associated with mild and moderate reactions. It is important to remember that your child’s chances of being harmed by meningococcal disease are far greater than any chance of being harmed by the vaccine. Immunizations are one of the most important ways parents can protect their children against serious infectious diseases. Although large epidemics of meningococcal meningitis do not occur in the United States, some countries experience large, periodic epidemics. Overseas travelers should check to see if meningococcal vaccine is recommended for their destination. Travelers should receive the vaccine at least one week before departure, if possible. Information on areas for which meningococcal vaccine is recommended can be obtained by calling the CDC at (404) 332-4565. Visit the web sites of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at: www.cdc.gov, the American College Health Association at: www.acha.org, or for North Carolina, the Immunization Branch at: www.immunizenc.com. Talk to your physician or someone at your local health department for more information. - Ask your doctor or nurse. They can give you the vaccine package insert or suggest other sources of information. - Call your local or state health department’s immunization program. Contact the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): Call 1 (800) 232-2522 (English) or call 1 (800) 232-0233 (Español). - Visit the National Center for Infectious Disease’s meningococcal disease website at www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/meningococcal_q.htm. - Visit CDC’s Travelers Health website at www.cdc.gov/travel - National Immunization Program’s website at www.cdc.gov/nip - National Network for Immunization Information at: www.immunizationinfo.org. What Parents Need to Know About the Flu Influenza (commonly called “the flu”) is a contagious respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses. It can cause mild to severe illness, and at times can lead to death. The best way to prevent the flu is by getting a flu vaccination each year. Every year in the United States, between 5 to 20 percent of the population gets the flu; more than 200,000 people are hospitalized from flu complications; and about 36,000 people die from flu. The flu is different from a cold. The flu usually comes on suddenly and may include these symptoms: fever (usually high), headache, extreme tiredness, dry cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, and muscle aches. Other symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, are much more common among children than adults. In general, anyone who wants to reduce their chances of getting the flu should get vaccinated. Vaccination is safe and is the most effective way to fight the flu. Certain people are strongly recommended to get vaccinated each year. These are people at high risk of having severe flu complications and people who live with or care for those at high risk of severe flu complications. People who should get vaccinated each year are: - Children aged 6 months through 18 years - Pregnant women - People 50 years of age and older - People of any age with certain chronic medical conditions, including asthma and diabetes - People who live with or care for those at high risk for complications from flu, including, household contacts and out of home caregivers of children less than 6 months of age (these children are too young to be vaccinated) The CDC recommends that all children and teens from the ages of 6 months through 18 years of age get a flu vaccine every fall or winter. Children 6 months up to 9 years of age getting a flu shot for the first time will need two doses of vaccine the first year they are vaccinated, with the first dose ideally being given in September or as soon as vaccine becomes available. The second dose should be given 28 or more days after the first dose. - Flu shots can be given to children 6 months and older - A nasal-spray vaccine can be given to healthy children 2 years and older (children under 5 years old who have had wheezing in the past year or any child with chronic health problems should get the flu shot) You can protect your child by getting a flu vaccine for yourself too. Also encourage your child’s close contacts to get a flu vaccine. This is very important if your child is younger than 5 or has a chronic health problem like asthma (breathing disease) or diabetes (high blood sugar levels). Yearly flu vaccination should begin in September or as soon as vaccine is available and continue through the influenza season, (which can extend into December, January, and beyond). The timing and duration of influenza seasons vary. While influenza outbreaks can happen as early as October, most of the time influenza activity peaks in January or later. The majority of children who receive the vaccine (about 80 percent) will have no side effects. Of those children who have a side effect, most will have only a mild local reaction such as soreness or redness where the shot was given, fever (low grade), or muscle aches. The flu vaccine cannot give a person the flu. In very rare cases (far less than 1 out of 10,000), vaccinated children can have a serious allergic reaction. Children who have an allergy to eggs (which are used in making the vaccine) or any component of the flu vaccine are at greater risk for serious allergic reaction. *Your child’s chance of being harmed by the flu is far greater than the chance of being harmed by the vaccine. Immunizations are one of the most important ways parents can protect their children against serious diseases.* The following steps may help prevent the spread of respiratory illness like flu: - Avoid close contact with people who are sick - Stay home when you are sick - Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue or your upper sleeve when coughing or sneezing - Clean your hands regularly - Avoid touching your eyes, nose or mouth Talk to your physician or your child’s pediatrician about getting vaccinated. Parents can talk to someone in their local health department’s immunization program about getting the vaccine as well. Remember, the best time to immunize against the flu is September through November. However, it is not too late to get vaccinated in December or later. **Resources:** - [www.immunizenc.org](http://www.immunizenc.org) Immunization Branch, N.C. Department of Health and Human Services - [www.cdc.gov/flu](http://www.cdc.gov/flu) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Flu Home Page - [www.immunizationinfo.org](http://www.immunizationinfo.org) National Network for Immunization Information My child and I have read and discussed the Pamlico County Primary School STUDENT/PARENT HANDBOOK 2017-2018 which includes the following Pamlico County Schools Policies: - Student Conduct and Discipline, Board Policy #6400, - Student Code of Conduct, Board Policy #6401, - Prohibition of Bullying, Harassment, and Discrimination, Board Policy #3037/4037/8337, - Parent/Family Involvement, Board Policy #5424, - Effective Discipline, Board Policy #6513, and - Student Wellness, Board Policy #6760/5051. - Attendance Policy, Board Policy #6000 I understand that I may call the School’s Main Office at 252-745-3404 if I need further clarification. _________________________________________ _________________________ Parent Signature Date _________________________________________ _________________________ Student Signature Date Pamlico County Schools does not discriminate in the employment, tenure, or promotion of employees on the basis of sex, race, religion, age, national origin or disability.
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REQUEST FOR APPROVAL TO HOLD PUBLIC HEARINGS TO ADOPT A NEW CHAPTER UNDER HAWAII ADMINISTRATIVE RULES (“HAR”) AS TITLE 13 CHAPTER 60.9, MO’OMOMI COMMUNITY-BASED SUBSISTENCE FISHING AREA, MOLOKA’I, TO MANAGE AND PROTECT FISH STOCKS AND TO REAFFIRM TRADITIONAL AND CUSTOMARY NATIVE HAWAIIAN SUBSISTENCE FISHING PRACTICES ALONG THE NORTHWEST COAST OF MOLOKA’I Submitted for your consideration and approval is a request to hold public hearings to adopt Hawaii Administrative Rules (“HAR”) chapter 13-60.9 to designate the Mo’omomi Community-Based Subsistence Fishing Area, Moloka’i (“Mo’omomi CBSFA”), to reaffirm and protect traditional and customary native Hawaiian fishing and mālama practices that inform place based stewardship for the improvement of managing key threatened species and preventing further degradation of fishery stocks along the northwest coast of Moloka’i. The Mo’omomi CBSFA is an excellent example of the interweaving of traditional and modern scientific knowledge and improving the Department of Land and Natural Resources (“DLNR”) and the community’s capacity to co-manage the State’s public trust resources. HISTORY DLNR and community driven efforts to designate Mo’omomi as a CBSFA span over 20 years and eight DLNR administrations. The following provides a brief history of the relevant events that have culminated in the proposal currently before the board. Historically, the marine resources of the Mo’omomi and northwestern coastline of Moloka’i have sustained the local population since at least 900 A.D. Ho’olehua Homesteaders and the fishing families of Mo’omomi have continued these traditions and refer to Mo’omomi as their icebox and ipu kai, the bread bowl of a community that relies heavily on subsistence. Mo’omomi’s fishers also continue to utilize and promote the use of the traditional fishing trail that allows them to sustainably gather along the coastline. While experiencing declines of key subsistence marine species in the early 1990s, Governor John Waihe’e appointed the Moloka’i Subsistence Task Force to document the importance of subsistence gathering, how much families’ food comes from subsistence, and to identify the barriers to sustaining subsistence fishing, hunting, and gathering on Moloka‘i. The task force was also asked to recommend policies and programs to improve the situation. As part of its final report, the task force recommended that the community on the northwest end of Moloka‘i be allowed to manage shoreline marine resources in the area to restore traditional strategies consistent with native values and customs to manage and perpetuate the near shore marine resources. The following year, the Hawai‘i State Legislature enacted Act 271 (SLH, 1994), codified as Hawaii Revised Statutes (“HRS”) §188-22.6, which authorizes DLNR to designate community-based subsistence fishing areas (“CBSFAs”) through administrative rulemaking “for the purpose of reaffirming and protecting fishing practices customarily and traditionally exercised for purposes of native Hawaiian subsistence, culture, and religion.” The statute provides requirements and criteria for the submission of CBSFA designation proposals and a management plan to DLNR for consideration. The legislative history of Act 271 encourages CBSFAs as “there are communities where subsistence fishing is necessary for the economic viability of its residents” and “to provide native Hawaiians with the opportunity to guide Hawai‘i and the world in fishery conservation.” Section 2 of Act 271, mandated DLNR to establish a two-year Subsistence Fishing Pilot Demonstration Project on the northwestern coast of Moloka‘i from Nihoa Flats on the east to ‘Ilio Point on the west. The pilot project required DLNR to grandfather in existing commercial fishing activities in the project area. The law also required DLNR to file a status report after the 2-year pilot project period. Despite the pilot project sunsetting on July 1, 1997 and rulemaking not commencing based upon the proposal and management plan the Hui Mālama o Mo‘omomi submitted in 1995, HMM and members of the community continued its efforts on the ground to better steward the resources of Mo‘omomi. In March 2013, DLNR’s Division of Aquatic Resources (“DAR”) received a proposal and management plan from the Hui Mālama o Mo‘omomi (HMM) for the designation of the Mo‘omomi CBSFA. In January 2014, DLNR held a public information session in Kaunakakai, Moloka‘i in regards to the draft Mo‘omomi CBSFA proposal. Subsequently, the Aha Kiole o Moloka‘i, Palā‘au Moku conducted an in-home survey of Mo‘omomi fishing families. Survey results showed that of the 60 families surveyed, 55 families supported the Mo‘omomi CBSFA proposal, 1 family did not support it, and 4 surveys were not returned. However, DLNR requested that HMM continue community engagement before resubmitting. The Board of Land and Natural Resources (“BLNR”) also adopted a CBSFA Designation Procedures Guidelines in 2014 to provide standardized protocols and guidance for community’s development of their CBSFA proposal and management plan. From 2014 to 2016, HMM continued to hold publicly advertised community workshops and meetings to provide on-island community outreach and engagement to discuss the Mo‘omomi CBSFA proposal. HMM also updated its management plan pursuant to the recommendations provided in the 2014 pilot CBSFA Designation Procedures Guide. Independently, the Kohala Center also conducted a Health Impact Assessment (“HIA”) for the Mo’omomi CBSFA (findings available online). The following list provides HMM hosted workshops and meetings to engage feedback on the proposal (DLNR/DAR participation indicated by *): | Date | Event | |--------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------| | Nov. 8, 2014 | Mo’omomi CBSFA Community Workshop*; announced in Moloka‘i Dispatch | | March 25, 2015 | Mo’omomi CBSFA Community Workshop* | | April 25, 2015 | Mo’omomi CBSFA Community Workshop*; announced in Moloka‘i Dispatch and flyers posted around Kaunakakai | | August 26, 2015 | Mo’omomi CBSFA Community Informational Meeting; OHA/DHHL Conference Room in Kaunakakai, Moloka‘i | | September 2015 | Mo’omomi CBSFA Health Impact Assessment (“HIA”) Community Meeting | | October 15, 2015 | Mo’omomi CBSFA Fishermen’s Meeting; OHA/DHHL Conference Room in Kaunakakai, Moloka‘i | | November 2015 | Mo’omomi CBSFA Community Informational Meeting; Kaunakakai, Moloka‘i | | April 6, 2016 | Mo’omomi CBSFA presentation to the Ahupua’a o Moloka‘i (Moloka‘i homestead association) | | April 8, 2016 | HMM, DAR, and Landowner Partners Meeting to review the draft proposal and management plan* | | April 30, 2016 | HMM Outreach at Moloka‘i whippahs fishing tournament | | July 2016 | HMM submits Mo’omomi CBSFA Proposal and Management Plan to DAR. An updated version is provided in January 2017 and again in March 2017 and provided to the public on DAR’s website | In July 2016, DAR received an updated proposal and management plan for the Mo’omomi CBSFA by HMM, which was then reviewed by DAR and relevant DLNR divisions. DLNR DAR held another round of four public scoping meetings in March and April 2017 to provide a forum to present the proposal to the public and obtain open feedback through small breakout groups. A summary of the comments and questions received from the four public scoping meetings were posted on the DAR website (see Exhibit 3). HMM provided an updated proposal and management plan in March 2017, which is also available on the DAR website (https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/dar/files/2017/03/Moomomi_CBSFA_Proposal.rev_.pdf). The following list summarizes the public scoping and engagement initiatives lead by DLNR: March 16, 2017 Public Scoping Meeting # 1: Molokai (afternoon) March 16, 2017 Public Scoping Meeting #2: Molokai (evening) March 21, 2017 Public Scoping Meeting # 3: Oahu April 5, 2017 Public Scoping Meeting # 4: Maui June 6, 2017 DAR staff meets with HMM, partners, and community members meet with DAR staff to discuss DAR’s feedback for the Mo’omomi CBSFA proposal after their analysis of community comments from four public scoping meetings. June 14, 2017 DAR Administrator meets with HMM, partners, and opposing community members to further discuss DAR’s feedback and to discuss on-island community concerns. August 10, 2017 DAR Fishers Forum: DAR provides summary of the updated proposal, adding commercial fishing exemptions for ahi, billfish, mahi, and deep 7 species in waters deeper than 40 fathoms deep. Oahu fishers requested HMM to host them on a site visit to Mo’omomi. Sept. 26, 2017 Mo’omomi and Oahu Fishers Site Visit: HMM, partners, and community members meet with Oahu fishers, DAR staff, and DOCARE at Mo’omomi to discuss concerns and share more about the Mo’oomomi CBSFA. Dec. 11-12, 2017 DLNR Moloka’i Listening Sessions: DLNR held listening sessions with concerned Ho’olehua Homesteaders, HMM, representatives from the Ahupua’a o Moloka’i (Moloka’i homestead association), the Aha Kiole o Moloka’i, and other Moloka’i fishers and residents to hear on island community concerns and support. Jan.-March, 2018 DLNR engages in meetings with coastal landowners including the Department of Hawaiian Homelands (DHHL), The Nature Conservancy (TNC), Molokai Land Trust (MLT), and Molokai Ranch to better understand access issues and mutual landowner agreements. DLNR also met with Office of Hawaiian Affairs Trustee for Moloka’i and Lāna’i and staff regarding OHA’s history and support for CBSFAs and Mo’omomi CBSFA rulemaking pursuant to OHA staff and Board of Trustees presentation on the Mo’omomi CBSFA proposal in June 2016. March 12, 2018 DLNR engages with Ho’olehua Homesteaders to provide updates regarding DLNR’s findings from stakeholder listening sessions and meetings and ways for community members to get involved in the CBSFA rulemaking process. After an extensive community-led outreach process, followed by an extensive DLNR public scoping and stakeholder meeting process, DLNR understands that the main community issues brought forth for vehicular access, and discussions with coastal landowners, go hand-in-hand with the State’s enforcement capacity, as well as past and current coastal landowner efforts to manage a pass-key system. DLNR is committed to continuing discussions with landowners and stakeholders to determine how to better facilitate reasonable vehicular access options for the community. Thus, DAR’s rulemaking capabilities and thus the Mo’omomi CBSFA proposal cannot address the access issues raised. Given the amount of due diligence and public scoping work done pursuant to the Mo’omomi CBSFA proposal, DLNR and DAR requests the Board’s approval to hold public hearings, to further solicit community comments for the Mo’omomi CBSFA, pursuant to the Chapter 91 process. PURPOSE AND OVERVIEW OF PROPOSED CBSFA RULES FOR THE NORTHWEST COAST OF MOLOKAI DAR proposes to adopt a new chapter, HAR chapter 13-60.9, to designate the Mo’omomi CBSFA and to establish rules governing marine resource uses and activities within the area. Section 1 describes the purpose of the chapter. Section 2 provides definitions of relevant terms as used in the chapter. Section 3 delineates the boundaries of the Mo’omomi CBSFA and the Kawa’aloa Bay Protected Area. Section 4 prescribes the permitted and prohibited activities within the Mo’omomi CBSFA. The regulations in Section 4 have been crafted to allow for the continuance of fishing practices that are customarily and traditionally exercised for native Hawaiian subsistence, culture, and religion within the area. Traditional or otherwise accepted subsistence fishing gear and methods are allowed, while certain over-efficient fishing gear and methods, such as night diving and SCUBA spearing, are prohibited. In addition, the rules set stricter bag limits, size limits, and gear restrictions to prevent over-harvesting while allowing for the continuance of subsistence levels of take. The proposed rules also prohibit the sale of marine life taken from the area as well as the take of marine life for commercial purposes, with exceptions for commercial bottomfishing for deep 7 bottomfish species in waters deeper than 40 fathoms and commercial trolling for any species. This section also recognizes native Hawaiian traditional and customary rights recognized under article XII, section 7, of the Hawaii State Constitution shall not be abridged. Section 5 prescribes the activities that are allowed and prohibited in the Kawa’aloa Bay Protected Area. Section 6 establishes the administrative and criminal penalties that may be imposed for violations of this chapter. The proposed rules drafted in Ramseyer format have been reviewed by the Attorney General’s Office and are attached as Exhibit 1. A proposed rules summary table is provided as Exhibit 2. A summary of the testimony received from the four March and April 2017 public scoping meetings is provided as Exhibit 3. RECOMMENDATIONS: That the Board: 1. Authorize and approve the holding of public hearings on Moloka‘i, O‘ahu, and Maui to adopt Hawaii Administrative Rules chapter 13-60.9, Mo‘omomi Community-Based Subsistence Fishing Area, Moloka‘i. 2. Delegate to the Chairperson the authority to appoint a hearings officer to conduct the aforementioned public hearings. Respectfully submitted, BRUCE S. ANDERSON, Administrator Division of Aquatic Resources APPROVED FOR SUBMITTAL SUZANNE D. CASE, Chairperson Board of Land and Natural Resources Attachments: Exhibit 1 – Proposed Rules (Ramseyer format) Exhibit 2 – Summary of Proposed Rules Exhibit 3 – March and April 2017 Public Scoping Meetings Testimony Summary Exhibit 4 – 2017 Marine Resource Assessment Summary 1. Chapter 13-60.9, Hawaii Administrative Rules, entitled "Mo'omomi Community-Based Subsistence Fishing Area, Moloka'i" is adopted to read as follows: "HAWAII ADMINISTRATIVE RULES TITLE 13 DEPARTMENT OF LAND AND NATURAL RESOURCES SUBTITLE 4 FISHERIES PART II MARINE FISHERIES MANAGEMENT AREAS CHAPTER 60.9 MO'OMOMI COMMUNITY-BASED SUBSISTENCE FISHING AREA, MOLOKA'I §13-60.9-1 Purpose §13-60.9-2 Definitions §13-60.9-3 Boundaries §13-60.9-4 Permitted and prohibited activities" §13-60.9-1 Purpose. The purpose of this chapter regarding the Mo'omomi Community-Based Subsistence Fishing Area is to: (1) Sustainably support the consumptive needs of communities along the north coast of Moloka'i through culturally-rooted, community-based management; (2) Ensure the sustainability of nearshore ocean resources in the area through effective management practices, including the establishment of limits on the harvest of aquatic life; (3) Recognize and protect customary and traditional native Hawaiian fishing practices that are exercised for subsistence, cultural, and religious purposes in the area; and (4) Facilitate the substantive involvement of the community in resource management decisions for the area through dialogue with community residents and resource users. [Eff ] (Auth: HRS §§188-22.6, 188-53, 190-3, Haw. Const. art. XI, §6) (Imp: HRS §§188-22.6, 188-53, 190-3) §13-60.9-2 Definitions. As used in this chapter, unless otherwise provided: "A'ama crab" means any crab known as Grapsus tenuicrustatus or any recognized synonym. "Aquatic life" means any type or species of mammal, fish, amphibian, reptile, mollusk, crustacean, arthropod, invertebrate, coral, or other animal that inhabits the freshwater or marine environment and includes any part, product, egg, or offspring thereof; or freshwater or marine plants, including seeds, roots products, and other parts thereof. "Area" means the Mo'omomi Community-Based Subsistence Fishing Area (Mo'omomi CBSFA), as encompassed within the boundaries described in section 13-60.9-3(a). "Commercial purpose" means the taking of marine life for profit or gain or as a means of livelihood where the marine life is taken in or outside of the State, or where the marine life is sold, offered for sale, landed, or transported for sale anywhere in the State. "Day" means a twenty-four hour period. "Deep 7 bottomfish" means *Pristipomoides filamentosus* ('ōpakapaka), *Pristipomoides sieboldii* (kalekale), *Aphareus rutilans* (lehi), *Pristipomoides zonatus* (gindai), *Etelis coruscans* (onaga), *Etelis carbunculus* (ehu), and *Epinephelus quernus* (hāpu'upu'u). "Department" means the department of land and natural resources. "Diving" means any activity conducted in the water involving the use of an underwater breathing apparatus or a mask, goggles, or any other device that assists a person to see underwater while the person's face is submerged. Diving includes both extractive and non-extractive activities, such as SCUBA diving, free diving, and snorkeling. "Fish" means any species of marine life with a backbone, gills, and with limbs that are fins, if any. "Hand-harvest" means to gather directly with the hands only, and without the use of any net, spear, rake, or any other tool or implement. "Hook-and-line" means a fishing line to which one or more hooks or other tackle are attached. A hook-and-line may include a fishing rod or reel or both to cast and retrieve the line. "Kole" means any fish known as *Ctenochaetus strigosus* or any recognized synonym. Kole are also known as goldring surgeonfish. “Kūmū” means any fish known as *Parupeneus porphyreus* or any recognized synonym. Kūmū are also known as whitesaddle goatfish. “Limu” means any marine alga, including algae in the intertidal zone. “Marine life” means any type or species of saltwater fish, shellfish, mollusks, crustaceans, coral, algae, or other marine animals, including any part, product, egg, or offspring thereof; or any type or species of seaweeds or other marine plants or algae, including any part, product, seed, holdfast, or root thereof. “Moi” means any fish known as *Polydactylus sexfilis* or any recognized synonym. Moi are also known as Pacific threadfin. “Ōpihi” means any mollusk of the genus *Cellana* or any recognized synonym. Ōpihi are also known as kō‘ele, ʻāinalina, makaiauli, or limpets. “SCUBA gear” means any equipment adapted, designed, or commonly used to enable a diver to breathe while underwater, including but not limited to SCUBA regulators, high pressure cylinders, rebreathers, SNUBA, and hookah rigs. “SCUBA spearfishing” means to take or to attempt to take aquatic life through the combined use of a spear and SCUBA gear. “Spear” means any device or implement that is designed or used for impaling marine life, whether propelled by hand or with the use of elastic bands or other means. Spears may include but are not limited to spear gun shafts, arbalettes, arrows, Hawaiian slings, or three-prong spears. “Spiny lobster” means any crustacean in the family Palinuridae. These animals are also known as lobster, Hawaiian spiny lobster, red lobster, green lobster, or ula. “Subsistence” means the customary and traditional native Hawaiian uses of renewable ocean resources for direct personal or family consumption or sharing. “Take” means to fish for, catch, injure, kill, remove, capture, confine, or harvest, or to attempt to fish for, catch, injure, kill, remove, capture, confine, or harvest. "Throw net" means a circular net with a weighted outer perimeter designed to be deployed by manually casting or throwing the net over fish or other aquatic life. "Trolling" means fishing by dragging artificial lures or bait behind a vessel that is under way at sufficient speed to produce a wake. "Uhu 'ahu'ula" means any fish known as *Chlorurus perspicillatus* or any recognized synonym. Uhu 'ahu'ula are also known as spectacled parrotfish. The terminal phase of these fish is also known as "uhu uliuli". "Uhu 'ele'ele" is any *Scarus rubroviolaceus* which has reached its terminal phase, indicated by a change in coloration from brownish-red and yellowish-gray, to green and blue. A predominantly green or blue-green body color and a green beak on a specimen of *Scarus rubroviolaceus* is prima facie evidence that the specimen is an uhu 'ele'ele. Both uhu 'ele'ele and uhu pālukaluka are known as redlip or ember parrotfish. "Uhu pālukaluka" means any fish known as *Scarus rubroviolaceus* or any recognized synonym. Uhu pālukaluka are also known as redlip or ember parrotfish. The terminal phase of these fish is also known as "uhu 'ele'ele". "Uhu uliuli" is any *Chlorurus perspicillatus* which has reached its terminal phase, indicated by a change in coloration from a grayish brown body with a broad white band at the base of the tail, to a blue green body with a dark band across the top of the snout. A predominantly blue-green body color and the lack of a white tail band on a specimen of *Chlorurus perspicillatus* is prima facie evidence that the specimen is an uhu uliuli. Both uhu uliuli and uhu 'ahu'ula are known as spectacled parrotfish. "Underwater breathing apparatus" means any apparatus that allows a person to breathe while the person's face is below the surface of the water. "Vessel" means any craft used or capable of being used as a means of transportation on or in the water. §13-60.9-3 Boundaries. (a) The Mo'omomi Community-Based Subsistence Fishing Area includes that portion of the northwestern coast of Moloka'i consisting of all state waters and submerged lands between 'Īlio Point in the west and Nihoa Flats in the east, from the shoreline out to approximately one mile. The boundaries of the Mo'omomi CBSFA are described by eastern and western boundary lines, landward and seaward boundary lines, and seven reference points (A, B, C, D, E, F, and G) identified by their latitude and longitude coordinates as follows: (1) The western boundary of the Mo'omomi CBSFA is an imaginary straight line drawn along 157°15'14.73"W longitude. (2) Point A is the point along the western boundary line at the high water mark on shore, located at approximately 21°13'26.00"N, 157°15'14.73"W. (3) Point B is a point approximately one mile due north of Point A, located along the western boundary line at 21°14'16.41"N, 157°15'14.73"W. (4) The seaward boundary of the Mo'omomi CBSFA consists of a series of points connected by imaginary straight lines beginning at Point B; then to Point C, located at 21°14'4.93"N, 157°12'31.36"W; then to point D, located at 21°13'23.01"N, 157°11'2.85"W; then to Point E, located at 21°12'56.24"N, 157°9'16.14"W; then to point F, located at 21°11'51.77"N, 157°1'0.47"W. (5) Point F is a point along the eastern boundary line located approximately one mile seaward of the shoreline. (6) The eastern boundary of the Mo'omomi CBSFA is an imaginary straight line drawn contiguous with the western boundary of Kalaupapa National Park that intersects 21°10′50.18″N, 157°1′12.13″W and 21°11′15.36″N, 157°1′6.80″W. (7) Point G is the point along the eastern boundary line at the high water mark on shore, located at approximately 21°11′1.54″N, 157°1′9.69″W. (8) The landward boundary of the Mo'omomi CBSFA is an imaginary line drawn along the shoreline at the highest wash of the waves between Point A and Point G. The foregoing boundaries and reference points are shown on Exhibit A entitled “Map of the Mo'omomi Community-Based Subsistence Fishing Area, Moloka'i”, dated September 28, 2017, located at the end of this chapter. (b) The Kawa'aloa Bay Protected Area is established as a subzone within the Mo'omomi CBSFA, and includes all state waters and submerged lands bounded by a line drawn starting from the shoreline at Kaiehu Point on the western side of Kawa'aloa Bay, located at approximately 21°12′4.50″N, 157°9′26.03″W, to the northernmost submerged rocks offshore of the eastern side of Kawa'aloa Bay, located at approximately 21°12′2.94″N, 157°9′8.47″W; then southeast to the submerged rocks located at approximately 21°12′1.55″N, 157°9′6.30″W; then due south to a point on the shoreline at the eastern boundary of Kawa'aloa Bay, located at approximately 21°11′54.46″N, 157°9′6.30″W, as shown on Exhibit B entitled “Map of the Kawa'aloa Bay Protected Area”, dated September 28, 2017, located at the end of this chapter. (c) For the purposes of this chapter, the shoreline shall be determined by the upper reaches of the wash of the waves on shore. Should there be a stream or river flowing into the ocean, the shoreline shall be determined by an imaginary straight line. drawn between the upper reaches of the wash of the waves on either side of the stream or river. [Eff ] (Auth: HRS §§188-22.6, 188-53, 190-3) (Imp: HRS §§187A-1.5, 188-22.6, 190-3) §13-60.9-4 Permitted and prohibited activities. (a) Nothing in this chapter shall be construed as abridging traditional and customary native Hawaiian rights or as allowing within the Mo'omomi Community-Based Subsistence Fishing Area any activity or fishing gear otherwise prohibited by law or rules adopted by the department of land and natural resources or any other department of the State. (b) It is unlawful for any person to sell or offer for sale any marine life taken from within the area, or to otherwise take marine life from within the area for commercial purposes, provided that: (1) Any fish may be taken by trolling for commercial purposes and may be sold or offered for sale; and (2) Deep 7 bottomfish species may be taken in waters deeper than forty fathoms for commercial purposes and may be sold or offered for sale. (c) It is unlawful for any person to take or possess marine life while diving within the area between 6:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m. (d) It is unlawful for any person within the area to engage in or attempt to engage in SCUBA spearfishing, to possess both SCUBA gear and a spear at the same time, or to possess both SCUBA gear and speared aquatic life at the same time. (e) The following restrictions apply within the Mo'omomi Community-Based Subsistence Fishing Area: (1) No person may take or possess any uhu 'ele'ele or uhu uliuli at any time; (2) From April 1 through June 30, no person may take or possess any uhu pālukaluka or uhu 'ahu'ula; (3) From July 1 through March 31, no person may take more than a total of two uhu pālukaluka or uhu ‘ahu‘ula per day, or possess more than a total of two uhu pālukaluka or uhu ‘ahu‘ula at any one time; (4) From January 1 through March 31, no person may take or possess any kūmū; (5) From April 1 through December 31, no person may take more than two kūmū per day, or possess more than two kūmū at any one time; (6) No person may take or possess any kūmū greater than sixteen inches fork length; (7) From April 1 through June 30, no person may take or possess any kōle; (8) From July 1 through March 31, no person may take more than twenty kōle, or possess more than twenty kōle at any one time; (9) No person may take or possess any kōle less than five inches in fork length; (10) No person may take or possess any moi greater than eighteen inches fork length; (11) Moi may only be taken by hook-and-line, spear, or throw net; (12) No person may take more than two spiny lobster per day, or possess more than two spiny lobster at any one time; (13) Spiny lobster may only be taken by hand harvest or by hook; (14) No person may take any ‘ōpihi while diving; and (15) No person may take or possess any limu with holdfasts or roots attached. [Eff ] (Auth: HRS §§187A-5, 188-22.6, 188-53, 190-3) (Imp: HRS §§187A-5, 187A-6, 188-22.6, 188-53, 190-3) §13-60.9-5 Kawa‘aloa Bay Protected Area. (a) It is unlawful for any person to engage in swimming, surfing, body boarding, snorkeling, diving, fishing, operating a vessel, or any other activity that may otherwise disturb the marine environment within the Kawa'aloa Bay Protected Area. This subsection shall not apply: (1) In the case of an emergency requiring such action as may be necessary to prevent loss of life or destruction of property; (2) To authorized law enforcement or rescue operations; or (3) To persons engaged in subsistence activities as provided in subsection (c). (b) It is unlawful for any person to take or possess any marine life within the Kawa'aloa Bay Protected Area, except as provided in subsection (c). (c) Subsections (a) and (b) notwithstanding, any person may engage in the following activities within the Kawa'aloa Bay Protected Area for subsistence purposes only: (1) Take and possess any fish species using a throw net from the shoreline between 6:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m.; (2) Take and possess 'a'ama crab by hand-harvest from the shoreline at any time; (3) Take and possess limu from the shoreline between 6:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m., provided that no person shall take limu with the holdfast or roots attached; and (4) Take and possess any fish with hook-and-line from the shoreline between 6:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m., provided that only artificial lures may be used. [Eff ] (Auth: HRS §§187A-5, 188-22.6, 188-53, 190-3) (Imp: HRS §§187A-5, 188-22.6, 188-53, 190-3) §13-60.9-6 Penalty. (a) Any person who violates any provision of this chapter or the terms and conditions of any permit issued as provided by this chapter, shall be subject to: (1) Administrative penalties as provided by section 187A-12.5, HRS; (2) Criminal penalties as provided by section 188-70, HRS; and (3) Any other penalty as provided by law. (b) Unless otherwise expressly provided, the remedies or penalties provided by this chapter are cumulative to each other and to the remedies or penalties available under all other laws of this State. [Eff ] (Auth: HRS §§187A-5, 188-22.6, 188-53, 190-3) (Imp: HRS §§187A-12.5, 188-22.6, 188-70, 190-5) §13-60.9-7 Severability. If any provision of this chapter, or the application thereof, to any person or circumstance is held invalid, the invalidity shall not affect other provisions or applications of this chapter which can be given effect without the invalid provision or application, and to this end the provisions of this chapter are severable.” [Eff ] (Auth: HRS §§187A-5, 188-22.6, 188-53, 190-3) (Imp: HRS §§1-23, 187A-5, 188-22.6, 188-53, 190-3) 2. The adoption of chapter 13-60.9, Hawaii Administrative Rules, shall take effect ten days after filing with the Office of the Lieutenant Governor. I certify that the foregoing are copies of the rules, drafted in the Ramseyer format pursuant to the requirements of section 91-4.1, Hawaii Revised Statutes, which were adopted on __________ and filed with the Office of the Lieutenant Governor. ______________________________ SUZANNE D. CASE Chairperson Board of Land and Natural Resources APPROVED AS TO FORM: ______________________________ Deputy Attorney General Exhibit A Map of the Mo‘omomi Community-Based Subsistence Fishing Area, Moloka‘i September 28, 2017 | Point | Latitude | Longitude | |-------|----------------|---------------| | A | 21°13′26.00″N | 157°15′4.73″W | | B | 21°14′16.41″N | 157°15′4.73″W | | C | 21°14′44.93″N | 157°12′31.36″W| | D | 21°13′23.01″N | 157°11′12.85″W| | E | 21°12′56.24″N | 157°9′16.14″W | | F | 21°11′51.77″N | 157°10′47″W | | G | 21°11′11.54″N | 157°19′59″W | Legend - Mo‘omomi CBSFA - Kawāloa Bay Protected Area - Kalauapapa National Park - 40 Fathom Depth Contour Exhibit B. Map of the Kawa’aloa Bay Protected Area September 28, 2017 | Point | Boundary | Latitude | Longitude | |-------|---------------------------|--------------|-------------| | 1 | Kaehu Point | 21°11′24.50″N| 157°9′26.03″W| | 2 | Northernmost Submerged Rocks | 21°11′22.84″N| 157°9′58.47″W| | 3 | Eastern Offshore Submerged Rocks | 21°11′1.56″N | 157°9′06.30″W| | 4 | Eastern Boundary of Kawa’aloa Bay | 21°11′15.46″N | 157°9′06.30″W| Legend: - Kawa’aloa Bay Protected Area - Mo‘omomi CBSFA Proposed Rules for the Mo’omomi Community-Based Subsistence Fishing Area (CBSFA) Purpose: To reaffirm and protect Native Hawaiian traditional and customary subsistence fishing, cultural, and religious practices, in accordance with HRS §188-22.6, and to protect the diversity, abundance, and accessibility of the marine resources upon which these practices rely. Boundaries: From Kalaeoka‘īlio (Īlio Point) in the west to Nihoa Flats in the east, from the shoreline out to one mile. Proposed Regulations: | Species-Specific Regulations | |-----------------------------| | **Uhu, parrotfish (Scaridae)** | | **Redlip parrotfish** *(Scarus rubroviolaceus)* ![Redlip Parrotfish](image) *uhu ‘ele’ele* No take: uhu ‘ele’ele and uhu uliuli Bag limit: 2 total uhu pālukaluka and uhu ahu’ula during open season Size limit: 12” minimum fork length (existing state law) Closed Season: April 1 – June 30 for uhu pālukaluka and uhu ahu’ula | | **Spectacled parrotfish** *(Chlorurus perspicillatus)* ![Spectacled Parrotfish](image) *uhu uliuli* | | **Kūmū, whitesaddle goatfish** *(Parupeneus porphyreus)* ![Kūmū](image) Bag limit: 2 per day Size limit: 16” maximum fork length; 10” minimum fork length (existing state law) Closed Season: January 1 – March 31 | | **Kole, goldring surgeonfish** *(Ctenochaetus strigosus)* ![Kole](image) Bag limit: 20 per day Size limit: 5” minimum fork length Closed Season: April 1 – June 30 | ### Moi, Pacific threadfin *(Polydactylus sexfilis)* - **Bag limit:** 15 per day (existing state law) - **Size limit:** 18” FL maximum; 11” minimum fork length (existing state law) - **Closed Season:** June 1 – August 31 (existing state law) - **Allowable gear:** Take by hook-and-line, spear, or throw net only ### Ula, spiny lobster *(Panulirus spp.)* - **Bag limit:** 2 per day - **Size limit:** 3 ¾” carapace length (existing state law) - **Closed season:** May 1 – August 31 (existing state law) - **Allowable gear:** Take by hand harvest or hook only - **Other:** No take of females (existing state law) ### ‘Opihi, limpet (all varieties) *(Cellana spp.)* - **Size limit:** 1 ¼” shell diameter; ½” meat diameter, if meat only (existing state law) - **Other:** No take or possession while diving ### Limu (multiple species) - **Other:** no taking with holdfast/roots attached ### General Regulations - No take or possession of marine life while night diving from 6pm to 6am (“torching” is allowed) - No SCUBA spearfishing (including rebreathers and/or other underwater breathing devices) - No commercial fishing, except that any fish may be taken by trolling for commercial purposes, and deep 7 bottomfish may be taken in waters deeper than 40 fathoms for commercial purposes. (recreational/charter fishing operations are not included under commercial fishing) ### Regulations for Kawa’aloa Bay Nursery Area Only (see map for boundaries) - Fishing or gathering in Kawa’aloa Bay is not allowed, except for the following allowed activities: - Gather a’ama crab from the shoreline by hand-harvest only - Gather limu from the shoreline from 6am-6pm - Throw net from 6am-6pm - Hook-and-line from shoreline from 6am-6pm using artificial lures only - No swimming, surfing, body boarding, snorkeling, diving, operating a vessel, or engaging in any other in-water recreational activity (to minimize disturbance by non-subsistence activities) Summary of Public Comments and Questions from Public Scoping Meetings Proposed Mo‘omomi North Coast of Molokai CBSFA (Revised June 2017*) [*This Summary was revised in June 2017 to include the following changes based on public feedback on the original Summary published by DAR on May 24, 2017: 1. Under “SCUBA spearfishing” (p.7), a sentence was added to include a comment that some people are too old or out of shape to freedive, so they need to use SCUBA equipment to safely spear fish; 2. Under “Commercial fishing” (p.8, paragraph 1), language was added to clarify that “weke ‘ula” refers to *Mulloidies vanicolensis*, also known as “red weke” (as opposed to *Mulloidichthys pfluegeri*, also known as weke nono or moelua, which is often called weke ‘ula); 3. Under “Commercial fishing” (p.8, paragraph 4), a sentence was added to include a comment that the original intent of the CBSFA statute (HRS §188-22.6) was to grandfather in commercial fishers, and a suggestion the state should consider including such a provision in the Mo‘omomi CBSFA rules; 4. Under “Other Comments, Questions, and Concerns” (p.16), a bullet point was added to include comments from fishermen regarding State responsibility, culpability, and fiduciary duty to the people of Hawaii in establishing a CBSFA.] In January 2017, the Division of Aquatic Resources (DAR) received a proposal from Hui Mālama O Mo‘omomi (HMM) for the designation of the Mo‘omomi North Coast of Molokai Community-Based Subsistence Fishing Area (“Mo‘omomi CBSFA”). DAR held four public scoping meetings, two on Molokai on 3/16/17, one on Oahu on 3/21/17, and one on Maui on 4/5/17, to present the proposal to the public and obtain feedback from interested stakeholders. DAR also accepted written feedback by mail and email from 2/19/17 to 4/12/17. The following is a summary of the comments, questions, and suggestions, organized by category, received through the public scoping process. **Uhu** | Uhu, parrotfish (Scaridae) | |-----------------------------| | Redlip parrotfish *(Scarus rubroviolaceus)* | | Spectacled parrotfish *(Chlorurus perspicillatus)* | - No take: uhu ‘ele’ele and uhu uliuli - Bag limit: 2 total uhu pālukaluka and uhu ahu’ula during open season - Size limit: 12” minimum fork length (existing state law) - Closed Season: April 1 – June 30 for uhu pālukaluka and uhu ahu’ula Summary Most people felt that the proposed bag limit of 2 uhu per person per day was reasonable. Some felt that two uhu was too much, especially if a group of fishermen were targeting uhu. They suggested setting a limit per fishing group. Others felt that two uhu was not enough to allow fishermen to harvest for kūpuna or other family members. They suggested increasing the limit for fishermen harvesting to share their catch. Many people agreed that blue uhu should be protected. Some fishermen shared anecdotal reports that they now see more blue uhu on Maui as a result of the Maui rules protecting blue uhu. One individual questioned the scientific basis for protecting blue uhu and suggested that instead a slot limit should be implemented to protect large breeders. One other individual questioned why a maximum size limit for uhu was not proposed. A couple of people felt that the existing state minimum size of 12” was too small, but they were okay with it. There was also a suggestion to consider including other uhu species. Most people agreed that uhu should be protected from harvest during their peak spawning times from April – June, although a few stated that the June closure would adversely impact the already short summer fishing season. Questions: - What is the reason for the uhu bag limits? - Will the bag limit change if uhu populations recover? - Why is there no proposed maximum size for Uhu? Suggestions: - Consider including other uhu species - It would be great if there is someone monitoring the health of the fish and reporting back about the health. - Consider a group bag limit for uhu - Consider increasing the bag limit for fishermen harvesting to share with others - Consider allowing the take of uhu in June Kūmū **Kūmū, whitesaddle goatfish (Parupeneus porphyreus)** - **Bag limit:** 2 per day - **Size limit:** 16” maximum fork length; 10” minimum fork length *(existing state law)* - **Closed Season:** January 1 – March 31 Summary Most people agreed that kūmū were in need of more protection and agreed with the proposed bag limit of 2 per person per day. A few individuals felt that the 2 kūmū limit was not enough to feed their family. Some felt that the existing minimum size limit should be increased. People generally agreed that the proposed slot limit was a good management tool, but there was concern that spearfishers might have difficulty judging length and that fish would be wasted. One individual suggested correlating length with weight to make it easier for fishermen to determine max size. Most people agreed with the proposed seasonal closure. Some questioned whether three months was long enough and proposed extending the closed season into summer to be in line with spawning time. Some questioned the reason for regulating kūmū at all, stating that the area does not have the right habitat for kūmū. Questions: - Who determines how to decide length of closed season? - In lifetime of monitoring – has spawning season of species changed? - The north shore doesn’t have the right habitat for kūmū (they like sand). Why put regulations on fish where they’re not? Suggestions: - Increase kūmū minimum size limit - Increase the bag limit so fishers can share with others - Remove slot limit - Correlate length (inches) with weight (pounds) - Extend closed season (at least through the end of May) **Kole** | Kole, goldring surgeonfish (Ctenochaetus strigosus) | |-----------------------------| | - Bag limit: 20 per day | | - Size limit: 5” minimum fork length | | - Closed Season: April 1 – June 30 | **Summary** There was general consensus that kole needed regulatory protection. Most people felt that the proposed 20 kole bag limit was fair or generous. Some comments expressed concern that 20 per person was insufficient to prevent groups of fishers from over-harvesting an area. There were suggestions to reduce the bag limit to 15, 10, or even 5. One comment raised concern that if people needed large amounts of kole, there would be more fishing pressure on other areas. There were comments that the proposed closed season (April – June) would coincide with graduation season. Many saw this as a good thing. A couple comments questioned the proposed minimum size, and there was a suggestion that it be increased to 6 inches. Questions: - Is kole in danger of overharvest? - Why is the bag limit 20 per day? - Why is the minimum size 5 inches? - Will this put more pressure on other areas? Suggestions: - Reduce bag limit (suggestions include 15, 10, and 5) - Increase minimum size to 6 inches - Consider a group bag limit for kole **Moi** | Moi, Pacific threadfin (Polydactylus sexfilis) | |------------------------------------------------| | - **Bag limit:** 15 per day (existing state law) | | - **Size limit:** 18” FL maximum; 11” minimum fork length (existing state law) | | - **Closed Season:** June 1 – August 31 (existing state law) | | - **Allowable gear:** Take by hook-and-line, spear, or throw net only | **Summary** Most comments pertained to the existing state bag limit of 15 moi per person, which was not part of the CBSFA proposal. Many people expressed that this was too high, and suggested a bag limit of 6-12, 5, or even 2 moi per person per day. There was general agreement with the proposed maximum size to protect large spawning females. One comment raised concern that it might be difficult for throw net fishers to judge the length of moi in the surf zone before throwing their nets, but it was recognized that throw net fishing was an important subsistence gathering practice. One individual suggested raising moi by aquaculture to replenish stocks. **Questions:** - Why the bag limit of 15? **Suggestions:** - Reduce existing bag limit - Consider doing aquaculture for moi on the south shore. **Ula** | Ula, spiny lobster (Panulirus spp.) | |-------------------------------------| | - **Bag limit:** 2 per day | | - **Size limit:** 3 ¾” carapace length (existing state law) | | - **Closed season:** May 1 – August 31 (existing state law) | | - **Allowable gear:** Take by hand harvest, hook, or trap only | | - **Other:** No take of females (existing state law) | **Summary** Most people felt that the proposed bag limit of 2 ula per person per day was reasonable. A few thought that the limit should be reduced to 1. Some questioned whether the law would allow fishers to take more than their limit to harvest for family members. Some suggested increasing the bag limit for this reason. There was strong support for the proposed gear restrictions, although some commented that the rules should specify more clearly that nets are not allowed. Some comments also asked for clarity about what types of traps would be allowed and whether hand harvest would include the use of SCUBA gear. One individual suggested that the existing minimum size be increased to 4 inches carapace length. Questions: - What is the reason for the bag limit of 2? - Would the bag limit apply only to people who are actively fishing/taking? If you have keiki, kūpuna, or other family members, can you collect their limit for them? - Can you hand harvest using SCUBA gear? - What types of traps are allowed? Suggestions: - Reduce bag limit to 1 lobster per person - Increase the bag limit so fishers can share with others - Specify that nets are not allowed - Clarify what gear is allowed for hand harvest (e.g., SCUBA gear) - Clarify what kinds of traps are allowed (cultural or modern?) - Increase minimum size to 4 inches carapace length ‘Opihi | ‘Opihi, limpet (all varieties) (Cellana spp.) | • **Size limit:** 1 ¼” shell diameter; ½” meat diameter, if meat only (existing state law) • **Other:** No take or possession while diving | Summary There was widespread support for the proposed ‘opihī regulations. Some comments questioned the purpose of the “no take while diving” rule, and suggested that “diving” be defined. One individual expressed concern that the rule would impact people who jump in the water with a mask from a boat to harvest ‘opihī. Instead, a suggestion was made to remove the “no take while diving” rule and establish a maximum size limit for koelē to protect larger fertile individuals. There were other suggestions to establish a max size limit for all ‘opihī. Some comments asked whether ‘opihī had a spawning season and suggested that a closed season be established if appropriate. There were a few comments suggesting that there should be a daily bag limit of 10 or 15-20 lbs per person. Questions: - What is the purpose of the “no take while diving” rule? - Does ‘opihi have a spawning season? - Do lots of people overharvest ‘opihi in this area? - How will “diving” be defined? Suggestions: - There should be a bag limit (15-20lbs or 10lbs suggested) - Recommend max size limit for koele (or all ‘opihi) instead of no take or possession while diving - Existing statewide minimum size should be increased **Limu** | Limu (multiple species) | Allowable gear: Take by hand harvest only (use of scissors is allowed) | |-------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------| | | Other: no taking with holdfast/roots attached | **Summary** There was widespread support for the proposed limu regulations. Many felt this was a common sense rule that should be implemented statewide. Some suggested establishing a daily bag limit and protected seasons to correspond with reproductive cycles. There was a question about whether a dive knife could be used to harvest limu. There was also a question about the length of holdfast that must be left attached to the substrate. Questions: - For limu take, is a dive knife allowed? - What is the minimum length of the holdfast that must be left? - Is there a season when particular species are reproducing that can be incorporated into the regulations? Suggestions: - Rotate open and closed areas in Mo’omomi to test limu spawning and see if there are improvements - Consider a bag limit for limu **Night diving** - No night diving from 6pm to 6am (exception: lamalama or “torching” is allowed) **Summary** There were only a few comments on the proposed ban on night diving. Most comments were in support of the rule, suggesting that it would help address concerns of overharvest of uhu. and other fish. A couple comments questioned the proposed 6pm – 6am closed period, asking whether the time would change based on the season (due to longer days in the summer) and if 6am was early enough for fishermen. One individual expressed concern about the proposed ban, saying that he goes night diving only a few times, and that it is self-regulating because of water conditions. Questions: - Will the closure time change based on the season? Summer later time than winter? - Is 6am early enough for fishermen? Suggestions: - none **SCUBA spearfishing** - No SCUBA spearfishing (including rebreathers and/or other underwater breathing devices) **Summary** There were only a few comments on the proposed ban on SCUBA spearfishing. Most comments expressed support for the rule, with many people concerned that SCUBA spearfishing is too effective at harvesting some types of fish (i.e., menpachi and other fish that hide in caves and ledges). Many considered it an unfair fishing method, which is not in line with cultural harvest techniques. Some suggested that SCUBA gear be banned for all harvest, including lobster. Some comments wanted to make sure SCUBA gear was allowed for surround net fishers to allow them to carefully remove the net without damaging the habitat. Some questioned why SCUBA spearing should be banned and asked whether there were studies to justify it. Another individual felt that freediving is more efficient than SCUBA spearfishing and suggested regulations on freedive spearfishing as well. A couple of comments noted that some people are too old or out of shape to freedive, so they need to use SCUBA equipment to safely spear fish. Questions: - Why not allow for SCUBA spearfishing? - Why ban SCUBA spearfishing when there’s a bag limit? - What study was done for SCUBA diving? Why are you banning it? Suggestions: - Clarify SCUBA regulation (e.g., does it allow someone to use SCUBA gear when surround netting for ta’ape and akule? - SCUBA should not be allowed for all harvest, including lobster - Might want to include freediving **Commercial fishing** - No commercial fishing, except for akule and ta’ape (recreational/charter fishing operations are not included under commercial fishing) Summary There were a significant number of comments regarding the proposed ban on commercial fishing in the area. Over all, there was a lot of support for no commercial take of reef fish species. Many people felt that the philosophy and ideals of preserving the Hawaiian lifestyle and mindset of “feed your family and your neighbors, but don’t sell” required that no commercial harvest should be allowed. Most, however, agreed with the proposed exemptions for commercial take of akule and ta’ape, and many suggested that roi and to’au should also be exempted. One comment suggested that purse and surround netting only be allowed to take those commercially allowed species, and that the same gear cannot be used to take other species. One commercial fisherman suggested that weke ‘ula (*Mulloidess vanicolensis*, also known as red weke) also be allowed for commercial harvest, citing his personal catch records and sustainable practices that did not interfere with subsistence fishing. Many comments expressed concern that the proposal would have a significant adverse impact on bottomfishers and trollers, who mainly target deep seven bottomfish and pelagic species. These fishers tend to fish along various depth contours, which often run inside the proposed 1-mile CBSFA boundary. To address this concern, there was a suggestion to allow commercial take of pelagic and deep seven bottomfish species in the area. Supporting comments suggested that since fishing was allowed, it would be nearly impossible to enforce the no commercial take provision of the proposed rules. It was also pointed out that pelagic fish were highly migratory, and that subsistence fishers would derive no benefit from prohibiting the commercial take of pelagic species. They also felt that these resources were not being heavily utilized by subsistence fishers, who instead tended to focus more on the nearshore reef species. There was an alternative suggestion to move the seaward boundary closer to shore (e.g. ¼ miles from shore) or set the boundary along a depth contour. Ideas for depth boundaries ranged from 100 feet to 40 fathoms (240 feet). There were suggestions to create a special commercial fishing permit to fish commercially for akule and ta’ape within the area and to limit the number of permits. Some did not want to allow for charter boat fishing as they felt charter fishers were really commercial fishers as well. One comment pointed out that the original legislative Act 271 in 1994 provided for the continuation of fishing by commercial fishers, saying that “the livelihood of commercial fishers may be adversely affected if they are restricted in their fishing areas and as a result, every effort should be made to incorporate the concerns of commercial fishers.” Some comments suggested that the sale of all nearshore reef associated fish should be banned statewide. A few comments questioned the definition of “commercial” and noted that a ban would impact fishers who primarily fished recreationally, but sold some of the catch to cover some costs. One comment suggested creating a list of species to be protected from commercial harvest, implying that everything else should be allowed. One comment argued that the original intent of the CBSFA statute (HRS §188-22.6) was to grandfather in commercial fishers, and suggested the state should consider including such a provision in the Mo’omomi CBSFA rules. Questions: - Is there a lot of commercial activity in this area? - What is considered “commercial” fishing? Are subsistence fishers who sell some fish to cover expenses considered commercial? - If you ban commercial fishing, where do non-fishermen buy fish? • Do commercial fishermen have to report where they fish and what they catch? Can you use this to verify complaints or usage? Suggestions: • Add roi and to’au on same exemption as ta’ape and akule • Allow commercial take of pelagic species and deep 7 bottomfish species • Make a list of species that may not be harvested commercially • Move CBSFA boundaries closer to shore or follow 100’ – 240’ depth contours to minimize impact on commercial trollers and bottomfishers • Require special permits for commercial fishers to take akule and ta’ape • Only allow purse and surround netting to take akule and ta’ape. Don’t allow purse or surround nets to be used to take other species. Kawa’aloa Bay | Regulations for Kawa’aloa Bay Nursery Area Only (see map for boundaries) | |-------------------------------------------------------------------------| | • Fishing or gathering in Kawa’aloa Bay is not allowed, except for the following allowed activities: | | o Gather a’ama crab from the shoreline by hand-harvest only | | o Gather limu from the shoreline from 6am-6pm by hand-harvest only | | o Throw net from 6am-6pm | | o Hook-and-line from shoreline from 6am-6pm using artificial lures only | | • No swimming, surfing, body boarding, snorkeling, diving, operating a vessel, or engaging in any other in-water recreational activity (to minimize disturbance by non-subsistence activities) | Summary There was a lot of support for the protections of the Kawa’aloa Bay nursery area. The intent of minimizing human impacts to help the fish and other marine life that use the area was generally well supported. Some comments opposed the ban on swimming and questioned why it was necessary. Others felt that shoreline ulua fishermen would be opposed to the rule. A number of comments noted that it was a traditional practice not to swim or dive at Kawa’aloa Bay. Most people supported Option 1, which included the submerged rocks within the boundary. This area is believed to be an important habitat for fish. A couple people preferred Option 2 because they like to dive near the rocks. A couple of comments suggested that the nursery area should be expanded. There were also a number of questions regarding the purpose and justification of the special Kawa’aloa Bay rules. Questions: • How much disturbance is caused by swimming? • What is the problem with ulua fishing? • Why restrict fishing during nighttime hours? • Can you be more specific on shoreline use? What types of fishing is allowed (casting, etc.)? • What is the reasoning for stopping the nursery areas and not extending to Manae or other areas? • Is that the only nursery area they’re going to designate for the area? • At any time in future, if resources really replenish, will it be possible to allow swimming in bay? • Who will enforce these rules? • Why allow throw net if it is a nursery area? • Is lay net allowed in Kawa’aloa Bay? • Is this coming from traditional practices? • Hatchery for turtles? I don’t feel that this is important for turtles. Suggestions: • At least allow swimming • Maybe we should expand the nursery area to give more areas to reproduce **Boundaries** - From Kalaeaoka’ilio (Illo Point) in the west to Kaholaiki Bay in the east, from the shoreline out to one nautical mile. **Summary** There were a significant number of comments and questions regarding the proposed CBSFA boundaries. The boundary discussion fell into two categories, lateral boundaries and seaward boundaries. **Lateral boundaries.** There was general support for the proposed lateral boundaries. Many people felt that deference should be given to HMM’s proposed boundary because they had conducted outreach with landowners and subsistence fishers within the Molokai community in the development of the proposal. Some people felt that the CBSFA would put increased fishing pressure on adjacent areas and suggested that the boundary be extended to include East Molokai or even the entire island. Some suggested that the boundaries be extended in the current proposal, while others favored a separate CSBFA designation proposal for East Molokai. Many who favored a separate East Molokai designation suggested that Kalaupapa be excluded from the current proposal and included with East Molokai. There were also a number of people who felt that the proposed area was too large and suggested starting with a smaller area first and expanding if it was successful. They cited concerns with DLNR’s ability to effectively patrol and enforce such a large stretch of coastline, which they feared might lead to increased vigilante enforcement. A large area would also be more difficult to monitor and assess to measure success. One comment also (incorrectly) posited that “the proposed CBSFA would trump the existing rules and regulations of Kalaupapa and open the area for outsiders to take their resources.” Questions: • Why does the boundary only extend to Kaholaiki? (why not further?) • Will the designation put more pressure on areas outside the CBSFA? • What is the justification for incorporating 26 miles of coastline into the proposed CBSFA? Suggestions: • Extend the boundary to include East Molokai or the entire island • Explore the designation of an East Molokai CBSFA • Have the boundaries go from ‘Ilio to Mo‘omomi (don’t include Kalaupapa) • Begin with a CBSFA encompassing 3 – 5 miles of coastline with Mo‘omomi and Kawa‘aloa Bays in the center, and 1.5 miles of coastline in each direction. • Start with a smaller area, see if it’s successful, and go from there Seaward Boundaries. Comments were divided over the proposed 1-mile seaward boundary. Supporting comments suggested that the 1-mile distance was consistent with traditional ahupua‘a fisheries and management, as well as sufficient to protect nearshore subsistence resources and to provide access to offshore pelagic resources. Many people felt that it was easier to understand the boundary with a set distance from shore rather than using a depth contour. A substantial number of comments took the position that 1 mile was too far. These comments came mostly from commercial fishers who fish for pelagic and deep bottomfish species along various depth contours, which often occur within 1 mile from shore. Most of these fishers supported protecting nearshore resources such as kūmū and ‘opihi, but felt that a 1-mile boundary was excessive and would unnecessarily impact their fishing practices. Many suggested establishing the CBSFA boundary closer to shore (e.g. ¼ miles) or along a depth contour (suggestions ranged from 100 feet to 40 fathoms). Boat fishers noted that it would be easier to understand and comply with a depth contour boundary rather than distance from shore. Some felt the 1-mile boundary was not enough and suggested extending it to 2 or 3 miles offshore. Questions: • How was the 1-mile boundary established? • Where (at what depth) do these nearshore species exist? • What is the depth at 1 mile? • How will the 1-mile boundary be marked? How will the fisherman know where the boundary is? Everything is by fathoms. • Will there be a physical buoy or marker 1 mile out? Suggestions: • Tailor the boundaries to the regulated species and where they exist. • Make the boundary ¼-mile from shore • Make the boundary according to depth contour (100’ to 40 fathoms suggested) • Extend the boundary to 2 or 3 miles out Process Summary A number of comments raised questions and concerns about the CBSFA proposal and designation process. On one hand, some felt that the process was too exclusive and did not allow for sufficient stakeholder participation in the development of the proposal. A common question asked was, “who is the community?,” the implication being that all members of the public should have input, not just a few Molokai residents. There was a sentiment that HMM was given too much influence in the process, and that equal time should be given to other stakeholders to independently review the proposal. It was even suggested that meetings should be held on the Big Island and Kauai to give residents of those islands an opportunity to provide input. There was also a suggestion to hold an additional meeting with the residents and workers at Kalaupapa to brief them on the proposal and get their input. On the other hand, some felt that the public scoping process was too broad, and that it was inappropriate to hold scoping meetings on Oahu and Maui. There was a concern that the proposal would be watered down to accommodate off-island special interests. It was suggested that, at the very least, Molokai comments should be given greater weight. Concerns were also expressed regarding the format of the public scoping meetings. Some felt that the State should have used a facilitator who was from Molokai. Some felt that the DLNR Chairperson and/or the DAR Administrator should have been present at the meetings. On Oahu, concerns were expressed that the small group discussion process eliminated the opportunity for the public to speak to the entire group and to hear what other people had to say. On Molokai, some felt that the process did not allow for enough conflict to be expressed and resolved through the community *ho‘oponopono* process. Some concern was expressed that the process was top down and that comments provided at past community meetings were not integrated into the community’s current proposal. There were also a number of comments and questions about how the area would be monitored and evaluated if rules were established. Some suggested that Molokai residents should have a chance to participate in monitoring and that non-destructive methods should be used to collect data (i.e., no gill nets). Others suggested that assessments should be done by an outside, non-biased group. **Questions:** - Who is Hui Mālama O Mo‘omomi? - How is “community” defined? - What are the next steps in the process? - Can we give comments on the rest of the management plan? - How do we get informed on the next public hearing? - If the rules are adopted, what is the timeframe and process for modifying the rules in the future? Can the State change the laws without consulting the community? - Is there going to be monitoring to measure the effectiveness of these regulations? Who will be doing the monitoring? - Who came up with the species regulations? **Suggestions:** - Hold public scoping meetings on Kauai and the Big Island - Hold a meeting with the residents and workers at Kalaupapa to brief them on the proposal and get comments - Give greater weight to comments from Molokai residents - Clarify how the area will be monitored and assessed **Enforcement/Compliance** **Summary** Many comments expressed concern about DLNR’s limited funding and resources (officers and equipment) to adequately patrol the area. Suggestions to address these concerns included: consider other funding sources, such as the Transient Accommodation Tax (TAT), to fund more enforcement positions; reduce the size of the CBSFA to make enforcement more manageable; establish higher fines for violations; utilize informer’s fees to encourage more people to report violations; and use drones and cameras for surveillance and enforcement. Some comments suggested that enforcement could be enhanced by establishing formal “Makai Watch” programs in collaboration with DOCARE. Some asked whether locals could be lawfully trained and hired in enforcement and be equal in status with DLNR/DOCARE for a cohesive partnership. Many comments highlighted the need for good outreach and education about the rules, reasoning that personal awareness and peer pressure is much more effective than a few more enforcement officers. Comments also expressed concern that DOCARE officers were limited in their ability to conduct inspections of coolers and catches due to legal constraints. There was a suggestion to explore legal amendments and policy changes to give enforcement officers the ability to inspect and enforce as needed. There was a feeling that unless these constraints were lifted, increasing the number of officers would not be very helpful. Many comments also expressed concern that designation of a CBSFA will lead to a sense of ownership of those waters and increased vigilante enforcement. Some fishermen felt threatened, citing past incidents of vigilantism involving civil rights violations and threats of violence on Molokai, Oahu, and other areas of the State. People wanted to know what the consequences would be if people engaged in vigilante enforcement. There were suggestions to make it really clear who is responsible and authorized for enforcement. Some comments expressed concern about the enforceability of the “no commercial fishing” law. When boats come from off-island, many asked how DLNR would know what was caught or whether the fish were sold. There was a suggestion to either allow trolling and bottomfishing or prohibit it. Questions: - Who will enforce these rules? - Can volunteers be lawfully trained in enforcement and deputized? - What are the consequences if people engage in vigilantism? Suggestions: - Consider other funding sources, such as the Transient Accommodation Tax (TAT), to fund more enforcement positions - Reduce the size of the CBSFA to make enforcement more manageable - Establish higher fines for violations - Utilize informer’s fees to encourage more people to report violations - Use drones and cameras for surveillance and enforcement - Establish a formal “Makai Watch” program in collaboration with DOCARE - Explore legal amendments and policy changes to give enforcement officers the ability to inspect and enforce as needed - Make it very clear who is responsible and authorized for enforcement - Either allow trolling and bottomfishing or prohibit it Access to Fishing Summary A number of comments raised questions and concerns about how the proposed CBSFA rules would affect access to fishing, both by boat and by land. Many of these concerns were based on language found in Appendix II, “Management Recommendations for Mokio Preserve by Mac Poepoe,” an earlier proposal dated 2009. That document proposed a system for regulating activities in the area through a notification and catch reporting system for Molokai residents, and special access permits for non-residents. Despite DAR’s efforts to clarify that this language was obsolete, and resubmittal of a revised proposal with that language removed, some individuals continued to express concern that the proposal will restrict access to fishing. There were also questions about who the rules would apply to. Questions: - What gives the Molokai people the right to that area? I’ve been fishing there for 30 years. - Please explain the access to area by on island Molokai resident only. If I own land on Molokai can I come from Oahu by boat? - Who do you check with when the people want to go to go down? Where do they check in if they want to dive? - Does this proposal restrict non-fishing vessels on the north coast and Mo’omomi? Please make it clear to the public that this proposal does not affect boat traffic. - Why would DLNR consider turning their management authority over to the community when they (DLNR) are the ones entrusted with managing fisheries? - Is this regulation only for Oahu people? People think HMM doesn’t have to follow the rules. Suggestions: - Clarify how the proposed CBSFA rules would impact access to fishing Ho’olehua Homestead Families Opposition Summary Many families expressed concern and/or outright opposition to the proposed rules. They expressed that HMM did not consult with them, and that they do not support HMM as a representative community organization. These families were very united in their opposition and concerns with HMM, but did not offer any other suggestions for resource management of the area. Ten families submitted written comments expressing these concerns. One family also listed an additional nine families that were related to them and did not support the CBSFA designation (some of these relative were still living on Molokai and others lived elsewhere but still returned home and used the Mo’omomi area). Many of the statements made in opposition reflected personal conflict with members of HMM. Other Comments, Questions, and Concerns - **Community-based co-management** – Many comments expressed strong support for the general concept of the State partnering with communities to manage fisheries based on traditional knowledge, rather than pushing top-down management plans. Many felt that the proposed rules would effectively protect ocean resources and ensure the perpetuation of cultural fishing practices and subsistence lifestyles of Molokai residents. It would also enhance fishing opportunities for the general public. There was some concern that the public scoping process has a tendency to diminish the importance of centuries old traditional knowledge because other stakeholders’ needs take precedence and because there is a lack of understanding the deeper foundations and reasoning integrated from kūpuna knowledge. Many felt that laws and policies should reflect that traditional knowledge. - **Setting precedent** – Some expressed concern about the precedent being set by the designation of CBSFAs. The concern is that eventually the State’s waters will be divided up into many different fishing areas, which will be very complex and expensive to manage. There was also concern that this would open the door to similar regulations (restricting fishing) in other places. - **Data/scientific justification** – Some expressed concern that there was insufficient scientific data justifying the proposed regulations. Some suggested the need for fisheries assessments based on Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY). Some claimed that fisheries resources were not in danger, and that the rules were unnecessary because Molokai’s North Shore is naturally regulated by nature. - Do you have data showing how much fish there is? - What are the bases for size and bag limits? - Has Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) been established? - **Special interests** – Some comments suggested that CBSFAs are a tool for special interest groups, especially large land owners, to take away fair and equal access to fishing. Some accused HMM of getting paid to establish a CBSFA. - Who pays for the CBSFA? - **Invasive species** – There were a number of comments expressing concern about invasive species such as roi, ta’ape, and to’au. Some suggested that they are ruining the fisheries by eating all the baby fish and lobster. Others questioned how much damage they were really doing. There were suggestions to focus on eradication programs and creating a market for these invasive species. - Concern that introduced species are eating juvenile fish; eating other species (uhu, kūmū, lobster) - How can we make it so that there is a market for invasive fish? Getting rid of those would have huge effects on the health of our fish populations. - Are roi and ta’ape causing so much damage that it’s really affecting fisheries? - **Monk Seals** – There were a number of comments and questions about the impact of monk seals on fish populations. Some felt that seals were more abundant than in the past and were the reason the resources were declining, not because of overharvesting by people. Some suggested that monk seal numbers somehow be reduced in the area. Others asked whether studies had been done to determine their impact. There was a request to study this more and report back to the community. - How much do seals eat every day? - How do you distinguish the impact of the monk seals on the fish population from human impact? As it becomes available, collect info about what seals are eating and give back to the community. - **Salt** – One individual noted that salt was not protected under the proposal and expressed concern that it could be overharvested. - **Turtle** – Some comments mentioned that they wanted to be able to harvest and eat turtle and asked why they were protected. - **Other fishery species** – There were some questions about whether other fish not mentioned in the CBSFA proposal (e.g., ‘opelu, kala, palani) were open to harvest. - Can anyone harvest them? Any amount? - Should halalu be limited to let them get bigger? - **Integration with other fishing rules** – Some asked for clarification about how CBSFA regulations would work with other state laws. There was a suggestion to make it very clear in outreach materials that current state rules apply and that the CBSFA rules are an added layer (instead of creating an open season for anything not listed). Some questioned why Molokai needed special rules other than the statewide rules. (Why should the north shore of Molokai be more important than Kaneohe Bay, Waikiki, etc?) - **Native Hawaiian rights** – A number of people expressed concern that the proposal would take away their native Hawaiian gathering rights, but did not explain how their rights would be impacted. One individual asked about the penalties for native Hawaiians who violate the rules and proposed that community service or other penalties outside of jail should be options. - **Education and outreach** – There were lots of suggestions to increase education regarding these regulations and why they are being proposed. Some suggested giving out tide/moon calendars with monthly seasons and size/bag limits. The feeling was that the kids need to be educated, and they can help inform the older generation. The children are the future resource managers. - **State responsibility, culpability, and fiduciary duty** – Some felt the State would be culpable of knowingly creating a substantial and unjustifiable risk for boaters and fishermen to the area, by inadvertently and consequently creating a situation for even more vigilantism and Civil Rights violations to occur as a direct or indirect result of developing an unintended false sense of ownership of the CBSFA. Some felt that the State knows that DOCARE is limited and that the proposed 27 x 1 mile area is large—thus leaving an enforcement gap that would lead to more vigilantism and no protection for boaters and fishermen in the area. Finally, some felt that the DLNR and BLNR have fiduciary duties to the public trust and must be held to those fiduciary standards when making policy such as the Mo’omomi CBSFA. Marine Resource Assessment of Molokaʻi’s North Coast (ʻĪlio Point – Kalaupapa) A comprehensive baseline assessment of the nearshore marine resources along the north shore of Molokaʻi was conducted to document and evaluate the current status of the nearshore marine ecosystem, and to help guide future management actions. Fig 1. Underwater transect survey (n = 141) from May and August 2017 sampling periods; classified by habitat type. Reef fish biomass Estimated total biomass of reef fish on North Molokaʻi was high, relative to other areas in the State of Hawaiʻi. Mean total biomass on North Molokaʻi is nearly 3.5 times higher than the statewide average, approximately 3 times higher than that of other north-exposed shorelines (Fig. 2), and over 15 times higher than the north shore of heavily-fished Oʻahu. Mean biomass of resource species estimated from May and August 2017 survey data is consistent with estimates from Friedlander et al.’s (2017) analysis of resource biomass by moku (Fig. 3), which indicated that North Molokaʻi had the highest estimated biomass of resource species in the state. Fig 2. Total biomass of reef fish (with 95% confidence intervals), for N. Molokai, other north shores, N. Oahu, and all MHI (MHI estimate from Friedlander et al. 2017). Fig 3. Mean biomass of resource fish from North Molokai 2017 surveys (red bar), compared with biomass from other areas of the main Hawaiian Islands (Friedlander et al. 2017). Cross-hatched areas represent proportion of biomass comprising reef sharks and jacks. Molokai Koolau is the same area as the 2017 sampling; both estimates indicate this area has the highest biomass in the state, but far from the biomass in the pristine Northwest Hawaiian Islands (NWHI; purple bar). Species of interest Mean biomass of selected resource species (kole, *Ctenochaetus strigosus*; kumu, *Parupeneus porphyreus*; uhu, *Scarus rubroviolaceus*) varied substantially by habitat (Fig. 4). Kole occurred exclusively in rock and boulder habitat. Kumu was observed in rock and boulder habitat, as well as pavement with ledges and cracks, but had very low biomass in flat pavement habitats, a pattern also observed in uhu. Rock and boulder habitats and pavement areas with ledges and overhangs have greater structural complexity than flat pavement habitats. Higher complexity provides more holes and spaces that fish can use for refuge, and these patterns of higher biomass in habitats of greater structural complexity are further supported by analyses of rugosity rankings. Each of the species of interest also showed higher mean biomasses on North Moloka’i, compared to other north shores in the main Hawaiian Islands, particularly North O’ahu (Fig. 5). Discussion The north shore of Moloka’i has some of the healthiest nearshore ecosystems and highest biomass of reef fish in the state. The exposure of this shoreline to powerful waves and consistent rough water, as well as the limited shoreline access, has historically kept fishing pressure low, which has helped keep the area in its current exceptional state. However, long-term community fishers have expressed concerns with what they observe as recent declines in overall catches, as well as declining fish sizes. As resources throughout the state decrease, it is likely additional pressure will be placed on the resources of this area. As a result, it is increasingly important to consider future management plans that will help maintain the quality of this ecosystem in the face of increasing fishing effort. The resources along the northern coastline of Moloka’i are important to the community, and a community-based subsistence fishing area (CBSFA) could be an important way for the community to partner with the State and help ensure the sustainability of their fishery resources for future generations. *Chlorurus perspicillatus* was not abundant enough in surveys to be included in the analyses of uhu **Note: Variance for species-specific data is Standard Error rather than 95% CI Main points - Mean reef fish biomass on North Moloka’i is nearly 3.5x higher than statewide average, and nearly 3x higher than other northern coastlines. - Target species important to the community also show higher mean biomass than similar northern shorelines (~ 1.5 to 2x higher for kole, kumu, and uhu). - Management efforts should be considered to maintain these valuable marine resources and help uphold sustainable subsistence practices into the future. Prepared for Division of Aquatic Resources by Whitney Goodell and Alan Friedlander Reference: Friedlander, AM., et al. (2017) Human-induced gradients of reef fish declines in the Hawaiian Archipelago viewed through the lens of traditional management boundaries. Aquatic Conservation.
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[ "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "tsn_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn", "eng_Latn" ]
true
rolmOCR
[ 2156, 5506, 7831, 9872, 12772, 13971, 14458, 15784, 17569, 19411, 21394, 22834, 24634, 26300, 27850, 29398, 30412, 30832, 31433, 31987, 33488, 35446, 37808, 40254, 42284, 44188, 46338, 48177, 50415, 54092, 56783, 59346, 62146, 64963, 67897, 70585, 73823, 76533, 78292, 81301 ]
[ 1.046875, 2.03125 ]
1
0